morphology syntax 形态学句法学

合集下载

现代语言学

一、语言和语言学1.语言学的核心：语音学Phonetics，音位学Phonology，形态学Morphology，句法学Syntax，语义学Semantics，语用学Pragmatics.2.瑞士语言学家索绪尔Saussure提出的langue语言vs parole言语.他是现在语言学之父3.语言的功能：the instrumental function,the regulatoryfunction,the heuristic function,the interactional function,the personal function,the imaginative function,the imformative function4.美国生成语法的创始人乔姆斯chomsky提出的competence语言能力vs performance语言运用5.语言的普遍特征：arbitrariness任意性,productivity多产性,duality双层结构,displacement移位性,cultural transmission文化传播性6.语用学研究的是上下文context中语言运用的情况7.Crash 拟声词onomatopoeic word8.现代语言学和传统语言学的不同点是：描写性/规定性descriptive vs prescriptive，口语/书面，非拉丁语框架/拉丁语框架non-Latin-based framework vs Latin-based framework9.把语言学原理principle和理论theories应用到语言教学和学习的语言学是应用语言学applied linguistics10.语言文体学linguistic stylistics是介于语言学和文学之间的研究领域11.数学语言学mathematical linguistics，人类语言学anthropological linguistics，神经语言学neurolinguisitics12.孩子先学会说话再学会写字，表明语言是发声的基础13.心理语言学研究儿童如何习得母语，运用语言是大脑如何工作，交流时如何处理接收到的信息14.语言的随意性说明语言在意义和声音方面没有逻辑关系15.语言的双层结构包含两种：声音结构和语法结构16.形态学和句法学主要研究语法层面上的意义studythe units at the grammatical level17.Johnson 的大辞典为英语的用法和拼写制定了统一的标准二、语音学和音位学语音学三大分支：articulatory phonetics发音语音学,auditory phonetics听觉语音学,acoustic phonetics声学语音学辅音consonants的分类：根据发音方式：爆破音stops，摩擦音fricatives，破擦音affricates，鼻音nasals，滑音glides根据发音部位：bilabials双唇音，labiodentals唇齿音，dentals齿间音，alveolars齿龈音，palatals上颚音，velars 软腭音，glottal声门音超音段音位suprasegmental phonology：stress重音,tone 音调,intonation语调三、形态学形态学主要研究单词的内部构造以及构成规则封闭性词汇closed class words：连词conjunction，介词preposition，冠词article，代词pronoun开放性词汇open class words：名词noun，动词verb，形容词adjective，副词adverb词素morpheme是语言中音义结合的最小单位，也是语法分析的最小单位自由词素free morphemes，粘着词素bound morphemes，词干stem，词根root，外来词a borrowed one构词法包括：合成compound和派生derivation，指的是自由词素屈折变化inflection指的是粘着词素,主要用于语法方面四、句法学句法学研究句子结构，揭示构成某一语言句子的内在规则深层结构deep structure：指抽象的句法结构表层结构surface structure：是深层结构通过一系列转换规则之后得到的最后的结果，就是人实际说出的句子英国语言学家韩礼德M.A.K.Halliday发展的系统功能语法，主要关注语言和社会之间的关系简单句a simple sentence，并列句a coordinate sentence，复杂句a complex sentence一个词组主要包含：head中心语,specifier标志语,compliement补足语决定词类范畴category的有意义meaning，屈折变化inflection，分布distribution句法成分syntax component给句子提供了结构五、语义学语义学指语言产生意义的方法的系统研究，主要研究对象是词义和句义同义词synonymy，反义词antonymy，多义词polysemy，（同音异义(一语双关)homophones，同形异义homographs，同音同形异义complete homonyms）都是homonymy，上下义hynonymy，同义词包括：方言性同义词dialectal synonyms，风格性同义词stylistic synonyms指的是适用场合不同，感情色彩不同的同义词emotive synonyms，搭配不同的同义词collocational synonymsX entailing Y包含关系，X presupposing Y前提关系语义变化的四种模式：extension,narrowing,elevation,degradation成分分析componential analysis用于语义学的研究领域六、语用学英国哲学家John.Austin发明了言语行为理论speech act theory区分语义学和语用学的最本质因素是是否考虑了语言使用过程中的语境言语行为的三种次行为：言内行为locutionary，言外行为illocutionary，言后行为perlocutionary act美国哲学语言学家john searle约翰舍尔把言外行为分为五大类：representative描述性功能，directive指示性功能（包括invitng,suggesting,requesting,advising,warning,threatening ,ordering），commissive承担性功能，expressive表达性功能，declarative宣告性功能美国哲学家格莱斯Grice认为言语交际要包含以下四条准则：数量准则quantity maxim，质量准则quality maxim，关联准则relation maxim，方式准则manner maxim情境因素contextual features包括时间，地点和参与人，不包括目的。

morphology-syntax-形态学-句法学

形态学和句法学的联系和区别

1.语言形态学（Morphology）是一门研究人类语言构词形态及语法形态多样
性和规律性的语言学基础学科。

本专业方向，通过多语种语料对比分析、经典和前沿文献阅读、课堂和课后研讨等方式，为语言学专业学习者提供语言形态学研究的基础训练，使其了解人类语言形态的多样性和规律性，获得基本的语言形态分析能力，并理解语言形态学领域的主要理论及重要问题。

语言形态学涵盖屈折、派生、复合、组并、附着语素、格系统、变价操作、和谐与一致、中心或依附成分标识、心理词库、词频作用、及形态操作规则和理论模型等方面知识，还涉及语言形态学与其他语言学分支学科（如音系学、句法学等）的各种界面问题，是一门既传统又不断创新发展的语言学分支学科。

2.句法学（syntax）是一门研究语言词组和句子各组成成分之间结构关系及其
内在规律的语言学核心学科。

本专业方向，通过介绍句法学理论和分析方法，提供句法学研究的基础理论知识和分析训练，帮助语言学专业学习者掌握句法分析的主要技术性手段，并培养其实际应用的能力。

句法学研究涵盖词组和句子结构的生成、结构层次及其形式表征、结构的转换机制、结构对词组和句子语义的制约、跨语言的结构形式变化参数、生成语法理论在句法分析中的应用等方面的经验性和理论性问题，是半个多世纪以来国际语言学研究的最具活力的分支学科之一。

英语语言学名词解释

英语语言学名词解释
英语语言学是语言学中的一个分支，研究英语的语言结构、语音、语法、语义、语用和历史演变等方面。

以下是一些英语语言学的名词解释：
1. Phonetics（音韵学）：研究语音、发音和声音的学科。

它包括语音学和音系学。

2. Phonology（音系学）：研究语音在语言中的系统性组织和规律性变化的学科。

3. Morphology（形态学）：研究词形变化和词构成的学科。

4. Syntax（句法学）：研究句子结构和语法规则的学科。

5. Semantics（语义学）：研究语言意义的学科，包括词义和句子意义。

6. Pragmatics（语用学）：研究语言在实际使用中的含义和功能的学科。

7. Discourse analysis（语篇分析）：研究语言在实际使用中的连贯性和语篇结构的学科。

8. Historical linguistics（历史语言学）：研究语言的演变和变化的学科。

9. Sociolinguistics（社会语言学）：研究语言和社会、文化、地理和历史等因素之间的关系的学科。

10. Psycholinguistics（心理语言学）：研究语言和心理过程之间的关系的学科，包括语言习得、记忆和理解等。

以上是一些常见的英语语言学名词解释，它们涵盖了英语语言学的主要领域和分支。

语言学考试要点考试重点

Chapter 1 Introduction1. What is linguistics? Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.The scope of linguistics:(1 ). phonetics 语音学；phonology 音位学；morphology 形态学；syntax 句法学；pragmatics 语用学(2). sociolinguistics 社会语言学；psycholinguistics 心理语言学；applied linguistics应用语言学3.Some important distinction in linguistics(1)Descriptive vs. prescriptive 描述性与规定性①If a linguistics study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use,it is said to be descriptive;②If the linguistics study aims to lay down rules for” correct and standard” behaviorin using language, . to tell people what they should say and what they should notsay, it is said to be prescriptive.(2)Synchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历时性①A synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, thepresent) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.②Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.(2)Langue & parole 语言与会话①Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of aspeech community.②Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use.(4)Competence and performance 语言能力与语言运用①A language user's unconscious knowledge about the system of rules is called hislinguistic competence.②Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.(5)speech and writing 语言与文字Speech and writing are the two major media of communication.(6)traditional grammar and modern linguistic 传统语法与现代语言学4.Definition of language:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Language is a system, ., elements of language are combined according to rules.Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistics symbol and what the symbol stands.Language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human-specific.5.Design features of language6.(1) Arbitrariness 任意性refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no naturalrelationship to their meaning. (sounds and meanings)(2) Productivity(creativity)能产性Language is productive in that it makes possible theconstruction and interpretation of new signals by its users.(3) duality双重性The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of theprimary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.(4) displacement移位性Human Languages enable their users to symbolize objects, eventsand concepts which are not present (in time and space) at moment of communication.(5)cultural transmission 文化传承性7.Functions of language(1) referential (to convey message and information),(2) poetic (to indulge in language for its own sake),(3) emotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions),(4) conative (to persuade and influence others through commands and requests),(5) phatic (to establish communion with others)(6) metalingual (to clear up intentions and meanings).①Informative(信息功能): to give information about facts. (ideational)②Interpersonal(人际功能): to establish and maintain social status in a society.(age,sex, language, background, accent, status)③Performative(施为功能) : language is used to do things, to perform certain actions.(name, promise, apologize, sorry, declare)④. Emotive/Expressive (情感功能): to express feelings and attitudes of the speaker.⑤Phatic communion(寒暄交流) : to use small and meaningless expressions to establisha comfortable relationship or maintain social contact between people without any factualcontent. (health, weather)⑥Recreational function(娱乐): the use of language for sheer joy. (lyrics, poetry)⑦Metalingual function(元语言功能): to talk about language itself.8.9.Chapter 2 Phonology1.Phonetics（语音学）is the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with allthe sounds that occur in the world’s languages.Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.2.Orthographic representation of speech sounds：broad transcription（宽式标音）and narrow transcription（严式标音）A broad transcription（宽式标音）is the transcription with letter-symbols only.A narrow transcription（严式标音）is a transcription with letter symbols together withdiacritics.3.Phonology（音位学）is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.4.The differences between phonetics and phonology:（语音的正字表征）①Both are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. But theydiffer in their approach and focus.②Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all humanlanguages; it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ fromeach other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.③Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.5.Phone（音素）, phoneme（音位）, allophone（音位变体）A phone---- a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce duringlinguistic communication are all phones.A phoneme---- is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not aparticular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context6.Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution and minimal pair.（音位对立，互补分布，最小对立体）7.Some rules of phonology（音位学规则）Sequential rules 序列规则Assimilation rule 同化规则Deletion rule省略规则8.Suprasegmental features （超音段特征）：stress重音，tone音调，intonation语调9.10.Chapter 3 Morphology1.Classification of words（1）Variable vs. invariable words:可变词类和不可变词类Variable words: One could find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word forms; on the other hand, part of the word remains constant follow, follows, following, followed; mat, matsInvariable words: those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello. They do not have inflective endings.（2）Grammatical words vs. lexical words:语法词类和词汇词类Grammatical words: express grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronounsLexical words: have lexical meanings, those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.（3）Closed-class words vs. open-class words:封闭词类和开放词类Closed-class: a word whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc.Open-class: A word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbsGrammatical---lexical words closed-class---open-class words2.Morphere(词素)：the minimal meaningful unit of language.3.Linguistics use the term morphology to refer the part of the grammar that is concerned withword formation and word structure.4.Free morpheme & bound morpheme(自由语素和黏着语素)A morpheme which can be a word by itself is called a free morpheme; a morpheme thatmust be attached to another one is a bound morpheme.5.The variant forms of a morpheme are called its allomorphs.(词素变体)6.Inflectional affix & derivational affix(屈折词缀和派生词缀)pound: those words that consist of more than one free morphemes, the way to join twoseparate words to produce a single form.In compounds, the lexical morphemes can be of different word classes.pounds can be further divided into two kinds:the endocentric compound (向心复合词) the exocentric compound(离心复合词)9.Endocentric: one element serves as the head, the relationship of “a kind of”; eg self-control:a kind of control armchair: a kind of chair10.Exocentric: there is no head, so not a relationship of “a kind of something”, egscarecrow: not a kind of crow breakneck: not a kind of neck11.Chapter 4 Syntax1.What is Syntax （句法）?Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences. 句法就是研究语言的不同成分组成句子的规则2.Syntactic relations can be analyzed into three kinds:relations of position 位置关系relations of substitutability 替代关系relations of co-occurrence 同现关系3.4.5.Chapter 5 Semantics1.What is Semantics?Semantics is the study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences.语义学是研究单词、短语和句子的意义的学科2.The conceptualist view①The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form andwhat it refers to . between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.②This is illustrated by the classic semantic triangle or triangle of significance suggested byOgden and Richard.Thought/reference/conceptSymbol/form referencentword/phrase/sentence③The symbol or form refers to the linguistic elements (words and phrases);Thereferent refers to the object in the world of experience;Thought or reference refers to concept.The symbol or a word signifies things by virtue of the concept associated with theform of the word in the minds of the speaker; and the concept looked at from thispoint of view is the meaning of the word.3.The contextualismMeaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized:Situational context: spatiotemporal situationLinguistic context: the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation.4.BehaviorismBehaviorists attempted to define meaning as “the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.5.Lexical meaningSense and reference are both concerned with the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.6.Major sense relations（1）Synonymy 同义词①Dialect synonymy 方言同义词②Stylistic synonymy 文体同义词③Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning④Collocational synonyms⑤Semantically different synonyms（2）Antonym 反义词①Gradable antonyms 等级反义词②Complementary antonyms 互补反义词③Relational opposites 关系反义词（3）Polysemy 一词多义（4）Homonymy 同形异义词（5）Hyponymy 上下义关系①Superordinate 上义词②Hyponyms下义词ponential analysis 成分分析法——a way of analyze lexical meaningIt is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning.The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.8.。

