英语修辞学(Rhetoric)
RHETORIC
English Rhetoric 英语修辞学I. Connotation of Rhetoric：rhetoric的含义1. Rhetoric may be used as an ordinary（普通用词）word and a technical term（专业术语）.1) As an ordinary word, rhetoric in a derogatory sense means “skilful argumentation”（巧辩）and “empty or exaggerated eloquence”（虚夸的话）.e.g. the exaggerated rhetoric of presidential campaigns（总统竞选期间唱的高调）；the empty rhetoric ofthe politicians（政客们的花言巧语）; flowery rhetoric（华丽的辞藻）Rhetoric also means (1) “language designed to have a persuasive or impressive effect on its audience”（言语，辞令）, e.g. employ stirring rhetoric; soothing rhetoric; glowing rhetoric (2) “a rtistic language”（艺术语言）, e.g. the rhetoric of fiction（小说的艺术语言）; the rhetoric of film(电影语言); body rhetoric(肢体语言)2) As a technical term, rhetoric has several senses. In America, the writing course or the writing textbook is entitled “rhetoric”. Apart from the above senses, rhetoric also has the following important senses:(1) Speaking rhetoric（演讲修辞）: the art of speaking(2) Compositional rhetoric（写作修辞）: the art of writing(3) Stylistic rhetoric（风格修辞，文体修辞）: the style of writing2. Rhetoric may also be subdivided into the following:1) Lexical rhetoric（词汇修辞）:the rhetorical law of choosing words and phrases2) Sentence rhetoric（句子修辞）:the rhetorical law selecting sentence patterns3) Paragraph rhetoric（段落修辞）:the rhetorical law of organizing paragraphs4) textual rhetoric（语篇修辞）:the rhetorical law of organizing textsII. Definition of Rhetoric修辞学的定义What is rhetoric ?1.Origin of modern rhetoric: 现代修辞学的起源Rhetoric originated in “speaking”（说话）. Aristotle（亚里士多得）, in the 4th century BC, first defined rhetoric as the art of persuasion, equivalent to argumentation as people understand today. John Locke（约翰.洛克）, English philosopher of the late 17th century, described rhetoric as “the science of oratory(演说术)” or “the art of speaking with propriety, elegance and force(修辞学是说话得体、优美和有力的艺术)”. All this explains why the word “rhetoric”means “speaking”in such European languages as Greek, Latin, French, Spanish and Italian. In the book Modern Rhetoric by American linguists Brooks（布鲁克斯）and Warren（沃伦）rhetoric is defined as “the art of using language effectively（修辞学是有效地使用语言的艺术）”.In the New Oxford Dictionary of English rhetoric is described as “the art of effective or persuasive speaking or writing, especially the exploitation of figures of speech or other compositional techniques（修辞学是有效或有说服力的演说或写作的艺术，特别是运用英语修辞格或其它写作的艺术）”.2.Rhetoric and Figures of Speech:Figures of speech are quite different from rhetoric, but they are important components in English rhetoric. In the New Oxford Dictionary of English, “figure of speech” is defined as “ a word or phrase used in a non-literal sense too add rhetorical force or interest to a spoken or written passage”(修辞格是用一个非字面意义的单词或短语使一段口头或笔头的文字增加修辞效果或兴趣). They refer torhetorical devices（修辞手段）, each of which has a fixed pattern, e.g. Simile is introduced by comparative words as, like, as if, as though, etc.; Like Simile, Metaphor refers to the comparison of two essentially unlike things which have one point of resemblance; Irony refers to the intended implication of which is the opposite of the literal sense of words; Oxymoron refers to the conjunction of two words or phrases which are incongruous or contradictory in sense so as to describe a person or thing; Pun; a play on words, sometimes on different senses of the same word and sometimes on the similar sense or sound of different words; etc. These figures are employed in the following.He is as stupid as a goose. (=He is very stupid.)He has a heart of stone./ He has a heart like flint.(=He is unfeeling and stubborn.)He slept like a log / top. (=He slept very soundly.)They are birds of a feather. (=They are people of the same sort.)(Simile and metaphor are used of the comparison of two essentially unlike things which have one point of resemblance.)This hard-working boy seldom reads more than an hour per week. (If a boy seldom reads more than an hour per week, he mustbe very lazy, not hard-working.)