Dworkin_introduction

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法律体系英文介绍

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On Jurisprudence in General Classical Doctrine of Natural Law (Plato, Aristotle, Augustine, Aquinas, Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau) Classical Positivism (J. Bentham, J. Austin) Pure Theory of Law (H. Kelsen) Naturalist‟s Revival (L. L. Fuller, G. Radbruch) The Concept of Law and of the Legal System (H. L. A. Hart) Dworkin‟s Theory of Principles Justice Theory (J. Rawls)

BASICS AND SUGGESTED FURTHER READING ARISTOTLE: Politics. London 1981. ARISTOTLE: Nicomachean Ethics. Oxford 1908. AUSTIN, J.: The Province of Jurisprudence Determined (1832) and The Uses of the Study of Jurisprudence (1863). Indianopolis/ Cambridge 1954. BENTHAM, J.: An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation. 1781. BENTHAM, J.: Of Laws in General. London 1970. BIX, B.: Jurisprudence: Theory and Context. London 1999 (Fourth Edition 2006). BODENHEIMER, E.: Jurisprudence. The Philosophy and Method of the Law. Cambridge (Mass.) – London 1962. DWORKIN, R.M.: Taking Rights Seriously. Cambridge (Mass.) 1999. DWORKIN, R. M.: Law‟s Empire. London 1986. DWORKIN, R. M.: A Matter of Principle 1985.

计量经济学伍德里奇第一章

⇒ “What would have been the outcome of the treatment group if the intervention had not taken place?”.
The main challenge of an impact evaluation is the construction of a suitable counterfactual situation.
An ideal experiment can be conducted to obtain the causal eﬀect of fertilizer amount on yield when the levels of fertilizer are assigned to plots independently of other plot features that aﬀect yield.
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Dandan Zhang (NSD)
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1. Introduction
Course Structure
1. Introduction (We4 Chapter 1) 2. Mathematical Foundations,Probability Theory (We4 Appendix B & C) 3. The Bivariate Linear Regression Model (We4 Chapter 2) 4. The Multivariate Linear Regression Model (We4 Chapter 3) 5. Inference (We4 Chapter 4) 6. Further Issues (We4 Chapter 6) 7. Multiple Regression Analysis with Qualitative Information (We4 Chapter 7) 8. Heteroscedasticity (We4 Chapter 8) 9. Speciﬁcation and Data Issues (We4 Chapter 9) 10. Instrument variables (We4 Chapter 15) 11. Panel Data (We4 Chapter 14)