语言学教程术语

语言学教程术语第一章语言学导论phonology音系学grammar语法学morphology形态学syntax句法学lexicology词汇学general linguistics普通语言学theoretical linguistics理论语言学historical linguistics历史语言学descriptive linguistics描写语言学empirical linguistics经验语言学dialectology方言学anthropology人类学stylistics文体学signifier能指signified所指morphs形素morphotactics 语素结构学/形态配列学syntactic categories句法范畴syntactic classes句法类别序列sub-structure低层结构super-structure上层结构open syllable开音节closed syllable闭音节checked syllable成阻音节rank 等级level层次ding-dong theory/nativistic theory本能论sing-song theory唱歌说yo-he-ho theory劳动喊声说pooh-pooh theory感叹说ta-ta theory模仿说animal cry theory/bow-wow theory模声说Prague school布拉格学派Bilateral opposition 双边对立Mutilateral opposition多边对立Proportional opposition部分对立Isolated opposition 孤立对立Private opposition表缺对立Graded opposition渐次对立Equipollent opposition均等对立Neutralizable opposition可中立对立Constant opposition恒定对立Systemic-functional grammar系统功能语法Meaning potential意义潜势Conversational implicature会话含义Deictics指示词Presupposition预设Speech acts言语行为Discourse analysis话语分析Contetualism语境论Phatic communion寒暄交谈Metalanguage原语言Applied linguistics应用语言学Nominalism唯名学派Psychosomatics身学第二章语音trachea/windpipe气管tip舌尖blade舌叶/舌面front舌前部center舌中部top舌顶back舌后部dorsum舌背root舌跟pharynx喉/咽腔laryngeals喉音laryngealization喉化音vocal cords 声带vocal tract声腔initiator启动部分pulmonic airstream mechanism肺气流机制glottalic airstream mechanism喉气流机制velaric airstream mechanism腭气流机制Adam’s apple喉结Voiceless sound清音Voiceless consonant请辅音Voiced sound浊音Voiced consonant浊辅音Glottal stop喉塞音Breath state呼吸状态Voice state带音状态Whisper state耳语状态Closed state封闭状态Alveolar ride齿龈隆骨Dorsum舌背Ejective呼气音Glottalised stop喉塞音Impossive内爆破音Click/ingressive吸气音Segmental phonology音段音系学Segmental phonemes音段音位Suprasegmental超音段Non-segmental非音段Plurisegmental复音段Synthetic language综合型语言Diacritic mark附加符号Broad transcription宽式标音Narrow transcription窄式标音Orthoepy正音法Orthography正字法Etymology词源Active articulator 积极发音器官Movable speech organ能动发音器官Passive articulator消极发音器官Immovable speech organ不能动发音器官Lateral边音Approximant [j,w]无摩擦延续音Resonant共鸣音Central approximant中央无摩擦延续音Lateral approximant边无摩擦延续音Unilateral consonant单边辅音Bilateral consonant双边辅音Non-lateral非边音Trill [r]颤音trilled consonant颤辅音rolled consonant滚辅音Labal-velar唇化软腭音Interdental齿间音Post-dental后齿音Apico-alveolar舌尖齿龈音Dorso-alveolar舌背齿龈音Palato-alveolar后齿龈音Palato-alveolar腭齿龈音Dorso-palatal舌背腭音Pre-palatal前腭音Post-palatal后腭音Velarization软腭音化Voicing浊音化Devoicing清音化Pure vowel纯元音Diphthong二合元音Triphthong三合元音Diphthongization二合元音化Monophthongization单元音化Centring diphthong央二合元音Closing diphthong闭二合元音Narrow diphthong窄二合元音Wide diphthong宽二合元音Phonetic similarity语音相似性Free variant自由变体Free variation自由变异Contiguous assimilation临近同化Juxtapostional assimilation邻接同化Regressive assimilation逆同化Anticipatory assimilation先行同化Progressive assimilation顺同化Reciprocal assimilation互相同化Coalescent assimilation融合同化Partial assimilation部分同化Epenthesis 插音Primary stress主重音Secondary stress次重音Weak stress弱重音Stress group重音群Sentence stress句子重音Contrastive stress对比重音Lexical stress词汇重音Word stress词重音Lexical tone词汇声调Nuclear tone核心声调Tonetics声调学Intonation contour语调升降曲线Tone units声调单Intonology语调学Multilevel phonology多层次音系学Monosyllabic word 多音节词Polysyllabic word单音节次Maximal onset principle最大节首辅音原则第三章词汇liaison连音contracted form缩写形式frequency count词频统计a unit of vocabulary词汇单位a lexical item词条a lexeme词位hierarchy层次性lexicogrammar词汇语法morpheme语素nonomorphemic words单语素词polymorphemic words多语素词relative uninterruptibility相对连续性a minimum free form最小自由形式the maximum free form最大自由形式variable words可变词invariable words不变词paradigm聚合体grammatical words(function words)语法词/功能词lexical words(content words)词汇词/实义词closed-class words封闭类词opened-class words开放类词word class词类particles小品词pro-form代词形式pro-adjective(so)代形容词pro-verb(do/did)代副词pro-adverb(so)代动词pro-locative(there)代处所词/代方位词determiners限定词predeterminers前置限定词central determiners中置限定词post determiners后置限定词ordinal number序数词cardinal number基数morpheme词素morphology形态学free morpheme自由词素bound morpheme黏着词素root词根affix词缀stem词干root morpheme词根语素prefix前缀infix中缀suffix后缀bound root morpheme 黏着词根词素inflectional affix屈折词缀derivational affix派生词缀inflectional morphemes屈折语素derivational morphemes派生语素word-formation构词compound复合词endocentric compound向心复合词exocentric compound离心复合词nominal endocentric compound名词性向心复合词adjective endocentric compound形容词性向心复合词verbal compound动词性复合词synthetic compound综合性复合词derivation派生词morpheme语素phoneme音位morphonology形态语音学morphophomemics形态音位学morphemic structure语素结构phonological structure音素结构monosyllabic单音节polysyllabic多音节phonological conditioned音位的限制morphological conditioned形态的限制coinage/invention新创词语blending混成法abbreviation缩写法acronym首字母缩写法back-formation逆序造次/逆构词法analogical creation类比构词法borrowing借词法loanword借词loanblend混合借词loanshift 转移借词loan translation翻译借词loss脱落addition添加metathesis换位assimilation同化contact assimilation接触性同化contiguous assimilation临近性同化theory of least effort省力理论non- contiguous assimilation非临近性同化distant assimilation远距离同化morpho-syntactic change形态-句法变化morphological change形态变化syntactical change句法变化finite element有定成分semantic change语义变化multisemous多种意义broadening 词义扩大narrowing词义缩小meaning shift词义转移class shift词性变换folk etymology俗词源orthographic change拼写的变化conversion变换/变码domain范围/领域meaning shift意义转移split infinitives分裂不定式(She was told to regularly classes)calque仿造词语clipping截断法metanalysis再分化finiteness定式proximate(this)近指代词obviative(that)远指代词non-productivity/unproductive非多产性semiotics符号学paradigmatic relations聚合关系associative relations联想关系syntagmatic relations组合关系sequential relations序列关系logogram语标register语域passive vocabulary消极词汇lexis/vocabulary词汇表第四章句法number数gender性case格nominative主格vocative呼格accusative宾格genitive属格dative 与格ablative离格tense 时aspect体perfective完成体imperfective未完成concord/agreement 一致关系/协同关系government支配关系the governor支配者the governed被支配者signified 能指signifier所systematic relationship组合关系paradigmatic relationship聚合关系associative relationship联想关系animate noun有生名词the two axes两根坐标坐标轴immediate constituent analysis(IC analysis for short)直接成分分析法linear structure线性结构hierarchical structure层级结构construction结构体constituent成分substitutability替换性labeled tree diagram标签树形图endocentric/headed construction向心结构/中心结构exocentric construction离心结构subordinate construction主从结构coordinate construction并列结构recapitulation再现the declarative陈述句the interrogative疑问句dative movement与格移位morph-phonemic rule形态音位规则constituent morphemes成分规则affix hopping词缀越位nominalization名物化object-deletion宾语删除subject-deletion主语删除categories语类lexicon词库temporal subject表时间的主语syntactic limitation句法限制standard theory标准理论trace theory语迹理论the same index带同标志government管辖binding约束a rule system规则系统a principle system原则系统constituent command(C-command for short)成分统制plain English普通英语anaphor照应语pronominal指代语r-expression_r(referential-expression_r)指称语INFL(inflection)形态变化reciprocals(each other)相互代词accessible subject可及主语local domain局部语域binding domain约束语域logophoricity主人公视角CS(computational system)计算系统Merger合并move移动theme主位rheme述位empty subject空主语objective order客观顺序subjective order主观顺序actual sentence division实义句子切分法functional sentence perspective功能句子观communicative dynamism (CD)交际动力bipartition二分法tripartite classification三分法representative function表达功能expressive function表情功能appellative/vocative function称呼功能conative function意欲功能poetic function诗学功能ideational function概念功能interpersonal function人际功能textual function语篇功能transitivity及物性actor动作者mood system语气系统the finite verbal operator限定部分residue剩余部分indicative直陈语气imperative祈使语气mental-process(a process of sensing)心理过程（感觉过程）relational process(a process of being)关系过程（属性过程）verbal process(a process of saying)言语过程（讲话过程）existential process生存过程empiricism经验主义（洛克，白板说）rationalism 理性主义（笛卡尔）mentalism心灵主义new empiricism新经验主义(Bloomfield)priori先天综合判断（康德Kant）Cartesian linguistics笛卡尔语言学派Syntactic structure (SS)早期转换句法时期Standard theory (ST)标准理论时期Extended Standard theory (EST)扩展的标准理论Revised Standard theory(REST)扩展的休正标准理论The theory of government and binding (GB theory)管辖和约束理论时期（管约论）Minimalist program (MP)最简方案时期Structural description结构描写式Performance system应用系统Modular theory模块理论Spell-out拼写Language faculty语言机制/官能Mental organ心智器官Knowledge of language 语言知识Meaning potential 意义潜势Context culture 文化语境Field语场Tenor语旨Mode语式pivot words轴心词mental construct心理构念theoretical cognitive psychology理论认知心理学psychological faculty心理官能autosyn/autogram/autoknow语法自主(arbitrariness任意性,systemacity系统性, self-containedness自足性)typological functionalism类型学功能主义extreme functionalism极端的功能主义external functionalism外部功能主义integrative functionalism一体化功能注主义exceptional case marking例外格标记specifier标定成分fall-category maximal projection全语类的最大投射two-segment category两节语类complement domain补足语区域minimal domain最小区域internal domain内部区域checking domain检验区域sisterhood姐妹关系minimizing chain link最小语链联结representational system表达系统strict cyclic principle严格的层级条件structure-preserving principle结构保存原则C-commanding condition成分统领条件articulatory-perceptual system发音-听音系统conceptual-intentional system概念-意旨系统interface conditions中介条件full-interpretation完全解释原则procrastination逻辑形式操作优先原则greed句法操作自利原则the shortest linkage principle最短联接原则the shortest movement principle最短移位原则primary complement/modifier(referential NP)一级补语位/修饰语位(定指名词短语)secondary complement(non- referential NP) 二级补语位(非定指名词短语)empty category principle空范畴原则aspect checking特征验证aspect feature基本体貌特征ASPP is functional projection .ASPP 是功能投射.crossing branch交叉分支across the board extraction抽取跨界移动principles-and-parameters framework原则与参数语法head parameter 中心语参数logical form(LF)逻辑形式phonetic form(PF)语音形式phonological component音韵部分overt component显性部分covert component隐性部分core computation核心运算asymmetric c-command不对称成分统制linear correspondence axiom线形对应定理adjunction 加接determiner限定词concatenate联结linearization线性化functional parameterization hypothesis功能参数设定假设right-branching右向分支X’(V,N,A,P)词项X’’=XP=Xmax是X 的二阶投射结构Y’’=指示语specifier Z’’=补述语complement IP=屈折短语inflection phraseXP=general phrase structureCHL人类语言的运算系统=computational system for human languageLCA线性对应定理=linear correspondence axiom Xmin=X0=最小投射。

