chapter2 soil forming
civil-engineering-CHAPTER-TWO（土木工程概论英文课件）
civil-engineering-CHAPTER-TWO（土木工程概论英文课件）CHAPTER TWOPREPARATION FOR BEING A CIVIL ENGINEER The first step to be a civil engineer is generally to study civil engineering in a university or college, or major in主修civil engineering or other related programs. In most countries, the certificate （a document attesting to the truth of certain stated facts）of Registered Engineer注册工程师is only given to those who have accepted higher education in accredited （given official approval to act）programs. In this chapter, the reader will acquire the information about the typical（of a feature that helps to distinguish a person or thing）content of these programs.2 .1 What Kinds of Knowledge Are Necessary for a civil Engineer?Engineering education in universities domestic and abroad includes general education and special engineering education. At first, science and mathematics should be mentioned in general education. Engineering is a system of the applying of science and technology, so scientific principles set the foundation of engineering. This is the most important difference between modern civil engineering and ancient construction activities, although construction has always depended to some extent on scientific principles. Since the Industrial Revolution 工业革命, and even as far back as早在，远在the Renaissance（the revival of learning and culture）, civil engineering has always been a branch of technologic science. For these reasons, science and mathematics become the common base of engineering educationincluding civil engineering education.Owing to the accumulation of several centuries, modern science has accumulated. a massive（containing a great quantity of matter）body of literature and knowledge.However, the beginner need not sit under apple tree to discover the laws of universal gravitation as Isaac Newton did in legend（a story about mythical）. Neither does he have to exhaust （wear out completely）his brain for the principle of transform between energy and the mass. Based on the work of numerous pioneers, new students can now enter into the paradise of science easily. Nowadays, engineering is a synthetic system not only depending on traditional mechanics, but also closely relating to advanced science. You can find the courses such as Physics, Chemistry, Computer Science, Material Science, Environmental Science, and perhaps more, in your civil engineering program.One characteristic of modern science is that it can be described exactly and beautifully by mathematics. So the engineer should grasp this powerful tool to solve the problems they will meet in engineering analysis, design, planning and control. In this aspect, engineering students should learn advanced mathematics高等数学including analyticgeometry解析几何；分析几何学（the use of algebra代数学to study geometric properties）;, differential and integral calculus 微积分, progression, differential equation微分方程（an equation containing differentials of a function）. In addition, study of linear algebra线性代数, matrix, probability, numerical methods数值方法；计算方法is usually required by Civil Engineering Program. Using all of this knowledge, an engineer is able to predict preciselyimportant things about the project. For example, an engineercan tell whether a house or a bridge is safe or dangerous when earthquake occurs, or when it is hit by a hurricane. How can the skilled engineer do it? The engineer does this by using abstract models from physical objects（物理对象visible entity）, which can be described and predicted by mathematics. Mathematics数学运算provides engineers with a solid foundation in their engineering activities. Furthermore, by strict training through verification确认，查证；核实（additional proof that something that was believed (some fact or hypothesis or theory) is correct）, deduction推论（something that is inferred）and calculation in the study of mathematics, one will accustom oneself to logicality, strictness, and more rationality; important qualities for a good engineer.An engineer not only just takes the responsibility or the technology and production activities of a project but also has the duty to the society. Does your engineering project benefit your people and society or harm them? A qualified engineer should be conscientiously aware of this point at all times and for this reason universities also organize social science and humanities education for their students. Students enrolling in engineering programs should accept the education in this aspect. Philosophy, ethics, history, literature, aesthetics（the branch of philosophy dealing with beauty and taste (emphasizing the evaluative criteria that are applied to art), as well economics, management （the act of managing something）and foreign language are a useful and necessary tool.The necessary knowledge for professional occupation of civil engineering is composed of two parts; base knowledge for entire civil engineering and corresponding knowledge for a special aspect.Most civil engineering projects can be seen as varieties of structures. In order to ensure the safety of structures, civil engineers should understand their mechanical properties力学性能, such as forces, stresses （force that produces strain on a physical body）, displacements （move something from its natural environment）and deformations（the act of twisting or deforming the shape of something）of the structures, caused by the weight of the structure itself and facilities, winds on the structure, vehicles车辆, varying of temperatures, and perhaps earthquakes. Courses, usually named mechanics of materials材料力学, structural analysis结构分析, elasticity（the tendency of a body to return to its original shape after it has been stretched or compressed）, are set for this purpose. Because civil engineering projects are laid on or under the ground, to know soil and rock properties well is necessary. Thus geo-engineering, soil mechanics and foundation studies are also base knowledge. Water and wind, those will act on or react with the structures, have common properties in the view of mechanics, and fluid mechanics流体力学（study of the mechanics of fluids）deals with the concerned theories. Furthermore, a knowledge of engineering chart drawing (a skill to express the design idea by pictures in common rules understood by engineers* technicians and workers), surveying(to measure the landform for construction), and electricity, machinery, construction management建筑工程管理and general technic, budget（a sum of money allocated for a particular purpose）, bidding投标；出价（the number of tricks a bridge player is willing to contract to make）the tendering are also required.绘制应力应变图Since civil engineering covers many fields of knowledge with many aspects which will be found in the rest chapters of thisbook, it is impossible to learn all of the knowledge in these areas. Almost all of the universities in the world to provide students with several options to enable them to specialize专门研究in the fields mentioned in Chapter One. Such a method is also being re-accepted by civil engineering education in China since 1998 although it was the way in the early history of higher civil engineering education before 1950s. For example, students can now choose options in building structures, bridge, tunnel, road pavement and construction, railway and so on, to know how to design, construct, and organize a civil engineering project. And the students are usually encouraged to choose more options for their future professional life.You can choose one of them as your direction2 2 What Can the University Education Provide for Students?COURSES: Basically, university offers students a variety of courses. The branches of knowledge mentioned above are involved in the courses and courses are usually divided into three types: requirement anything indispensable, approved electives批准选修, and free choice.The requirement and approval electives are both the courses that the students majored in must learn. There are some differences between the two types. Students can not miss any requirement course while have limited right to elect some of the approved electives. In that case那样的话a university usually tells students the minimum which they should choose in the list of the approval electives. As for关于the free choice, universities normally ask for a necessary number of credits or class hours. Those who hope to graduate and be awarded the corresponding degree, have to meet the requirement of the university or the school.Universities should continually adjust teaching plans and course tables 课程表with the development of science and technology, to meet the needs of future engineers. So the contents of courses are changed from time to time.TEACHERS: As in middle and high schools,teachers in universities give lectures, check homework, organize panel discussion专题讨论会(discussion of a subject of public interest by a group of persons forming a panel usually before an audience) for special problems, guide the students to experiments and also check answers in test sheets at the end of semester.Simultaneously, most of them play the role of scientists and/or engineers. They publish research papers研究论文in journals, spend much time in laboratory to verify a new discovery, test a renewal material with the engineering purpose, or design and make a new tool for engineering purpose. Some of them are registered engineers注册土木工程师if their field is civil engineering, and even have their own design institutes. In famous universities, when you knock a door to ask your professor a question, you will be probably told that the professor who you are talking is a respectable academician of Academy of Sciences orEngineering. The groups of wisdoms, who are good at theories and practice experience, are the best gift the universities afford to the students. Unlike the teachers in middle and high schools, university professors rarely monitor your daily study, because they appreciate students should study on individual initiative.With the development of internet, the tele-course is becoming fashionable. A young student will be in a puzzle about the large number of teachers in one university, but will find, faceto face lecture and discussion is always charming, and direct communication not limited in speech. Communication is also by means of expression of teacher's eyes and gestures. The close distance between you, your classmates and the lecturer, will make for an excited atmosphere, it is why since Socrates苏格拉底（古希腊哲学家）(ancient Athenian philosopher; teacher of Plato and Xenophon (470-399 BC), Confucius孔子（中国哲学家，教育家）(Chinese philosopher whose ideas and sayings were collected after his death and became the basis of a philosophical doctrine known a Confucianism (circa 551-478 BC), no matter how modern the society has become, and no matter what kind of high tech is introduced into the education process, the university always keeps its campus and excellent scholars学者们in a remarkable size.LABORATORY AND SITE PRACTICE BASE: For engineering colleges, the laboratories equipped with variety of test machines and measuring devices, and opened to students are indispensable. There are several types of experiments with special purpose, for demonstration, observation, validation确认；批准；生效(the act of validating; finding or testing the truth of something), practical training实习训练, exploration探究(a careful systematic search), or others. The basic experimental skill necessary for engineers can be learned in the laboratories. Most of test items测验项目are specified in the textbook, and detailed instruction is printed. In recent years, universities in China encourage students to design the experiments themselves, and do what they are interested in the related fields, to make students have the desire for innovation.It is cognized that a qualified engineer should possess rich experience obtained from engineering practice, so practicalexercise becomes one important part of the education plan of civil engineering program. Laboratory training is part of this practical training.Others are design work both in classroom and in workroom of consulting companies or design institutes, construction site work, geologic investigation地质勘察, surveying and measurement outside. In most cases Chinese universities, set practice bases at construction companies and design institutes. Usually students are requested to join the construction site work during the summer or winter vacation. A new procedure is tried in a few universities to ask students to search the projects being constructed and go there for their practical training. The procedure itself is taken as a practice. Most universities take the practical trainings to be requirement or approved electives.LIBRARY AND OTHER INFORMATION