(Irony refers to the intended implication being the opposite of the literal sense of words)He seems to be a clever fool. (=He seems to be a fool, but in fact he is very clever.)(Oxymoron refers to the conjunction of two words or phrases which are incongruous or contradictory in sense)Ask for me tomorrow and you shall find me a grave man.(grave: adj. serious; n. tomb The speaker stresses the latter.)(Pun refers to a play on words，sometimes on different senses of the same word and sometimes on the similar sense or sound of different words)3.The difference between rhetoric and grammar, phonetics, lexicolog y1)The difference between rhetoric and grammarRhetoric is different from grammar, but it is closely related to grammar and also based on grammar. To be grammatically correct is foundation to writing, but it is not enough. Basic rhetorical requirements must also be met. Francis Christensenn, an American French rhetorician, once said: Grammar maps out the possible(计划可能发生的事情); rhetoric narrows the possible down to the desirable and effective（使可能发生的事情变成很理想的事情或有效地事情）.In the preface to the book A handbook of English Rhetoric Warren quoted a passage by a scholar:Grammar is the law of language, considered as language; rhetoric is the art of language, considered as thought.Grammar tells what is correct; rhetoric tells what is effective and pleasing.2)Rhetoric and phonetics, lexicologyRhetoric is quite different from phonetics and lexicology. Phonetics is about the study of speech sounds and their pronunciation; lexicology is about the study of the vocabulary of a language;grammar concerns the study or science of rules for forming words and combining them into sentences;whereas rhetoric is the art of speaking or writing so as to persuade people effectively.I II. The Object of the Study of Rhetoric（修辞学研究的内容）Rhetoric aims at studying all forms of culture, which may be forms of mass media or any cultural phenomenon, concrete or abstract. Modern rhetoric seems to include all forms of discourse ---- written orcolloquial, even all forms of communication in symbols.（修辞学研究的对象是一切文化形式，它们可以是任何这样或那样、具体或抽象的文化现象。
Rhetoric
文学渊源 Uncle Tom Odyssey A pound of flesh Man Friday 历史渊源 Trojan Horse Byzantine A fifth column
温顺老实的黑人 磨难重重的旅程
合法但有悖清理的要求 忠仆”和“得力助手”
暗藏玄机的战利品 错综复杂
明喻（simile）
明喻是以两种具有共同特征的事物或现象进 行对比，表明本体和喻体的相似关系，两者 都在比较中出现，常用比喻词有： like, as, as if, as though, as it were, similar to. Casting him (Russell Crowe) in this(Robin Hood) is like renting a Ferrari for a spin to the corner store. (USA Today, May 15, 2010)
换称的手法如下例： 宗教或神话渊源： Juda-背信弃义，出卖有恩于自己的人 Penelope’s Web—永远不可能完成的事情 Pandora’s Box—造成灾害的根源 Adam’s Apple—男人的喉结 Achilleus’ Heel—致命的弱点 Olive branch—和平与吉祥
antithesis
Exercises
I had the muscle, and they made money out of it. Metonymy The night gently lays her hand at our fevered heads. Personification You are the whole world to me, and the moon and the stars. Hyperbole He is out visiting the necessary.Euphemism Give me liberty, or give me death. Antithesis
rhetorics修辞 英语常用修辞格比较及其解析
Logos\Pathos\Ethos 逻辑\情感\人格
Rhetoric
Broad stylistic context
Narrow stylistic context
Style/type of writing
Stylistic devices figures of speech
1.Definiton
在希腊语，拉丁语、法语、西班牙语及意大利语中， rhetoric 这个次的词根都是“说话”的意思。
Rhetoric: 17世纪末英国哲学家John Locke 曾经 把修辞称做“演说术”（the science of oratory）, 是“说话得体、优美和有力的艺术”(speaking with propriety, elegance, and force)
2. Assonance是在一句话或在一个诗行中间，有 两个或更多的词具有相同的元音。与汉语的叠韵 （两个或多个音节彼此韵母相同东风dong fong , ）非常相似。如：fair and square/near and dear With this faith we will be able to hew out of the mountain of despair a stone of hope.怀着这个信 念，我们能把绝望的大山凿成希望的磐石。 Whether or not you are busy or lazy, write to me. The rain in Spain stays mainly in the plain.
syntax
哪些是亲昵的表达方式，那哪些是地位高的人对地 位低的人委婉的表达方式， 哪些最有可能带有“贬” 意的色彩？ A. Close the door, dear B. Would you be so kind to close the door? C. It is a bit cold here. Can you close the door? D. Would you like to close the door for me? E.I would be glad if you could close the door? F. Would you mind closing the door?