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Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment* Correspondence to: Hilke Elke Jacke Bos-Brouwers, VU University Amsterdam, Faculty of Economics, Business Administration and Econometrics – VU-CfE, De Boelelaan 1085, Amsterdam 1081 HV, The Netherlands. E-mail: hbrouwers@feweb.vu.nlBusiness Strategy and the Environment Bus. Strat. Env. 19, 417–435 (2010)Published online 23 June 2009 in Wiley Online Library() DOI : 10.1002/bse.652Corporate Sustainability and Innovation in SMEs: Evidence of Themes and Activities in PracticeHilke Elke Jacke Bos-Brouwers*VU University Amsterdam, Faculty of Economics, Business Administration and Econometrics –VU-CfE, Amsterdam, The NetherlandsABSTRACTRecently, innovation processes towards sustainable development have received increasing attention in academic literature. This research introduces the combination of insights from innovation theory, sustainable development practice and small business characteristics to unlock new knowledge on factors that inﬂ uence the translation of sustainable innovation within small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) into practice. The sustainability themes and activities as described for large companies (i.e. in the sustainability reporting and management literature) were used as starting point in this study. It presents empiric results of the PRIMA Project conducted within the rubber and plastics industry (RPI) on sustain-able innovation activities.It will show that many sustainable innovations are directed at the improvement of tech-nological processes (eco-efﬁ ciency) and to lower costs of production. These innovations can be seen as incremental. Companies with sustainability integrated in their orientation and innovation processes show value creation: the development of products new to the market (radical innovations) and cooperation with stakeholders. The PRIMA project shows that more insight in SME innovative characteristics and (e)valuation of sustainable innova-tion efforts provides opportunities to improve the sustainability performance of SMEs. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment.Received 5 August 2008; revised 25 March 2009; accepted 6 April 2009Keywords: sustainable development; corporate sustainability; innovation; SME; organizational performance; case study IntroductionHE PAST 20 YEARS HAVE SHOWN CORPORATE SUSTAINABILITY AS AN UPCOMING FEATURE IN COMPANIES WORLDWIDE .CS is aimed at improving the economic, environmental and social performance of companies, and is also known as the triple P of business (people, planet and proﬁ t). Many scholars have since written on sustain-able strategy (Elkington, 1997; Orsato, 2006; Crowe and Brennan, 2007; Fowler and Hope, 2007), report-ing (Ball et al., 2000; Campbell, 2003; Gray, 2006; Gouldson and Sullivan, 2007), rating (Springett, 2003) and stakeholder engagement (Freeman and Reed, 1983; Green and Hunton-Clarke, 2003), thus demonstrating the business case for sustainability.418 H. E. J. Bos-Brouwers Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP EnvironmentBus. Strat . Env . 19, 417–435 (2010)DOI : 10.1002/bse Nowadays, sustainable innovation has become the focal point to deliver evidence for the commitments of com-panies to the triple P bottom line. Recent literature on both corporate sustainable development and innovation focuses mainly on large, often multinational, companies. Because of this focus, they are overlooking the signiﬁ cant contribution from small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs). There are signiﬁ cant differences in innovation processes between large companies and SMEs. Policies as well as theories and instruments suited for large com-panies do not necessarily lead to successful outcomes within an SME environment. Therefore, speciﬁ cation for SMEs is necessary.These observations lead to the conclusion that there is a caveat in the literature on sustainable innovation proc-esses within SMEs. To close this gap, the research objective of this paper is to gain more insight in the translation process within SMEs to put sustainable innovation themes and activities into practice . Here, insights from literature review are combined with empirical data to present answers on the why and how of the translation of sustainabil-ity into an SME context. This leads to the following research questions. (1) What is sustainable innovation and how is it different from conventional innovation processes? (2) In which ways are innovation processes within SMEs different from those in large companies? (3) How is sustainable innovation translated into practice within SMEs? (4) How can similarities and dissimilarities in practice be explained? Data for this qualitative study were derived from the PRIMA Project,1 executed in January–December 2005 in the rubber and plastics industry (RPI). The scientiﬁ c relevance of this explorative qualitative research lies in the integration of sustainable development and innovation research for value creation in business.The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. The following section describes the literature review on the concept of sustainable innovation within SMEs. The method of research is presented in the next section. The fourth section analyses the results of the PRIMA project. These results are discussed in the ﬁ fth section. In the sixth section, conclusions are drawn and some suggestions for further research are given.Literature ReviewIn this section, a review of literature on innovation, corporate sustainability and differences between characteristics and innovative capacity of SMEs and large companies is given, answering Research Questions 1 and 2.InnovationInnovation research is typically concerned with understanding how innovations emerge, develop, grow and are displaced by other innovations (Hockerts, 2003). In order for an innovation to be effective, or even successful, it must result in a signiﬁ cant change, preferably an improvement in a real product, process or service compared with previous achievements (Amabile, 1997; Harper and Becker, 2004). It has commonly been assumed that innovation is the main driver for economic growth. Innovation strengthens the competitiveness for countries as well as for sectors and individual companies (Porter, 1985). It contributes to the proﬁ tability and long-term continuity of the ﬁ rm. It also leads to quality improvement, increasing variation and diversiﬁ cation in products, increased produc-tiveness and a positive inﬂ uence on turnover, proﬁ tability and employment (Guinet and Pilat, 1999). Other advan-tages are protection or extension of market shares, improved operational efﬁ ciency, improved reputation and cost reduction (Abernathy and Clark, 1985; Cooke and Mayes, 1996). There are also non-economical arguments for innovation, which focus on a better social and environmental corporate performance bringing an improved market position within reach (Elkington, 1997; Larson, 2000). The most common distinction is between radical and incremental innovations (Henderson and Clark, 1990). However, the newness of the innovation is less relevant than the fact that the ideas, practices or objects are new to the operational unit that is adopting them (Bhasrakan, 2006).Corporate Sustainability and InnovationMany (scientiﬁ c) publications on the sustainable development concept start by drawing the dramatic scene of a ‘dying earth’, triggering debate on the role of business society to address these problems. The WCED (1987) deﬁ nes 1 PRIMA is a Dutch acronym and translates into Innovation and Corporate Sustainable Development Programme.Corporate Sustainability and Innovation in SMEs: Evidence of Themes and Activities in Practice 419Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP EnvironmentBus. Strat . Env . 19, 417–435 (2010) DOI : 10.1002/bsesustainable development as ‘seeking to meet the needs and aspirations of the present, without compromising the ability to meet those of the future’. Elkington (1997) delivered the now widespread idea of the triple P bottom line for sustainable development.Just as with the deﬁ nition for innovation, corporate sustainability knows many deﬁ nitions. They range from ‘doing something with the environment’ to ‘closing production chains and having no negative impact whatsoever’ (Maddox, 2000). Motivations underlying the corporate sustainability concept include competitive advantage, proﬁ tability, increasing stakeholder pressure, legal requirements, reputation concerns, environmental performance and internal organization improvements (Ranganathan and Willis, 1999; Daily and Walker, 2000; Van Marrewijk and Werre, 2002; Dunphy et al., 2003) similar to innovation advantages. The range in deﬁ nitions of CS has inspired several authors to outline degrees or phases of sustainability (Dobers and Wolff, 2000; Jordan and Fortin, 2002; Dunphy et al., 2003). Further references that deserve citing in this connection are the work of Keijzers (2002, 2005), who claims that there are three fundamental phases and motivations for corporate sustainability:(1) sanitize – compliance -driven clean-up or health and safety efforts of companies(2) control – eco-efﬁ ciency -driven adequate environmental or social management(3) integration – value creation by integrating all ecological and social issues into all business decisions.The next section will show the importance of these motivations in the light of sustainable innovation activities.I t has long been recognized that sustainability is an innovative and potentially transformational force that generates new products and processes that challenge existing practice (Blum-Kusterer and Hussain, 2001). Here, sustainable innovations are deﬁ ned as innovations in which the renewal or improvement of products, services, technological or organizational processes not only delivers an improved economical performance, but also an enhanced environmental and social performance, both in the short and long term (Von Weizsäcker et al., 1997; Biondi and Iraldo, 2002; Alakeson and Sherwin, 2004). It integrates stakeholder demands into decision making and aims at a transformational change of existing practice. Sustainable innovations usually are radical or trans-formational by nature (Rycroft and Kash, 2000). The integration of economic, social and environmental aspects sets sustainable innovations apart from conventional innovations: not every innovation is sustainable.SMEs and Sustainable InnovationMost available research on innovation and corporate sustainability applies to large companies, whereas the innova-tion process for SMEs is different. The most prominent difference between LEs and SMEs is their number of employees (Davig and Brown, 1992; Gibcus and Van Hoesel, 2004). A commonly used delineator is 250 em-ployees, measured in full time equivalents (European Commission, 2005), also used in this paper. Next to numerical differences, other SME characteristics are summarized in Table 1.2SMELarge company Dominant role of the entrepreneur/ownerResource poverty (capital, time, knowledge and skilledpersonnel)Flexible organization capacitiesFocus on short termStrong local/regional focus and customer needs orientationLow degree of formalizationDelegated management control between board of directors and shareholders Economy of scale, resource abundance Bureaucratic rigidity Focus on mid to long term Strong (inter)national focus and looser ties with customers High degree of formalization Table 1. Characteristics2 Overview based on studies by Welsh and White, 1981; d’Amboise and Muldowney, 1988; Barkema et al ., 1996; Brouthers et al ., 1998; Heunks, 1998; Lybeart, 1998; Merrilees et al ., 2000; North et al ., 2001; Acs, 2002; Rothwell, 1992; Masurel et al ., 2003; Spence and Rutherfoord, 2003; Verhees and Meulenberg, 2004; Hausman, 2005; Scozzi and Garavelli, 2005.420 H. E. J. Bos-Brouwers Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP EnvironmentBus. Strat . Env . 19, 417–435 (2010)DOI : 10.1002/bse These characteristics also lead to differences in innovation capacity. There is a large body of literature concern-ing the innovation differences between large companies and SMEs (Tether, 1998). The results from these studies are inconclusive and dependent on the measurement and interpretation of innovative capacities. Several authors argue that traditional innovation indicators such as R&D expenditures, R&D employment, patents and innovation counts are not applicable for SMEs (Acs and Audretsch, 1988; Kleinknecht, 1989; Tether, 1998). Most of these studies on SME innovativeness conclude that small ﬁ rms can keep up with larger ﬁ rms in the ﬁ eld of innovation and show no difference in the quality and signiﬁ cance of the innovations produced (Van Dijk et al., 1997). The question is not whether large companies are more innovative than SMEs. Of more importance is the conclusion that SMEs innovate differently from large companies. An overview of these differences is given in Table 2.3Typically, SMEs have behavioural advantages and resource disadvantages in innovation. A critical success factor for innovation is a horizontal management style, with increased decision making at lower levels (Rothwell, 1992). According to Pelham and Wilson (1996), the opposite also holds true. Therefore, the central and (idea) creating SMEsAdvantagesDisadvantages Flexibility of organization– Less bureaucratic– Responsiveness to changing circumstances(technology and market)– Internal communications faster and moreefﬁ cientOwner/manager– Dynamic, entrepreneurial– Horizontal leadership style– Direct role in innovation as ideas generator Owner/manager – Poor managerial skills (planning, inadequate delegation, lack of functional expertise or support) – Dependency on persons for survival – Lack of formalized planning Financial: – Difﬁ culties attracting venture capital and bank investments – Failure of innovation projects may be ﬁ nancially disastrous – High ﬁ xed costs for technological investments and start-up Labour:– Difﬁ culties attracting skilled personnel– Harder to update technological knowledgeLarge companiesAdvantagesDisadvantages Financial– Less difﬁ culties attracting venture capital andbank investments– Innovation risks averted by diversity inproduction, sales and innovation projectsLabour:– Less difﬁ culties in attracting skilled labourKnowledge:– Participation in networks and conference visitsto update (technological knowledge)– Information management systemsManagement:– Decentralized management style with decisionpower on lower levels in the organisation– Long-term strategic management capabilitiesManagement: – Top management isolated from customers and work ﬂ oor – Emphasis on short-term cost-cutting instead of long-term infrastructural enhancements Labour: – No entrepreneurial fanatics tolerated Flexibility of organization: – Bureaucratic, highly formalized organization structure Table 2. Innovation capacities3 Overview based on studies by Galbraight, 1952; Rothwell and Zegveld, 1982; Kleinknecht, 1989; Kraft, 1989; Acs and Audretsch, 1990; Howard, 1992; Dodgson and Rothwell, 1994; Nooteboom, 1994; Carson et al., 1995; Van Dijk et al ., 1997; Karlsson and Olsson, 1998; Kleinknecht et al., 2002; Verhees and Meulenberg, 2004; Freel, 2005.Corporate Sustainability and Innovation in SMEs: Evidence of Themes and Activities in Practice 421Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP EnvironmentBus. Strat . Env . 19, 417–435 (2010) DOI : 10.1002/bserole of the owner/manager in SMEs is pivotal to the innovation process (Docter et al., 1989; Hartman et al., 1994). Commitment to the development of human capital, signalled by formal and informal training programmes, is likely to be central to successful innovation in both product and processes (Kleinknecht et al., 2002; Freel, 2005).On a process level, SMEs tend to be more development oriented than research minded, as is the case in large companies (Santarelli and Sterlacchini, 1990). According to Verhees and Meulenberg (2004), many innovations by small ﬁ rms are based on off the shelf technologies, concepts and/or resources offered by supplying industries. Often, SMEs have their R&D efforts distributed across a number of operational areas, rather than concentrated within a single discrete and formal R&D function (Van Dijk et al., 1997).A distinctive feature of SMEs is their inability to internalize all elements of the innovation process (Maillat, 1990). Therefore, there is a clear incentive for cooperation to compensate shortcomings (Freel, 2005). By partici-pating in innovation networks, small ﬁ rms are able to gain access to sophisticated technology and technological expertise, whose direct employment is precluded by internal resource limitations (Dosi, 1988). Other reasons for cooperation are reducing uncertainty by sharing risks and costs, gaining additional market knowledge, serving international markets and developing industry standards (Wissema and Euser, 1991; Camagni, 1991). In short, an SME is not a little big business and innovates differently.Translation of Sustainable Innovation in an SME ContextUntil now sustainability innovation has been mainly, though lightly, addressed by large companies. The most consistent reporters have predominantly, but not exclusively, been large companies operating in ‘sensitive’ indus-trial sectors (O’Dwyer and Owen, 2005). In large companies, a large proportion of the sustainability effort is put into monitoring and reporting activities. Some sustainability reports from corporations have been criticized for being biased and self-laudatory, only showing what the company is good at (Hedberg and Von Malmborg, 2003). Several authors point out the risk of window dressing (‘greenwashing’) (Yanarella and Levine, 1992; Clark, 2000; Laufer, 2003) and measurability problems (Fricker, 1998; Ranganathan, 1999; Hardi and DeSouza-Huletey, 2000; Veleva et al., 2001). In the case of SMEs, translation of the sustainability concept to hands-on, daily business actions is scarce. Also, data on sustainability performance of SMEs is scarce, since there are virtually no SMEs that publish sustainability reports. The reasons for this lie in resource poverty, low degree of formalization, lack of public visibility and low general reporting priorities of SMEs. Large companies have the administrative systems, locus of control and corporate reputation and communication motives in place for sustainability reporting, spurring a number of studies on this matter (see for example KPMG’s triennial sustainable reporting surveys and Kolk, 2008).Even though the degree of reporting activities differs between large companies and SMEs, the advantages of sustainable innovation mentioned earlier also apply for SMEs. Unfortunately, a number of SME characteristics are not in favour of sustainable innovation: resource poverty in terms of capital, knowledge and skilled labour severely limits the sustainable innovation capacity of SMEs. Also, their focus on the short term conﬂ icts with the long-term focus of sustainability innovations. Typically, SME innovations can be seen as incremental innovations (Bhasrakan, 2006), whereas sustainable innovations are usually radical or transformational by nature. On the other hand, the behavioural innovative advantages of SMEs and networking capacities show that they are able to over-come these shortcomings.To be able to study the sustainable innovation activities of SMEs, this research uses concepts and indicators used in sustainability accounting and reporting practice as inspiration and starting point. Here, themes are indi-cated on which sustainability activities can take place. Remarkably, many models are developed by third parties, such as ACCA, Business in the Community, SIGMA, KPMG and the Global Reporting Initiative. There is not yet a generally agreed upon method available in academic literature on environmental or sustainability performance evaluation to date (Xie and Hayase, 2007). It has been noted in the literature that emerging sustainable accounting practice has its shortcomings in measuring sustainability. Multiple proposals have been made to develop an inte-gral model for monitoring and reporting (for further reference see Solomon and Lewis, 2002; Campbell, 2003; Marshall and Brown, 2003; Brammert and Pavelin, 2008; Owen, 2006; Perrini and Tencati, 2006; Taplin et al., 2006; Tyteca et al., 2002; Yongvanich and Guthrie, 2006).422 H. E. J. Bos-Brouwers Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP EnvironmentBus. Strat . Env . 19, 417–435 (2010) DOI : 10.1002/bseIn conclusion, reporting practice gives clues on which sustainability themes activities can be developed. This deﬁ nes the ‘what’ of sustainable innovation activity. The ‘why’ and ‘how’ of sustainable innovation practice in an SME context is deﬁ ned by the characteristics of SMEs as opposed to large companies, more particularly, the pivotal role of the owner/manager and the resources (both in material and human perspective) available. Thus, the sustainability orientation (motivation and role of the owner/manager), design of the innovation process (exertion of internal human and material resources) and cooperation with stakeholders (to overcome resource limitations) are indicators of sustainable innovation practice within SMEs.MethodologySector DescriptionThe rubber and plastics industry (RPI) includes some 1150 companies and consists mainly of SMEs (95%), with an average of 35 fte. More than 55% of the companies have less than 10 fte. The overall turnover is almost 7 billion euro, of which 60% is export related. The sector employs 35 000 workers. The trade association Federatie NRK represents 61% of the RPI companies in The Netherlands. The RPI sector produces and supplies a variety of (semi) ﬁ nished products conveyed to industry (24%), building and construction (19%), packaging (37%) and consumer products (20%) (Economisch Bureau ING, 2005; NRK website, 2006, ABN-Amro, 2008). The participants in the PRIMA project include a representative overview of the RPI.The RPI sector deals with signiﬁ cant sustainability related issues, with emphasis on use of fossil resources, recycling, ‘poly mixture’, health and safety issues, transport, packaging, reputation and associated difﬁ culties to attract and retain personnel. Other issues are low cooperation degree in the value chain, heavy (international) competition with low-wage countries, increasing oil prices and high cost of labour.4 These issues were integrated in developing the PRIMA Barometer (see below) to make it sector speciﬁ c.The PRIMA ProjectThe PRIMA project was aimed at developing an instrument to gain insight into the sustainable innovation activi-ties of participating companies. The project team included representatives from the following organizations: VU University Amsterdam,5 four universities of professional education 6 and the Federatie NRK. Only members of the Federatie NRK were invited to participate in PRIMA. In total 26 companies participated in the project.The PRIMA BarometerBackgroundAs described above, many initiatives exist on monitoring and reporting sustainability performance. Although reporting is a mean to communicate with internal and external stakeholders, the underlying methodology can be used for performance measurement (Gray, 2006). The information in reports must be collected from the meas-urement and monitoring of business performance on sustainability activities of the company. For this reason, reporting techniques give evidence on how a company translates corporate sustainability into practice (Schaltegger and Wagner, 2006).The Global Reporting I nitiative stands out as the best-known reporting framework (Owen and Swift, 2001). Its publication of ‘High 5’ (Global Reporting Initiative, 2003) in 2003 and its update in 2007 (Global Reporting Initiative, 2007a) represents one of the few guidelines speciﬁ cally targeted at SMEs. However, these guidelines are primarily a ‘ﬁ ve-step guidance’ on how to use the set list of GRI indicators (Global Reporting I nitiative, 2007b). To this date, there are hundreds of reports published using the GRI Guidelines (GRI website, 2008), although sustainability reporting by SMEs is very rare.4 These issues were derived from qualitative, exploratory conversations between the researcher and the director and account managers of the Federatie NRK in September 2005.5 The author was the representative of the VU University of Amsterdam and project leader of the PRIMA project.6 Windesheim, Zwolle; Avans, Breda; Fontys, Tilburg and InHolland, Alkmaar.Corporate Sustainability and Innovation in SMEs: Evidence of Themes and Activities in Practice 423Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP EnvironmentBus. Strat . Env . 19, 417–435 (2010) DOI : 10.1002/bseDesignSince there is no standard sustainability reporting design for SMEs available, and none of the participating companies published a sustainability report, other ways to collect data were necessary. Due to time limitations of both the project and the respondents, semi-structured interviews were chosen as the data gathering technique. The PRI MA Barometer as an interview guide includes indicators derived from the GRI guidelines, combined with insights in sector speciﬁ c issues provided by the Federatie NRK. The following sustainability themes were agreed upon by the project team:(1) product quality (quality policy and management)(2) planet – environmental issues (policy, emissions to water, air and soil, energy, waste and recycling, materials,transport, biodiversity)(3) people – employee focus (working conditions, health and safety, conditions of employment, job satisfaction)(4) people – societal focus (social engagement, reputation, stakeholder engagement)(5) people – ethics and transparency (code of conduct, stakeholder communication and reporting, integrity).These were then translated into a semi-structured interview guide with examples of activities on each sustainabil-ity theme. The sustainability performance of the company was measured by teams of students from the participat-ing universities of professional education, asking the participating companies which plans and activities they had developed, implemented, evaluated and adjusted on each of these indicators. This method of interviewing relates to the plan–do–check–act management cycle of Deming (Petersen, 1999). During 1.5 hour interviews they ques-tioned the director or manager on sustainable innovation activities. The interview results were analysed in student reports per company, according to sustainability theme. A bias was introduced by using students from different types and levels of study. To eliminate this bias, much effort was given to the interview instructions beforehand and the harmonization of the student reporting process.Thirteen companies were then selected by the project team, based on the number and impact of sustainability measures on the ﬁ ve sustainability themes, and was limited by time available in the project. These companies were submitted to a 2.5–3 hour in-depth interview on their sustainable innovation activities. To gain more insight into the why and how of sustainability activities the author interviewed the respondents on the following aspects, noted earlier:(1) sustainability orientation(2) innovation processes (strategy, implementation)(3) cooperation for sustainable innovation (stakeholders).The company reports and in-depth interview results were then analysed using the coding qualitative interview analysis technique (Charmaz, 1983; Strauss and Corbin, 1990). This is the process of breaking down, examining, comparing, conceptualizing and categorizing data, thereby making connections between categories. Also, cognitive mapping was used to recognize causal relationships in a representation of thinking about a problem that follows from the process of coding (Montazemi and Conrath, 1986; Eden, 2004). This method of data analysis generates new concepts, but will also relate to pre-existing notions (Loﬂ and, 1971; Miles and Huberman, 1984). These tech-niques are helpful in the identiﬁ cation of differences in the data and help with the elucidation of relationships among concepts (Richards and Richards, 1991; Bryman and Burgess, 1994).Data Gathering26 companies agreed to participate fully in the PRI MA project. Another 12 signed up, but declined doing the interviews due to lack of time in the period concerned. The companies were then divided over the participating universities of professional education according to geographical orientation. Afterwards, 13 selected companies were interviewed by the author for more in-depth data. The 26 participating companies are located in diverse parts of the Netherlands. The average company size is 71.2 employees, ranging from 7 to 230 employees. Most companies have between 10 and 50 employees, a small to medium size.The outcomes of this qualitative case study generate internal validity, as much effort is given to the construction and implementation of the interview guide and the quality of the interview results and its analysis. Although the。