SOURCES: Self-study is a typical mode of university students. Successful students are always those who do not satisfy the contents of lectures and homework given by teachers. For themcomprehensive reading is undertaken outside indicated textbooks. Books, journals, reports and dissertations学位论文in the form of collection of printed pages打印页面which are stored in the book shelves are also read. Of course, the libraries in modern universities are reformed with the computer system and network, and the electronic libraries make it more convenient for students more convenience to borrow and read. The ability to search, find, and grasp information becomes more and more important in this age, and it is the task of the university education to let students have this ability.SPIRIT AND ATMOSPHERE: In the common sense, the universities are the place where there are freedom for thinking,equality in academy, and advocation of creation. Furthermore, the alternation of new students every year, make university campuses full of the energy of the younger generation.New student military trainingACTIVITIES OUT OF CLASS: there are different student organizations in the campus that help connect classroom to career, develop professionalism, increase technical proficiency, and refine ethical judgment. For example, the Institute of Civil Engineers (ICE) of British welcomes the students enrolled in program of civil engineering to be student members; even ICE develops its members in Chinese universities.Recently American Society of Civil Engineering ( ASCE) joined this action too. There are many sports teams for soccer, basketball, badminton, swimming, track and field, which are organized inter-class, department and even college. Societies in literatures and arts, will afford students a total different area from those in the class.2.3 What Abilities Shall a Future Civil Engineer Possess?THE ABILITY TO APPLY THE KNOWLEDGE：Elementary knowledge is essential to a civil engineering student. In common, by four-year period study, the student should be proficient熟练的，精通的in mathematics through differential equations 微分方程, probability and statistics概率论与数理统计, calculus-based physics微积分学, and general chemistry普通化学; proficiency ln the material mechanics材料力学, fluidmechanics流体力学, structural analysis and geo-techknowledge? good command of theprimary skills for engineering survey, drawing, test, and calculation and design, and at least deeper understanding several major civil engineering areas.The emphasis should be shifted to the application of the knowledge after we understand the importance of the knowledge. 'To know' is mere the first step. For engineers, the more important thing is to apply his knowledge i.e. natural science, mathematics and elementary engineering knowledge recorded in the textbooks or papers in the form of rules, principles, formulae and data, to solve engineering problems.THE ABILITY TO CONDUCT EXPERIMENTS AND EXPLAN THE RESULTS: The ability to plan and conduct experiments and analyse the results are basic aspects of the engineer's abilities.The future engineer is required to conduct laboratory experiments and to critically analyze and interpret data. Though many problems can be solved efficiently and economically by computation in a fine mechanical model, it is not everything. When new material or new structural system is used in civil engineering project, there are new variables which are not reflected, covered in the ready-made model. It will be dangerous if engineers do not change their mathematical model in time. However, how to calibrate the model? The most practical way is to do an experiment. Similar things also encounter in built-up or 'older' constructions, because there are many unknown factors. For example, material used in the structure will weaken, be damaged and lose its function through the duration of a structure's life while the change cannot usually be fully expected at the beginning. And on the other hand, the surroundings, conditions and real loads can also change. Engineers and researchers make the same phenomena, in most case, to recur (happen or occur again) in the laboratory, so that they can reveal the mechanism which now should be understood for the purpose of the safety of the structure. Though according to the basetheory, research engineers are able to judge the results of the experiments, it is common that the observed phenomena or obtained data in the experiments conflict with the known knowledge. In this case, the conflict will bring new discovery and improve an engineer's work. Give a rational explanation to a seemingly strange phenomenon is a wonderful task. It needs to synthesize knowledge of many subjects and to create new knowledge which is not mentioned or recorded in the literature.THE ABILITY OF DESIGN: For engineers, the ability to design a system, a component- or a procedure of construction is basically required. Civil engineers are creating substantial entities every day and everywhere in the world. Before they make them，they should be 'described'. It is the description of the non-existed entity that is called 'design'. The design shows what the future project is, and how to make it in a language which can be understood by constructors. The engineering design is quite different from the design of a piece of artwork, though we sometimes hear the admiration for a building as 'a graceful sculpture'. However, an artist can make a sculpture horse supporting only by one hoof, it will be impossible at ten times the size because the weight increases in three power of the size. Here the key factors will be functionality, safety and low-cost. It means that only the design which meets this requirements is practicable. So the engineering design work should obey the codes, specifications and guidance which arebased on scientific principles and the summary of accumulated experience. On the other hand, as an enterprising engineer. he or she never satisfies the existed ways or technics, so to search a possible way under the limited conditions to realize the 'impossible' things in design will be a challengeable butcharming work forever.THE ABILITY TO COOPERATE WITH WORKING TEAM: An engineer never work alone. Each project is a system, so the design work involves many people' efforts. For a big size building structure, the structural engineers should work with other experts from different disciplines, such as architects, surveyors, mechanical engineers and electricians. In the past, a skilful engineer would play several roles in a project with small size, but nowadays the different jobs should be taken by qualified engineers possessing certificates. When you are in the position of chief engineer in the work team, you should be in more harmony with your fellows. in order to cooperate with others well, every engineer should know how to hear and understand others, to consider things in both sides, you and your fellows, and to make necessary concession after discussion or even quarrels.THE ABILITY TO COMMUNICATE EFFECTIVELY:This is the ability which is an engineer should pay more attention to in the modern society. T o the engineer, as a designer, you should let your clients to accept your design, recognize that what you designed is the most suitable one in many possibilities; you should let the examiners and officers from government believe that your design accords with the low and specification so that the public and surroundings are safety? and you should let the contractors, manufacturers and construction companies understand your consideration and its rationality and feasibility. After being an engineer, you will find that you are frequently asked to attend meetings, to explain something for the project you designed, and you have to go to the construction site to hear new problems and tell the technician the answers. All of these need good communication unfortunately, until now our highschools and universities gave few chances to most of students to train their communication skills. Young engineering students now should take this seriously, and make great efforts to improve their communication ability.The basic element of communication is to speak. So try to look on your audience, no matter in seminars, in meetings or even in your friends' parties, make your voice loud, speak clearly and use plain but vivid vocabulary as possible.Besides speaking, the effective communication includes writing skill and expression of one's idea both in pictures and simple formulas. There are many skills you should learn, but the most important thing is to remember that the purpose of effective communication is for thoroughly understanding between you and your companion.Communication is not the same thing performing on a stage, where the key point should be exchange of information successfully. Good communication skill also includes hearing and considering companion's opinion. Discussion is also involved in the process of communication.2.4How Do You Match the Demands of the Program Education?Through four-year-period study to make yourselves acquire basic knowledge and training for being an engineer is one of the main targets that makes you enter into a university and enroll into a special engineering program.University is a new circumstance to freshmen students. For those who just left high school, and perhaps many of them are first time to sleep in dormitory of school, they should he familiar with the new life as early as possible.STUDY IN CLASSROOM: Needless to say, study is the mostimportant task. There are many things to 'study'. However, to study and understand the knowledge which are necessary for the education objectives as introduced previously in this chapter and specified by the program, education plan is the basic requirement.As a student, you have had the school experience more than ten years, so you know the study skill well; reading textbooks, attending the lectures, taking noteswhen listening, doing homework ............... .. those are almost the same as in high schools. But something changes.The engineering students usually do not have their fixed classroom. They should move from one building to another during the ten minute break between classes. Nobody shares one standard curriculum schedule with his classmates in the same program, especially in the junior and senior year. Students have the opportunity to choose what they 'prefer', and every one shall type the number of the course he wants to join in the next semester into the computer registered system, or after a long queue outside the administration office to fill in course register form. To Chinese students, the most difference from the traditional high school is perhaps that no teacher will strictly monitor your daily study life.Are you free? Certainly. But, just to certain extentSame as the other programs, the Civil Engineering Program requires necessary credits before you are approved to graduate from the university. Each course has its credits according to the class hours and the importance. After passing the examination, you can obtain the pointed credits. If the program asks its students to fulfill total 150 credits, you will never expect to be awarded the engineering bachelor degree in the case that youearned only 149 credits! Furthermore, as you have known, the courses you have to take are divided into three types, requirements, approval electives and free choice, but to each of the three types, the program education plan specifies a certain amount of credits you have to obtain. That is to say your freedom is not infinite.Sometimes, a student will be informed that he did not meet the requirement of the program because he does not pick enough credits in approval electives indicated by the program education plan. So, students had better to read program education plan and student manual carefully once enrolling in the program, and to follow it in the following days. What your tutor who is designated by the department for you, if any can do is to give you some suggestion or advice when you consider to choosesomething.To finish all the courses the program asks is important, and to get high points is encouraged. When you pursue advanced degree study, or apply for a good position1)i n your career life after graduation, high points are always helpful at the beginning. However, good students are not those who only know the description printed on the books or recite the formulae, but fail to explain practical phenomenon,to discover unknown things and to have strong motivation to create new knowledge himself. So university professors encourage students to consider problems in different views, and appreciate students to observe in their