英语语言学之常见修辞English Rhetoric
英语修辞(English Rhetoric)Figures of speech are ways of making our language figurative. When we use words in other than their ordinary or literal sense to lend force to an idea, to heighten effect, or to create suggestive imagery, we are said to be speaking or writing figuratively.1.Simile明喻: An explicit comparison, e.g. The pen is to a writer what the gun is toa soldier.2.Metaphor暗喻: An implicit comparison, e.g. Some books are to be tasted, othersto be swallowed and some few to be chewed.3.Personification拟人: The attribution of animate qualities to inanimate objects, e.g.the wind whistled through the trees.4.Onomatopoeia拟声: the imitation of sounds, e.g. tinkle, clank, bang5.Hyperbole夸张: Overstatement, exaggeration, e.g. A drop of ink may make amillion think.6.Understatement低调陈述: A restrained statement, e.g. He could do better.7.Euphemism委婉语: An inoffensive expression, e.g. the needy, cease to think8.Parallelism排比: Parallel structures, e.g. We shall fight him by land …by sea …in the air.9.Repetition重复: repetition o f the same words, e.g. Don’t trouble trouble until …10.Antithesis对照: Contrast, e.g. Men make houses, women make homes. Pennywise, pound…11.Climax渐进: Progression of thought, e.g. I came, I saw, I conquered.12.Anti-climax突降: Sudden descent of thought, e.g. He lost his empire, his familyand his pen.13.Paradox隽语: A seemingly contradictory statement, e.g. The child is father of theman.14.Oxymoron矛盾修辞: the combination of contradictory terms, e.g. cruel sweetlove15.Transferred epithet 移就: a descriptive term transferred from the appropriatenoun to modify another to which it does not really apply, e.g. sleepless night, expensive tastes, sweet teeth16.Alliteration头韵: Head rhyme, e.g. Practice makes perfect.17.Assonance腹韵: V owel rhyme, e.g. First thrive, then wife.18.Consonance尾韵: End rhyme, e.g. East or west, home is best.19.Rhyme押韵: e.g. Man proposes; god disposes. Well begun is half done. Well fed,well bred.20.Pun双关: Humorous use of homonymy, e.g. Seven days without water make oneweak/week.21.Allusion引喻: an implicit reference to an event/story, e.g. pound of flesh22.Metonymy转喻: The use of the name of one thing for another with which it isclosely associated, e.g. The pen is mightier than the sword. the gray hair, the bottle, the tongue23.Synecdoche提喻: the substitution of the whole for the part, or vice versa, e.g.short of hands,24.Antonomasia换喻: the use of a proper name to stand for sth else having anattribute associated with that name, Judas for a traitor, Solomon for a wise man, Nero for a tyrant25.Irony反语: The expression of actual intent in words that carry the oppositemeaning.sarcasm明讽: a strong form of irony, e.g. Gentlemen like you carry only large notes.innuendo暗讽: a mild form of irony, e.g. In a group they were brave.satire讽刺文学: An ironic literary work1.parody 仿拟: Beauty is more than skin deep. Once choose, always use.2.zeugma 轭式搭配: He gets out of bed and humor.3.syllepsis一语双叙: take the oath and his seats,He lost his temper and his hat.4.palindrome回文: No X in Nixon. Step on no pets. Madam, I’m Adam.5.epigram警句: brief, pointed saying that has the nature of a proverb6.malapropism词语误用: 200 light years ago, brus diver (bus driver), brive a dus 1.Analogy: a comparison in which different items are compared point by point,usually with the idea of explaining something unknown by something known.Analogies are offered to provide insights, and can be very instructive. Dictionaries are like watches; the worst is better than none, and the best cannot be expected to go quite true.2.Symbolism: In writing, symbolism is the use of a word, a phrase, or a description,which represents a deeper meaning than the words themselves.3.Plantification: giving man or things plant-like characters. The sky was like a fadedrose.4.materialization: 美感垂手可得却无法靠前5.Zoosemy: reverse personification, animal or things attributes applied to people.e.g. Children are flowers of our country.6.Apostrophe顿呼: England! Awake! Awake! Awake!7.Rhetorical question修辞问句: The rhetorical question is usually defined as anyquestion asked for a purpose other than to obtain the information the question asks.8.Periodic sentence圆周句: a complex sentence in which the main clause comeslast and is preceded by the subordinate clause (loose sentence松散句)9.anagram变位词: Words or phrases rearranged, William Shakespeare = I swearhe's like a lamp. We all make his praise. Has a peer, I ask me? Ah, I speak a swell rime (rhyme).10.Hypallage移就: synaesthesia通感, empathy移情and transferred epithet转类通感Sweet voice/ icy look/ sharp cry/ sour remark/ oily-tongued移情Lazy clouds drifted across the sky.转类His dry humor doe sn’t seem intentional.修辞格(figures of speech) 大体分为三类：音韵phonological词义semantic句法syntactical。
unit 9 英语修辞学(Rhetoric)
Metaphor
• It is like a simile, also makes a comparison between unlike elements, but unlike a simile, this comparison is implied rather than stated. • mark: be • Experience is the mother of wisdom • she is shedding crocodile tears • Mark my words, the first woman who fishes for him, hooks him. • The diamond department was the heart and center of the store. • 钻石部是商店的心脏和核心
Rhetorical Devices
English Figures of Speech
• how many figures of speech do you know? • identify the following sentences, using certain rhetorical devices. • 你像个神人 • 你是个神人 • 神人，神事啊！ • 你还真是个“神人”啊。 • 。。。。
Simile
• It is a figure of speech which makes a comparison Marriage is like a between two unlike• elements having at least one beleaguered fortress; quality or characteristic in common. to make the those who are without comparison, words like as, as...as, as if and like want to get in, and are used to transfer the quality we associate with those within want go one to the other. get out . • mark: like, as, seem, as if, similar to, such as • 婚姻象是一个被包围 • I wandered lonely as a cloud. 的 堡垒；外面的想 • He was like a cock who thought the sun had risen 要进去，里面的人想 to hear him crow. 要出来。
《英语修辞学English Rhetoric》第一章Introduction to English Rhetoric
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II. Reference Books
4. Assessment: Exam
Total grades = 30% of Regular Grades + 70%oegular Grades consists of 15% of class attendance and 15% of
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Syracuse
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III. What is rhetoric?