霍金与牛顿英文介绍

Newton is recognized for his laws of motion and the theory of gravity
Both scientists have a prospective impact on our understanding of the universe and its fundamental
His books and public appearances have also sparked a wider interest in science among the general public, making complex concepts accessible and exciting to a wider audience
03
Hawking authorized several popular science books, including "A Brief History of Time," which explains complex scientific concepts in an accessible Manner and solid mills of copies worldwide
Introduction to Hawking and Newton in English
目录
• Introduction • Stephen Hawking • Isaac Newton • The similarities between Hawking and Newton • The Differences between Hawking and
Main achievements
Formulated the laws of motion, which describes the relationship between force, acceleration, and mass

论科学与人生的关系

论科学与人生的关系摘要：科学与人生息息相关。

本文从五个方面论述了科学与人生的关系，并就科学能否给人以幸福进行了有意义的探讨。

关键词：科学人生人生观幸福动物是靠物质和本能生存的。

人是唯一会使用符号的动物，除了对物质有所欲求以维持生存外，在很大程度上是靠精神和思想生活的。

科学不仅间接地为人的生存提供了物质条件，使人获得了闲暇和自由。

“它的更大的力量在于，科学的物质利益打开了大门，并将给所有人以使用心智精神的机会” ，从而为人的精神生活和思想发展开拓了巨大的空间。

自近代科学诞生以来，在人的一生中，人生观、个人修养、人的精神生活、人赢得他人的尊重、人的全面发展、人的自我价值的实现等等，都与科学难分难解。

因此，我们有充足的理由说，科学与人生息息相关――科学的人生功能正是在这里得以彰显。

在谈到科学和人生的关系时，马克斯•韦伯提出这样一个问题：科学对现实的和个人的“生命”能有什么积极的作用吗？他接着回答说：首先，利用一些技术知识，可以对生活――包括外在的事物和人的行为――进行控制；其次，科学给人以思维方法，以及这种方法所必须的手段和训练；最后，科学使人达到头脑的清明。