英语专业语言学期末复习资料

Phonetics (sound)语音学；phonology(sounds) 音系学；morphology(word) 形态学；syntax(words, sentence)句法学；semantics(meaning)语义学；pragmatics(meaning ina context)语用学1. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive (modern). If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for correct and standard behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.2. Synchronic static state grammer; diachronic dynamic historical developmentngue (language): the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, stable.; Parole (speaking): the realization of langue in actual use, concrete, specific, changeable. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole.sociological or sociolinguistic point of view4. American linguist N. Chomsky Competence: the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language,stable,prerequisite; Performance: the actual use of language in concrete situations,changeable.psychologically or psycholinguistically.5.Traditional grammar ---- prescriptive, written, Latin-based frameworkModern linguistics ----- descriptive, spoken, not necessarily Latin-based framework nguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Design Features of Language.1:Arbitrariness2:duality:The structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units (e. g. words in written language) and meaningless segments (e. g. sounds, letters in spoken language).1. Combine meaningless sounds into meaningful linguistic unitsbine small units into big units3.productivity/creativity:Language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. We can use it to create new meanings.4.Displacement: which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.5.cultural transmission7.Six Functions of language:Addresser---Emotive the addresser expressed his attitude to the topic or situation of communication; Addressee---Conative使动xx aims to influence the addressee’s course of action or ways of thinking；Context---referentia所指, xx conveys a message or informationl;Message---Poetic xx uses language for the sole purpose of displaying the beauty of language itself;Contact--Phatic communication寒暄, xx tries to establish or maintain good interpersonalrelationships with the addressee；Code--Metalingual xx uses language to make clear the meaning of language itself.8.M. A. K. Halliday.Metafunctions of Language:Ideational function:About the natural world in the broadest sense, including our own consciousness; Relates to the context of culture. Interpersonal function:About the social world, especially the relationship between speaker and hearer ; Relates to the context of situation. Contextual function:About the verbal world, especially the flow of information in a text; Relates to the verbal context.9.A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. But a phone doesn’t necessarily distinguish meaning; some do, some don’t. A phoneme is a phonological unit;It is aunit that is of distinctive value;It is an abstract unit;It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.10. phones are placed within square brackets: [ ], and phonemes in slashes: / /.11./p/ in [pi:k] (peak) : an aspirated [ph]12./p/ in [spi:k] (speak): an unaspirated [p]13.Both [ph] and [p] are called as allophones of /p/14. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called allophones. [p, ph] are two different phones and are variants of the phoneme /p/. Such variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme.15. Minimal pairs: Pairs of words which differ from each other only by one sound; More precisely: two words which are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string.16.Sequential rules The patterning of sounds in a particular language is governed by rules;The phonological system determines which phonemes can begin a word, end a word, and follow each other.Refer to the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.17.Assimilation rule—assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar, e.g. the prefix in-18. When pitch, stress, and sound length are tried to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation: the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, the rise-fall tone.19.单元音monophthongs 双元音diphthongs20.Morpheme: the minimal unit of meaning. It is the smallest unit that carries grammatical and /or semantic meaning.Morphs:The smallest meaningful phonetic segments of an utterance on the level of parole.The phonological or orthographic forms which realize morphemes. Allomorphs:A member of a set of morphs which represent the same morpheme. Allomorphs are phonological or orthographic variants of the same morpheme.21.Free morpheme is one that may constitute a word (free form) by itself, such as bed, tree, sing, dance, etc.Bound morpheme is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme, such as “-s”in “dogs”, “-al”in “national”, “dis-”in “disclose”, “-ed”in “recorded”, etc.22.Derivational morphemes—the morphemes which change the category, or grammatical class,or meaning of words. e.g. modern —modernizeInflectional morphemes:purely grammatical markers;signifying tense, number, and case;not changing the syntactic category; never adding any lexical meaningpounding (合成词) blackboard; Derivation(派生词) --ful ---able;Back-formation逆构词法television televise; Borrowing—loan words (外来词); Clipping（缩略词）labtory lab; Blending（混成法）motel; Acronym（词首字母）APEC；Coinage/Invention (Neologism) 创新词nylon24.Open: n. V. Adj. Adv. Bound morphemes :roots and affixes25.①traditional categories: n., v., adj., adv., prep., conj., aux., pronoun….②non-traditional categories: determiner (Det限定词), degree words (Deg程度词), qualifier (Qual修饰语).26.Three criteria are used to determine a word’s category: meaning, inflection, distribution.27.the structure or elements of phrases:XP rule specifier+head+complement28.NP (Det) + N + (PP)…29.VP (Qual) + V + (NP)…30.AP (Deg) + A + (PP)…31.PP (Deg) + P + (NP)…32.S →NP VP33.Deep structure: formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties, is called ds. Surface structure: corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called ss. Do insertion, WH movement.34.Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called transformation. A special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.35.Head: A V N P36. Semantics is generally considered to be the study of meaning in language.37. The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form And what it refers to (i.e.between language and real world ); rather, in the interpretation of meaning, they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. Semantic triangle by ogden and richards: symblo/form, thought/ reference/, refrent.38.Contextualism: Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context ---- elements closely linked with language behavior. JR forth39.Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in. Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. The relationship between sense and reference:And, if等只有sense, 而无reference.一个sense可以有许多reference同一referenece可有不同的sense，Mrs Thatcher, & the Iron Lady. Morning Star & Evening Star.40.Major sense relations: Synonymy (同义关系)Antonymy (反义关系)Polysemy (多义关系)Homonymy (同音/形异义) Hyponymy (上下义关系)41.Antonymy: Complementary antonyms (互补反义词)非A即B; Gradable antonyms (程度反义词) :AB有中间, very .. How..; Relational opposites （关系对立词）丈夫妻子42.Sense relations between sentences: Synonymy (同义关系) inconsistency (自相矛盾)Entailment (蕴涵)Presupposition (预设)X is a contradiction (自相矛盾)X is semantically anomalous (反常的43.man [+HUMAN +ADULT +MALE] women [+HUMAN +ADULT －MALE]girl [+HUMAN －ADULT －MALE] child [+HUMAN －ADULT OMALE]father: PARENT (x, y) & MALE (x)x is a parent of y, and x is male.take: CAUSE (x, (HA VE (x, y)))x causes x to have y.give: CAUSE (x, (~HA VE (x, y)))x causes x not to have y.44.predication analysis: G.leech: argument 名词predicate 动词45. Pragmatics --- the study of the intended meaning of a speaker (taking context into consideration). Pragmaticists regard meaning as something that is realized in the course of communication.Semantics --- the study of the literal meaning of a sentence (without taking context into consideration).Semanticists take meaning to be an inherent property of language. Essential difference is that whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. 不senmantics.46.Sentence meaning: It is abstract and context-independent; it’s the literal meaning of a sentence. Utterance meaning: It is concrete and context-dependent; It’s the intended meaning of a speaker.It is the product of sentence meaning and context. Therefore, it is richer than the meaning of the sentence.47.John Austin’s speech act theory.Performatives (行事话语): I promise Constatives (述事话语)48.A locutionary act (言内行为) is the act of saying words, phrases, clause; it is an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.An illocutionary act (言外行为) is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something. 关注A perlocutionary act (言后行为) is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.act performed by saying sth.49.Searle’s classification of speech acts:Representatives (陈述) Directives (指令)Commissives (承诺) Expressives (表达) Declarations (宣布)50.CP Grice:The maxim of quality: ck adequate evidence.The maxim of quantity信息充足; The maxim of relation继续下去; The maxim of manner方式表达清楚模糊词绕口1. P_________ is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.Pragmatics2. The notion of c_________ is essential to the pragmatic study of language.context3. The meaning of a sentence is a_______, and decontexualized.abstract4. P________ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable.Performatives1. An i__________ act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the actperformed in saying something.illocutionary2. A c_________ is commit the speaker himself to some future course of action.commissive3. An e________ is to express feelings or attitude towards an existing state.expressive4. There are four maxims under the cooperative principle: the maxim of q_______, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner.quantity4. ____C______ is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.A. A locutionary actB. An illocutionary actC. A perlocutionary actD. A performative act5. According to Searle, the illocutionary point of the representative is _B_____.A. to get the hearer to do somethingB. to commit the speaker to something’s being the caseC. to commit the speaker to some future course of actionD. to express the feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs1. Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent. F2. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. T3. The major difference between a sentence and an utterance is that a sentence is not uttered while an utterance is. F4. Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle. F5. Speech act theory started in the late 50’s of the 20th century. T6. Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative. T7. Perlocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention. F1. A __bound_____ morpheme is one that cannot constitute a word by itself.2. On, before and together are__close_____words—they are words which do not take inflectional endings.3. Bound morphemes are classified into two types: __affix__ and __root__ root.4. Pronouns, prepositions,conjunctions and articles are all_close__class items.5. handsome consists of 2 morphemes, one is the _free___ morpheme hand, the other is the __bound__ morpheme some.1.There are _C__ morphemes in the word denationalization?A. 3B. 4.C. 5.D. 62. Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called___A_ morphemes.A. inflectionalB.freeC. boundD. Derivational1. Major lexical categories are___N__, __V__, __adj__and____prep_.2. The deep structure refers to ____.3. when the affirmative sentence "Jack sold his textbooks to jill after the final examination' is transformed into "When did jack sell his textbooks to Jill?", three transformational rules are applied. they are__Do insertion__, subject-aux inversion and __Wh movement__.4. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called __transformation______.5. The head is the word __n v a p___.1. Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, including the combination of morphemes into words.F2. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase. F3. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.T1. Phonetics studies the phonic medium of a certain language. ( F )2. The long vowels are all tense vowels and the short vowels are all lax vowels. ( T )3. In English, pill and bill are a minimal pair, and so are pill and till, pin and ping. ( T )4. The phoneme /p/ and /b/ can occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, therefore they’re in phonetic complementary distribution. ( F )5. The sequential rules in English can apply to all the other languages. For example, the velar nasal /N/ never occurs in the initial position in English nor in Chinese.( F )The pharynx refers to the space of cavity between the larynx and the end of the __C____.A. tongueB. hard palateC. soft palateD. vocal cords2. A sound produced when the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration is said to be___B__.A. resonantB. voicelessC. voicedD. vowel3. The obstruction created between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge results in the sound ___A___.A. /t/ and /d/B. /k/ and /g/C. /p/ and /b/D. / N/ and / W/4. The phoneme is an abstract ___B_ unit.A. phonicB. phonologicalC. phoneticD. grammatical5. The sound /k/ and /g/ are separate __B____.A. allophonesB. phonemesC. morphemesD. Allomorphs。