3.2 rhetoric and oratory
Rhētorikē—rhētōr:
as a verb: to speak as a noun: orator
Oratory had been practiced long before the ancient rhetoricians developed a theory and a vocabulary for rhetoric.
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• 《苏格拉底之死》1787 纽约大都会博物馆 • 法国新古典主义画家：雅克•路易• 大卫（Jacques Louis David)
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Positive connotations
• Historically, “rhetoric” had positive connotations, suggesting a commendable skill with words. Today rhetoric, as it was in history, is something that people have to resort to. • Rhetoric is generally understood as a tool or a method. Its content is more concerned with the Hows of what people are talking about than the Whats of what people are talking about. • As a tool, rhetoric is inherently neither good or bad. A deceitful person will use it to deceive and an ethical person will use it to make truth and justice prevail.
第一册第一课RHETORIC 修辞学习
第一册第一课RHETORIC 修辞学习RHETORICtenor (subject): the concept, object, or person meant in a metaphorvehicle (reference): a medium through which something is expressed, achieved, or displayedSimile: A simile makes a comparison between two unlike things having at least one quality or characteristic in common. The two things compared must be dissimilar and the basis of resemblance is usually an abstract quality. The vehicle is almost always introduced by the word "like" or "as".Self-criticism is as necessary to us as air or water.The water lay grey and wrinkled like an elephant's skin.My very thoughts were like the ghostly rustle of dead leaves.The bus went as slowly as a snail.Her eyes were jet black, and her hair was like a waterfall.The comparison is purely imaginative, that is, the resemblance between the two unlike things in that one particular aspect exists only in our minds, and not in the nature of the things themselves.As cold waters to a thirsty soul, so is good news from a far country.Metaphor: A metaphor, like a simile, also makes a comparison between two unlike things, but the comparison is implied rather than stated. Some say it the substitution of one thing for another, or the identification of two things from different ranges of thought. Contrary to a simile in which the resemblance between two unlike things is clearly stated, in a metaphor nothing is mentioned. It is often loosely defined as "an implied comparison", " a simile without 'like' or 'as'".Metaphor is considered the most important and basic poetic figure and also the commonest the most beautiful.Snow clothes the ground.The town was stormed after a long siege.Boys and girls, tumbling in the streets and playing, were moving jewels.Metaphor:dark cavern, fairyland, maze, honeycomb, etcform a closely knit guild...Simile:a vast sombre cavern of a roomOnomatopoeia:creak, squeak, rumble, grunt, sigh, groan, etc.tinkling, banging, clashingPersonification:The Middle Easter bazaar takes you...dancing flashesThe beam sinks…taut and protestingHyperbole:takes you ...hundreds even thousands of yearsevery conceivable, innumerable lamps, incredibly young, with the dust of centuries Onomatopoeia:creak:(to make) the sound of a badly-oiled door when it opensWhen you move in a wooden bed, it creaks.The hinge of the door needs oiling, it creaks every time it is opened.squeak:(to make) a short very high but not loud soundthe squeak of a mouserumble:(to make) a deep continuous rolling soundThe thunder / the big guns rumbled in the distance.I am hungry, my stomach is rumbling.grunt:(of certain animals, to make) short deep rough sounds in the throat, as if the nose were closed, such as the deep short sound characteristic of a hog, or a man making a similar sound expressing disagreement, boredom, irritationsigh:(to let out) a deep breath slowly and with a sound, usu. expressing tiredness, sadness, or satisfaction We all heaved a sigh of relief when the work was done.groan:(to make) a sound caused by the movement of wood or metal parts heavily loaded, (to make) a deep sound forced out by pain, or expressing despairThe patient groaned as he was lifted on to the stretcher.The ancient chair gave a groan when the fat woman sat down on it.The roof creaked and groaned under the weight of the snow.中东的集市THE MIDDLE EASTERN BAZAAR 中文翻译文: 中东的集市中东的集市仿佛把你带回到了几百年、甚至几千年前的时代。