own eyes and to ask questions after thinking.JOIN ACTIVITIES IN CAMPUS OUT OF CLASS ACTIVELY: Since an engineer needs to learn effective communication with othersand smooth cooperation with work teams, and to be a good fellow and a success leader both in engineering and social activities, engineering students ought not to localize their 'study' only in academy or pure specialty. Fortunately, a university is such a school that provides with plenty of opportunities to those who would like to develop their multi-talents so that campus activities are called the 'amateurish classroom'. To join one or several activities which attract you in variety of campus activities, i.e. sports, drama and concerts, forums, competitions, clubs and reading party, will benefit your spirits and brain, enlarge your friend circle and get a way more comfortable to develop yourself. It is the university tradition to encourage students to join campus activities.PERSIST IN PHYSICAL EXERCISE: It is not a special requirement to civil engineering program students. Keeping in good health makes people to have confidence to live and work, to ensure the engineers energetically devote themselves into heavy work. By the way, though it is said not to work too heavy, in fact the work of civil engineers is really a heavy one, considering the duty engineer must take for the safety of human being and the society!Universities seek two main achievements in this aspect: to let the daily physical exercise become one of the personal customs of students and to train students to have some basic skills for physical exercise. Both of these are indispensable preparation for a qualified engineer.BE AWARE OF SOCIAL RESPOSSIBILITY:了解社会责任Why has society established a register engineer system, and why has this system been widely accepted by most of the industrial countries? The answer is that each engineering project that engineersinvolved in is not only a solution to a pure technical problem. At first, it will relate to the safety of life and estate. The failure of a building, collapse of a bridge or even a serious accident when undergoing construction may induce a real catastrophe to people, and make the loss of life and estate. So society asks that engineers who take the technical responsibility to the projects must be those who are qualified in knowledge and abilities. The procedure to cognize the candidate's qualification in engineering is the matter of register engineer system.With the development of natural and social science, people have more comprehensive understanding to human being and the relation with the world. In such a background, engineers should consider more and take larger responsibilities. The engineers are being required to understand the relation of his engineering projects with the society, and theinfluence of the projects on environment and continuous development. For example, if an industry building to be built will bring high benefits to investors, but also high risk to pollute the rivers and surrounding soils, what should the civil engineers do? The civil engineers shall be aware of the responsibility to cooperate with the experts in that field to solve the problem. In that case, a structural engineer may adjust the previous concept design if necessary.To be a responsible and conscientious engineer, the engineering student in the university should leave himself enough time to contact comprehensive knowledge about ethics, history and cultures of the different construction regions, beyond engineering subjects. The student needs to develop fine personality. A selfish person will be difficult to be a good engineer.。
土壤学中英文对照名词
土壤学中英文对照名词土壤soil 陆地表面由矿物质、有机物质、水、空气和生物组成，具有肥力,能生长植物的未固结层。
土壤学soil science 研究土壤的形成、分类、分布、制图和土壤的物理、化学、生物学特性、肥力特征以及土壤利用、改良和管理的科学。
发生土壤学pedology 侧重研究土壤的发生、演化、特性、分类、分布和利用潜力的土壤学。
耕作土壤学edaphology 侧重研究土壤的组成、性质及其与植物生长的关系，通过耕作管理提高土壤肥力和生产能力的土壤学.土壤地理［学］soil geography 研究土壤的空间分布和组合及其地理环境相互关系的学科.土壤物理［学] soil physics 研究土壤中物理现象或过程的学科。
土壤化学soil chemistry 研究土壤中各种化学行为和过程的学科。
土壤生物化学soil biochemistry 阐明土壤有机碳和氮素等物质的转化、消长规律及其功能的学科.土壤矿物学soil mineralogy 研究土壤中原生矿物和次生矿物的类型、性质、成因、转化和分布的学科。
01.011 土壤分析化学soil analytical chemistry 研究用化学方法和原理测定土壤成分和性质的技术学科. 01。
012 土壤生物学soil biology 研究土壤中生物的种类、分布、功能及其与土壤和环境间相互关系的学科.01.013 土壤微生物学soil microbiology 研究土壤中微生物种类、功能和活性以及与土壤和环境间相互关系的学科。
01.014 土壤生态学soil ecology 研究土壤环境与生物间相互关系，以及生态系统内部结构、功能、平衡与演变规律的学科。
01.015 土壤微形态[学］soil micromor—phology 研究土壤显微形态特征的学科.01。
016 土壤资源soil resources 土壤类型的数量与质量。
01.017 土壤区划soil regionalization 按土壤群体的地带性和地域性差异进行分区划片，提出开发利用途径。
关于农业的英语作文
Agriculture is the backbone of many economies,providing food,raw materials,and employment opportunities for a significant portion of the population.In this essay,we will explore the various aspects of agriculture,including its history,importance, challenges,and future prospects.History of AgricultureAgriculture has been a fundamental human activity since the dawn of civilization.The transition from huntergatherer societies to settled farming communities marked the beginning of the agricultural era,known as the Neolithic Revolution.This period saw the domestication of plants and animals,which allowed for a more stable food supply and the growth of human populations.Importance of Agriculture1.Food Security:Agriculture is crucial for ensuring food security.It provides the primary source of nutrition for billions of people worldwide.2.Economic Growth:It contributes significantly to the GDP of many countries, especially those in the developing world where agriculture is a major industry.3.Employment:It offers employment opportunities to a large rural population,helping to alleviate poverty and improve living standards.4.Cultural Significance:Agriculture is deeply intertwined with cultural practices and traditions in many societies,shaping the way people live and interact with their environment.Challenges in Agriculture1.Climate Change:The unpredictable nature of weather patterns due to climate change poses a significant threat to crop yields and livestock health.2.Soil Degradation:Intensive farming practices have led to soil erosion,loss of fertility, and desertification in some regions.3.Water Scarcity:The increasing demand for water for irrigation and the scarcity of freshwater resources are major concerns for agricultural sustainability.4.Pesticides and Fertilizers:Overuse of chemical inputs can lead to environmentalpollution and health issues.Technological Advancements in Agriculture1.Precision Farming:The use of GPS and other technologies allows for more accurate application of inputs,reducing waste and improving yields.2.Genetic Modification:GMO crops can be engineered to be more resistant to pests and diseases,as well as tolerant to environmental stress.3.Sustainable Practices:Organic farming and agroecology promote biodiversity and reduce the environmental impact of agriculture.4.Automation and Robotics:The incorporation of automated machinery and robots can increase efficiency and reduce labor costs.Future Prospects of AgricultureThe future of agriculture will likely involve a combination of technological innovation, sustainable practices,and policy changes to address the challenges of feeding a growing global population while minimizing environmental impact.This includes:1.Adoption of Smart Farming:Utilizing data analytics and AI to optimize farming operations.2.Diversification of Crops:Encouraging the cultivation of a variety of crops to reduce the risk of crop failure and improve nutritional diversity.3.Investment in Research:Supporting scientific research to develop new farming techniques and technologies.4.Policy and Regulation:Implementing policies that promote sustainable farming practices and protect the rights of smallscale farmers.In conclusion,agriculture remains a vital sector that must adapt and evolve to meet the needs of a changing world.By embracing innovation and sustainability,we can ensure that agriculture continues to thrive and support the wellbeing of both people and the planet.。
第二章 土壤的基本物质组成
（三）生物化学风化（biochemical weathering)：指 岩石矿物在生物及其分泌物或有机质分解产物的作 用下，进行的机械破碎作用和化学分解过程 1、机械破碎作用 高等植物(high plants) 低等植物(low plants)：地衣（lichen）、苔藓(moss)、菌类
(fungi)等。
如花岗岩granite片麻岩gneiss页岩板岩boardrock石灰岩大理岩砂岩石英岩quartzite三成土岩石和矿物对土壤性质的影响1土壤质地soiltexture浅色矿物石英长石及花岗岩等因含有较多石英易形成砂粒深色矿物及页岩板岩石灰岩等含有较多的黑云母等易风化为深色矿物形成较多粘粒2土壤酸碱度soilacidity花岗岩片麻岩发育土壤多呈酸性石灰岩大理岩含钙多土壤中性微碱性3土壤养分soilnutrients长石云母富含钾素
穴居动物(troglodyte animals ) 原生动物(protozoa) 2、生化作用 动植物生命活动分泌（excrete）有机酸及二氧化碳 等对岩石矿物产生溶蚀作用。
二、土壤母质soil parent material
(一)母质的概念 岩石矿物经过各种风化作用，变成疏松的、粗细不等 的矿物质颗粒。 （二）母质的特点（与岩石矿物比较） 1、具分散性，疏松，但结构仍差。 2、表面积增大，具一定的吸附养分的能力。 3、具有孔隙，通气透水性增强。 4、养分有所释放，但仍处于分散状态。 5、由于没有成土， 故缺乏氮素，不具备完整肥力。
一、土壤无机矿物质颗粒的来源
（一）矿物的概念（Concept of minerals）
1、矿物（ minerals ）：自然存在于地壳中的具有一定物理
性质、化学组成和内部构造的单质或化合物。 • 土壤中的无机矿物质颗粒是陆地表层的岩石、矿物风化
土壤学课件第二章土壤矿物质2
结晶态氧化物 胶膜态
氧化铁 氧化铝
粘粒矿物 粘土矿物
非结晶态
Clay mineral
凝胶态 amorphous 其它 碳酸盐、硫酸盐、氯化物 others
（一）原生矿物 primary minerals
1.原生矿物概念：在风化合成土过程中未改变化学组成的原始成岩矿物。
2.土壤中主要原生矿物
正长石 斜长石
土壤矿物元素组成主要是：氧、 硅、铝、铁，其它元素的量相对较 比较少。
一.土壤矿物基本组成 composition of soil minerals
原生矿物
Primary minerals 高岭石
土壤矿物
Soil minerals
层状铝硅酸盐
蒙脱石
伊利石
结晶态 Crystalline
次生矿物
Secondary minerals
（二） 次生矿物 secondary minerals
1.次生矿物的概念 在风化和成土过程中新形成的矿物。次生矿物一般比较小，属于 粘粒范围，因此，也有人叫它粘土矿物或者粘粒矿物(clay minerals). 粘土矿物（粘粒矿物）clay mineral ；粒径大小在粘粒范围内的 次生矿物称之。 2.粘土矿物意义:粘土矿物的类型和特征综合地反映土壤的风化和成 土条件。研究和鉴定它的类型、数量和特征具有以下意义： （1）可以帮助人们了解各种土壤在发生学上的地位，在土壤分类 学中，次生矿物成为鉴别土类的主要依据。 （2）有助于了解土壤一系列理化性状（吸湿性、可塑性、胀缩 性、离子吸附性），判断土壤肥力特征。 （必须更加关注粘土矿物）
（二） 次生矿物 secondary minerals
3.次生矿物主要类型
（三） 土壤矿物质主要元素组成和硅铝铁律
土木工程专业英语段兵延第二版全书文章翻译
第一课土木工程学土木工程学作为最老的工程技术学科，是指规划，设计，施工及对建筑环境的管理。
此处的环境包括建筑符合科学规范的所有结构，从灌溉和排水系统到火箭发射设施。
土木工程师建造道路，桥梁，管道，大坝，海港，发电厂，给排水系统，医院，学校，公共交通和其他现代社会和大量人口集中地区的基础公共设施。
他们也建造私有设施，比如飞机场，铁路，管线，摩天大楼，以及其他设计用作工业，商业和住宅途径的大型结构。
此外，土木工程师还规划设计及建造完整的城市和乡镇，并且最近一直在规划设计容纳设施齐全的社区的空间平台。
土木一词来源于拉丁文词“公民”。
在1782年，英国人John Smeaton为了把他的非军事工程工作区别于当时占优势地位的军事工程师的工作而采用的名词。
自从那时起，土木工程学被用于提及从事公共设施建设的工程师，尽管其包含的领域更为广阔。
领域。
因为包含范围太广，土木工程学又被细分为大量的技术专业。
不同类型的工程需要多种不同土木工程专业技术。
一个项目开始的时候，土木工程师要对场地进行测绘，定位有用的布置，如地下水水位，下水道，和电力线。
岩土工程专家则进行土力学试验以确定土壤能否承受工程荷载。
环境工程专家研究工程对当地的影响，包括对空气和地下水的可能污染，对当地动植物生活的影响，以及如何让工程设计满足政府针对环境保护的需要。
交通工程专家确定必需的不同种类设施以减轻由整个工程造成的对当地公路和其他交通网络的负担。
同时，结构工程专家利用初步数据对工程作详细规划，设计和说明。
从项目开始到结束，对这些土木工程专家的工作进行监督和调配的则是施工管理专家。
根据其他专家所提供的信息，施工管理专家计算材料和人工的数量和花费，所有工作的进度表，订购工作所需要的材料和设备，雇佣承包商和分包商，还要做些额外的监督工作以确保工程能按时按质完成。
贯穿任何给定项目，土木工程师都需要大量使用计算机。
计算机用于设计工程中使用的多数元件（即计算机辅助设计，或者CAD）并对其进行管理。
2016年托福阅读真题解析：泥土如何形成
5⽉28⽇托福阅读真题三篇⽂章是Reconstructing Prehistoric Human Lifestyle(重建史前⼈类的⽣活⽅式)，How Soil is Formed(泥⼟如何形成)和Mate Choice In Birds(鸟类配偶选择)。
分别重复2015.09.17第⼀篇，2014.07.12第⼆篇，和2015.10.24第三篇，是典型的⽼题拼盘重复。
三篇⽂章，集合了⼈类考古、地质和⽣物学三个常见话题，专业词汇泛滥，长难句增多，篇章结构的整体性增强。
下⾯，给出今天第⼆篇和第三篇⽂章的知识框架和词汇串讲。
第⼆篇 How Soil is Formed(泥⼟如何形成) 第1段：泥⼟形成是⼀个动态过程(a dynamic process)，受到母体材料(parent material)、⽓候、地形(topography)和时间的影响。
第2段：母体材料是松散的⼀堆物质(unconsolidated mass)，在此之上泥⼟开始形成。
来源上看，母体材料可以是原处的地质基底物质(geological substrate)，也可以是通过风吹、⽔流、冰川移动或重⼒沉降⽽从远处带来的沉淀物(sediment/deposit)。
由于远⽅沉淀物的多样性，所以由远⽅沉淀物形成的泥⼟往往更肥沃(fertile)。
不管母体材料的来源是什么，最终形成的泥⼟组成都是地质岩⽯类物质，例如⽕成岩(igneous rocks)、沉淀岩(sedimentary rocks)和变质岩(metamorphic rocks)，这些岩⽯的化学组成决定了泥⼟的组成。
第3段：⽓候影响着风化过程的强度和性质(the intensity and nature of weathering)，并且影响着当地植被类型(vegetation type)，这些进⽽都对泥⼟形成产⽣影响。
具体来看，⽇温差和季节温差导致泥⼟物质的冷热交替。
直接暴露于太阳辐射下的泥⼟经历最极端的冷热交替;被植物覆盖的泥⼟经历较⼩波动。
Book-4-Unit2-chemica-or-organic-farming
What are some of the problems caused by plastic bags? First, people often leave plastic bags here and there, making white pollution. Second, it takes a long time, more than 100 years ,to be exact, to break up .Last but not least, when heated, plastic bags can produce something harmful, which can build up in our body and eventually lead to cancer or other diseases.
Main idea of the passage
_C_h_e_m_i_c_a_l fertilizers can cause many
problems, so organic farming is
becoming more_p_o_p_u_la_r__.
The structure of this passage
Let’s use cloth bags in our daily life instead of plastic bags, not only for the environment protection, but also for the sake of our health.
Suppose you were given a farm. What would you like to grow or raise? How would you deal with your farming?
环境土壤学7
10
Definition of parent material
母质是风化壳(weathering crust)的表层，是指原生基岩 (original bedrock)经过风化、搬运、堆积等过程于地表形成的 一层疏松、最年轻的地质矿物质层，它是形成土壤的物质基 础，是土壤的前身。 风化壳是地壳表层的岩石经过风化后形成的疏松堆积物。 风化壳是地壳表层的岩石经过风化后形成的疏松堆积物。 是地壳表层的岩石经过风化后形成的疏松堆积物 母质既不同于岩石：有初步肥力，颗粒分散，疏松多孔， 母质既不同于岩石：有初步肥力，颗粒分散，疏松多孔，有一定吸 既不同于岩石
成土因素的时空分异导致土壤演化持续进行
5
地带性土壤（ 地带性土壤（Zonalsoils） ） At the regional and global scale, climate and biota will have a dominant influence on soil formation, and soil types can be related in general terms to bioclimatic zones. The remaining factors will then account for variations in soil formation within a particular bioclimatic zone.