韦伯所言一点没错，可是科学对人生的积极作用远非仅此而已。

首先，科学满足了我们精神的急切需求，有助于人摆脱物质的牵累，使人的精神生命充实和勃发。

爱因斯坦说过：“人类只有在不违背人性的情况下，从追求满足物质的欲望的冲动中解放出来，才能得到有价值的、和谐的生活。

这个目标就是推动提升社会的精神价值。

” 宗教扮演过这样的角色，科学也能部分地担当此任。

爱因斯坦本人的人生经历就是这样：少年时代的宗教天堂使他的精神得到第一次解放：摆脱了原始的物欲追逐和囿于个人的桎梏；在抛弃宗教、皈依科学后，从思想上把握外在世界的最高目标总是有意或无意地浮现在他的心中，使他获得了内心的自由和安宁。

罗斯扎克也有自己的精辟见解：“自由地探究知识毕竟是最高的价值，是精神的紧迫需要，其程度就像身体对食物的紧迫需要一样。

西方人文经典书籍

今天在孔夫子旧书店逛，看到里面一些人文讨论，觉得自己以后要多多看书收藏书。

看到一个书友竟然收藏了7万多册的连环画，太惊讶了。

人活着就要有爱好，有自己的个性特色。

以前买了书被人借去就回不来了，以后要坚决的拒绝“借书”。

刚刚看到这个书单，呵呵，正是我需要的，就收藏了。

以后要一本一本看，一本一本的买。

不能一次性买太多了，造成浪费。

书少才精读。

一、哲学类1．理想国（Republic）作者：柏拉图（Plato）2．形而上学（Metaphysics）作者：亚里士多德(Aristotle)3．诗学（On the Art of Poetry）作者：亚里士多德(Aristotle)4．诗艺（On the Art of Poetry）作者：贺拉斯（Horace）5．论崇高（On the Sublime Longinus）作者：朗吉奴斯（Longinus）6．第一哲学沉思录（Meditations on First Philosophy）作者：笛卡尔（Rene Descartes）7．思想录（Pascal’s Penssees）作者：帕斯卡尔（Blaise Pascal）8．人性论（A Treatise of Human Nature）作者：休谟（David Hume）9．纯粹理性批判（Critique of Pure Reason）作者：康德（Kant）10．判断力批判（Critique of Judgm ent）作者：康德（Kant）11．精神现象学（The Phenomenology of Mind）Vol.1, Vol.2作者：黑格尔（Hegel）12．小逻辑（The Logic of Hegel）作者：黑格尔（Hegel）13．作为意志和表象的世界（The World as Will and Representation）Vol.1, Vol.2作者：叔本华（Schopenhauer）14．查拉图斯特拉如是说（Thus Spake Zarathustra）作者：尼采（Friedrich Nietzsche）15．非此即彼（Either/Or）Vol.1, Vol.2 作者：克尔凯郭尔（Kierkegaard）16．普通语言学教程（Course in General Linguistics）作者：索绪尔（F.de Saussure）17．纯粹现象学导论（Ideas: General Introduction to Pure Phenomenology）作者：胡塞尔（Edmund Husserl）18．逻辑哲学论（Tractatus Logico Philosophicus）(德英对照)作者：维特根斯坦（L.Wittgenstein）19．哲学研究（Philosophical Investigations）(德英对照)作者：维特根斯坦（L.Wittgenstein）20．存在与时间（Being and Time）作者：海德格尔（Martin Heidegger）21．诗·语言·思（Poetry, Language, Thought）作者：海德格尔（Martin Heidegger）22．存在与虚无（Being and Nothingness）作者：萨特（Jean-Paul Sartre）23．真理与方法（Truth and Method）作者：伽达默尔（Hans-Georg Gadamer）24．科学革命的结构（The Structure of Scientific Revolutions）作者：库恩（T.S.Kuhn）25．性史（The History of Sexuality）作者：福柯（M.Foucault）二、伦理学类(10种，7册，350元)1．尼各马可伦理学（The Nicomachean Ethics of Aristotle）作者：亚里士多德(Aristotle)2．道德情操论（The Theory of Moral Sentiments）作者：亚当·斯密（Adam Smith）3．论人类不平等的起源和基础（A Discourse on Inequality）作者：卢梭（Jean-Jacques.Rousseau）4．实践理性批判（Critique of Practical Reason）作者：康德（Kant）5．道德形而上学基础（Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals）作者：康德（Kant）6．功利主义（Utilitarianism）作者：穆勒（Mill）7．伦理学原理（Principia Ethica）作者：摩尔（G.E.Moore）8．正义论（A Theory of Justice）作者：罗尔斯（J ohn Rawls）9．无政府、国家与乌托邦（Anarchy, State and Utopia）作者：诺齐克（Robert Nozick）10．追寻美德（After Virtue）作者：麦金太尔（Alasdair MacIntyre）三、宗教学类(10种，11册，550元)1．忏悔录（Confessions）作者：圣·奥古斯丁（St.Augustine）2．托马斯·阿奎那要籍选（Basic Writings of Saint Thomas Aquinas）Vol.1, Vol.2 作者：阿奎那（St.Thomas Aquinas）3．迷途指津（The Guide for the Perplexed）作者：马蒙尼德（Maimonides）4．路德基本著作选（Basic Theological Writings）作者：马丁·路德（Martin Luther）5．论宗教（On Religion）作者：施莱尔马赫（F.D.Schleiermacher）6．我与你（I and Thou）作者：马丁·布伯（Martin Buber）7．人的本性及其命运（The Nature and Destiny of Man）作者：尼布尔（R.Niebuhr）8．神圣者的观念（The Idea of the Holy）作者：奥托（Rudolf Otto）9．存在的勇气（The Courage to Be）作者：梯利希（Paul Tillich）10．教会教义学（Church Dogmatics）作者：卡尔·巴特（Karl Barth）四、社会学类(5种，6册，300元)1．论自杀（Suicide: A Study in Sociology）作者：杜克海姆（Emilc Durkheim）2．新教伦理与资本主义精神（The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism）作者：韦伯（Max Weber）3．货币哲学（The Philosophy of Money）作者：席美尔（Georg Simmel）4．一般社会学论集（A Treatise on General Sociology）Vol.1, Vol.2作者：帕累托（Vilfredo Pareto）5．意识形态与乌托邦（Ideology and Utopia）作者：曼海姆（K.Mannheim）五、人类学类(5种，4册，200元)1．金枝（The Golden Bough）作者：弗雷泽（Jam es G.Frazer）2．西太平洋上的航海者（Argonauts of the Western Pacific）作者：马林诺夫斯基（B.Malinowski）3．原始思维（The Savage Mind）作者：列维-斯特劳斯（Claude Levi-Strauss）4．原始社会的结构和功能（Structure and Function in Primitive Society）作者：拉迪克里夫-布郎（Brown）5．种族、语言、文化（Race, Language and Culture）作者：鲍斯（Franz Boas）六、政治学类(10种，11册，550元)1．政治学（The Politics of Aristotle）作者：亚里士多德(Aristotle)2．君主论（The Prince）作者：马基雅维里（Niccolo Machiavelli）3．社会契约论（The Social Contract）作者：卢梭（Jean-Jacques.Rousseau）4．利维坦（Leviathan）作者：霍布斯（Thomas Hobbes）5．政府论（上下篇）（Two Treatises of Government）作者：洛克（John Locke）6．论法的精神（The Spirit of the Laws）Vol.1, Vol.2作者：孟德斯鸠（Montesquieu）7．论美国民主（Democracy in America）Vol.1, Vol.2作者：托克维尔（Alexis de Tocqueville）8．代议制政府（Considerations on Representative Government）作者：穆勒（Mill）9．联邦党人文集（The Federalist Papers）作者：汉密尔顿（Alexander Hamilton）10．自由秩序原理（The Constitution of Liberty）作者：哈耶克（F.A.Hayek）七、经济学类(10种，12册，600元)1．国民财富的性质和原因的研究（An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations）Vol.1, Vol.2作者：亚当·斯密（Adam Smith）2．经济学原理（Principles of Economics）Vol.1, Vol.2作者：马歇尔（Alfred Marshall）3．福利经济学（The Economics of Welfare）Vol.1, Vol.2作者：庇古（A.C.Pigou）4．就业、利息与货币的一般理论（The General Theory of Employment Interest and Money）作者：凯恩斯（J.M.Keynes）5．经济发展理论（The Theory of Economic Development）作者：熊彼特（Schumpeter）6．人类行为（Human Action: A Treatise on Economics）Vol.1, Vol.2作者：米塞斯（Mises）7．经济分析的基础（Foundations of Economic Analysis）作者：萨缪尔森（Samuelson）8．货币数量理论研究（Studies in the Quantity Theory of Money）作者：弗里德曼（Friedman）9．集体选择与社会福利（Collective Choice and Social Welfare）作者：阿玛蒂亚·森（A.K.Sen）10．资本主义经济制度（The Economic Institutions of Capitalism）作者：威廉姆森（Williamson）八、心理学类(7种，8册，400元)1．心理学原理（The Principles of Psychology）Vol.1, Vol.2作者：威廉·詹姆士（William James）2．生理心理学原理（Principles of Physiological Psychology）作者：冯特（W.Wundt）3．梦的解析（The Interpretation of Dreams）作者：弗洛伊德（Sigmund Freud）4．儿童智慧的起源（The Origin of Intelligence in the Child）作者：皮亚杰（Jean Piaget）5．科学与人类行为（Science and Human Behavior）作者：斯金纳（B.F.Skinner）6．原型与集体无意识（The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious）作者：荣格（C.G.Jung）7．动机与人格（Motivation and Personality）作者：马斯洛（A.H.Maslow）九、法学类(10种，9册，450元)1．古代法（Ancient Law）作者：梅因（H.Maine）2．英国法与文艺复兴（English Law and the Renaissance）作者：梅特兰（F.W.Maitland）3．法理学讲演录（Lectures on Jurisprudence）Vol.1, Vol.2作者：奥斯丁（J.Austin）4．法律的社会学理论（A Sociological Theory of Law）作者：卢曼（N.Luhmann）5．法律社会学之基本原理（Fundamental Principles of the Sociology of Law）作者：埃利希（E.Ehrlich）6．法律、宪法与自由（Law, Legislation and Liberty）作者：哈耶克（F.A.Hayek）7．纯粹法学理论（Pure Theory of Law）作者：凯尔森（H.Kelsen）8．法律之概念（The Concept of Law）作者：哈特（H.L.A.Hart）9．法律之帝国（Law’s Empire）作者：德沃金（R.Dworkin）10．法律的经济学分析（Economic Analysis of Law）作者：波斯纳（Richard A.Posner）十、历史学类(8种，10册，500元)1．历史（The Histories）作者：希罗多德（Herodotus）2．伯罗奔尼撒战争史（The Peloponnesian War）作者：修昔底德（Thucydides）3．编年史（The Annals of Imperial Rome）作者：塔西陀（Tacitus）4．上帝之城（The City of God）Vol.1, Vol.2作者：圣·奥古斯丁（St.Augustine）5．历史学：理论和实践（History: its Theory and Practice）作者：克罗齐（Benedetto Croce）6．历史的观念（The Idea of History）作者：柯林伍德（R.G.Collingwood）7．腓力普二世时代的地中海与地中海世界（The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II）》Vol.1, Vol.2作者：布罗代尔（F.Braudel）8．历史研究（A Study of History）Vol.1, Vol.2作者：汤因比（A.J.Toynbee。