英语修辞学(Rhetoric)
Syllepsis
Syllepsis是指用一个词（如动词、形容词、介词等）同时与两个或更多的词相搭配，在越一个词搭配时用一种词义，而在与另一个词搭配时则用另一种词义,这种搭配在句法规则和语义上都是正确的，并产生不同的字面意义和比喻意义。
He lost the game and his temper. 他输了这一局，大发脾气。
半谐音也可称“无韵”，是指一组词、一句话或一行诗中同一元音重复出现，它具有音乐的节奏感，可增强语言的表现力。例如：
It’s fair and square affair from the beginning to the end. 这件事自始至终都是光明正大的。
All roads lead to Rome. 条条大路通罗马。
Pun
双关（pun） 就是用发音相似的词来表达特殊意义的修辞手法，它非常能够体现使用者的睿智机敏、幽默俏皮，造成印象隽永的效果。它的使用场合亦庄亦谐，既常见于故事、笑话、谜语、儿歌等，又可用于正式场合，表达严肃的思想和深邃的感情。 — Why is an empty parse always the same? — Because there is never any change in it.(change既表示“零钱”，又表示“变化”。“空钱包”里边没“零钱”当然就永远瘪着，毫无“变化”了。)
2。主体和喻体一般指两个不同的事物。
本体和喻体通常一个抽象一个具体，一个熟悉一个陌生
Simile(明喻)
希腊语Metapherein (transfer )转换
无需借助比喻词，直接将甲事物当作乙事物来描写。也称隐喻，是依据比喻和被比喻两种不同事物的相似或相关关系而构成的修辞格。 例如：
英语修辞学
英语修辞学(Rhetoric) English Figures of Speech英语修辞的一般规律与特点General principles and features of English rhetoric▪1.关系词丰富，介词、连词、关系代词和关系副词等的充分利用，使英语成为一种更为形式的语言，即以形合为主的语言。
而汉语是以意合为主的语言。
That is our policy and that is our declaration.▪这就是我们的国策。
这就是我们的宣言。
▪If winter comes,can spring be far behind?▪冬天来了，春天还会远吗？▪This is the reason why he is leaving so soon.▪这就是他所以这么快就要离开的原因。
▪ 2.英语名词用得多，汉语动词用得多。
因此，从总体修辞效果上看，英语呈静态，汉语呈动态。
▪I fell madly in love with her,and she–with me.▪我疯狂地爱上了她，她也疯狂地爱上了我。
▪A woman with fair opportunities,and without an absolute hump may marry whom she likes.▪一个女人只要不是驼背驼得厉害，机会好的话，想嫁给谁就嫁给谁。
▪Laser is one of the most sensational developments in recent years,because of its applicability to many fields of science and its adaptability to practical uses.▪激光可以应用于许多科学领域，又适合于各种实际用途，因此成了近年来轰动一时的科学成就之一。
▪ 3.英语有“物称倾向”，即主语往往是表示无生命物体的名词或表示事物的名词词组。
英语修辞Rhetoric Study
Rhetoric Study语体文体修辞学：（Stylistics）语体部分研究语言在不同的交际领域中所形成的功能分化，如科技语体、公文语体、新闻语体、法律语体、口语语体等；文体部分则研究文学语言与风格，包括个人风格与时代、流派风格。
人文修辞学：（Rhetoric）重点研究控制读者或听者反应的技巧，具体包括：语言符号在各种交际活动中的影响力，深化认识和影响感情的手段，劝说的各种论辩技巧，表达内容与表达方式之间的关系等。
交际修辞（Communicative Rhetoric）在内容表达上偏重炼字煅句、明确流畅，在形式的结构上偏重于平均慎密、严谨妥帖，总体上讲究逻辑思维，叙述准确，鞭辟入里，以有效地发挥语言的交际功能。
•美学修辞（Aesthetic Rhetoric）运用逻辑思维的同时，偏重随情应景，运用想象和联想，通过辞格（figures ofspeech）唤起生动的意象，使语言文字新鲜活泼，意韵优美，发挥更大的感染力和说服力，取得艺术性的表达效果。
1.Metaphor : One object is likened to another by speaking of it as if it were that other.The world is a stage.“These magical beasts”, as they have been called, are assisting hassled, often incompetent teachers.2.Metonymy: The name of one thing is applied to another thing with which it is closely associated.Are you reading much Shakespear?The English simply worship the crown.He is too fond of the bottle.3.Synecdoche: commmonly, the naming of a part to mean the whole, as in “hands” for “men who do manual labor” ,“a fleet of 50 sails” for “ a fleet of 50 shi ps”. But various other such substitutions are also included in the term. Have you any coppers?He is the Newton of this century.4.Allusion引喻: it is a casual mention or an indirect reference to some person, fact, idea, event, either historical orfictional. The purpose is to make or arouse association and vivid imagination.Those same kids on line are just a few key strokes击键away from Pandora’s hard drive.5.Onomatopoeia拟声: The use of words that, when pronounced, suggest their meaning, such as “hiss” or “buzz”. Inpoetry it involves suiting sound to sense and thereby creating verses that carry their meaning in their sound.And murmuring of innumerable bees…The ice was all around; It cracked and growled, and roared and howled.6.Euphemism the s ubstitution of an inoffensive expression for one that may be disagreeable, as in the use of “passaway or pass on” for “die”, “misinform” for “lie” in “the gentleman is misinformed”, “remain” for a “corpse”, “visiting the necessary” for “going to the toilet”, etc.7.Hyperbole a conscious exaggeration for the sake of emphasis, not intended to be understood literally.The wave ran mountain high.8.Paradox (雋语) a statement that appears to be logically contradictory and yet may be true, the purpose of which isto provoke fresh thought.雋语辞格指似是而非的俏皮话。
修辞