托福阅读真题第179篇How_Soils_Formed（答案文章最后）
托福阅读真题第179篇How_Soils_Formed（答案文章最后）How Soils FormedParagraph 1：Soil formation is a dynamic process that takes place in different environments. It is strongly influenced by the parent material, climate (largely vegetation and temperature and water exchanges), topography (the elevations, depressions, directions and angles of slopes, and other surface features of the landscape), and time.Paragraph 2：The parent material is the unconsolidated mass on which soil formation takes place. This material may or may not be derived from the on-site geological substrate or bedrock on which it rests. Parent materials can be transported by wind, water, glaciers, and gravity and deposited on top of bedrock. Because of the diversity of materials involved, soils derived from transported parent materials are commonly more fertile than soils from parent materials derived in place. Whatever the parent material, whether derived in place from bedrock or from transported material, it ultimately comes from geological materials, such as igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks, and the composition of the rocks largely determines the chemical composition of the soil.1. According to paragraph 2, which of the following is true about parent material found at a given site?O It was most likely deposited there by glaciers rather than by wind and water.O It is formed and consolidated entirely from the bedrock on which it rests.O It can vary in its richness and fertility according to where itoriginated.O The speed with which it is transported determines its location.2. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.O Transported parent materials, parent materials derived in place from bedrock, and various kinds of rocks all contribute to the composition of a soil.O The chemical composition of a soil is ultimately determined by the geological materials from which it forms, regardless of where or how the parent material originates.O The parent material from which a soil is formed ultimately comes from igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks.O The composition of the geological materials from which the parent material was originally derived can be determined by studying the chemical composition of the soil.Paragraph 3：Climate is most influential in determining the nature and intensity of weathering and the type of vegetation that further affects soil formation. The soil material experiences daily and seasonal variations in heating and cooling. Open surfaces exposed to thermal radiation undergo the greatest daily fluctuations in heating and cooling, soils covered with vegetation the least. Hill slopes facing the sun absorb more heat than those facing away from the sun. Radiant energy has a pronounced effect on the moisture regime, especially the evaporative process and dryness. Temperature can stimulate or inhibit biogeochemical reactions in soil material.Paragraph 4：Water is involved in all biogeochemicalreactions in the soil because it is the carrier of the acids that influence the weathering process. Water enters the soil material as a liquid and leaves it as a liquid by percolation (the slow movement of water through the soil’s pores) and as a gas through evaporation. The water regime—the water flow over a given time—in soil material is sporadic, and in many parts of the Earth is highly seasonal. Water that enters the soil during heavy rainfall and snowmelt moves down through the soil. As it moves, it leaves behind suspended material and may carry away mineral matter in solution, a process called leaching. On sloping land, water distributes material laterally (sideways) through the soil.3. According to paragraph 4, water passing through the soil can affect the soil’s composition in which of the following ways?O By stopping certain chemical reactions from taking place in the soilO By carrying away mineralsO By reducing the acidity of the soilO By preventing leaching of mineralsParagraph 5：T opography is a major factor in soil development. More water runs off and less enters the soil on steep slopes than on relatively level land. Water draining from slopes enters the soil on low and flat land. Thus soils and soil material tend to be dry on slopes and moist on the low land. Steep slopes are subject to surface erosion and soil creep—the downslope movement of soil material, which accumulates on lower slopes and lowlands.4. According to paragraph 5, why does soil material tend to be drier on steep slopes than on flatter land?O Steep slopes are less likely to experience soil creep.O Soil material on steep slopes tends to be thicker.O Water that falls on steep slopes tends to erode the soil there and deposit it on level ground.O More water runs off steep slopes before it can enter the soil.Paragraph 6：Vegetation, animals, bacteria, and fungi all contribute to the formation of soil. Vegetation, in particular, is responsible for organic material in the soil and influences its nutrient content. For example, forests store most of their organic matter on the surface, whereas in grasslands most of the organic matter added to the soil comes from the deep fibrous root systems. Organic acids produced by vegetation accelerate the weathering process.5. Paragraph 6 supports which of the following ideas about organic material soil?O Most of the organic material in soil comes from fibrous root systems.O How organic material is distributed in soil depends on the type of vegetation the soil supports.O The organic materials in soil prevent acids from forming during the weathering process.O Animals, bacteria, and fungi consume much of the nutrient content in soil.Paragraph 7：The weathering of rock material and the accumulation, decomposition, and mineralization or organic material require considerable time. Well-developed soils in equilibrium with weathering, erosion, and biotic influences may require 2,000 to 20,000 years for their formation, but soil differentiation from parent material may take place in as short a time as 30 years. Certain acid soils in humid regions develop in2,000 years because the leaching process is speeded by acidic materials. Parent materials heavy in texture require a much longer time to develop into soils because of an impeded downward flow of water. Soils develop more slowly in dry regions than in humid ones. Soils on steep slopes often remain poorly developed regardless of geological age because rapid erosion removes soil nearly as fast as it is formed. Floodplain soils age little through time because of the continuous accumulation of new materials. Such soils are not deeply weathered and are more fertile than geologically old soils because they have not been exposed to the leaching process as long. The latter soils tend to be infertile because of long-time leaching of nutrients without replacement from fresh material.6. According to paragraph 7, soil on steep slopes tends to remain poorly developed becauseO soil on steep slopes tends to be very acidicO soil that forms on steep slopes tends to be heavy in textureO so much of the soil that forms on steep slopes becomes eroded quicklyO soil differentiates very quickly from parent materials7. According to paragraph 7, why does floodplain soil tend to be especially fertile?O Because floodplain soil tends to be deeply weatheredO Because floodplain soil is not continually replaced by the addition of new materialO Because floodplain soil has not had many nutrients removedO Because most floodplains are in geologically new regions8. The purpose of paragraph 7 in the passage is toO provide evidence that soils in equilibrium maintain nutrients for longer periods of time than other soils O explain why geologically younger soils are more fertile than older soils, regardless of where they are found O explain how long it takes for soils to develop and what elements affect their fertilityO summarize the various stages of soil formation discussed earlier in the passageParagraph 5：T opography is a major factor in soil development. ■More water runs off and less enters the soil on steep slopes than on relatively le vel land. ■Water draining from slopes enters the soil on low and flat land. ■Thus soils and soil material tend to be dry on slopes and moist on wet on the low land. ■Steep slopes are subject to surface erosion and soil creep—the downslope movement of soil material, which accumulates on lower slopes and lowlands.9. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence can be added to the passage.Its role is demonstrated by the contrast between what happens on steep slopes and what happens on the lower-lying land at the bottom of those slopes.Where would the sentence best fit?10. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some answer choices do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. Drag your choices to the spaces where they belong. To review the passage, click on View Text.There are a variety of elements that influence soil development.Answer ChoicesO By analyzing the chemical composition of developed soil, it is possible to determine the location of the geological substrate from which the parent material was originally derived.O Both topography and the types of organisms present in the soil as it develops determine its nutrient level.O The length of time that is takes to develop high-quality soil is determined by humidity levels, the makeup of parent materials, and patterns of water flow and erosion.O The weathering process is strongly influenced by temperature and its variation, the nature of the water flow, and by the acids carried in the water.O Where soil material is regularly subject to rapid and extreme variations in temperature and water content, certain biogeochemical reactions necessary for soil formation cannot take place.O Because high humidity speeds up both leaching processes and erosion, soils in humid regions take much longer to reach equilibrium than soils in dry regions, and are seldom as fertile.。
土壤学母质层的英文
土壤学母质层的英文English:The parent material layer in soil science refers to the unconsolidated geological material from which the soil horizons develop. It is the initial material that undergoes weathering and other soil-forming processes to eventually form soil. Parent materials can be of various types, including bedrock, sediment, volcanic ash, or glacial deposits. The composition and properties of the parent material greatly influence soil formation, including factors such as texture, mineral composition, and nutrient content. For example, soils developedfrom granite bedrock tend to be coarse-textured and nutrient-poor, while those derived from limestone may be finer-textured and richer in nutrients. Understanding the parent material layer is essential for assessing soil fertility, drainage characteristics, and overall soil suitability for various uses such as agriculture, construction, or environmental conservation.中文翻译:土壤学中的母质层指的是未固结的地质物质，从这些物质中土壤层发展形成。
土壤学课件第一章 绪论2