英语语言学分支

英语语言学分支语言学是研究语言的科学，包括多个分支，每个分支关注语言的不同方面。

以下是一些主要的英语语言学分支：1. 音韵学（Phonetics and Phonology）：研究语音的产生、传播和接收，以及语音单位在语言中的组合和分布。

音韵学关注语音的物理性质和声学特征。

2. 形态学（Morphology）：研究语言中的词的内部结构和形态变化。

形态学关注单词如何形成，以及单词内部构建的规则。

3. 句法学（Syntax）：研究句子的结构，包括词与词之间的关系，以及句子的组成方式。

句法学关注语法规则是如何用来生成合乎语法规范的句子的。

4. 语义学（Semantics）：研究词和句子的意义。

语义学关注语言中词汇和句法单位的意义，以及它们如何组合形成合适的语言表达。

5. 语用学（Pragmatics）：研究语言使用的上下文依赖性和语境中的语言交际。

语用学关注说话者和听话者之间的信息传递，以及言语行为在特定情境中的作用。

6. 社会语言学（Sociolinguistics）：研究语言和社会之间的关系。

社会语言学关注方言、语言变异、语言政策等与社会因素相关的语言现象。

7. 心理语言学（Psycholinguistics）：研究语言的心理过程，包括语言习得、语言记忆、语言理解等。

心理语言学关注语言在认知过程中的作用。

8. 历史语言学（Historical Linguistics）：研究语言的历史演变和变化。

历史语言学关注语言家族、语言演化、语言接触等方面的变化。

9. 比较语言学（Comparative Linguistics）：研究不同语言之间的相似性和差异。

比较语言学关注语言之间的语法结构、词汇和语音的比较。

这些分支共同构成了语言学的广阔领域，每个分支都有其独特的研究对象和方法。

[语言学]胡壮麟版《语言学教程》名词解释

胡壮麟《语言学教程》术语表第一章phonology音系学grammar语法学morphology形态学syntax句法学lexicology词汇学general linguistics普通语言学theoretical linguistics理论语言学historical linguistics历史语言学descriptive linguistics描写语言学empirical linguistics经验语言学dialectology方言学anthropology人类学stylistics文体学signifier能指signified所指morphs形素morphotactics语素结构学/形态配列学syntactic categories句法范畴syntactic classes句法类别序列sub-structure低层结构super-structure上层结构open syllable开音节closed syllable闭音节checked syllable成阻音节rank 等级level层次ding-dong theory/nativistic theory本能论sing-song theory唱歌说yo-he-ho theory劳动喊声说pooh-pooh theory感叹说ta-ta theory模仿说animal cry theory/bow-wow theory模声说Prague school布拉格学派Bilateral opposition双边对立Mutilateral opposition多边对立Proportional opposition部分对立Isolated opposition孤立对立Private opposition表缺对立Graded opposition渐次对立Equipollent opposition均等对立Neutralizable opposition可中立对立Constant opposition恒定对立Systemic-functional grammar系统功能语法Meaning potential意义潜势Conversational implicature会话含义Deictics指示词Presupposition预设Speech acts言语行为Discourse analysis话语分析Contetualism语境论Phatic communion寒暄交谈Metalanguage原语言Applied linguistics应用语言学Nominalism唯名学派Psychosomatics身学第二章trachea/windpipe气管tip舌尖blade舌叶/舌面front舌前部center舌中部top舌顶back舌后部dorsum舌背root舌跟pharynx喉/咽腔laryngeals喉音laryngealization喉化音vocal cords声带vocal tract声腔initiator启动部分pulmonic airstream mechanism肺气流机制glottalic airstream mechanism喉气流机制velaric airstream mechanism腭气流机制Adam’s apple喉结Voiceless sound清音Voiceless consonant请辅音Voiced sound浊音Voiced consonant浊辅音Glottal stop喉塞音Breath state呼吸状态Voice state带音状态Whisper state耳语状态Closed state封闭状态Alveolar ride齿龈隆骨Dorsum舌背Ejective呼气音Glottalised stop喉塞音Impossive内爆破音Click/ingressive吸气音Segmental phonology音段音系学Segmental phonemes音段音位Suprasegmental超音段Non-segmental非音段Plurisegmental复音段Synthetic language综合型语言Diacritic mark附加符号Broad transcription宽式标音Narrow transcription窄式标音Orthoepy正音法Orthography正字法Etymology词源Active articulator积极发音器官Movable speech organ能动发音器官Passive articulator消极发音器官Immovable speech organ不能动发音器官Lateral边音Approximant [j,w]无摩擦延续音Resonant共鸣音Central approximant中央无摩擦延续音Lateral approximant边无摩擦延续音Unilateral consonant单边辅音Bilateral consonant双边辅音Non-lateral非边音Trill [r]颤音trilled consonant颤辅音rolled consonant滚辅音Labal-velar唇化软腭音Interdental齿间音Post-dental后齿音Apico-alveolar舌尖齿龈音Dorso-alveolar舌背齿龈音Palato-alveolar后齿龈音Palato-alveolar腭齿龈音Dorso-palatal舌背腭音Pre-palatal前腭音Post-palatal后腭音Velarization软腭音化Voicing浊音化Devoicing清音化Pure vowel纯元音Diphthong二合元音Triphthong三合元音Diphthongization二合元音化Monophthongization单元音化Centring diphthong央二合元音Closing diphthong闭二合元音Narrow diphthong窄二合元音Wide diphthong宽二合元音Phonetic similarity语音相似性Free variant自由变体Free variation自由变异Contiguous assimilation临近同化Juxtapostional assimilation邻接同化Regressive assimilation逆同化Anticipatory assimilation先行同化Progressive assimilation顺同化Reciprocal assimilation互相同化Coalescent assimilation融合同化Partial assimilation部分同化Epenthesis插音Primary stress主重音Secondary stress次重音Weak stress弱重音Stress group重音群Sentence stress句子重音Contrastive stress对比重音Lexical stress词汇重音Word stress词重音Lexical tone词汇声调Nuclear tone核心声调Tonetics声调学Intonation contour语调升降曲线Tone units声调单位Intonology语调学Multilevel phonology多层次音系学Monosyllabic word多音节词Polysyllabic word单音节次Maximal onset principle最大节首辅音原则第三章词汇liaison连音contracted form缩写形式frequency count词频统计a unit of vocabulary词汇单位a lexical item词条a lexeme词位hierarchy层次性lexicogrammar词汇语法morpheme语素nonomorphemic words单语素词polymorphemic words多语素词relative uninterruptibility相对连续性a minimum free form最小自由形式the maximum free form最大自由形式variable words 可变词invariable words不变词paradigm聚合体grammatical words(function words)语法词/功能词lexical words(content words)词汇词/实义词closed-class words封闭类词opened-class words开放类词word class词类particles小品词pro-form代词形式pro-adjective(so)代形容词pro-verb(do/did)代副词pro-adverb(so)代动词pro-locative(there)代处所词/代方位词determiners限定词predeterminers前置限定词central determiners中置限定词post determiners后置限定词ordinal number序数词cardinal number基数词morpheme词素morphology形态学free morpheme自由词素bound morpheme黏着词素root词根affix词缀stem词干root morpheme词根语素prefix前缀infix中缀suffix后缀bound root morpheme黏着词根词素inflectional affix屈折词缀derivational affix派生词缀inflectional morphemes屈折语素derivational morphemes派生语素word-formation构词compound复合词endocentric compound向心复合词exocentric compound离心复合词nominal endocentric compound名词性向心复合词adjective endocentric compound形容词性向心复合词verbal compound动词性复合词synthetic compound综合性复合词derivation派生词morpheme语素phoneme音位morphonology形态语音学morphophomemics形态音位学morphemic structure语素结构phonological structure音素结构monosyllabic单音节polysyllabic多音节phonological conditioned音位的限制morphological conditioned形态的限制coinage/invention新创词语blending混成法abbreviation缩写法acronym首字母缩写法back-formation逆序造次/逆构词法analogical creation类比构词法borrowing借词法loanword借词loanblend混合借词loanshift转移借词loan translation翻译借词loss脱落addition添加metathesis换位assimilation同化contact assimilation接触性同化contiguous assimilation临近性同化theory of least effort省力理论non- contiguous assimilation非临近性同化distant assimilation远距离同化morpho-syntactic change形态-句法变化morphological change形态变化syntactical change句法变化finite element有定成分semantic change语义变化multisemous多种意义broadening词义扩大narrowing词义缩小meaning shift词义转移class shift词性变换folk etymology俗词源orthographic change拼写的变化conversion变换/变码domain范围/领域meaning shift意义转移split infinitives分裂不定式(She was told to regularly classes)calque仿造词语clipping截断法metanalysis再分化finiteness定式proximate(this)近指代词obviative(that)远指代词non-productivity/unproductive非多产性semiotics符号学paradigmatic relations聚合关系associative relations联想关系syntagmatic relations组合关系sequential relations序列关系logogram语标register语域passive vocabulary消极词汇lexis/vocabulary词汇表第四章句法number数gender性case格nominative主格vocative呼格accusative兵格genitive属格dative与格ablative离格tense 时aspect体perfective完成体imperfective未完成体concord/agreement一致关系/协同关系government支配关系the governor支配者the governed被支配者signified能指signifier所指syntagmatic relationship组合关系paradigmatic relationship聚合关系associative relationship联想关系animate noun有生名词the two axes两根坐标坐标轴immediate constituent analysis(ICanalysis for short)直接成分分析法linear structure线性结构hierarchical structure层级结构construction结构体constituent成分substituability替换性labeled tree diagram标签树形图endocentric/headed construction向心结构/中心结构exocentric construction离心结构subordinate construction主从结构coordinate construction并列结构recapitulation再现the declarative陈述句the interrogative疑问句dative movement与格移位morph-phonemic rule形态音位规则constituent morphemes成分规则affix hopping词缀越位nominalization名物化object-deletion宾语删除subject-deletion主语删除categories语类lexicon词库temporal subject表时间的主语syntactic limitation句法限制standard theory标准理论trace theory语迹理论the same index带同标志government管辖binding约束a rule system规则系统a principle system原则系统constituent command(C-command forshort)成分统制plain English普通英语anaphor照应语pronominal指代语r-expression(referential-expression)指称语INFL(inflection)形态变化reciprocals(each other)相互代词accessible subject可及主语local domain局部语域binding domain约束语域logophoricity主人公视角CS(computational system)计算系统Merger合并move移动theme主位rheme述位empty subject空主语objective order客观顺序subjective order主观顺序actual sentence division实义句子切分法functional sentence perspective 功能句子观communicative dynamism (CD)交际动力bipartition二分法tripartite classification三分法representative function表达功能expressive function表情功能appellative/vocative function称呼功能conative function意欲功能poetic function诗学功能ideational function概念功能interpersonal function人际功能textual function语篇功能transitivity及物性actor动作者mood system语气系统the finite verbal operator限定部分residue剩余部分indicative直陈语气imperative祈使语气mental-process(a process of sensing)心理过程（感觉过程）relational process(a process of being)关系过程（属性过程）verbal process(a process of saying)言语过程（讲话过程）existential process生存过程第四章句法number数gender性case格nominative主格vocative呼格accusative兵格genitive属格dative与格ablative离格tense 时aspect体perfective完成体imperfective未完成体concord/agreement一致关系/协同关系government支配关系the governor支配者the governed被支配者signified能指signifier所指syntagmatic relationship组合关系paradigmatic relationship聚合关系associative relationship联想关系animate noun有生名词the two axes两根坐标坐标轴immediate constituent analysis(ICanalysis for short)直接成分分析法linear structure线性结构hierarchical structure层级结构construction结构体constituent成分substituability替换性labeled tree diagram标签树形图endocentric/headed construction向心结构/中心结构exocentric construction离心结构subordinate construction主从结构coordinate construction并列结构recapitulation再现the declarative陈述句the interrogative疑问句dative movement与格移位morph-phonemic rule形态音位规则constituent morphemes成分规则affix hopping词缀越位nominalization名物化object-deletion宾语删除subject-deletion主语删除categories语类lexicon词库temporal subject表时间的主语syntactic limitation句法限制standard theory标准理论trace theory语迹理论the same index带同标志government管辖binding约束a rule system规则系统a principle system原则系统constituent command(C-command for short)成分统制plain English普通英语anaphor照应语pronominal指代语r-expression(referential-expression)指称语INFL(inflection)形态变化reciprocals(each other)相互代词accessible subject可及主语local domain局部语域binding domain约束语域logophoricity主人公视角CS(computational system)计算系统=derivational procedure推导系统Merger合并move移动theme主位rheme述位empty subject空主语objective order客观顺序subjective order主观顺序actual sentence division实义句子切分法functional sentence perspective 功能句子观communicative dynamism (CD)交际动力bipartition二分法tripartite classification三分法representative function表达功能expressive function表情功能appellative/vocative function称呼功能conative function意欲功能poetic function诗学功能ideational function概念功能interpersonal function人际功能textual function语篇功能transitivity及物性actor动作者mood system语气系统the finite verbal operator限定部分residue剩余部分indicative直陈语气imperative祈使语气mental-process(a process of sensing)心理过程（感觉过程）relational process(a process of being)关系过程（属性过程）verbal process(a process of saying)言语过程（讲话过程）existential process生存过程empiricism经验主义（洛克，白板说）rationalism 理性主义（笛卡尔）mentalism心灵主义new empiricism新经验主义(Bloomfield)priori先天综合判断（康德Kant）Cartesian linguistics笛卡尔语言学派Syntactic structure (SS)早期转换句法时期Standard theory (ST)标准理论时期Extended Standard theory (EST)扩展的标准理论Revised Standard theory(REST)扩展的休正标准理论The theory of government and binding(GB theory)管辖和约束理论时期（管约论）Minimalist program (MP)最简方案时期Structural description结构描写式Performance system应用系统Modular theory模块理论Spell-out拼写Language faculty语言机制/官能Mental organ心智器官Knowledge of language 语言知识Meaning potential 意义潜势Context culture 文化语境Field语场Tenor语旨Mode语式pivot words轴心词mental construct心理构念theoretical cognitive psychology理论认知心理学psychological faculty心理官能autosyn/autogram/autoknow语法自主(arbitrariness任意性,systemacity系统性, self-containedness自足性)typological functionalism类型学功能主义extreme functionalism极端的功能主义external functionalism外部功能主义integrative functionalism一体化功能注主义exceptional case marking例外格标记specifier标定成分fall-category maximal projection全语类的最大投射two-segment category两节语类complement domain补足语区域minimal domain最小区域internal domain内部区域checking domain检验区域sisterhood姐妹关系minimizing chain link最小语链联结representational system表达系统strict cyclic principle严格的层级条件structure-preserving principle结构保存原则C-commanding condition成分统领条件articulatory-perceptual system发音-听音系统conceptual-intentional system概念-意旨系统interface conditions中介条件full-interpretation完全解释原则procrastination逻辑形式操作优先原则greed句法操作自利原则the shortest linkage principle最短联接原则the shortest movement principle最短移位原则primarycomplement/modifier(referential NP)一级补语位/修饰语位(定指名词短语)secondary complement(non- referentialNP) 二级补语位(非定指名词短语)empty category principle空范畴原则aspect checking特征验证aspect feature基本体貌特征ASPP is functional projection .ASPP是功能投射.crossing branch交叉分支across the board extraction抽取跨界移动principles-and-parameters framework原则与参数语法head parameter中心语参数logical form(LF)逻辑形式phonetic form(PF)语音形式spell-out拼读phonological component音韵部分overt component显性部分covert component隐性部分core computation核心运算asymmetric c-command不对称成分统制linear correspondence axiom线形对应定理adjunction加接determiner限定词concatenate联结linearization线性化functional parameterization hypothesis功能参数设定假设right-branching右向分支X’(V,N,A,P)词项X’’=XP=Xmax是X的二阶投射结构Y’’=指示语specifierZ’’=补述语complementIP=屈折短语inflection phraseXP=general phrase structureC HL人类语言的运算系统=computational system for humanlanguageLCA线性对应定理=linearcorrespondence axiomXmin=X0=最小投射。