英语修辞(English Rhetoric)英语常见的修辞格Figures of speech (修辞)are ways of making our language figurative. When we use words in other than their ordinary or literal sense to lend force to an idea, to heighten effect, or to create suggestive imagery, we are said to be speaking or writing figuratively. Now we are going to talk about some common forms of figures of speech.Rhetoric is an ancient branch of learning. Founded by the Greek Philosopher Aristotle, it has a history of more than 2000 years in Europe. At first, it dealt mainly with the ways of persuading people in conversation and speech. Later the emphasis gradually shifted from speech to writing.Generally speaking, rhetoric is the art of effective communication; or, more simply, it is the art of expressing, by words, precisely what we mean.How to Study Rhetoric?(1) learn to recognize the most commonly-used devices of expression and to analyze the different effects they produce.(2) Reading good authors with great care is necessary.The wind is roaring through the woods.The little girl is singing merrily.The little girl is singing merrily as a lark（百灵鸟）.A stream is flowing quietly nearby.A stream is murmuring dreamily nearby.1) Simile(明喻): It is a figure of speech which makes a comparison between two unlike elements having at least one quality or characteristic in common. To make the comparison, words like, not unlike, it was a bit like, can be likened to, as, as if, as though,as it were, be comparable to, may be compared to, similar to, akin to, be analogue to, be something of, etc. are used to transfer the quality we associate with one to the other.Chinese: 好像、如同、仿佛、一样、犹、若、如、似Pattern: T enor（本体）＋Marker（比喻标记）＋Vehicle（喻体）比喻四要素：the signified, the signifier, similarity（联想的依据）, dissimilarity （相似性越大，越乏味，越缺乏表现力；相异性越大，所构成的比喻越新鲜，越富有表现力，其条件是可接受性。
英语修辞学(Rhetoric)
▪ To learn how to achieve an effective communication.
Division of Rhetoric
▪ Communicative Rhetoric 交际修辞
▪ 管理体制需要改革，这已越来越清楚了。
▪ No year passes now without evidence of the truth of the statement that the work of government is becoming increasingly difficult.
▪ Its function is to give deeper insight into
persons or things.
Compare the following sentences: ▪ Jim looks like his brother Billy. ▪ My car runs as fast as the train. ▪ A real friend is like a mirror that can help
▪ 观众从他身边挤过去争相与达罗握手时，我很同情这位久经沙场的老将。 ▪ Bitterness fed on the man who had made the world laugh. ▪ 这位曾使全世界的人发出笑声的人自己却饱受辛酸。 ▪ The sight of his native place called back his childhood. ▪ 见到自己的故乡，他想起了童年的情景。 ▪ The old man’s death was calm and peaceful. ▪ （那位）老人死得很安详。
英语修辞学(Rhetoric)
谈到暗喻，有必要说说它的两种变体 （variety）：博喻（sustained 博喻（ 博喻 metaphor）和延喻（extended ）和延喻（ metaphor），它们是英语比喻中的特殊类 ） 型。 （1）博喻 连续使用多个喻体去比喻主体 ） 的方法就叫做博喻。 的方法就叫做博喻。比如：
There again came out the second flash, with the spring of a serpent and the shout of a fiend, looked green as an emerald, and the reverberation was stunning.(爆发了第二次闪 电，她像蛇一样蜿蜒，如魔鬼般嘶叫，像翠玉般碧 绿，轰隆隆震耳欲聋。) 这个例子中对闪电的比喻 就用了三个喻体，spring of a serpent（动态）， shout of a fiend（声音），green as an emerald(颜色)，它们从不同角度绘声绘色地把闪 电呈现在读者面前。由此可见，多喻体的使用其优 势是单一喻体所无法比拟的。它可以多角度、多侧 面、多层次、多结构地表现主体。
名词型和动词型
"noun" pattern名词型 A is B 名词型: "verb" pattern动词型 动词型: 名词型 动词型 Time is money. 时间就是金钱。 Snow clothes the ground. 雪覆盖了大 地。 Beauty without virtue is a rose without fragrance. The case snowballed into one of the most famous trials in U.S. history. 没有德行的美丽好比没有芬芳的玫 瑰。 这个案子像滚雪球似地最终成了美国 历史上最著名的审判之一。 Some people think that marriage is a lottery. 有些人认为婚姻是缘分。 A stranger then is still dogging us. 一 个陌生人仍在跟踪我们。 He is the eyes and ears of the manager. 他是经理的耳目。 My desk is flooded with paper. 我的 桌子上堆满了纸，就像洪水泛滥一样。 Look at that guy all meat and no potatoes. 瞧那个家伙，浑身都是肉。 The years have silvered her hair. 岁 月已使她的鬓发如霜。 I was, inwardly, all white flag. 我内 The population mushroomed in the 心里却妥协了。 postwar decades. Greece was the cradle of Western culture. 希腊是西方文化的发源地/ 战后数十年里人口快速增长。 摇篮。 My heart was pumping. 我的心怦怦 The old man's face is a map of 直跳。 time. 那老人脸就是岁月的写照。 He doesn't have any idea of his own. He just parrots what other people say. 他没有自己的观点，只会鹦鹉学舌。
Rhetoric英语修辞
Hale Waihona Puke The newspaper is a jungle of advertises
报纸上尽是一些乱七八糟的广告． （jungle 愿意为“丛林”，转意为“杂乱一团” 的意思．）
While the curtain fell, there was a storm of applause.