乔布斯英文简介

乔布斯英文简介1. IntroductionSteve Jobs, born on February 24, 1955, was an American business magnate, industrial designer, and inventor. He co-founded Apple Inc., one of the world’s most valuable companies in terms of market capitalization. Jobs played a significant role in revolutionizing the computer, music, and smartphone industries with his visionary leadership and innovative products. This article provides a brief overview of Steve Jobs’ life and his contributions to the technology world.2. Early Life and EducationSteven Paul Jobs was born to Joanne Schieble and Abdulfattah Jandali in San Francisco, California. Shortly after his birth, he was adopted by Paul and Clara Jobs. Growing up in Mountain View, California, Jobs developed an early interest in electronics and technology. He attended Homestead High School and later enrolled in Reed College but dropped out after six months.3. Apple Inc. and Early SuccessIn 1976, Jobs co-founded Apple Computer Inc. with Steve Wozniak and Ronald Wayne. The company gained early success with the Apple II, a personal computer that became popular among computer enthusiasts and different industries. Despite internal conflicts, Apple continued to innovate and introduced the Macintosh in 1984, featuring a graphical user interface and a mouse. However, due to differences with the company’s board, Jobs left Apple in 1985.4. NeXT Inc. and PixarAfter leaving Apple, Jobs founded NeXT Inc., a computer platform development company. NeXT focused on creating high-quality workstations for the education and bus iness sectors. Although NeXT hardware didn’t achieve widespread success, the company’s operating system became widely influential and eventually formed the foundation for Mac OS X.During his time at NeXT, Jobs also acquired Pixar Animation Studios from Lucasfilm Ltd. Under his leadership as CEO, Pixar became a major player in the animation industry and produced several critically acclaimed movies, including Toy Story, Finding Nemo, and The Incredibles. In 2006, The Walt Disney Company acquired Pixar, makin g Jobs Disney’s largest individual shareholder.5. Return to Apple and Later YearsIn 1996, Apple acquired NeXT Inc., bringing Jobs back to the company he co-founded. Initially, he served as an advisor but soon became interim CEO. Under his guidance, Apple experienced a remarkable turnaround with the introduction of iconic products like the iMac, iPod, iPhone, and iPad. These products revolutionized their respective industries and propelled Apple to become the most valuable company in the world.Despite facing health issues, Jobs continued to lead Apple until his resignation in August 2011. He passed away on October 5, 2011, leaving behind a legacy of innovation and creativity that continues to inspire generations of entrepreneurs and technology enthusiasts.6. ConclusionSteve Jobs’ contributions to the technology industry were nothing short of revolutionary. Through his visionary leadership and relentless pursuit of excellence, he transformed Apple Inc. into a global powerhouse and shaped the way we communi cate, listen to music, and interact with technology. Jobs’ unwavering commitment to innovation and his ability to create products that blended art and technology have cemented his place as one of the greatest entrepreneurs and inventors of our time.。

麦理浩径英语介绍

麦理浩径英语介绍The MacLehose Trail is a renowned hiking trail located in Hong Kong, offering breathtaking scenery and an immersive experience of the region's natural beauty. Named after Sir Murray MacLehose, the former Chairman of the Hong Kong Conservation Society, this trail traverses through diverse landscapes, from dense forests and mountain peaks to serene beaches and wetlands.The trail, which is approximately 100 kilometers long, is divided into ten sections, each offering its unique charms. Hikers can choose to tackle the entire trail in one go, or they can opt to complete it in smaller sections over multiple days. No matter which route is chosen, the MacLehose Trail promises an unforgettable journey through Hong Kong's natural wonders.Section 1 of the trail begins at Tai Mei Tuk Road in the New Territories and leads hikers through lush forests and past scenic reservoirs. This section offers a gentle introduction to the trail, with gradual climbs andrelatively flat terrain. As the trail continues, it beginsto ascend into the mountainous regions of Hong Kong, revealing breathtaking views of the surrounding landscape. Sections 2 and 3 take hikers deeper into the heart of the mountains, passing through dense forests and alongside cascading streams. These sections are more challenging, with steeper climbs and more rugged terrain, but the rewards are equally impressive. Hikers are treated to panoramic views of the South China Sea and the surrounding islands.Sections 4 and 5 bring the trail to the coast, where hikers can enjoy the refreshing sea breeze and take in the beauty of Hong Kong's beaches. These sections offer a welcome change of scenery, with opportunities to relax and recharge before tackling the final leg of the trail.Sections 6 through 10 of the MacLehose Trail lead hikers through a variety of landscapes, including wetlands, grasslands, and more mountainous terrain. These sections are particularly rewarding for those who appreciate Hong Kong's biodiversity, as they offer a glimpse into the region's rich ecological tapestry.Throughout the trail, hikers will encounter various wildlife, including birds, reptiles, and mammals. The trail also passes through several historical sites, such as abandoned villages and temples, providing a glimpse into Hong Kong's past.Completing the MacLehose Trail is a significant accomplishment, requiring dedication, stamina, and a love of the outdoors. However, the rewards are equally significant, with breathtaking views, refreshing sea breezes, and an immersive experience of Hong Kong's natural beauty.For those who are interested in embarking on this journey, it is advisable to plan ahead and prepare accordingly. Hikers should bring sufficient water, snacks, and appropriate clothing for the weather conditions. It is also important to be aware of the trail's difficulty level and to pace oneself accordingly.In addition to the main trail, there are also several side trails and loops that offer additional exploration opportunities. These trails lead to hidden gems such assecluded beaches, scenic viewpoints, and even ancient temples.The MacLehose Trail is not only a great way to experience Hong Kong's natural beauty but also a chance to connect with the local community. Many locals frequent the trail, offering insights and advice to fellow hikers. The trail is also a popular destination for international visitors, making it a great way to meet people from different cultures and backgrounds.In conclusion, the MacLehose Trail is a must-do for anyone who loves the outdoors and appreciates the beauty of nature. Whether you're a seasoned hiker or just looking for a new adventure, this trail promises an unforgettable experience that will leave you with lasting memories. So pack your bags, grab your hiking boots, and embark on a journey through Hong Kong's natural wonders on the MacLehose Trail.。

霍金介绍英语作文

霍金介绍英语作文Stephen Hawking Introduction。

Stephen Hawking was a renowned British physicist, cosmologist, and author. He was born on January 8, 1942, in Oxford, England, and passed away on March 14, 2018, in Cambridge, England. Despite being diagnosed with a rare early-onset slow-progressing form of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) at the age of 21, Hawking went on to make significant contributions to the fields of theoretical physics and cosmology.Hawking's most famous work revolved around the study of black holes. In 1974, he proposed that black holes emit radiation, now known as Hawking radiation, which led to groundbreaking discoveries in the understanding of black hole thermodynamics. This work was a major step towards the unification of general relativity and quantum mechanics.In addition to his contributions to black hole physics,Hawking also made significant advancements in our understanding of the universe's origins. He worked on the theory of the Big Bang, the singularity theorems, and the nature of spacetime. His book, "A Brief History of Time," aimed to make these complex scientific concepts accessible to the general public and became an international bestseller.Hawking's communication and mobility were severely limited by the progression of his ALS, and he eventually lost the ability to speak. Despite this, he continued his work with the help of a speech-generating device, which allowed him to communicate through a computer-generated voice. His determination to continue his research and share his knowledge with the world inspired countless people and solidified his legacy as one of the greatest scientific minds of our time.Throughout his life, Hawking received numerous awards and honors for his work, including the Albert Einstein Award, the Wolf Prize, and the Presidential Medal of Freedom. He was also a fellow of the Royal Society and amember of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences.In addition to his scientific achievements, Hawking was known for his popular science books and for his appearances in documentaries and television shows. He had a knack for explaining complex scientific concepts in a way that was engaging and understandable to the general public, and he became a household name as a result.Stephen Hawking's impact on the scientific community and the world at large is immeasurable. His work continues to inspire future generations of physicists and cosmologists, and his legacy will undoubtedly endure for years to come. Despite his physical limitations, he pushed the boundaries of our understanding of the universe andleft an indelible mark on the world of science.。