语言学知识

一、定义：什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.二、语言学研究的核心（下面的术语要尽量全都认识，不然做题时可能看不懂选项）1、Phonetics 语音学2、Phonology 音位学3、Morphology 形态学4、Syntax 句法学5、Semantics 语义学6、Pragmatics 语用学三、语言（Langue）和言语（Parole）这个考过的。

Parole这个概念是F. de Saussure（索绪尔）提出的。

Langue指语言系统的整体，“所有（语言使用）个体头脑中存储的词语-----形象之总和”，这个整体相对较为稳定；Parole指某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语，它是随时间和地点变化的一个动态的实体。

四、语言的功能Functions of Language（这个也考过的。

考过the informative function，就是高速公路指示牌的那道题）1、The instrumental function2、The regulatory function3、The heuristic function4、The interactional function5、The personal function6、The imaginative function7、The informative function五、语言的普遍特征Design Features这个也考过的，这五个特征由美国语言学家Charles Hockett提出。

弱弱地说一句：如果真的在临时抱佛脚，那就不要管这五个术语的具体含义了，只要能强行记下来应付考试就是了。

>_<1、Arbitrariness 任意性2、Productivity 多产性3、Duality 双层结构4、Displacement 移位性5、Cultural Transmission 文化传播性六、语音学和音位学（一）语音学Phonetics: the study of the phonic medium of language.1、三大分支（1）Articulatory Phonetics发音语音学（2）Auditory Phonetics 听觉语音学（3）Acoustic Phonetics 声学语音学2、辅音和元音（这个考过的，考过二者的区别）（二）音位学Phonology: aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form pattern and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.1、三个术语（1）Phone音素（2）Phoneme音位（3）Allophone音位变体2、Suprasegmental Phonology超音段音位（考过的）包括Stress重音、Tone音调、Intonation语调七、形态学Morphology: refers to the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.（一）两类词汇1、Closed class words封闭性词汇2、Open class words开放性词汇（二）Morpheme词素1、Free morpheme自由词素2、Bound morpheme粘着词素3、Stem词干4、Root词根（三）Word-formation构词法（四）Inflection屈折变化八、句法学Syntax: studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.九、语义学Semantics: is generally considered to be the study of meaning in language.1、Synonymy同义关系2、Polysemy一词多义3、Homophones同音异义&Homogragh同形异义&Complete homonyms同形同音异义4、Hyponymy上下义关系5、Antonymy反义关系6、Analysis of meaning语义分析（1）Componential analysis成分分析（2）Predication analysis述谓分析7、 Two-place predicate二向谓词、one-place predicate一向谓词、no-place predicate 零向谓词8、 Sense relations between sentences（1）Entailment（2）Presupposition十、语用学1、Pragmatics: the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. (Or it refers to the study of natural language understanding, and specifically the study of how context influences the interpretation of meanings.)2、区分语义学和语用学的最本质因素是：是否考虑了语言使用过程中的语境。

语言学复习2,4,5章

第二章1.Phonetics（语音学）：studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, the descriptionand classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech, etc.注意研究研究语音，包括言语的产生（也就是言语在现实中怎样形成、传递和接受），言语的声音，语音的描写和分类，词语和话语连接的是语音学phonetics。

而不是phonology(音系学)，morphology（形态学），syntax （句法学），semantics (语义学)或pragmatics （语用学）。

2.phoneme （音位）：（1）定义：simply refers to a “unit of explicit sound contrast”, 最小的语音对立单位。

就是我们平时所见的最小的语音。

（2）minimal pairs：最小对比对The group of similar sounds to that phoneme is called minimal pairs. 而和那个音位类似的音叫做最小对比对。

（3）书写时，放在//里面：“By convention, a phoneme is placed between slant lines(/ /) while a phone i s placed between square brackets ([ ]).”（P39书上39页）“一般来说，音位放在双斜线（//）内，而语音放在方括号内”。

如：/i:/, /i/, /ai/都是音位，而[help],[pli:]等等都是整个单词的语音。

3.Places of articulation （发音位置）(1). 关于发音位置，我们需要掌握以下几种，以及包括的音，会出选择题比较，哪个和另外三个不属于一类。

Chapter-3-Morphology--形态学(现代语言学)

Chapter 3 Morphology 形态学1.Definition 定义Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.形态学是语法学的一个分支，它研究的是单词的内在结构及单词的构成规则。

The aim of morphology is to find out these rules.形态学的任务就是要找出这些规则（单词构成的规则）。

Morphology is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology. The former studies the inflections and the latter the study of word-formation.形态学可以划分两个分支：屈折形态学和词汇形态学（也叫派生形态学）。

前者研究的是单词的屈折变化，后者研究的是构词法。

2.Morpheme 词素Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of language词素：语言中最小的意义单位Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology.正如音位是音系学研究中的基本单位一样，词素是形态学研究中的基本单位。

Monomorphemic words 单词素单词Types of morphemes 词素的类型Free morphemes 自由词素The morphemes that are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves are called free morphemes. Such as help, table, room, mate, quick, able.这些词素是独立的、可以自由使用的意义单位，所以它们就被称作自由词素。

语言学概论第6章重点

Chapter 6 Syntax 句法学6.1 Syntax：definition 定义Syntax is a study of sentences:sentence structure and formation 句法学就是对句子的学习。

Syntax can be defined as the branch of linguistics that studies how the words of a language can be combined to make larger units, such as phrases, clauses and sentences.语法可以被定义为语言学的分支研究语言的词汇如何被合并成更大的单位,比如短语和句子,从句。