句子 All’s well that ends well. The grape is sour
原意 引喻意 结果好一切 圆满结果 都好 葡萄是酸的 可望不可及的东西
短 语
短语 原意 引喻意 惨败 to meet one’s 遭遇滑铁卢 waterloo an eye for an 以眼还眼 eye a wolf in 披着羊皮的 sheep’s clothing 狼 to make the hair 毛发直立 stand on end
(9)以人的装饰来代替人 The crown has lost much of its ancient power.
(10)以概念代替实体 Some foreigners like Chinese dishes.
5.引喻
引喻即“引经据典”．为了使文章有理有据， 引用出自神话，传说，圣经，寓言，文 献．文学名著，历史事件等．引喻可以是词 语，短语或句子． 句子：
Where there is a will, there is a way.
Beauty may be skin-deep, but ugly goes right to the bone. 美丽只是外表，丑陋却渗入骨头 Out of sight, out of mind. 眼不见，心不烦 In prosperity our friends know us; in adversity we know our friends. 幸运时朋友认识我们，患难时我们认 识朋友．
English Rhetoric
英语修辞(English Rhetoric)1. 生动形象的Simile（明喻）2. 含而不露的Metaphor（隐喻）3. 无灵有灵的Personification（拟人）4. 结构精巧的Transferred Epithet（移就）5. 蕴涵新意的Synecdoche（提喻）6. 明抑暗扬的Understatement（低调陈述）7. 闪烁其词的Euphemism（委婉）8. 强化语意的Hyperbole（夸张）9. 含蓄典雅的Allusion（引喻）10.相映相衬的Antithesis（对照）11.排迭匀称的Parallelism（平行）12.发人深思的Paradox（隽语）13.矛盾统一的Oxymoron（矛盾修饰）14.妙趣横生的Anticlimax（突降）15.一唱三叹的Repetition（重复）16.音律优美的Alliteration（头韵）17.一语两意的Pun（双关）18.冷嘲热讽的Irony（反语）19.趣味盎然的Parody（仿拟）20.化腐为奇的Zeugma（轭式搭配）Figures of speech (修辞) are ways of making our language figurative. When we use words in other than their ordinary or literal sense to lend force to an idea, to heighten effect, or to create suggestive imagery, we are said to be speaking or writing figuratively. Now we are going to talk about some common forms of figures of speech.1) Simile (明喻）It is a figure of speech which makes a comparison between two unlike elements having at least one quality or characteristic (特性)in common. To make the comparison, words like as, as...as, as if and like are used to transfer the quality we associate with one to the other. For example, As cold watersto a thirsty soul, so is good news from a far country.明喻是一种最简单、最常见的修辞方法，是以两种具有共同特征的事物或现象进行对比，表明本体和喻体的关系，两者都在对比中出现，其基本格式是“A像B”，常用的比喻词有as, like, as if, as though等。
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The three uses of similes:
Descriptive描述型明喻; Illuminative启示型明喻 ; Illustrative说明型明喻;
;
Her lips were red, her locks were yellow as gold. Pop looked so unhappy, almost like a child who’s lost his piece of candy. The big black flies hit us like bombs.