土壤与其他自然界物质不同之处在于土壤具有肥力，构成了土壤 的本质属性、是土壤与其它自然界物质的本质区别、是土壤能够生 长万物的根源。 （一）土壤肥力的概念 人们对土壤肥力认识经历了一个漫长的过程，使其不断的深 入和完善。 1．美国土壤学会的观点：在Glossary of Soil Science Terms中对土壤肥力定义为： 土壤肥力是：土壤供给植物所必需的各种养分的能力。---西 方土壤学家观点属于狭义土壤肥力的概念。这里：肥—营养或养 分（物质的概念和因素）；力—是指养分的储存或供给的能力（强 度概念和因素）。这个能力包含的内容有养分的含量、存在的形 态、对植物有效性和供给能力，也包含了影响土壤养分供给力的因 素以及土壤调控措施等。
（三）发生学派 （school of soil genetic）
19世纪70~80年代，俄罗斯科学家道库恰耶夫 В.В.Докучаев，1846~1902）在发表的著作《俄罗 斯黑钙土》中，全面地阐述了土壤发生、发展过 程，创立了土壤发生学派。 其主要观点有： 1．土壤形成过程是由矿物和岩石经过风化作用 （weathing）和成土过程（soil formation）所形 成的。 2．土壤是一个独立的历史自然体，在母质（parent material）、气候（climatic factors)、生物 (biota)、地形(relief)、时间(time)等5大成土因 素的联合作用下形成。土壤分布规律都是受5大成土 因素（Soil forming factors）作用。为土壤地带 性分布、农业区划奠定了科学基础。 道库卡耶夫的发生学观点对学术界产生了深刻 的影响。
四．土壤肥力（soil fertility）
2）中国土壤（1978）：肥力是土壤的本质（属性），是指土壤为 植物生长供给和协调营养条件和环境条件的能力。
土壤学专业英语
土壤学专业英语A1层AI horizonA2层A2 horizonABC型土ABC soilAC型土AC soilAG型土AG soilAo层Ao horizonAp层Ap horizonA层A horizonBC型土壤B C SoilB层B horizonC层C horizonG层G horizonH层H layerL层L layerpF曲线pF curvepF值pF valuepH值pH ValueU形沟蚀U-shaped gullyingV式节制坝V-type check dam V形沟蚀V-shaped gullingV形拖板V-dragX线分光分析X-ray spectrophyX线绕射分析X-xayd iffraction methody次量养分元素，Secondary nutrient element(即Secondary essential element 安定粒团Stable aggregate氨态氮Ammonieal nitrogen胺化作用Aminization暗Dark (指Soil colour暗渠排水Closed ditch drainage暗色火山灰土Ando soil白垩土Chalk soil白毛微法Cunninghemella plaque test斑点Mottling半定域土Semizonal soil半润度含水量Moisture content at 50% relative humidity半沼泽土Half bog soil (同Marsh border soil)榜纹Streak剥蚀作用Exfoliation保土坝Soil saving dam保土调查Soil conservation survey保土局Soil conservation service (U.S.D.A.)保土作物soil protective crop保土作物Soil conserving crop饱和度Degree of saturation饱和渗透度Saturated permeability饱和水流Saturated flow鲍氏单位（鲍尔）Baule's unit (haule)鲍氏生产律Baule s law of percentage yield 被护作物Cover crop崩积层Colluvium崩积土Colluvial soil边际地Manning's formula Marginal Land 变质多米高岭石Metahalloysite表层冲蚀Sheet erosion表土Surface soil表土截去Truncation冰川沈积Glacial drift冰积土Glacial soil冰沼土Tundra soil薄片状构造Laminar structure卜来水化云母Bravaisite不饱和水流Unsaturated flow不坚结Unconsolidated不自由水Unfree water不足供应Poverty adjustment残积土Residual soil槽式培段Channel-type terrace 草地Grass land草皮Sod草滩腐植土Marsh soil草原黑土Black prairie soil草原土Prairie soit颤动容积Oscilation volume超施石灰Overlim ing超效水Superavailable water超粘粒Ultra clay成熟剖面Mature profile成土母质Parent material成土因子Soil former成土作用Soil forming process 赤道聚钙土Equatorial pedoca] 冲积层Alluvium冲积扇Alluvial fan冲积土Alluvial soil冲蚀Erosion冲蚀比Erosion ratio冲蚀防治Erosion control冲蚀性Erosiveness冲刷Scouring虫泄Worm excretion虫穴Mole burrow出水口Outlet初步沟蚀Incipient gullying (即Finger gullying)锄力作用Dynamic process处女土Virgin soil穿透度Penetrability穿透计Penetr0meter垂距Vertical interval垂流涵洞坝Drop inlet dam次边际地Submarginal land次量要素Secondary product of weathering次生矿物Secondary mineral次生土Sedentary soil次生土Heterochronogenous soils次生土粒Secondary soils (同Heterochronogenous soils) 次生盐土Secondary soil particle次生砖红壤Secondary laterite粗糙系数Coefficient of roughness粗骨土Skelctal soil粗管状Tubular (指Pore space)粗砂壤土Coarse sand loam粗团率State of aggregation脆性Brittle (指Consistence)代换性盐基Replaceable bases单杆式霸Pole type brucn dam单粒构造Single grain structure单粒构造Primary particle structure单值测定Single value determination淡Weal (指Soil colour)淡栗钙土Light chestnut coloured soil氮肥Ammoniate氮化细菌Ammonifving bacteria氮化作用Ammonification氮素循环Nitrogen cycle弹性Elastic (指Consistence)弹性梳物养分Elastic plant nutrient当量碱度Equivalent basicity当量酸度Equivalent acidity稻田阶段Paddy terrace等电点Isoelectric point等电点Amphoteric point (同Isoeiectric point) 等电沈液Isoelectric precipitate等腐植质带Isohumus belt等高川作Contour listihg等高耕作Contour Planting (farming)等高间栽Contour strip cropping等高线Contour等高作沟Contour ridging (同Contour furrowing) 等高作沟Contour furrowing等力Isodynes等斜阶段Uniform terrace低腐植潜水灰壤Low humic glei soil狄屯高岭石Dickite底堆石Ground moraine底土Subsoil地臂冲蚀Geological erosion地景Land scape地力衰竭Soil exhaustion地势Relief地下灌溉Sub-irregation地下水Ground water地下水位Ground water table地形Topograph电导测定法Electro-conductivity method电解质Electrolyte电渗Electrophoresis (同Cataphoresis) 电渗Caraphoresis 电透析Electrodyalysis电子显微法Electromicroscopy凋萎点Wilting point凋萎系数Wilting co-efficient跌水冲蚀Waterfall erosion碟状构造Platy structure定位Orientation定位吸着Oriented adsorption定域土，顾域土Zonal soil冻胀计Dilatometer动物穴Animal furrow豆科桢物Leguminous plant犊聚作用Accumulation短行Short row (同Point row)短行Point row断键水Broken bond water对称浓度Symmetry concentration对称值Symmetry value多孔状Porous (指Pore space)多铝蒙特石Bidellite多镁蒙特石，皂石Saponite多水高岭石Hailoysite多铁蒙特石，绿高岭石，硅铁石Nontronire多硅高岭石Anauxite遏渡域Transitional zone二层法(机械分析）Two layer method (mechanical analysis) 二电性Amphoteric character二甲苯当量Xylene equivalent二可性细菌Faeultntive bacteria二性胶体Ampholytoid矾斑Alum spot反附着作用Negative adsorption反吸收柞用Negative absorption泛域土Azonal soil方块构造Cubic like structure防风草带Shelter belt防风间栽Wind strip cropping防风林Wind break放牧地Grazing land放射菌Actinomycetes放射性迹示法Radioactivity tracer technique非共生好氧性固氮菌Azotobacter非共生嫌氧性固氮菌Closteridimn pasterianum 非交接性阴离子Non-exchangeable cation非气候性成土作用Aclimatic soil formation非石灰性土Non calcarious soil非微管孔度Non-capillary porosity非正常冲蚀Abnormal erosion (同Soil erosion) 非正常剖面Abnormal profile沸池石复合体Zeolitic complex沸泡石Zeolite沸泡状构造Vesicular structure分解变质Katamorphism分区轮牧法Rotational grazing分散Dispersion分散比Dispersion ratio分散剂Dispersing agent分散媒Dispersion medium分散体Dispersoid分散系Disperse system分散相Dispersed phase分水渠Diversion channel分水线Divide玢粒，粉砂Silt玢质粘壤土，粉砂粘壤土Silty clay loam粉红Pink (指Soil colour)粉质壤土，粉砂壤土Silty loam粉状构造Pulverulent stucture风成凸起Knob风化次生物Secondary saline soil风化度Degree of weathering风化作用Weathering风积土Regosol风积土Aeolian soil风蚀Wiod erosion风蚀沟Wind gully风刷池Blown out land蜂巢状构造Honey comb structure (即Cellula structure)夫来潜水灰壤Vlei soil浮秤法(机械分析) Hydrometer metnod (mechanical analysis) 复钙作用Recalcification腐枚质Humus腐泥土Muck腐生Saprophytic腐石Rigolith腐械质沸池石馥合体Humus zeolite complex 腐铀銴g Humus soil腐栈质聚硅土Humic siallite腐镇质硬盘Humus ortstien腐植化有机物Humified organic matter腐植化作用Humification腐植素Humin腐植酸Humic acid腐植质灰壤Humus podzol腐植质潜水灰壤Humic glei soil附着力Adsorbility附着作用Adsorption副样本Subsample"覆盖?" Mulch钙成土Calcimorphic (Calomorphic) soil钙化作用Calcification钙积层Caliche (同Bca horizon)钙积层Bca horizon钙粘土，钙粘粒Calc. ium clay钙质土Calcium soil"盖?" Ginger nut"盖洛?" Gedroizite竿底层Plow sole高岭石Kaolinite高岭石类Kaolinites高岭土Kaolin高岭土化作用Kaoiinization高山腐植土Alpine humus soil高山黑钙土Mountain chernozem高山灰化土Mountain podzolized soil" 高山栗钙土Mountain chestnut soil高山泥炭土Mountain peat高山土Alpine soil高山涯草原土Alpine meadow soil格形矿物Lattice minerals根孔Root hole根瘤Root nodule根瘤菌Nodule bacteria根瘤菌Bacterium radicicola根瘤细菌Rhizobium根溶性Root soluble根系Root system根域Root Zone耕作Tillage耕作层Plowing layer耕作性Tilth共生Symbiosis沟坚冲蚀Gully erosion沟蚀Gullying构造单位Structure unit构造剖面Structural profile构造形成力Structural capacity古土Fossil soil古土壤Relict soil古土壤Paleosol (同Relict soil)古土壤学Paleopedology谷A泥炭土Niederungsmoor ( 同Fen peat)谷A泥炭土Flachmoor (同Fenpeat)固氮菌Nitrogen fixing bacteria固氮菌土盘法Azotobacter soilplaque technique 固氮作用Nitrngen fixation固性Firm(指onsistence)关键墙段Key terrace灌溉Irrigation灌林灰壤Heath podzol灌林泥炭土Heath peat光能硝化作用Photonitrification广域Macrozone广域地势Macrorelief龟土Adobe soil国际土质分级International texture grades 过度放牧Over grazing过度武土Transitional soil过分消耗Luxury consumption海积土Marine soil海绵状Spongeous (指Pore space)海滩沈积Beach deposit海洋沈积Marine deposit旱境土Arid soil旱农制Dry farming好热性细菌Thermophile bacteria好氧性细菌Aerobic bacterial耗土作物Soil depleting crop合成变质Anamorphism河岸冲饪Stream bank erosion河成土Fluvial soil河床冲积土River wash核状构造Nutty sturcture核状沈积Concretionary deposit黑钙土Chernozem (Tschernozem)黑钙土Black earth ( 同Chernozem)黑棉土Regur黑棉土Black cotton soil黑泥炭土Black turf soil黑色石灰岩土Rendzina黑微法Aspergillus niger method横插式阻刷坝Crosswise brush type dam 横带间裁Strip cropping横渠Transverse channel洪积层Deluvium红漠钙土Red desert soil红壤Red loam红壤Lateritic soil红壤化作用Laterization红色草原土Red prairie soil红色栗钙土Reddish chestnut earth红色石灰岩土Terra rossa红棕钙土Reddish brown soil红棕色红壤Reddish brown leteritic soil 后硅作用Resilisification湖成泥炭土Lacustrine peat湖成沈积Lacustrine deposit湖成砖红壤Lake latefite湖积土Lacustrine soil互接种族Cross inoculation group互沈激理论Mutual precipitation theory 护膜胶体Dopplerite 滑Slick (指Consistence)滑崩Slumping (同Slip)滑崩Slip滑崩冲蚀Slip erosion化学性风化作用Chemical weathering 化学性剖面Chemical profile化育性土类Genetic soil type化育因子Genetic factor还积土Transported soil还原作用Regradation缓动草带Buffer strip缓动能量Buffer capacity缓动曲线Buffer curve缓动作用Buffer action黄壤Yellow earth黄色准灰壤Yellow podzolic soil黄土Loess黄棕色红壤Yellowish brown lateritic soil灰分Ash灰钙土Sierozem灰钙土Grey soil (同Sierozem)灰钙土Gray earth灰化层PodzOlized horizon灰化红黄壤，红黄准灰壤Reddish yellow podzolic soil 灰化土壤Podzolized soil灰化作用Podzolization灰黄色Grayish yellow灰壤Podzol灰色Gray灰色森林土Gray forest soil灰色准灰壤Gray podzolic (wooded) soil灰棕准灰壤，灰棕壤Gray brown podzolic soil混凝土节制坝Concret dam活性酸度Acidity，active火山土Volcanic soil基层Substratum机械分部Mechanical separate机械分析Mechanical analysis机械洗出作用Mechanical eluviation机械组成Mechanical composition积水Water logging极细砂Very fine sand集流时间Time of concentration集水面积Drainage area寄生Parasitic加速冲蚀Accelerated erosion (同Soil erosion)钾钠风化比Shifting value假比重Apparent specific gravity假比重Apparent density (lg] Apparent specifi gravity) 假粒团False aggregate坚结Indurated (指Consistence)坚结物质Consolidated material监生植物Halophytic vegetation监育土Halogenic (Halomorphic) soil剪断力Shear碱班Alkali spot。
第二章粉末压制成形原理
变形包括粉末颗粒的变形，还包括颗粒之间孔隙形态的改 变，即颗粒发生位移。
！粉末体的变形是广义变形：颗粒位移 + 颗粒变形
School of Materials Science and Engineering
3. 致密材料变形时，各微观区域的变形规律与宏观变 形规律基本一致，粉末体变形时，各颗粒的变形基 本独立，不同颗粒变形程度可能存在较大差异。
模压成形 是将金属粉末或粉末混合料装入 钢制压模（阴模）中，通过模冲对粉末加压，卸 压后，压坯从阴模内脱出，完成成形过程。
▪ Loose powder is compacted and densified into a shape, known as green compact
▪ Most compacting is done with mechanical presses and rigid tools ▪ Hydraulic and pneumatic presses are also used
间歇成形、粉末连续成形
☻ 按成形料的干湿程度：
干粉压制、可塑成形、浆料成形
School of Materials Science and Engineering
➢ 模压成形是最重要、应用最广的成形方法！ ➢ 本章有关成形原理的讨论以模压成形为基础！
上模冲 粉末
阴模
下模冲
成形压模的基本结构
School of Materials Science and Engineering
石膏模
热成形及高能率成形—— 成形烧结同时进行
特殊成形
School of Materials Science and Engineering
土壤质量与土壤质量指标及其评价
第26卷第3期2006年3月生 态 学 报AC TA ECOLOGIC A SI NICA Vol.26,No.3Mar.,2006土壤质量与土壤质量指标及其评价刘占锋,傅伯杰*,刘国华,朱永官(中国科学院生态环境研究中心系统生态重点实验室,北京 100085)基金项目:国家自然科学基金创新研究群体科学基金资助项目(40321101)收稿日期:2005-04-08;修订日期:2005-10-24作者简介:刘占锋(1978~),男,河北邯郸人,博士生,主要从事景观生态学和土壤质量评价研究.E -mail:liuz hanfeng_2008@*通讯作者Author for correspondence.E -mail:bfu@ Foundation item :The project was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China(No.40321101)Received date :2005-04-08;Accepted date :2005-10-24B iography :LIU Zhan -Feng,Ph.D.candidate,mainly engaged in landscape ecology and s oil quality assess ment.E -mail:li uzhanfeng_2008@摘要:土壤作为一种重要的自然资源可以为人类生产食物和纤维,并维持地球生态系统。
土壤也是植物生长的媒介、水、热和化合物的源、水分的过滤器和废物分解的生物介质。
土壤与水、气和植物互作并抑制环境的波动。
土壤可以调节很多控制水气质量和促进植物生长的生态过程。
土壤质量概念的引入使我们更全面地理解土壤,也有助于合理地使用和分配劳力、能源、财政和其它投入。
土壤质量也提供了一个通用的概念使得专业人员、生产者和公众明白土壤的重要性。
soil fertilization托福阅读解析