It studies the interrelationships between elements of the sentence structure and the rules gov erning the production of sentences. 它研究句子中各种成分之间的关系。

句法研究语言的句子结构。

Finite(有限的)number of words and small set of rules can create infinite number of sentences.有限的单词和少量规则能创造无穷尽的句子。

Syntactic knowledge: the intuition of a native speaker about how words are combined to be phrases and and how phrases are combined into sentences. 句法知识:说话者用直觉知道母语词汇如何结合成词组和短语如何组合成的句子。

6.2 Grammar，syntax and morphology 语法、句法学和形态学Grammar ：“the knowledge and study of the morphological and syntactic regularities of a natural lang uage. ”It excludes phonetics, phonology, semantics.语法是关于自然语言形态规则和句法规则的知识和研究。

语言学名词解释及知识点(1)

语言学名词解释及知识点1.Linguistics is the scientific study of language.ngugage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.3.Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.(1)Arbitrariness任意性refers that there is no logic or intrinsic固有的relationship between form(sound) and meaning.(2)Duality双重性means the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level arecomposed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.(3)Productivity多产性means language is resourceful because of its duality and recursiveness.(4)Displacement means language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.(5)Cultural transmission: language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation. The details of thelinguistic system must be learned by each speaker.(6)Interchangeability互换性means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.nguage is human unique.5.Six prmary factors of any speech event and language functions（Closing Statement: Linguistics and Poetics 1960 Jakobson）:(1)context语境——referential（to convey message and information）(2)message——poetic（to indulge in language for its own sake）(3)addresser陈述人——emotive（to express attitudes，feelings and emotions）(4)addressee受话人——conative（to persuade and influence others through commands and requests）(5)contact接触方法——phatic（to establish communion with others）(6)code编码（手语等）——metalingual元语言的（to clear up表达intentions and meanings）nguage Functions: Informational信息功能；Interpersonal人际功能；Performative施为功能；Emotive；Directive；Phatic communion寒暄功能；Metalingual（the analysis of language itself）；Recreational7.Scope of Linguistics(1)Microlinguistics微观语言学: sound: phonetic语音学, phonology音系学; form：morphology形态学, syntax句法学;meaning: semantics语义学; pragmatics语用学(2)Macrolinguistics宏观语言学: interdisciplinary交叉学科, sociolinguistics社会语言学, psycholinguistics心理语言学,applied linguistics应用语言学, anthropological linguistics人类语言学, computational linguistics计算机语言学8.Key Concepts in Linguistics(1)Descriptive描写means the linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.(2)Prescriptive规定means the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for correct and standard behavior in usinglanguage to tell people what they should say and not say.(3)Synchronic共时in which languages are treated as self-contained systems of communication at any particular time 时间点(4)Diachronic历时in which the changes to which languages are subject in the course of time and treated historically.时间段(5)Langue语言is the set of conventions and rules, it is abstract and relatively stable.(6)Parole言语is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules, it is concrete and varies fromperson to person, and from situation to situation.(7)Competence语言能力is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his or her language.(8)Performance语言表现is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. (NoamChomsky Aspects of the Theory of Syntax in 1965)9.Phonetics语音学is defined as the scientific study of speech sounds, especially on its production, transmission and perception.10.Consonants辅音are sounds produced by obstructing the flow of air in the oral cavity.11.Vowels元音are produced when the air stream meets with no obstruction.12.Phonology音系学is the study of sound patterns and sound systems of a specific language. It aims to discover the principles that governs the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.13.Relationship between phonetics and phonology;(1)Phonetics is the basis for phonological study while phonology is the extension of phonetics.(2)Phonetics is gloal while phonology is local.(3)Phonetic transcription音标is in [ ] (square brackets) while ponemic transcription is in / / (slashes).14.Phoneme音位is a phonological unit which is the smallest unit of sound in a language and which can distinguish two words.(phonology)15.Phone音素is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.But a phone does not distinguish meaning. (phonetics)16.Allophone音素的变位means the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme.17.Tone is useless in English. (X) ; English is tone-language. (X)18.Morphology形态学is the study of word-formation and the study of the internal structure of words, or the rules by which words are formed from smaller components, that is morphemes.19.Morpheme词素is the minimal unit in terms of relationship between expression and content(form and meaning), a unit which can not be devided without destroying or drastically极端地altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.20.Word is a minimum free form which is stable and relatively uninterruptible.21.Allomorph语素变体is any of the different shapes or phonetic forms of a morpheme. (cats,dogs,horses中的s,z,iz是复数词尾s的变体）22.Word-formation: compounding复合词(blackboard,wedding-ring,coffee table); derivation派生(happy-unhappy); coinage新造词; blending合成词(brunch,smog); back-formation逆生词(commentate is a back-formation from commentator); clipping缩减; acronymy缩写; analogical creation类比创造; borrowing借词23.Types of Morphemes：(1)Affix词缀is the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme.(2)Root词根is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.(free：friend；bound：-ceive）(3)Stem词干is a morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an affix may be added, eg.possibility+esparing inflectional屈折(不改变意义和词类，只能是后缀；三单,-ed,-ing,-en,pl,所有格,-er/-est) and derivational派生morphemes：①In terms of productivity②Whether the word class of the stem词干is changed or not③Grammatical need vs semantic need④Order: derivational morpheme + inflectional morpheme⑤Suffix后缀: derivational + inflectional; Prefix前缀: derivational25.Syntax is the study of the internal structure of sentences(clauses and phrases) and the rules that govern the formationof sentences.26.Morphology + Syntax= Grammar27.Autonomy自主性of syntax is the unique feature.28.Endocentric向心structure is one whose distribution is functionaly equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents. There is a head中心语. (NP,VP,PP,AP,TP)29.Exocentric离心structure refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, There is no head.30.Systemic Functional Grammar系统功能语法：related to social settingsGenerative Grammar生成语法（形式语言学，Chomsky）：do not care about social settings31.Semantics语义学is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.32.Reference指称意义means the relationship between the linguistic form and what it refers to in the non-linguistic world of experience or physical world.33.Sense is the inherent固有的meaning of the linguistic form; the collection of all the features of the linguistic form. It is abstract and decontextualized.34.Contextualism: one can derive meaning from observable contexts which include situational context and the linguistic context.35.Behaviorism: meaning is the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls for the in the hearer.36.Semantic Componential Analysis语义成分分析法is the approach that analyze word meaning by decomposing is into its atomic features. It shows the semantic feature of a word.37.Pragmatics语用学is the study of meaning in context, the study of speakers’ meaning and the study of utterance meaning.38.Pragmatics = Meaning - Semantics39.Utterance 话语meaing: units of language in useSentence meaning: abstract units of the language system.40.Context is the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.41.Speech act theory 言语行为理论由Austin 提出How to Do Things with Words 196242.Locutionary act以言指事（言内行为）is the act of saying something in the full sense of “say”.43.Illocutionary act以言形事（言外行为）is the act performed in saying something.Illocutionary force: the most interesting part for pragmatic study.44.Perlocutionary acty以言成事（言后行为）is the act preformed by or as a result of saying, the effects on the hearer.45.Cooperative Principle(CP)合作原则——The essential thesis: Make your contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purposes or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.四个准则：maxim of quantity 数量准则；maxim of quality 质量准则（修辞）；relation；manner46.Sociolinguistics社会语言学is the subfield of linguistics that studies language in relation to society. It is interested in how social factors influence the structue and use of language.47.The key issue in sociolinguistics is variation.nguage and Gender(1)Major ideas concerning language and gender:①Men and women speak differently.②Language is discriminatory against women.(2)Features of women’s language①Frequent use of hedges like “I’m afraid that…”, “I’m not sure but…”, “kind of ”, and “sort of “.②Abundant use of tag question as in “The lecture is terribly interesting, isn’t it?”③Greater use of qualifiers and intensifiers than men: “awfully”, “lovely”, “terribly”, and “fascinating”, among others.④Preference for use of the standard form of a language, and more polite than men’s language(3)Language sexism①Job stereotypes: nurse, teacher, clerk, president②In word-formation: author/ authoress, actor/ actress, widow寡妇/ widower鳏夫, hero/ heroine③In meaning: governor/ governess保姆; master/ mistress情妇。

语言学概述

语言学概述这就是综述一下，不过下面提到的名词的都是考过的知识点。

Parole这个概念是F. de Saussure（索绪尔）提出的。

Langue指语言系统的整体，“所有（语言使用）个体头脑中存储的词语-----形象之总和”，这个整体相对较为稳定；Parole 指某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语，它是随时间和地点变化的一个动态的实体。

四、语言的功能Functions of Language（这个也考过的。

弱弱地说一句：如果真的在临时抱佛脚，那就不要管这五个术语的具体含义了，只要能强行记下来应付考试就是了。

>_<1、Arbitrariness 任意性2、Productivity 多产性3、Duality 双层结构4、Displacement 移位性5、Cultural Transmission 文化传播性六、语音学和音位学（一）语音学Phonetics: the study of the phonic medium of language.1、三大分支（1）Articulatory Phonetics发音语音学（2）Auditory Phonetics 听觉语音学（3）Acoustic Phonetics 声学语音学2、辅音和元音（这个考过的，考过二者的区别）（二）音位学Phonology: aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form pattern and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.1、三个术语（1）Phone音素（2）Phoneme音位（3）Allophone音位变体2、Suprasegmental Phonology超音段音位（考过的）包括Stress重音、Tone音调、Intonation语调七、形态学Morphology: refers to the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.（一）两类词汇1、Closed class words封闭性词汇2、Open class words开放性词汇（二）Morpheme词素1、Free morpheme自由词素2、Bound morpheme粘着词素3、Stem词干4、Root词根（三）Word-formation构词法（四）Inflection屈折变化八、句法学Syntax: studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.九、语义学Semantics: is generally considered to be the study of meaning in language.1、Synonymy同义关系2、Polysemy一词多义3、Homophones同音异义&Homogragh同形异义&Complete homonyms同形同音异义4、Hyponymy上下义关系5、Antonymy反义关系6、Analysis of meaning语义分析（1）Componential analysis成分分析（2）Predication analysis述谓分析7、Two-place predicate二向谓词、one-place predicate一向谓词、no-place predicate 零向谓词8、Sense relations between sentences（1）Entailment（2）Presupposition十、语用学1、Pragmatics: the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. (Or it refers to the study of natural language understanding, and specifically the study of how context influences the interpretation of meanings.)2、区分语义学和语用学的最本质因素是：是否考虑了语言使用过程中的语境。