英文科技论文写作第三课正文

Pre-and post-planting compaction treatments were applied inter-rows; intra-rows and in the entire plot area. A control plot was used for comparison. Sample Analysis: 1. Background introduction 2. Problems existing in the related study 3. Purpose of author’s study 4. Study situation and content
4. 研究内容
This article presents an analysis of … It is the particular intention of this work to remark upon the … In this paper we develop some methods for… The author has limited his studies to the related aspects of… The problem under discussion is within the scope of …
3. 说明相关研究不足之处
However, this method cannot be used to analyze more practical cases in which… The limitations of … have been recognized. One problem frequently encountered is that … All of the above models ignored… The theory cannot apply to other cases of…

政治与社会哲学评论

31 2009 12 175-183SOCIETAS: A Journal for Philosophical Study of Public AffairsNo. 31, December 2009, pp. 175-183—2007 349H. L. A. Hart Ronald Dworkin 1967 The Model of Rules 1 the Hart-Dworkin Debate 401 Dworkin, 1967. “The Model of Rules,” University of Chicago Law Review 35: 14-45 “The Model of Rules I” Dworkin, 1978. Taking Rights Seriously. Cambridge Mass.: Harvard University Press, pp. 4-45 Dworkin Taking Rights Seriously17620074-8 — — 312-322 11-13the Separation Thesis the Social Fact Thesis 76-83177the criteria of legal validity or legality 8072 master rule 85-106 principles discretion Joseph Raz Exclusive Legal Positivism the Social Sources Thesis178extra-legal standards 106-120 Jules Coleman Inclusive Legal Positivism the Moral Incorporation Thesis 120-137145 social convention 22 “convention” habit179the Conventionality Thesis coordination convention constitutive convention 186-208“The Model of Rules II”3 98-106 theoretical disagreements about the law 154-158 propositions of law grounds of law empirical disagreements3 Dworkin, supra note 1, 76.1804 Law as Integrity interpretivist theory of law208 312 application content abstraction shared cooperative activity, SCA SCA 198-208 54 Dworkin, 1986. Law’s Empire. Cambridge Mass.: Belknap Press, pp. 4-5.5 Coleman, 2001. The Practice of Principle. In Defence of a Pragmatist Approach to Legal Theory. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 96-99, 157-160.181320 ibid. SCA convergent practice 315 the point of legal practice 6 76 Coleman, supra note 5, 99-100.7 Dworkin, 2002. “Thirty Years On,” Harvard Law Review 115: 1655-1665182pre-emptive or peremptory reason 216-237 260-282 Scott Shapiro the Practical Difference Thesis 239 IRR P IRR P IRR IRR P P IRR P P213183324 ibid.898 2007 2006 49 Dworkin, 2006. Justice in Robes. Cambridge Mass.: Belknap Press; Coleman, 2007. “Beyond the Separability Thesis: Moral Semantics and the Methodology of Jurisprudence,” Oxford Journal of Legal Studies27: 581-608; Coleman, 2009. “Beyond Inclusive Legal Positivism,” Ratio Juris22: 359-394; Raz, 2009. Between Authority and Interpretation: On the Theory of Law and Practical Reason. Oxford: Oxford University Press.。

Introduction to quantum mechanics

10.1 A brief history
Before discussing the Schrodinger wave equation, let’s take a brief (and by no means comprehensive) look at the historical timeline of how quantum mechanics came about. The actual history is of course never as clean as an outline like this suggests, but we can at least get a general idea of how things proceeded.
In some respect, quantum mechanics is just another example of a system governed by a wave equation. In fact, we will ﬁnd below that some quantum mechanical systems have exact analogies to systems we’ve already studied in this book. So the results can be carried over, with no modiﬁcations whatsoever needed. However, although it is fairly straightforward to deal with the actual waves, there are many things about quantum mechanics that are a combination of subtle, perplexing, and bizarre. To name a few: the measurement problem, hidden variables along with Bell’s theorem, and wave-particle duality. You’ll learn all about these in an actual course on quantum mechanics.

乔治卡林自我介绍中英对照

乔治卡林自我介绍中英对照乔治卡林，一位富有经验的企业家，拥有多年的管理经验。

在过去的十年中，他一直担任公司的首席执行官，成功地将公司带入了一个新的发展阶段。

以下是乔治卡林的自我介绍。

英文版：My name is George Carlin, an experienced entrepreneur with years of management experience. Over the past decade, I have served as the CEO of a company, successfully leading it into a new phase of development. Here is my self-introduction.中文版：我叫乔治卡林，是一位富有经验的企业家，拥有多年的管理经验。

在过去的十年中，我一直担任公司的首席执行官，成功地将公司带入了一个新的发展阶段。

以下是我的自我介绍。

经验丰富的企业家 (Experienced Entrepreneur)英文版：As an experienced entrepreneur, I have faced numerous challenges and achieved significant success in the business world. Throughout my career, I have been involved in various industries, including technology, finance, andretail. I have led teams, developed strategies, and implemented innovative solutions to drive growth and profitability.中文版：作为一位经验丰富的企业家，我在商界面临了许多挑战并取得了显著的成功。

differential manifold 英文书籍

differential manifold 英文书籍A Brief Introduction to Differential ManifoldsIntroductionDifferential manifold theory is an essential branch of mathematics and plays a crucial role in various disciplines such as physics and engineering. In this article, we will explore the concept of a differential manifold, its properties, and its applications. This article aims to provide a concise yet comprehensive understanding of differential manifolds for readers interested in the subject.What is a Differential Manifold?A differential manifold is a mathematical space that locally resembles Euclidean space but may have a complicated global structure. It can be defined in terms of charts, which are coordinate systems that map points in the manifold to points in Euclidean space. These charts allow us to define smooth functions on the manifold, and the compatibility conditions between different charts ensure a smooth transition between coordinate systems.Properties of Differential ManifoldsOne of the fundamental properties of differential manifolds is their dimension. A manifold can be n-dimensional if it can be locally parametrized by n real numbers. The local linearity property of manifolds ensures that tangent vectors can be defined at each point, allowing for the study of derivatives and vector fields.Another key property of differential manifolds is their topology. A manifold can be either open or closed, connected or disconnected, compact or non-compact, depending on its underlying topology. The notion of continuity and differentiability can be extended to functions defined on manifolds, leading to the study of smooth maps and flows.Applications of Differential ManifoldsDifferential manifold theory finds applications in numerous fields, including physics, engineering, and computer science. In physics, differential manifolds provide a geometric framework for studying space-time in general relativity. The curvature and topology of manifolds play a crucial role in understanding the gravitational field.In engineering, differential manifolds are used to model and analyze various systems. Electrical circuits, control systems, and signal processing can all be represented as manifolds, allowing for the application of differential equations and control theory.In computer science, differential manifolds are employed in computer vision, robotics, and machine learning. Manifold learning algorithms aim to uncover the underlying structure and dimensionality of high-dimensional data by mapping it onto a lower-dimensional manifold.ConclusionIn conclusion, differential manifolds are fascinating mathematical objects that provide a flexible framework for studying smooth functions, derivatives, and geometric properties. They have broad applications in various scientific and engineering fields, making them an indispensable toolfor understanding and solving complex problems. By grasping the fundamental concepts and properties of differential manifolds, readers can delve into more advanced topics and further explore the beauty and elegance of this mathematical discipline.。

a introduction to manifold pdf

A Introduction to Manifold PDFIntroduction:Manifold PDF is a versatile and powerful PDF editing and viewing tool that provides users with a range of features for handling PDF documents. In this article, we will delve into the manifold features of Manifold PDF, exploring its fundamental concepts, key functionalities, user interface, document manipulation capabilities, security features, and practical use cases.1. Fundamental Concepts:- PDF Format Overview: Understanding the Portable Document Format (PDF) and its significance in document sharing, presentation, and archiving.- Manifold PDF as a Tool: Introducing Manifold PDF as a comprehensive software solution for working with PDF files.2. Key Functionalities:- Viewing and Navigation: Exploring the intuitive interface of Manifold PDF for viewing PDF documents and efficient navigation.- Annotation and Markup: Understanding how Manifold PDF facilitates annotation, highlighting, and other markup features for collaborative document editing.- Text Editing and Formatting: Examining the capabilities of Manifold PDF in terms of editing text content and formatting within PDF files.3. User Interface:- Intuitive Design: Describing the user-friendly interface of Manifold PDF, ensuring a smooth and accessible experience for users.- Customization Options: Exploring options for customizing the interface to suit individual preferences and workflow requirements.4. Document Manipulation:- Page Management: Detailing the tools and functionalities available in Manifold PDF for adding, rearranging, and deleting pages within PDF documents.- Image and Content Insertion: Understanding how Manifold PDF allows users to insert images, graphics, and additional content into PDF files.5. Security Features:- Password Protection: Exploring the security options in Manifold PDF, including password protection to restrict access to sensitive documents.- Encryption and Digital Signatures: Understanding howManifold PDF supports document encryption and the addition of digital signatures for enhanced security.6. Practical Use Cases:- Professional Document Review: Discussing how Manifold PDF can be utilized for professional document review, collaboration, and feedback.- Form Filling and Completion: Exploring the application of Manifold PDF in filling out and completing PDF forms efficiently.- Conversion and Export: Understanding the conversion and export capabilities of Manifold PDF, including its role in converting PDFs to other formats.Conclusion:Manifold PDF stands as a comprehensive anduser-friendly solution for working with PDF documents. This introduction has provided an overview of its fundamental concepts, key functionalities, user interface, document manipulation capabilities, security features, and practical use cases. As businesses and individuals continue to rely on PDFs for various purposes, tools like Manifold PDF play a crucial role in enhancing productivity and efficiency in handling these documents. Whether for viewing, editing, or securing PDF files,Manifold PDF offers a manifold of features to meet diverse user needs.。

Mankiw_Economics_introduction

Inflation Unemployment
It’s a short-run tradeoff!
The reasons
1.
Higher demand may cause firms to raise their prices, but in the meantime, it also encourages them to increase the quantity of goods and services they produce and to hire more workers to produce those goods and services.
6. Markets are usually a good way to organize economic activity.
Prices
are the instrument with which the invisible hand directs economic activity.
6. Markets are usually a good way to organize economic activity.
7. Governments can sometimes improve market outcomes.
2)Market failure may also be caused by market power, which is the ability of a single person or firm to unduly influence market prices. (垄断)
Ten Principles of Economics
Chapter 1
How people make decisions?