Soil FertilizationSoil fertilization is a crucial practice in agriculture aimed at improving soil fertility and maximizing crop yields. It involves the addition of nutrients to the soil to compensate for any deficiencies, thereby ensuring optimal plant growth and productivity. This article will explore the importance of soil fertilization, different types of fertilizers, and some modern fertilizer application techniques.Importance of Soil FertilizationFertilizers play a vital role in maintaining soil health and fertility. The nutrients present in fertilizers promote plant growth, enhance root development, and improve resistance to diseases and pests. Additionally, they aid in the efficient use of water by plants, contributing to better irrigation practices. By replenishing the soil with essential nutrients, farmers can cultivate healthy and robust crops, ultimately increasing agricultural productivity.Types of FertilizersThere are two primary types of fertilizers: organic and inorganic.anic Fertilizers: Organic fertilizers are derived from naturalsources such as plant and animal materials. Common organic fertilizers include compost, manure, bone meal, and green manure. These fertilizers releasenutrients gradually, providing the soil with organic matter and improving its structure. Organic fertilizers are environmentally friendly, as they do notcontain harsh chemicals that could harm the ecosystem.2.Inorganic Fertilizers: Inorganic, or synthetic, fertilizers aremanufactured through chemical processes. They are typically composed ofconcentrated nutrients and are available in various forms, including liquid,granules, and powders. Inorganic fertilizers provide an immediate andconcentrated supply of nutrients to plants. However, excessive and improper use of these fertilizers can result in nutrient imbalances and environmentalpollution.Modern Fertilizer Application TechniquesTo achieve efficient nutrient distribution and minimize environmental impact, modern farming practices have introduced innovative fertilizer application techniques. Some notable techniques include:1.Precision Farming: Precision farming utilizes technologies such asGeographic Information Systems (GIS), global positioning systems (GPS), and remote sensing to optimize fertilizer application. By accurately mapping field variations, farmers can apply fertilizers at precise locations and rates, ensuring maximum nutrient uptake by plants and minimizing waste.2.Controlled-Release Fertilizers: Controlled-release fertilizers (CRFs)are designed to release nutrients slowly over an extended period. Thesefertilizers are encapsulated or coated, allowing for a gradual nutrient release and reducing the risk of leaching. CRFs are beneficial in situations whereregular fertilizer applications are challenging.3.Foliar Feeding: Foliar feeding involves spraying liquid fertilizersdirectly onto the leaves of plants. This technique allows for rapid nutrientabsorption and can be a useful method to supply nutrients during critical plant growth stages or in nutrient-deficient soils. However, foliar feeding should be used as a supplemental practice rather than a replacement for soil fertilization.ConclusionSoil fertilization is vital for maintaining soil fertility and achieving optimum crop production. Organic and inorganic fertilizers provide essential nutrients to plants, promoting growth, health, and resistance to stress. By adopting modern fertilizer application techniques such as precision farming, controlled-release fertilizers, and foliar feeding, farmers can enhance nutrient distribution, improve environmental sustainability, and maximize the efficiency of fertilizer utilization. Ultimately, proper soil fertilization practices contribute to global food security and sustainable agricultural systems.。
词汇学1-3
1、选择题 10题 20% 前三章概念2、填空题 5题 15% 前三章3、搭配题 10% 前四章4、名词解释题 5题 10% 如 loan words prefix5、简答题课后问题How why what 15%6、分析题提供一个单词对此词做出分析15%评论题用例子评论观点是否正确 15%题型例如一、选择题：1. The following are all nominal suffixes EXCEPT( ) . A. –fulEnglish and ( ) belong to the Germantic branch of the Indo-European language family. B. Danishadded to the end of words to indicate Grammatik relationships are known as ( )morphemes. C. inflectionalattached to other morphemes to create new words are known as ( ) affixes. B .derivational二、.Complete the following statements with proper words or expressions 填空题1. affixation Is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to bases .2. Almost all affixes are bound morphemes because few as independent words.三、配对四、Define the following terms. 名词解释题五、Answer the following questions，简答题Why should students of English lexicology study the Indo-European Language FamilyThe Indo-European Language Family is one of the most important language families in the world.It is made up of most of the languages of Europe, the Near East and India. English belongs to this family and the other members of the Indo-European Language Family have differentdegrees of influence on English vocabulary. A knowledge of the Indo-European Language Family will help us understand English words better and use them more appropriately.六、1. Analyze the morphological structures of the following words and point out the types of the morphemes.1Destructive de+struct+tive 2antibiotic anti+bio+tic3composition com+po+si+tion 4unbearable un+bear+able5international inter+nation+nal 6ex-prisoner ex+prison+er2. The word “deer” originally meant “animal”, but now it refers to a specific animal. What kind of word-meaning change has the word experiencedWhat accounts for the change of word-meaning1) The word “deer” has experienced narrowing or specialization of meaning.2) The narrowing of word-meaning is caused by the influx of borrowings, one of the major linguistic factors leading to the change of word-meaning. The word “deer” originally meant “animal”, and later the word “animal” from Latin and the word “beast” from French found their way into English. As the three terms were synonymous, “animal” retai ned the original meaning, the meaning of “deer” was narrowed and “beast” changed in colour.Chapter 1: a word may be defined as a fundamental unit of speech and minimum free form; with a unity of sound and meaning (both lexical and grammatical meaning), capable of performing a given syntactic function.A word is(1)a minimal free form of a language;(2)a sound unity;(3)a unity of meaning;(4)a form that can function alone in a sentence.A word is a minimal free form that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic functionA word is a smallest unit of a language.is the language of a highly colloquial type, considered as below the level of standard educated speech, and consisting either of new words or of current words used in some social sense.are the terms peculiar to a class, sect, trade or profession.means the vocabulary peculiar to the underworld.5.Classification of English Words According to Different CriteriaBy origin：native words ，borrowed wordsBy usage：common words，literary words，colloquial words，slang words，technical words By notion：function words，content wordsnative words features:1. All-national character Every English person uses the words of the native element.2. Great stability The native element lives for centuries providing the English with a basisfor theformation of new words.3. Monosyllabic The native element in Modem English is mostly monosyllabic.4. Word-forming ability The great stability and semantic peculiarities of Anglo-Saxon wordsaccount for the great word building power.5. Wide collocability Many native words enter quite a number of set expressions, idioms, phrasesand proverbial sayings.6. Plurality of meanings Most of the native words have undergone striking transformations insemantic structure, and are nowadays highly polysemantic7. High frequency value The native element (words of Anglo-Saxon origin) forms the bulk ofthe most frequent elements used in any style of speech8. Stylistically neutral Most native words are stylistically neutral.Classification of the borrowed words:Aliens: are words borrowed from a foreign language without any change of the foreign sound and spelling. From French: elite, coupéDenizens: are foreign words which have been conformed to native English in accent, spelling and even in adoption of an English affix, or words made up of two parts both fromforeign soil.get (a Scandinavian borrowing)theater (a French loan) sociology (socio- from French and -logy from Greek)Translation-Loans: are words and expressions formed from the material already existing in English, but according to patterns taken from another language, by way ofliteral morpheme-for-morpheme translation. black humour (from Frenchhumor noir)found object (from French object trouve)Semantic Loan words: are words of a new meaning due to the influence of a related word inanother language, or words which acquired new meanings under theinfluence of language or languages other than the source tongue.(gift meant “the price of a wife” in Old English and after the semanticborrowing of the meaning of gift or present of the Scandinavian termgipt, it meant and still means “gift” in the modern sense of it. )Classification of English Words by usageCommon words are connected with the ordinary things or activities necessary to everyday life. Literary words are chiefly used in writing, especially in books written in a more elevated style, in official documents, or in formal speeches. They are comparatively seldom used in ordinary conversation. In English, most of the literary words are of French, Latin or Greek origin. For example,cast (throw), edifice(building), endeavor(try), purchase(buy), etc. More examples: recognition, distinction, inclination, dubious, amelioration…colloquial words or expressions are used mainly in spoken English, as in conversation among friends and colleagues. They can also be use in informal writings, but are inappropriate in formal speeches or writings. They are marked colloq. or informal in dictionaries. Such as: kid, guy, fellow, gay…区别literary word and colloquial word and common worda.Feeling fatigued, Tom retired early. (literary)b.Tom felt so dog-tired he hit the sack early. (colloquial)c.John was dismissed for petty thieving. (common)d.John was fired for petty thieving. (colloquial)a.Penalties for overdue books will be strictly enforced. (literary)b.You have got to pay fines for overdue books. (colloquial)c.They approved of the plan. (literary)d.They agreed to the plan.