英语语言学专业术语

英语语言学专业术语英语语言学是研究英语语言的起源、发展、结构和使用的学科。

以下是常见的英语语言学专业术语及其解释。

1. Phonetics（音系学）：研究语音的学科。

主要研究语音发音过程，包括语音的组成、发音方式和特点等。

2. Phonology（音韵学）：研究语音在语言中的功能和规律的学科。

主要研究语音在不同语境下的变化规律和相互关系，包括音素、音位和音系等。

3. Morphology（形态学）：研究语言中单词的形态和构成的学科。

主要研究单词的基本单位和构成规律，包括词根、词缀和词类等。

4. Syntax（句法学）：研究句子结构和句子组成的学科。

主要研究句子的构成和排列方式，包括短语、从句和主谓结构等。

5. Semantics（语义学）：研究语言意义的学科。

主要研究语言符号和意义之间的关系，包括单词、短语和句子的意义等。

6. Pragmatics（语用学）：研究语言使用的学科。

主要研究语言与社会文化环境的关系，包括语境、语用规则和交际意图等。

7. Discourse analysis（话语分析）：研究语篇结构和语篇功能的学科。

主要研究语言在话语交际中的组织和作用，包括话语行为、话语结构和话语分析方法等。

8. Sociolinguistics（社会语言学）：研究语言和社会文化因素之间的关系和影响的学科。

主要研究不同社会群体、文化背景和地理区域中语言使用的差异和变化，包括方言、语言变体和语言政策等。

9. Psycholinguistics（心理语言学）：研究语言和心理过程之间的关系的学科。

主要研究语言理解、语言产生和语言习得等心理过程，包括语音知觉、语法处理和语言记忆等。

以上是英语语言学常见的专业术语及其解释，希望能够帮助你更好地了解英语语言学。

【密训】00830 现代语言学

现代语言学（课程代码：00830）Chapter1:Introduction1.Define the following terms:1).Linguistics:It is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2).General linguistics（普通语言学）:The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics.3).Applied linguistics（应用语言学）:In a narrow sense,applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning,especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.In a broad sense,it refers to the application of linguistic findings to the solution of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability.4).Synchronic study（共时性研究）:The study of a language at some point in time.e.g.A study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare's time is a synchronic study.5).Diachronic study（历时性研究）:The study of a language as it changes through time.A diachronic study of language is a historical study,which studies the historical development of language over a period of time.e.g.a study of the changes English has undergone since Shakespeare's time is a diachronic study. 6).Language competence（语言能力）:The ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language.A transformational-generative grammar（转化生成语法）is a model of language competence.7).Language performance（语言行为）:performance is the actual realization of the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules in linguistic communication. 8).Langue（语言）:Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community;Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow;Langue is relatively stable,it does not change frequently.9).Parole（言语）:Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use;parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules;parole varies from person to person,and from situation to situation.10).Language（语言）:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.11).Arbitrariness（任意性）:It is one of the design features of language.It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.12).Productivity（多产性）:Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.13).Duality（二元性）:Language is a system,which consists of two sets of structure,or two levels,one of sounds at the lower or basic level,and the other of meanings at the higher level.14).Displacement（移位性）:language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present,real or imagined matters in the past,present,or future,or in far-away places.In other words,language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.15).Cultural transmission（文化传递性）:While we are born with the ability to acquire language,the details of any language are not genetically transmitted,but instead have to be taught and learned.16).Design features（普遍特征）:It refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication2.Explain the following definition of linguistics:Linguistics is the scientific study of language.Linguistics investigates not any particular language,but languages in general. Linguistic study is scientific because it is based on the systematic investigation of authentic(可靠的，真实的)language data.No serious linguistic conclusion is reached until after the linguist has done the following three things:observing the way language is actually used,formulating some hypotheses,and testing these hypotheses against linguistic facts to prove their validity.3.What are the branches of linguistics?What does each of them study?(语言学的主要分支是什么。

morphology-syntax-形态学-句法学

morphology-syntax-形态学-句法学Chapter 3&4 summary于梦婷翻译方向班2014417791Chapter 3Morphology --one of the scope of linguistics is instructed in chapter 3. Morphology refers to the part of the grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure. Different rules apply to classify words.First one is part of speech(词性). Second one is meaning expressed. Third one is different classes.①NounsVerbs ②lexical words（content words）Adjectiv es ③open class wordsWords can be divided into AdverbsConjunctionsPrepositions ②grammatical words（functional words）Articles ③closed class wordsPronounsLinguists define word as the smallest free form found in language. A free form is simply an element that does not have to occur in a fixed position with respect to its neighboring elements；in many cases, it can even appear in isolation. For instance, The boys left. The plural marking -s is not a free form.The most important component（部分）of a word structure is the morpheme（词素, 形态素）t he smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function.Free and bound morpheme MorphemeAllomorphs （语素变体）A morpheme which can be a word byitself is called free morpheme.(自由词素)A morpheme that must be attachedto another one is a bound morpheme.（粘着词素）The morpheme used to express indefiniteness in English has two forms：a before a word that begins with a consonant and an before a word that begins with a vowel. The variant （不同的）forms of a morpheme are called its allomorphs.We can set out to analyze the internal structure of words from three aspects.1、free and bound morphemes2、Root ，affix and stem3、Derivational and infectional morphemesAlthough there are lots of rules of formation ，we can see it morphologically since learning morphology.1、inflection （屈折法） -ing-ed-er-est-‘s-s……2、compounding （复合构词法）3、derivation （派生法）4、conversion （转化法）A morpheme which can be a word by itself is called free morpheme.(自由词素)A morpheme that must be attached to another one is a bound morpheme.（粘着词素） Root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzea without total loss of identity. Stem is the main part of a word to which affixes areadded. Affix is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. A derivational morpheme (派生词素)refers to one that creates an entirely new word. It may take the form of prefix or a suffix. -en -ate -ic … An inflectional morpheme (屈折词素)provides further grammatical information about an existing lexical item. English inflectional morphemes are largely in the form of suffix.It refers to the process of adding an affix to a word or changing it in some other way according to the rules of the grammar of a language. Compounding refers to the process of conjoining two or more free morphemes to form a new word. Eg.bittersweet, rianbow … Words may shift from one part of speech to another without the addition of affixes. Eg.n →v to tape … Derivation is an affixational process that forms a word with a meaning and/or category distinct form that of its bases.。

语言学概论名词解释

1。

Design features of language：（1）Arbitrariness (任意性)：there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with。

(声音和意思无直接联系） eg: why English should use the sounds /dog/ to refer to the animal dog， the relationship between the sounds and their meaning is quite accidental。

（2）Duality(双重性）：the way meaningless elements of language at one level(sounds and letters）combine to form meaningful units at another level. That is, sounds such as d, g， f, o, mean nothing separately。

They normally take on meaning only when they are combined in certain ways, as in dog，fog， and god.2．Descriptive grammars(描写性语法)： attempt to tell what is in the language(语言第一，语法第二，语法是为语言服务)Prescriptive grammars（规定性语法）: tell people what should be in the language.3．Phonetics（语音学): the study of linguistic speech sounds， how they ate produced， how they are perceived, and their physical properties。

语言学考试要点

语言学考试要点（考试重点整理）1. What is linguistics? Lin guistics is社会语言学；心理语言学；应用语言学Chapter 1 In troducti ongen erally defi ned as the scie ntific study of Ian guage.2. The scope of lin guistics:(1 ). pho netics 语音学;phono logy 音位学； morphology 形态学； syntax 句法学；pragmatics 语用学(2) . s ocioli nguistics psycholi nguistics applied lin guistics 3. Someimportant distinctionin linguistics (1) Descriptive vs. prescriptive 描述性与规定性 ① I f a linguistics study aims to describe and an alyze the Ian guage people actually use, it is said to be descriptive;② I f the linguistics study aims to lay down rules for ” correct and standard ”behavior in using Ian guage, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to beprescriptive.(2) Synchronic vs. diachr onic 共时性与历时性① A synchronic descripti on takes afixed in sta nt (usually, but not necessarily, the prese nt) as its point ofobservati on. Mostgrammars are of this kind.②Diachronic linguistics is the study of a Ianguage through the course of its history.(2) Lan gue & parole 语言与会话①Language refers to the abstract linguisticsystem shared by all the members of a speech comm un ity.② Parole refers to the realizati on ofIan guage in actual use.(4) Competenee and performanee 语言能力与语言运用① A Ianguage user's unconsciouskno wledge about the system of rules iscalled his lin guisticcompete nee.② Performa nee refers to the actualuse of Ian guage in eon erete situati ons.(5) speech and writi ng语言与文字Speech and writing are the two major media of comm uni cati on.(6) traditi onalgrammar and moder n lin guistic 传统语法与现代语言学4. Definition of Ianguage:Lan guage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for huma n comm uni cati on.Language is a system, i.e., elements of Ian guage are comb ined accordi ng to rules.Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrin sic conn ecti onbetwee n a lin guistics symbol and what thesymbol sta nds.Lan guage is vocal because the primary medium for all la nguages is sound.The term “ human in the defi niti on ismea nt to specify that Ian guage is huma n-specific.5. Design features of Ianguage6. (1) Arbitrari ness 任意性refers tothe forms of lin guistic sig ns bear non atural relati on ship to their meaning.(so unds and meanin gs)(2) Productivity(creativity) 能产性Language is productive in that it makes possible the con structi on and interpretation of new signals by itsusers.(3) duality 双重性The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of eleme nts of the sec on dary level and eachof the two levels has its own principles of orga ni zati on.(4) displaceme nt 移位性Huma n Lan guages en able their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at moment of comm uni cati on.(5) cultural tran smissi on 文化传承性7. Fun cti ons of Ian guage(1) refere ntial (to con vey message andin formati on),(2) poetic (to indulge in Ianguage forits own sake),(3) emotive (to express attitudes, feeli ngs and emoti on s),(4) con ative (to persuade and in flue nce others through comma nds and requests),(5) phatic (to establish comm union with others)(6) metalingual (to clear up intentions and meanin gs).①Informative( 信息功能): to give in formati on about facts. (ideati on al)②Interpersonal( 人际功能): to establish and main tai n social status in a society.(age, sex, la nguage, backgro und,acce nt, status)③ Performative（施为功能）:Ianguage is used to do thi ngs, to perform certa inactions. （name, promise, apologize, sorry, declare）④ .Emotive/Expressive （情感功能）: to express feeli ngs and attitudes of the speaker.⑤ Phatic communion（寒暄交流）:to use small and meanin gless expressi ons to establish a comfortable relati on ship or maintain social con tact betwee n people without any factual content. （health, weather）⑥ Recreational function（娱乐）:the use of Ian guage for sheer joy. （lyrics, poetry）⑦ Metalingual function（元语言功能）: to talk about Ian guage itself.1. Phonetics （语音学）is the study of the phonic mediumof Ianguage; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world ' s Ianguages. Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, tran smitted, and perceived.2. Orthographic representation of speech sounds :broad transcription （宽式标音）and narrow tran scripti on （严式标音）A broad tran scripti on （宽式标音）is the tran scripti on with letter-symbols on ly.A narrow tran scripti on （严式标音）is a tran scripti on with letter symbols together with diacritics.3. Phono logy （音位学）i s the study of the sound patter ns and sound systems ofIan guages.4. The differences between phonetics and phonology:（语音的正字表征）① Both are concerned with the sameaspect of Ianguage----the speech sounds. But they differ in their approach and focus. ② Phon etics is of gen eral n ature; it isin terested in all the speech sounds usedin all huma n Ian guages; it aims to an swer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phoneticfeatures they have, how they can be classified, etc. ③ Pho no logy aims to discover how speech sounds in a Ian guageform patter ns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic comm uni cati on.5. Phone （音素）,phoneme（音位）,allophone（音位变体）A phone---- a pho netic unit or segme nt.The speech sounds we hear and produce duri ng lin guistic comm uni cati on are all pho nes.A phoneme---- is a pho no logical un it; itis a unit of disti nctive value; anabstract unit, not a particular sound, but it isreprese nted by a certa in pho ne incerta in pho netic con text6. Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution and minimal pair. （音位对立，互补分布，最小对立体）7. Some rules of pho no logy （音位学规则）Sequential rules 序歹V 规贝V Assimilationrule同化规则Deletion rule 省略规则8. Suprasegmental features （超音段特征）：stress 重音，tone 音调，intonation 语调9.10.Chapter 3 Morphology1. Classification of words（1）Variable vs. in variable words: 可变词类和不可变词类Variable words: One could find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word forms; on the other hand, part of the word rema ins con sta nt follow, follows, followi ng, followed; mat, matsIn variable words: those words such aswords since, when, seldom, through, hello . They do not have in flective endin gs.(2) Grammatical words vs. lexical words: 语法词类和词汇词类Grammaticalwords: express grammaticalmeanin gs, such as conj un cti ons,prepositi ons, articles,pronounsLexical words: have lexical meanings, those which refer to substanee, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.(3) Closed-class words vs. open-class words:封闭词类和开放词类Closed-class: a word whose membershipis fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Pronouns, prepositi ons, conjun cti ons, articles, etc.Open-class: A word whosemembership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbsGrammatical---lexicalclosed-class---ope n-class words2. M）rphere（词素）:the minimal meaningfulun it of Ian guage.3. Linguistics use the term morphology torefer the part of the grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure.4. Free morpheme & bound morpheme（自由语素和黏着语素）A morpheme which can be a word by itselfis called a free morpheme; a morphemethat must be attached to another one is a bound morpheme.5. The variant forms of a morphemeare called its allomorphs.（词素变体）6. I nflectional affix & derivationalaffix（屈折词缀和派生词缀）7. Oompound: those words that consist of more tha n one free morphemes, the way to jointwo separate words to produce a single form. In compounds, the lexical morphemescan be of differe nt word classes.8. Oompoundscan be further divided into two kin ds:the endocentric compound （向心复合词）the exocentric compound（离心复合词）9. Endocentric: one element serves as thehead, the relati on ship of “ a kind of ” ; eg self-c on trol: a kind of con trol armchair: a kind of chair10. Exocentric: there is no head, so not arela ti on ship of “ a kind of somethi ng ” , eg scarecrow: not a kind of crow break neck: not a kind of n eck11.Chapter 4 Syn tax1. What is Syntax （句法）？Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways differe nt con stitue nts are comb ined to form senten ces. 句法就是研究语言的不同成分组成句子的规则2. Syntactic relations can be analyzed into three kin ds:relati ons of positi on 位置关系替代关系同现关系3.4.5.relati ons of substitutability relations of co-occurre neeChapter 5 Sema ntics 1. What is Sema ntics?Semantics is the study of the meaning of words, phrases and senten ces. 语义学是研究单词、短语和句子的意义的学科2. The con ceptualist view① The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic formand what it refers to (i.e. between Ianguage and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they arelin ked through the mediati on of con cepts in the mind.② This is illustrated by the classicsema ntictria ngle or tria ngle of significanee suggested by Ogden andRichard.Thought/reference/c on ceptSymbol/form refere ncentword/phrase/se ntence③ The symbol or form refers to thelin guistic eleme nts (words and phrases);The refere ntrefers to the object in the world ofexperie nee;Thought or refere nee refers tocon cept.The symbol or a word signifies things by virtueof the concept associated with the form of theword in the minds of the speaker; and theconcept looked at from this point of view is themea ning of the word.3. The con textualismMea ning should be studied in terms ofsituati on, use, con text ——elementsclosely lin ked with Ian guage behavior.Two types of con texts are recog ni zed:Situati onal con text: spatiotemporalsituati onLin guistic con text: the probability ofa word' s co-occurrenee or collocation.4. BehaviorismBehaviorists attempted to define meaning as “ the situati on in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer ”. 5. Lexical meaningSense and refere nee are both concernedwith the study of word meaning. They are tworelated but different aspects of meaning.Sense---- is con cer ned with the in here ntmeaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of thelin guistic form; it is abstract andde-c on textualized. It is the aspect ofmeaning dicti onary compilers arein terested in.Referenee----what a lin guistic formrefers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relati on ship betwee n thelin guistic eleme nt and thenon-li nguistic world of experie nee.6. Major sense relati ons(1)Synonymy 同义词① Dialect synon ymy 方言同义词② Stylistic synon ymy 文体同义词③ Synon yms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning④ Oollocati onal synon yms⑤ Sema ntically differe nt synon yms(2)An to nym 反义词① Gradable anton yms 等级反义词② Oomplementary antonyms 互补反义词③ Relati onal opposites 关系反义词(3)Polysemy 一词多义(4)Hom on ymy同形异义词(5)Hypo nymy上下义关系① Superord in ate 上义词② Wpon yms下义词7. Comp onen tial an alysis 成分分析法------- a way of an alyze lexical meaningIt is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning comp onen ts, called sema ntic features.。