斯蒂夫乔布斯的英语介绍

Introduction
Apple---a very familiar name that is always brought up around us.It's a sign of time . Steve jobs is the founder of Apple, it's because of him that make the Apple popular worldwide.He creates the Apple's glory.He is regarded as an legend of era.He make the expensive and rare electronic products become one part of our modern life. As someone said,Three Apples changed the world.The first one seduced Eve.The second one awakened Newton.The third one was in the hands of Steve Jobs.
At this moment the world lost a genius!
THANK YOU
Personal resume
• In 1976 Jobs established the Apple company • In 1984 The Macintosh is unveiled, redefining the persoal computer. • In 1985 Jobs is fired because of the power struggle and starts a new company Pixar. • In 1997 He return to Apple as CEO. • In 2001 The music industry forever change with iPod, iTunes follows.Billions of songs sre downloaded. • In 2007 Jods captures the world's attention again with the iPhone. • In 2010 The iPad, Jobs's latest creation, the fast--selling technological devices ever. • In 2011 August 24, 2011, Jobs resigned from the post of CEO. Local time on October 5, 2011, died aged 56.

当代显示技术第一章

当代显示技术第一章当代显示技术第一章H S KWOKCopyright 9/1998Hong Kong University of Science Technology当代显示技术第一章1. Introduction1.1 Displays1.2 Various kinds of displays1.3 Display market1.4 Cathode ray tubes2. Basic structure of LCDs3. Material science One3.1 Properties of LC materials3.2 Classification of LC3.3 LC mixtures4. Fundamentals of optics4.1 Colours4.2 Reflection and refraction4.3 Light polarization4.4 Birefringence4.5 Retardation plates5. LCD director and alignment5.1 LC director5.2 Director alignment on the boundary surface5.3 Elastic deformation of the LC director5.4 Some special examples5.5 Details on T-cells5.6 Bistability of LC alignment6. Electro-mechanics of LCD C director deformation under an electric field6.1 Introduction6.2 LC dielectric anisotropy6.3 Dielectric energy6.4 Euler-Lagrange equations6.5 Threshold voltage and Frederick transition6.6 Response times当代显示技术第一章7. Polarization optics C Jones Matrix7.1 2x2 matrix7.2 Coordinate transformation7.3 LCD Optics modeling7.4 Jones matrix of uniformly twisted nematic cells 7.5 Eigenvalues and eigenvectors of MLC7.6 Parameter space8. LCD optical modes8.1 ECB modes8.2 Waveguiding modes8.3 Mixed modes8.4 Reflective modes9. Electro-optic properties of LCD9.1 Transmission voltage curve9.2 Contrast ratio9.3 Viewing angle10. Several LCD types10.1 TN10.2 ECB10.3 Guest-host display10.4 Cholesteric (Phase change) display10.5 PDLC10.6 Ferroelectric LC11. Material science Two11.1 Glass11.2 Polarizer11.3 Alignment layer11.4 Spacers11.5 ITO11.6 Retardation film12. LCD measurements12.1 Tilt angle12.2 Cell gap当代显示技术第一章12.3 Electro-optic curve12.4 Viewing angle13. LCD electronics13.1 Driving frequency13.2 Direct drive13.3 Multiplexing C segment displays 13.4 Alt and Pleshko law13.5 Multiline addressing13.6 Grayscale14. STN displays14.1 Twist angles14.2 Different STN modes14.3 STN LC mixture14.4 Film compensated STN15. Active matrix LCD15.1 Microelectronics15.2 Amorphous silicon15.3 Diode addressing15.4 Thin film transistors15.5 Poly-silicon TFT15.6 Chip on glass16. LCD manufacturing processes17. Radiometry and photometry17.1 Ocular response17.2 Blackbody radiation17.3 Photometric units17.4 Color charts当代显示技术第一章Chapter 1. IntroductionDisplays are the conduits to the information superhighway.Monitors, TV, sign boards, etc Display requires knowledge in materials science, opticalphysics and electronics.ElectronicsMaterialsScienceOpticsProgress in each area can affect the performance of thedisplay. e.g. new LC materials, new polarizer, new electronicdriving schemes, new optical modes for LCD.当代显示技术第一章Information displays:Fixed displaysElectronic displaysElectronics displays:EmissiveNon-emissive, light controlEmissive displays:Neon lightCathode ray tube (CRT)Light emitting diode (LED)Electroluminescent display (ELD)Plasma display panels (PDP)Vacuum fluorescentdisplay (VFD)Field emission display (FED)Flat CRTOrganic ELD (OELD)Organic LED (OLED)Non-emissive display:Mechanical displaysLiquid crystal display (LCD)Digital mirror display (DMD)Electrochromic display (ECD)Electronic ink (e-ink)Liquid crystal light valve (LCLV)当代显示技术第一章Display classification:Direct view: All of the abovetechnologiesProjection:Based on LCLV or CRTFront projectionRear projection当代显示技术第一章The deflection coils may be replaced by electrostatic fields.The einzel lens is like optical lens for light.Phorsphor efficiency: near 90%.当代显示技术第一章Chapter 2. Basic structure of a liquidcrystal display:SpacerCell gap = 2 - 20 micronsOther materials used but not shown:Silver dots for connecting top ITO ground to bottomglass plateEpoxy perimeter sealEpoxy end sealDopant for liquid crystalPI adhesion promoterLight diffuser/reflectorConnectors to electronics当代显示技术第一章LCD operates by polarization manipulation of light usingelectrical pulses. Polarization change = brightness changes.The effect of the applied voltage is first felt by the LC molecules, which rotate and align themselves in the electricfield. This alignment change will then affect the optical properties and the polarization of the light passing through it.Common model of a TN display:We shall see that this picture is slightly inaccurate later!Need to understand several things for the basic operation ofLCD:1. What is liquid crystal?Phase transition当代显示技术第一章2. How can we align liquid crystals?Boundary conditions3. How does an applied voltage affect the alignment?Elasticity, dielectric anisotropy4. How does the alignment affect the optics?Optics of anisotropic and electro-activematerialsFor further understanding and design of LCD:1. Flow dynamics of LC C response time2. Optical modeling of LCD3. Optical modeling with additional optical elementssuch as retardation films1. Transmittive: The LCD is viewed in transmission. This isoften the case for LCD with backlighting.PolarizerLCAnalyzercell当代显示技术第一章There is no reflector.2. Transflective: This is the most popular. The rear reflector isoften a diffusive type reflector to eliminate mirror effects.ReflectorPolarizerLCcellAnalyzerAmbient light or front lighting is used.This transflective LCD is simply 2 transmittive LCD in tandem.3. Reflective: In a truly reflective LCD, there is only one frontpolarizer. This is a new development with HKUST being oneof the active participants.当代显示技术第一章ReflectorPolarizerLCcellThe advantages are obvious. There is one less polarizer andalso the reflector can be placed inside the LC cell.当代显示技术第一章Chapter 3. Material Science One:A liquid that has partial crystalline structure.Ordinary liquid: molecules are randomly oriented(amorphous)Perfect crystal: all atoms are fixed at regular intervals.Only in solids (crystalline).当代显示技术第一章Usual behavior of liquid:meltingpointLiquidSolid(am(crystalline)Liquid crystal material:clearingmeltingpointpointLiquidLiquidSolid(amorphous)crystal(crystalline)Melting temperature TmClearing temperature TclLiquid crystal is useful only between Tm and Tocl.The typical useful range is between C20 C and 80o CCan be as wide as C30o to 120o C当代显示技术第一章Thermotropic: State of the liquid is determined bytemperature. All liquid crystal displays are of thistype.Lyotropic:State of the liquid is determined by concentration.Useful in biological systems.Amphitropic: Both temperature and concentration areimportant.Shapes of the liquid crystal molecule:Calamitic: Rod shape. All common LCDs are of this type.Discotic:Disk like shape.Phases of liquid crystals:Nematic (N): All the LC molecules point in the samedirection. All common LCD are of this type.Smectic (Sm): The LC molecules point in the same direction and form layers.Cholesteric (Ch): Twist angle between molecules. Same aschiral nematic.Structures of the liquid crystal “crystal”:In a perfect crystal, all the molecules are fixed in space and orientation C no freedom当代显示技术第一章In a liquid, all the molecules are free to move and rotate Ccomplete freedomNematic LC are fixed in orientation, free in translationSmectic LC are fixed in orientation, fixed in z direction motion, and somewhat fixed in the x-y plane.当代显示技术第一章Smectic B (SmB) forms a hexagonal structure in the x-y plane.(almost like a perfect crystal)Chiral Smectic C (SmC*) is also called ferroelectric LC. Moreon that later.Structurally, cholesteric = chiral nematic (N*) = twisted nematicTN LCD = twisted nematic LCDSTN LCD = supertwisted nematic LCD(All nematic.)Chiral = twist. Can be induced by chiral dopants, or intrinsic inthe LC molecule itself.Whether a cholesteric is called a TN or STN or SSTN (Ch)depends on the natural pitch.pTN pitch C 100 mSTN pitch C 10 mChpitch C 1 m当代显示技术第一章Common LCDs are made with nematic, thermotropic andcalamitic (rod shape) liquid crystals.Examples of common LC materials:MBBA (p-methyoxybenzylidene-p’-butylaniline)CH3O -- CH = N -- C4H9However, most nematic LCDs are doped to have a twiststructure. TN, STN.For any LC, we can describe the orientation of the moleculesby the director n. For the simplest casen = n(z)where z is distance perpendicular to the LC cell. The directorn is fully defined by the polar angle φ and the azimuthal angleθ. For a LC cell, the tilt angle is defined as 90-θ. It is the anglebetween the director and the x-y plane.For nematic LC, we can define an order parameter S todescribe the degree of ordering:S = 13cos2θ 12当代显示技术第一章where we have defined the direction of the LC as the z-axis.Note that this is different from a LC cell. The averaging over φis zero. S is a measure of randomness of n. n is distributedabout the z-axis in a cone. Thereforeπ1π2S = ∫(3cosθ 1)f(θ)sinθdθ/∫f(θ)sinθdθ200where f(θ) is the distribution function of θ.Check: if f=constant, i.e. the director is randomly distributed, S = 0If f(θ) = δ(0), i.e. the director is perfectly pointing in the samedirection,S = 1.Maier-Saupe Theory shows that in general yTS = 1 T cl β当代显示技术第一章where y is of the order of 0.98 and β is in the range of 0.13-0.18. Hence the S for all LC are more or less the same in Tdependence if plotted against normalized temperature T/Tcl.The following is the case for M15 and M21.Most LC molecules are of the structure:。