(common)Slang word is defined as language, words or phrases of a colorful, humorous, or taboo nature, invented for specific occasions, or uses, or derived from the unconventional use of the standard vocabulary. The chief reason for the formation and use of slang expressions is to secure freshness and novelty.Technical words refer to those words used in particular disciplines and academic areas. = terminologies or technical terms. symphony, sonata, orchestra, concerto，audiovisual, microteaching，algebra, geometry, calculus，clone, embryo, cell , organism, DNA(deoxyribonucleicacid), geneFunction words(or grammatical words or autosemantic words) are words that have little lexicalmeaning or have ambiguous meaning, but instead serve to express grammatical relationships withother words within a sentence, or specify the attitude or mood of the speaker. Function wordsmight be prepositions, pronouns, auxiliary verbs, conjunctions, grammatical articles or particles,all of which belong to the group of closed-class words.Content words: Words that are not function words are called content words (or open class wordsor lexical words). Include nouns, verbs, adjectives, and most adverbs, although someadverbs are function words ., then and why).a. sub-standard words often used on informal occasions ( slang )b. specialized vocabulary common in certain professions ( jargon )c. words used by sup-cultural groups especiallyby underground society (argot )d. words that have rich notions ( content words )e. words of Anglo-Saxon origin( native words )f. words borrowed by way of translation ( translation loans )g. old words with new meanings( neologisms )h. foreign words which have become assimilated ( denizens )i. words whose meanings are borrowed (semantic loans)j. words essential to native speakers daily communication(dialectal words 本地语)配对 tart: loose woman bloke: fellow gat: pistol swell: great chicken: coward blue: fight smoky: police full: drunk dame: woman beaver: girlChapter 2Modern English Words : Borrowing& NeologismBorrowing: From French: attach, caféFrom Italian: concert, duet, piano, soprano, solo, tenor, model, bust, studio, dome,balcony, in the fields of music, art, architectureFrom Spanish: armada, cargo, vanilla, cocoa, cigarFrom Portuguese: caste, pagodaFrom German: bismuth, cobalt, nickel, zincFrom Dutch: dock, freight, keelFrom Russian: vodka, troika, ruble, tsarFrom Australian: boomerang, kangaroo, dingoFrom Arabic: sugar, sultan,alcoholFrom Indian: coolie, cashmere, khakiFrom Chinese: tea, typhoon, yamenFrom Japanese: kimono, tycoonFrom African: gorilla, zebraNeologisms are newly coined words or words that are given new meaning to fit new situation because of social, economic, political, cultural, scientific and technological changes in human society. Neologisms: moonfall登月, space suit太空服, black hole黑洞, environmentalist环保人士, software软件 visual pollution视觉污染, data base 数据库 green revolution 绿色革命 clone 克隆nanotechnology纳米技术 income gap收入差距 Euro欧元 Watergate水门事件netspeak 网络词汇 distance education 远程教育 TV dinner 电视便餐/速冻食品feminism 女权主义 teach-in 讨论会/时事宣讲会, hippies嬉皮士 soul music 黑人音乐the lost generation迷惘的一代 talk shows 脱口秀 Karaoke (Japanese),black humor (French), paper tiger, Red Guards, Kungfu, tofu, wok, typhoon (Chinese). chapter 3One morpheme: nationTwo morphemes: nation-alThree morphemes: nation-al-izeFour morphemes: de-nation-al-izedecentralization de-, center, -al, -ize, -ationspecialize species, -al, -izeindividualistic in-, divide, -al, -ist, -ichalf-hearted half, heart, -edundeveloped -un, develop, -edsupernatural -super, nature, -alinequality -in, equal, -ityIn word-formation, morphemes are labeled root, stem, base and affix.root 词根：所有曲折词缀和派生词缀被去掉后所剩余的部分 stem 词干：所有的曲折词缀被去掉后所剩余的部分morphemebase 词基：任何一种词缀都可加在上面的形式inflectional affix 曲折词缀affix 词缀derivational affix 派生词缀词根与词基的区别：词基可派生词缀，词根不可以进一步分析词基可加派生词缀与曲折词缀，词根只可加曲折词缀是词根（不可再分解）desire(v.) 是词干（可以加曲折词缀，如过去时ed）是词基是词基（可加词缀，又能再分解，able是派生后缀）desirable(adj.) 不是词根（它可再分解）不是词干（不可加曲折词缀）不是词根（可再分解—）undesirable (n.) 是词干，可加曲折词缀，如-s,是词基Morpheme is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms.Root is the basic unchangeable part of a word, and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word.. work, workable, worker, worked,workingFree roots（free morphemes）自由词素，可以独立成词are forms that can stand alone as words such as boy, moon, walk, black.Bound root(bond morpheme) ：粘着词素，即必须依附于另一个词素For example. -tain ，contain，detain ，sustain ，retain Affixes词缀are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. Inflectional affixes曲折词素，放在单词后一般表示语法行为attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional, thus known asinflectional morphemes. cats, walked, walking , John’s bookDerivational affixes派生词素，形成新词并可能改变词性are added to other morphemes to createnew words. They can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes.Prefix 前缀are affixes that come before the word， such as pre+war， sub+seaSuffix后缀 : Affix comes after the word.Allomorph : 词素变体An allomorph is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds. . the morpheme of plurality {-s}: /s/ after thesounds /t, p, k//z/ after /d, b, g, l/; /iz/ after /s, z, …/A prefix like im- occurs before p, b, or m (imperfect, imbalance, immobile). Itsallomorphs areir-before r (irregular, irresponsible);il- before l(illogical,illegal);in- before all other consonants and vowels (inflexible, incomplete).Native affixes are those that existed in the OE period or were formed from OE words, such as un-, mis-, be-, out-, over-, -ness, -dom, -hood, -ly, –er. undemocratic ,Foreign affixes came as a part of loan words from Latin, Greek, French, or other languages. Examples: ab-(L), bi-(L), dis-(L), re-(L), kilo-(Gk), poly-(Gk), mal-(F), -ic(Gk), -ism(Gk),-ist(Gk), -able (F), -ize(F).1) a minimum meaningful unit of a language (morpheme)2) one of the variants that realize a morpheme (allomorph)3) a morpheme that occurs with at least one other morpheme(bound morpheme)4) a morpheme that can stand alone (free morpheme )5) a morpheme attached to a stem or a root (affix )6) an affix that indicates grammatical relationships ( informational affix)7) an affix that forms new words with a base,stem or a root (derivational affix )8) what remains of a word after the removal of all affixes (root )9) a form to which affixes of any kind can be added ( b ase)10)that part of a word that can take inflectional affixes（stem）chapter4negative prefixes ：apolitical，destabilize，declassify，disenfranchise ，disinvest，illegal，irresponsible，imperceptible，non-economic ，non-party，unacceptable，non-negative prefixes ： hyperlink，hypertext，overestimate ，overcompensate，semi-annual，supermarket，superintendant，ultra-secret，ultra-conservative，embark ，enclose，external，ex-wife ，inter-American ，inter-government，postgraduate，preliminary，autonomy，miscalculation1. Noun-forming suffixes-age: passage, marriage, mileage -dom: freedom, kingdom-ance/-ence: assistance, predominance, correspondence-ee: employee, referee, absentee -eer/er: engineer, profiteer, manager-ess: manageress, heiress -ist: economist-hood: adulthood, singlehood -ing: building, meaning, packing-ion/-sion/-tion/-ition/-ation: production, conclusion, realization-ism: consumerism, perfectionism -ment: agreement, investment-ness: effectiveness, kindness -ship: ownership, friendship-ty/-ity: productivity, prosperity -ure/-ture: procedure, expenditure2. Adjective-forming suffixes-able/-ible: manageable, permissible -al/-tal/-ial/-tial: economical, statistical -ant/-ent: redundant, dependent -ary: monetary, inflationary-ate/-ete: accurate, complete -ful: dutiful, powerful-ish: snobbish, reddish, bookish -ive: effective, extensive-less: effortless, powerless -like: businesslike, lifelike-ly: costly, orderly -ous/-ious: ambiguous, nutritious-some: troublesome, worrisome -y: sexy, worthy, daddy3. Verb-forming suffixes-en: brighten, moisten -ify/-fy: intensify, qualify, liquefy, glorify -ize/-ise: rationalize, advertise, stabilize*‘ize’ is often used in American English . maximize) as an alternative spelling of ‘ise’ in British English . maximise).4. Adverb forming suffixes-ly: frequently, perfectly -ward/-wards: windward, backward, homewards -wise: vote-wise, percentage-wise, housingwise*Words formed with ‘ward’ can usually be used as either adverbs or adjectives. Words formed with ‘wards’ are mainly used as adverbs . westward, westwards).Modern suffixes:1. mega- (very large) : negacity megadestruction megagame megastructure megarichmegaversity(automatic/computerized): cyberculture cyberbrain cyberart cyber-securitycyber-space cyber-privacy(super/too much): hypermedia hyperlinks hyperfriction hyperslow hyberverbal4. info- (information): infotech infocenter infotainment infomercial5. nano- (one billionth): nanotech nanofabrication nanocomputer(technology): technomania technophobia techno-centric7. tele- (long-distance transfer/television): telead telrbanking telebus telecentertele-education8. e- (electronic) : e-mail e-text e-zine e-cash9. -bot (robot): knowbot mobot microbot10. -size (measurements) : downsize upsize rightsize life-size11. -ware (articles of the same kind): glassware soft/hardware middleware silverwarewarehouse(of the center/taking…as the center): user-centric male-centric net-centric warIBM compatible-centricchapter1 简答题1. What is a word2. What is the relationship between words and vocabulary3. What are the characteristics of the basic vocabulary4. What is the fundamental difference between content words and functional words5. How do you account for the role of native words in English in relation to loan wordschapter2 简答题1. Why should students of English lexicology study the Indo-EuropeanLanguage FamilyThe Indo-European Language Family is one of the most important language families in the world. It is made up of most of the languages of Europe, the Near East and India. English belongs to this family and the other members of the Indo-European Language Family havedifferent degrees of influence on English vocabulary. A knowledge of the Indo-European Language Family will help us understand English words better and use them more appropriately.2. What are the fundamental differences between the vocabularies of the threeperiods of developmentDo you think we can divide the historical development in other waysDefend your argument.The vocabularies of the three periods differ greatly from one another.Old English has (1) a small vocabulary (50,000—60,000), (2) a small number of borrowings from Latin and Scandinavian only and (3) the words full of endings.Middle English has (1) a comparatively large vocabulary, (2) a tremendous number of foreign words from French and Latin and (3) word endings leveled.Modern English has (1) a huge and heterogeneous vocabulary, (2) tremendous borrowings and(3) words with lost endings.Yes, we can divide the development in other ways, for example, Old English period can be called Anglo-Saxon period. And Middle English might start from 1066 the time of Norman Conquest. But in doing so, the logical continuation of the three phases of the original division is lost.3. What characteristics of English make the English language heterogeneousIt is receptivity and adaptability of the English language that make it possible for English to borrow heavily from other major languages of the world, so that the English vocabulary eventually has become heterogeneous.chapter3简答题is the difference between morph形素, morpheme词素, allomorphs词素变体Morph: A morpheme must be realized by discrete units. These actual spoken minimal carriers of meaning are morphs.Morpheme :A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of a language. （The smallest functional unit in the composition of words.）An allomorph is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds. . the morpheme of plurality {-s}:are the ways of creating new morphemesis the difference between grammatical and lexical morphemes, and inflectional and derivational morphemes Give examples to illustrate their relationships.Inflectional morphemes are the suffixes added to the end of words to denote grammatical concepts such as -s(-es), -ed, -ing and -est(to show superlative degree of adjectives and adverbs) whereas derivational morphemes are prefixes and suffixes added to words to form new words such as pre-, dis-, un-, -tion, -er, -ness and so on.Grammatical morphemes are those used to show grammatical concepts, including reflectional suffixes as mentioned above and functional words (prepositions, pronouns, articles, auxiliary verbs), for example, but, the, do and was; lexical morphemes are derivational affixes including both prefixes and suffixes.。