1. Simile(明喻)
拉丁语 similis (like) 1.three parts : subject (主体) reference （喻体） indicator of resemblance （比 喻词） My love is like a red red rose. 2。主体和喻体一般指两个不同的事物。 John is as tall as a Maypole.五朔节花柱 (庆祝五朔节围绕此柱歌舞)
4. 英语被动句用得多，汉语主动句用得多。这更说明 了英语的“物称倾向”。 An illustration is furnished by an editorial in the Washington Post (January 17, 1962). 《华盛顿邮报》（1962年1月17日）的一篇社论提供 了一个例子。 It has been known for a long time that there is a first relationship between the heart and liver. 长期以来，大家知道心脏和肝脏的关系是最重要的。 The challenge from the Third World has always been foreseen by our shipping companies. 我国的海运公司总能预见来自第三世界的挑战。
3. 英语有“物称倾向”，即主语往往是表示无生命物体的名词或 表示事物的名词词组。汉语则有明显的“人称倾向”，即句子的 主语往往是人或有生命的东西。 My heart went out to the old warrior as spectators pushed by him to shake Darrow‘s hand. 观众从他身边挤过去争相与达罗握手时，我很同情这位久经沙场 的老将。 Bitterness fed on the man who had made the world laugh. 这位曾使全世界的人发出笑声的人自己却饱受辛酸。 The sight of his native place called back his childhood. 见到自己的故乡，他想起了童年的情景。 The old man‘s death was calm and peaceful. （那位）老人死得很安详。
Descriptive 描述型
Illustrative 说明型 E.g. What is tennis?
Tennis is like a pingpong game scaled up to a sizable court.
Its function is to explain abstract or complicated ideas or things unfamiliar to you in simple, concrete ideas, or things familiar to you.
What is simile? E.g. The snow was like a white blank drawn over the field. The structure: The signified, the simile marker, and the signifier 本体, 比喻词, 喻体
6. 英语大量使用抽象名词，这类名词涵义概括，指称笼统，覆盖 面广，往往有一种“虚”、“泛”、“暗”、“曲”、“隐”的 魅力，因而便于用来表达复杂的思想和微妙的情绪。
The signs of the times point to the necessity of the modification of the system of administration. 管理体制需要改革，这已越来越清楚了。 No year passes now without evidence of the truth of the statement that the work of government is becoming increasingly difficult. 行政管理工作已变得越来越困难了，每年都证明确实 如此。
一、语义修辞 1明喻（simile）俗称直喻，是依据比喻和被比喻两种不同事物的 相似关系而构成的修辞格。 1.The snow was like a white blanket drawn over the field. 2.He was like a cock who thought the sun had risen to hear him crow. 认真观察以上各例，我们会发现它们的特点，由（as）... as, like等引导，这些引导词被称作比喻词（acknowledging word） ，它们是辨别明喻的最显著的特征，明喻较为直白，比喻物和被比 喻物之间相似点较为明显，所以明喻是一种比较好判断的修辞手。
Communicative Rhetoric 交际修辞
Division of Rhetoric
(Negative Rhetoric 消极修辞) -- To add to people‟s knowledge; accurate, plain;
Aesthetic Rhetoric 美学修辞
(Positive Rhetoric 积极修辞) -- To get people affected, or moved; vivid, brilliant, colorful.
our declaration. 这就是我们的国策。这就是我们的宣言。 If winter comes, can spring be far behind? 冬天来了，春天还会远吗？ This is the reason why he is leaving so soon. 这就是他所以这么快就要离开的原因。
Its function is to give deeper insight into
persons or things.
Compare the following sentences:
Jim looks like his brother Billy. My car runs as fast as the train. A real friend is like a mirror that can help you see any dirt on your face. Life was like a journey full of pitfalls. -- (The first two sentences are not cases of simile.) Simile is a comparison between two unlike things across domains (跨领域).
Illuminative启发型
E.g.
What happened to a dream deferred (postponed)? Like a raisin (葡萄干) in the sun? Or fester (化脓) like a sore? Does it stink like a rotten meat?
英语修辞学(Rhetoric)
English Figures of Speech
英语修辞的一般规律与特点 General principles and features of English rhetoric
1. 关系词丰富，介词、连词、关系代词和关系 副词等的充分利用，使英语成为一种更为形式 的语言，即以形合为主的语言。而汉语是以意 合为主的语言。That is our policy and that is
5. 英语多用长句和复合句。 With the gaining of our political freedom you will remember that there came a conflict between the point of view of Alexander Hamilton, sincerely believing in the superiority of government by a small group of public-spirited and usually wealthy citizens, and, on the other hand, the point of view of Thomas Jefferson, and advocate of government by representatives chosen by all the people, and advocate of the universal right of free thought and free personal living and free religion and free expression of opinion and, above all, the right of free universal suffrage. 想必你们还记得，在我们获得政治自由之后，亚历山大· 汉密尔顿 和托马斯· 杰弗逊两人在观点上发生了分歧。汉密尔顿对于由一小 群热心公益且往往有钱的公民掌管的政府的优越性坚信不疑。杰 弗逊则主张政府必须由全民选出的代表掌管。他还主张公民普遍 享有思想自由、居住自由、宗教自由和言论自由的权利，特别是 享有普选权利。