1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。

Chapter 3&4 summary于梦婷翻译方向班2014417791Chapter 3Morphology --one of the scope of linguistics is instructed in chapter 3. Morphology refers to the part of the grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure. Different rules apply to classify words.First one is part of speech(词性). Second one is meaning expressed. Third one is different classes.①NounsV erbs ②lexical words（content words）Adjectives ③open class wordsWords can be divided into AdverbsConjunctionsPrepositions ②grammatical words（functional words）Articles ③closed class wordsPronounsLinguists define word as the smallest free form found in language. A free form is simply an element that does not have to occur in a fixed position with respect to its neighboring elements；in many cases, it can even appear in isolation. For instance, The boys left. The plural marking -s is not a free form.The most important component（部分）of a word structure is the morpheme（词素, 形态素）t he smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function.Free and bound morpheme MorphemeAllomorphs （语素变体）A morpheme which can be a word byitself is called free morpheme.(自由词素)A morpheme that must be attachedto another one is a bound morpheme.（粘着词素）The morpheme used to express indefiniteness in English has two forms：a before a word that begins with a consonant and an before a word that begins with a vowel. The variant （不同的）forms of a morpheme are called its allomorphs.We can set out to analyze the internal structure of words from three aspects. 1、free and bound morphemes2、Root ，affix and stem3、Derivational and infectional morphemesAlthough there are lots of rules of formation ，we can see it morphologically since learning morphology . 1、inflection （屈折法） -ing -ed -er -est -‘s -s …… 2、compounding （复合构词法）3、derivation （派生法）4、conversion （转化法）A morpheme which can be a word by itself is called free morpheme.(自由词素)A morpheme that must be attached to another one is a bound morpheme.（粘着词素）Root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzea without total loss of identity .Stem is the main part of a word to which affixes are added.Affix is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme.A derivational morpheme (派生词素)refers to one that creates an entirely new word. It may take the form of prefix or a suffix. -en -ate -ic …An inflectional morpheme (屈折词素)provides further grammatical information about an existing lexical item. English inflectional morphemes are largely in the form of suffix. It refers to the process of adding an affix to a word or changing it in some other way according to the rules of the grammar of a language. Compounding refers to the process of conjoining two or more free morphemes to form a new word. Eg.bittersweet, rianbow …Words may shift from one part of speech to another without the addition of affixes. Eg.n →v to tape …Derivation is an affixational process that forms a word with a meaning and/or category distinct form that of its bases.1）clipping （拆分）2）initials and acronyms （首字母缩写）5、abbreviation （缩写法）3)blending （混合） 6、back formation （反成法）7、neologism （coinage 新语）8、borrowing(借用法)Chapter 4Syntax ，a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences is introduced in chapter 4. First ，sentence types must be mastered. ①simple sentenceAccording to their structure ②coordinate sentence③complex sentenceSV/SVO/SVCAccording to the linear order of constituentsSV A/SVOO/SVOC/SVOASecond ，there are various approaches to syntactic studies. ①the traditional approach ②the structural approachNew words may be coined from already existing words by “subtracting ”an affix thought to be part of the old word. Eg.to beg （derived from beggar ）…A blend is a combination of parts of words to form a third word which contains some of the meaning of each part. Eg.web ＋log→blogInitials differ from acronyms in that whereas initials are read letter by letter ，acronyms are pronounced as independent words.An abbreviated word can be formed by cutting partof a longer word. Eg.bicycle →bike …A borrowing word refers to a word or phrase which has been taken from onelanguage and used in another language. tin ：education … New words can be created to define new objects or ideas.③the generative approach ④the functional approachParts of speech 1、the traditional approachFunction of words categoriesConcord and government （一致性与普通语法）tense and aspect （时和体） 2、the structural approach①syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations （组合关系与聚合关系）②endocentric and exocentric constructions （向心结构与离心结构）Immediate constitute analysis （直接成分分析法） 3、the generative approachCategory refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular languages. A fundamental fact about words in all human languages is that they can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes ，called syntactic categories ，which can generally substitute for one another without loss of grammaticality . 1、The most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories. Here word level categories are divided into two kinds ：An endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to one of its constituents which serve as the centre or head of the whole.Typtical endocentric constructions are noun phrase ，verb phrase ，adjective phrase. subtypes: subordinate and coordinate constructions （主从结构和并列结构）The exocentric construction is defined as a construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent to any of its constituents.Typtical exocentric construction is prepositional phrase.The syntagmatic relation is a relation between one item and others in a sequence or between elements which are all present.The paradigmatic relation is a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure ，or between one element present present and others obsent.Agreement between words in person,number, gender, and case. Tense ：A grammatical form connected with verbs ，which often show time Aspect ：A category of the verb designating primarily the relation of the action to the passage of time, especially in reference to completion, duration, or repetition.Nouns(N) Major lexical categories Verbs(V)Adjective （A ） Preposition （P ）Determiner （Det ） Degree words （Deg ） Minor lexical categories Qualifier （Qual ） Auxiliary （Aux ） Conjunction （Con ） 2、Syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrases ，the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built. The most commonly recognized and discussed phrasal categories are noun phrase （NP ），verb phrase （VP ），adjective phrase （AP ）and prepositional phrase （PP).Phrases can consist of just one word. Phrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain ： headSpecifier ----left side of the headComplement ---right side of the head 3、Grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.Eg.the book on the desk NP →（Det ）N （PP ）… The XP rule ：XP→（specifier ）X （complement ） XPSpecifier head complement 4、 specifierPhrase elementSeamantically ，they help make precise themeaning of the head. Syntactically ，they typically mark aphrase boundary .Specifier HeadDeterminer N Qualifier V Degree word A/PcomplementsPhrase elementMiss Hebert believes thatmodifierPhrase element5、The S rule ： S →NP VPLinguists take an abstrct category inflection （dubbed “infl ”）as their heads ，which indicates the sentence ’s tense and agreement. InflpNP infl VP 6、1)yes-no questionEg. Will the train arrive ？Complements are themselves phrasesand provide information about entities and location whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head. The imformation about a word ’s complement is included in the head and termed subcategorization.(次范畴化) Complement clauseComplementizers she will win. Complement phraseModifier specify optionally expressible properties of head.Eg.a very careful girl open with care read carefullyFirst step：CPC SNP Infl VPDet N will VThe trian arrive Second step：CPC SNP Infl VPDet N will VThe trian arriveInversionThird step：CPC SInfl NP Infl VP will Det N will VThe trian arrive 2）do insertionEg. Do birds fly?CPC SNP Infl VPN Nonpst VBirds fly Deep structure Transformation Surface structure Deep structureC SNP Infl VPN do VBirds flyCPC SInfl NP Infl VPwill N e VBirds fly3)wh movement① Eg. What languages can you speak？What languages can you_______speak_______?ABCPC SInfl NP Infl VPcan N e V NPyou speak e ②eg. Who win the game？transformation Surface structureA inversionB wh movementNPDet whatN languagesNP C SNP Infl VPNP e Pst VDet N win the gamewhoN。

morphology syntax 形态学 句法学

现代语言学

morphology-syntax-形态学-句法学

形态学和句法学的联系和区别

英语语言学名词解释

语言学考试要点 考试重点

语言学教程术语

英语专业语言学期末复习资料

英语语言学分支

[语言学]胡壮麟版《语言学教程》名词解释

语言学知识

语言学复习2,4,5章

Chapter-3-Morphology--形态学(现代语言学)

语言学概论第6章重点

语言学名词解释及知识点(1)

语言学概述

英语语言学专业术语

【密训】00830 现代语言学

morphology-syntax-形态学-句法学

语言学概论名词解释

语言学考试要点

morphology syntax 形态学句法学

语言学考试要点考试重点