种树的过程英语作文初二
种树的过程英语作文初二英文回答：Planting a tree is a rewarding endeavor that not only beautifies the surrounding environment but also provides numerous benefits to the ecosystem. The process of planting a tree involves several essential steps to ensure its proper growth and survival.1. Site Selection:The first step is to choose an appropriate planting site. Consider factors such as sunlight availability, soil conditions, drainage, and potential obstacles like overhead wires or underground utilities.2. Soil Preparation:Before planting, it's crucial to prepare the soil by loosening it and removing any debris or weeds. Amend thesoil with organic matter, such as compost or peat moss, to improve its fertility and drainage.3. Tree Selection:Choose a tree species that is well-suited to the climate and soil conditions of your area. Consider the size, shape, and growth rate of the tree, as well as itspotential impact on existing structures or landscaping.4. Digging the Hole:Dig a hole that is twice as wide as the root ball of the tree and just as deep. Ensure the sides of the hole are straight and not tapered.5. Root Ball Preparation:If the tree came with a burlap-wrapped root ball, carefully remove the burlap or wire basket to expose the roots. Spread out any circling roots to prevent them from restricting growth.6. Planting the Tree:Gently place the tree in the hole, spreading out the roots and ensuring the root flare (where the roots meet the trunk) is even with the soil level. Backfill the hole with the prepared soil and tamp it down gently to remove any air pockets.7. Staking and Mulching:Stake the tree if necessary, using soft ties that will not damage the bark. Add mulch around the base of the tree to conserve moisture, suppress weeds, and regulatesoil temperature.8. Watering:Water the tree deeply after planting and regularly thereafter, especially during the first growing season.中文回答：种树是一个有益的过程，它不仅美化了周围的环境，还为生态系统带来了许多好处。
chapter 2 soil and soil tillage
__________________________________________________________________ College of animal science, Northwest Agriculture & Forestry UniversityCopyright reseved by Long MingxiuForages: An Introduction to Grassland AgricultureChapter 2 Soil and Soil TillageInstructor:Long Mingxiu__________________________________________________________________ College of animal science, Northwest Agriculture & Forestry UniversityCopyright reseved by Long Mingxiu On completion this chapter you should learn:1. Concepts:soil, soil fertility, soil texture, soil structure, soil tillage, mixed cropping, interplanting, multiple cropping2. Soil type and the characters of soil textureand tillage measure.3.What kind of soil structure is the most idealin agriculture? why?Overview of Chapter 2__________________________________________________________________ College of animal science, Northwest Agriculture & Forestry UniversityCopyright reseved by Long Mingxiu__________________________________________________________________ College of animal science, Northwest Agriculture & Forestry UniversityCopyright reseved by Long Mingxiu__________________________________________________________________ College of animal science, Northwest Agriculture & Forestry UniversityCopyright reseved by Long Mingxiu__________________________________________________________________ College of animal science, Northwest Agriculture & Forestry UniversityCopyright reseved by Long Mingxiu__________________________________________________________________ College of animal science, Northwest Agriculture & Forestry UniversityCopyright reseved by Long Mingxiu__________________________________________________________________ College of animal science, Northwest Agriculture & Forestry UniversityCopyright reseved by Long Mingxiu__________________________________________________________________ College of animal science, Northwest Agriculture & Forestry UniversityCopyright reseved by Long MingxiuSoil texture 土壤质地 • Soil texture is a soil property used to describe the relative proportion of different grain sizes of mineral particles in a soil.__________________________________________________________________ College of animal science, Northwest Agriculture & Forestry UniversityCopyright reseved by Long Mingxiu • Particles are grouped according to their size into what are called soil separates. These separates are typically named clay, silt, and sand . Soil texture classification is based on the fractions of soil separates present in a soil.Chapter 2 soil and soil tillage Soil texture In the United States, twelve soiltexture classifications are definedby the USDA:Clay 粘土Silt 粉砂土Sand 砂土Loam 壤土Silty clay 粉砂质粘土Sandy clay 砂质粘土Clay loam 粘壤土Silt loam 粉砂壤土Sandy Loam 砂壤土Loamy sand 壤质砂土Silty clay loam 粉砂粘壤土Sandy clay loam砂质粘壤土__________________________________________________________________ College of animal science, Northwest Agriculture & Forestry UniversityCopyright reseved by Long Mingxiu The soiltexturetriangle isa diagramoften usedto figureout soiltextures.__________________________________________________________________ College of animal science, Northwest Agriculture & Forestry UniversityCopyright reseved by Long Mingxiu__________________________________________________________________ College of animal science, Northwest Agriculture & Forestry UniversityCopyright reseved by Long Mingxiu__________________________________________________________________ College of animal science, Northwest Agriculture & Forestry UniversityCopyright reseved by Long Mingxiu__________________________________________________________________ College of animal science, Northwest Agriculture & Forestry UniversityCopyright reseved by Long Mingxiu__________________________________________________________________ College of animal science, Northwest Agriculture & Forestry UniversityCopyright reseved by Long Mingxiu__________________________________________________________________College of animal science, Northwest Agriculture & Forestry UniversityCopyright reseved by Long Mingxiu Loose arrangement, don’tstick together, e.g. sand Infiltration rate is slow Lots oforganicmatter,e.g.grasslandsoils Common in arid areas Consequenceof overgrazing__________________________________________________________________ College of animal science, Northwest Agriculture & Forestry UniversityCopyright reseved by Long Mingxiu__________________________________________________________________ College of animal science, Northwest Agriculture & Forestry UniversityCopyright reseved by Long Mingxiu • The ideal soil structuregranular 团粒结构：农业的理想土壤结构。
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A ragon ite-rich soil x 2000
1.土的三相图Three Phase Diagram：
Air Water
Solid
Mineral Skeleton
Idealization: Three Phase Diagram
土的固体颗粒
土的固体颗粒是由大小不等、形状不同的矿物 颗粒或岩石碎屑按照各种不同的排列方式组合 在一起，构成土的骨架。这些固体相的物质称 为"土粒"，是土中最稳定、变化最小的成分。 土中的固体颗粒的大小和形状，矿物成分及其 组成情况是决定土的物理力学性质的重要因素。 土中不同大小颗粒的组合，也就是各种不同粒 径的颗粒在土中的相对含量，称土的颗粒组成； 组成土中各种土粒的矿物种类及其相对含量称 土的矿物组成。土的颗粒组成与矿物组成是决 定土的物理力学性质的物质基础。
2．土的主要成因类型及其基本特征
残积土（Residual soils- to remain at the original place） 是岩石经风化后未被搬运而残留于原地的碎屑堆积物， 它的基本特征是颗粒表面粗糙、多棱角、无分选、无层 理。 – In Fujian Province, the top layer of rock is decomposed into residual soils due to the warm climate and abundant rainfall . – Engineering properties of residual soils are different with those of transported soils. – The knowledge of "classical" geotechnical engineering is mostly based on behavior of transported soils. The understanding of residual soils is insufficient in general.
土中的水
土中水是土的液体相组成部分。水对无粘性土的工程地质性质影 响较小，但粘性土中水是控制其工程地质性质的重要因素，如粘 性土的可塑性、压缩性及其抗剪性等，都直接或间接地与其含水 量有关。粘性土中的水按其赋存状态可分为结合水和自由水。 实验表明，极细的土粒表面一般带有负电荷，围绕土粒形成电场， 由于水分子是极性分子，即一端为正电荷，另一端显负电荷，在 土粒电场范围内的水分子和阳离子一起吸附在土粒表面而定向排 列形成一层薄的水膜，这层水就称为结合水。结合水可分为强结 合水和弱结合水。强结合水是指紧靠土粒表面的结合水，它没有 溶解盐类的能力，不能传递静水压力；弱结合水紧靠于强结合水 的外围形成一层结合水膜。它仍然不能传递静水压力，但水膜较 厚的弱结合水能向邻近较薄的水膜缓慢移动。 显然越靠近土粒的水，被吸引的静电引力就越强，水分子越不容 易自由移动；远离土粒，水分子自由移动的能力越来越强，到只 受重力影响，可自由流动的水称为自由水，自由水传递静水压力。
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Factors affect weathering
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Many factors can affect the weathering process such as climate, topography, features of parent rocks, biological reactions, and others. Climate determines the amount of water and the temperature.
Today topic
土的形成：土的搬运和沉积、风化作用
和土的主要特点； 土的三相组成：土的三相概念，粒径及 粒径级配概念，颗粒粒径分析试验，粒 径级配曲线及其应用，土粒成分，结合 水、毛细水及重力水的概念，
2.1 土的形成
土是岩石在风化作用下形成的形状不同、
大小悬殊的颗粒，经过不同的搬运方式， 在各种自然环境中堆积下来的没有粘结或 弱粘结的沉积物。 在漫长的地质年代中，由于各种内力和外 力地质作用形成了许多类型的岩石和土。 岩石经历风化、剥蚀、搬运、沉积生成土， 而土历经压密团结、胶结硬化也可再生成 岩石。 而现在所见到的土是近期地质历史--第四 纪以来生成的尚未固结的松散物质。
b.基于颗粒大小的广义划分 Broad Classification based on Particle Size
Particle size is used because it is related to mineralogy – e.g. very small particles usually contain clay minerals
2.2.2 土的三相组成 (composition of soils)
土由固体颗粒、水和气体3部分所组成的三相 体系； 固体颗粒组成土的骨架； 骨架间布满相互贯通的孔隙，孔隙内充满水或 气体； 3种组成部分本身的性质以及它们之间的比例 关系和相互作用决定土的物理力学性质。研究 土的性质，必须首先研究土的三相组成。
Rock Cycles
Soils
The final products due to weathering are soils
2.2 土的成因与组成
2.2.1 形成作用与成因类型
在自然界，土的形成过程是十分复杂的，
地壳表层的岩石在阳光、大气、水和生 物等因素影响下发生风化作用，使岩石 崩解、破碎，经流水、风、冰川等动力 搬运作用，在各种自然环境下沉积，形 成土体，因此通常说土是岩石风化的产 物。 风化过程包括物理风化和化学风化，他 们经常是同时进行而且是互相加剧发展 的进程。
Chapter2 土的物理性质和工程分类 （Property and classification of soil)
土的成因和组成（2学时） （formation and composition of soil) 土的物理性质指标（Property index of soil) 无粘性土的物理性质（Property of cohesionless soil) 粘性土的物理性质（Property of cohesive soil) 土的结构性（Texture of soil) 土的压实性（Compaction of soil) 土的工程分类（Classification of soil)
坡积土(Colluvial soils)——残积土受重力和暂时
性流水（雨水、雪水）的作用，搬运到山坡或坡 脚处沉积起来的土，坡积土粒度有一定的分选性 和局部层理。 洪积土(Diluvial soils)——残积土和坡积土受洪水 冲刷、搬运，在山沟出口处或山前平原沉积下来 的士，随离山远近有一定的分选性，颗粒有一定 的磨圆。 冲积土(Alluvial soils)——河流的流水作用搬运到 河谷坡降平缓的地带沉积起来的土，这类土经过 长距离的搬运，颗粒是有较好的分选性和磨圆度， 常具有层理。
湖积土(Lacustrine soils)——在湖泊及沼泽等极为缓慢水 流或静水条件下沉积起来的土，这类土除了含大量细微 颗粒外，常拌有生物化学作用所形成的有机物，成为具 有特殊性质的淤泥或淤泥质土。 海积土(Marine soils)——由河流流水搬运到海洋环境下 沉积下来的土。 风积土(Aeolian soils)——由风力搬运形成的士，其颗粒 磨圆度好，分选性好，我国西北黄土就是典型的风积土。 土具有3个重要特点，即( 1)散体性（碎散性）：颗粒之 间无粘结或弱粘结，存在大量孔隙，可以透水、透气; （2）多相性：土往往是由固体颗粒、水和气体组成的 三相体系，三相之间质和量的变化直接影响它的工程性 质；（3）自然变异性：土是在自然界漫长的地质历史 时期演化形成的多矿物组合体，性质复杂，不均匀，各 相异性且随时间还在不断变化。
筛析法Sieve Analysis (Mechanical Analysis)
This procedure is suitable for coarse grained soils 孔径： 60,40,20,10,5,2,1.0,0.5,0.25, 0.1,0.075mm
将试样过孔径为2mm细筛，分别称出筛上和筛下土质 量 ； 取2 mm筛上试样倒入依次叠好的粗筛的最上层筛中； 取2mm筛下试样倒入依次选好的细筛的最上层筛中， 进行筛析 ； 由最大孔径筛开始，顺序将各筛取下，在白纸上用手 轻叩摇晃，如仍有土粒漏下，应继续轻叩摇晃，至无 土粒漏下为止。漏下的土粒应全部放入下级筛内。并 将留在各筛上的试样分别称量，准确至0.1g； 计算小于某粒径的试样质量占试样总质量百分数； 绘制颗粒大小分布曲线（粒径级配曲线）。以小于某 粒径的试样质量占试样总质量的百分数为纵坐标，以 粒径（mm）在对数横坐标上进行绘制。求出各粒组的 颗粒质量百分数；
2.固体颗粒
固体颗粒构成土的骨架，对土的物理力
学性质起决定性作用； 研究固体颗粒就必须分析粒径的大小及 其在土中所占的百分比，即土的粒径级 配； 此外，还要研究固体颗粒的矿物成分及 颗粒的形状。
a.粒径级配
粒径：颗粒的大小； 土粒并不是球体颗粒，因此用理论公式求得的 粒径并不是实际的土粒尺寸，而是与实际土粒 在液体中有相同沉降速度的理想球体的直径 （称为水力当量直径）。 粒组：工程上按粒径大小分组； 土粒的大小及其组成情况，通常以土中各个粒 组的相对含量（各粒组占土粒总量的百分数） 来表示，称为土的颗粒级配；
化学风化（ Chemical Process of weathering）
水解作用——指矿物成分被分解，并与水进行 化学成分的交换，形成新的矿物，如正长石经 水解作用后，形成高岭石。 o 水化作用——指水和某种矿物发生化学反应， 形成新的矿物，如土中的CaSO4（硬石膏）水 化后成为CaSO4· 2O（含水石膏）。 2H o 氧化作用——指某种矿物与氧结合形成新的矿 物，如黄铁矿氧化后变成FeSO4（铁钒）。 o 其他还有溶解作用、碳酸化作用等。