introduction round 介绍培训

introduction round 介绍培训下载温馨提示：该文档是我店铺精心编制而成，希望大家下载以后，能够帮助大家解决实际的问题。

文档下载后可定制随意修改，请根据实际需要进行相应的调整和使用，谢谢!并且，本店铺为大家提供各种各样类型的实用资料，如教育随笔、日记赏析、句子摘抄、古诗大全、经典美文、话题作文、工作总结、词语解析、文案摘录、其他资料等等，如想了解不同资料格式和写法，敬请关注!Download tips: This document is carefully compiled by the editor. I hope that after you download them, they can help you solve practical problems. The document can be customized and modified after downloading, please adjust and use it according to actual needs, thank you!In addition, our shop provides you with various types of practical materials, such as educational essays, diary appreciation, sentence excerpts, ancient poems, classic articles, topic composition, work summary, word parsing, copy excerpts, other materials and so on, want to know different data formats and writing methods, please pay attention!标题：打造成功的培训介绍：从引言到实践引言在当今竞争激烈的商业环境中，成功的培训介绍是组织蓬勃发展的关键。

人力资源专业英语lesson

Introduction
Introduction
Intbs）发明家、企业家、前皮克斯动画工作室
董事长及行政总裁、美国苹果公司联合创办人。
1972年毕业于加利福尼亚州洛斯阿图斯的Homestead高中，后入读俄勒冈州波特兰的里德学院，六个月后退学。
Part 6 Organizational Development
人员管理薪酬与福利绩效管理培训管理个人发展组织发展
Introduction
Evaluation: Attendance 30% Final Exam 70%
Introduction
Never forget why you are in this class.
Introduction
human resources
Part 1 Staffing
Part 2 Compensation & Benefits
Part 3 Performance Management
Part 4 Training Management
Part 5 Personal Development
Introduction
没有黄金降落伞苹果公司的代理权公告中明确表示，苹果公司希望
其高管放弃一些额外津贴，因为此类津贴已经使一些大企业臭名昭著。对苹果库比蒂诺总部的那些高管们来说，没什么离职合同、税收增长补贴(tax gross-ups) 或与公司管理层变动相关的补贴之类的东西。事实上，苹果公司与所有高层管理人员都是“可随时遣散”的雇佣关系，它们之间甚至没有一个专门的雇佣合约。
Introduction
Hope this class could be different from other classes for u all. more interesting and practical

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刺蝟的哲學：德沃金生平與思想簡介王鵬翔朗諾．德沃金(Ronald Dworkin)是當今世界上最具影響力的法理學家與政治哲學家之一。

紐約大學法學院的網站稱德沃金「大概是少數一兩位在二百年後仍會被法律學者所研讀的當代作者」。

不過，德沃金的影響力並不侷限在法學界或專業的學術圈當中，他同時也是美國最知名的公共知識分子之一。

從美國最高法院關於墮胎與安樂死的判決，大法官的資格與提名，稅制與醫療健保政策的公平性，乃至布希政府反恐政策等等重大爭議事件，都看得到德沃金在公共論壇的活躍身影。

德沃金對於實際社會政治的評論，始終立基在其高度一貫性的法律、政治與道德哲學的基礎之上。

德沃金的學術生涯與哲學思想，值得我們了解。

一、生平德沃金於1931年生於美國羅德島州的普羅維登斯(Providence)。

德沃金就讀於哈佛大學時，一開始想要攻讀文學，但不久他的興趣就轉向哲學。

1953年取得文學士(B.A.)的學位後，德沃金以羅德獎學金得主(Rhodes Scholar)的身分前往牛津大學留學。

在牛津，德沃金的興趣又從哲學轉向法律。

1955年，德沃金回到哈佛大學繼續攻讀法律。

德沃金在牛津時，著名的法理學家哈特(H. L. A. Hart)已經是牛津大學的法理學教授，但德沃金其實從未正式受教於哈特。

他們之間的緣分起自於，哈特碰巧擔任德沃金畢業考的考試委員，在批閱德沃金的試卷時，哈特訝異於這位美國學生竟然在每一個試題都拿到最高分，但除了驚喜之外，哈特更感到憂慮，因為這個年輕學生在答題中的觀點蘊含了對其法實證主義的深刻批評。

德沃金當時的表現預示了，他將成為哈特最具挑戰性的理論對手─儘管他後來也是哈特在牛津的接班人。

德沃金1957年從哈佛法學院畢業後，並沒有馬上進入學術界，而是在實務界歷練了一段時間。

在1957‐58年間，德沃金擔任著名的韓德法官(Learned Hand)的助理。

韓德當時正在準備哈佛法學院的霍姆斯講座(the Holmes Lectures)，他要德沃金讀一讀他的講稿，並給他一些評論。

雖然德沃金對於韓德的司法審查與憲法解釋的觀點大不贊同，並和他有過激烈爭論，但在韓德的回憶裡，德沃金是他所帶過的法官助理當中最優秀的一位。

之後，在1958‐62年間，德沃金在紐約市的Sullivan&Cromwell事務所擔任律師工作，這段期間他處理的主要是國際商務的案件。

1962年，德沃金獲得了他生平第一個正式的學術職位，他應聘擔任耶魯法學院的副教授。

在耶魯期間，德沃金曾經教授過一些基本的法律科目，像是稅法、國際私法、國際貿易法等等。

德沃金在1987年曾經強烈批評雷根總統任名柏克(Robert Bork)為美國最高法院大法官，有趣的是，柏克當時是德沃金在耶魯法學院的同事，他們倆還曾經合開一門法律經濟學的課。

1967年，德沃金發表了讓他一舉成名的論文「規則的模式」(The Model of Rules)，在這篇文章中，他對哈特在其代表作《法律的概念》(The Concept of Law, 1961)一書中的法實證主義論點提出全面的攻擊。

這篇論文開啟了長達四十年之久的「哈特─德沃金之爭」(the Hart‐Dworkin Debate)，這場論戰迄今仍然是英美法理學界的爭議焦點。

德沃金學術生涯的最大轉折是在1969年。

儘管德沃金對哈特的批評犀利且毫不留情，哈特卻非常賞識德沃金的學術才華。

經由哈特的大力推薦與介入，德沃金接任了哈特在牛津的法理學教席。

德沃金向來以思慮敏捷、能言善辯和衣著光鮮著稱，這些特質讓他在牛津成為一位非常具有個人風格與獨特魅力的教授。

自1975年開始，德沃金同時合聘為紐約大學的法學與哲學教授。

德沃金的加入，大幅提昇了紐約大學法學院的聲譽。

他和哲學家內格爾(Thomas Nagel)合開的「法律、政治與社會哲學專題討論」(Colloquium in Legal, Political and Social Philosophy)是當今世界上聲望最高，也最具挑戰性的學術論壇之一。

包括德沃金自己在內，在這門課所發表的論文，都會受到密集深入的討論與批評，而能夠獲邀發表論文的學者，莫不以此感到榮幸。

1998年，德沃金從牛津大學法理學教席的位置退休，之後除了繼續在紐約大學任教之外，他同時也曾經是倫敦大學學院法理學教授(1998‐2008)與榮譽教授(2008‐ )。

德沃金的代表著作有「認真對待權利」(Taking Rights Seriously, 1977)、「原則問題」(A Matter of Principle, 1985)、「法律帝國」(Law’s Empire, 1986)、「生命的自主權」(Life’s Dominion, 1993)、「自由的法」(Freedom’s Law, 1996)、「至上美德」(Sovereign Virtue, 2000)、「法袍正義」(Justice in Robes, 2006)、「人權與民主生活」(Is Democracy Possible Here?, 2006)等書。

德沃金的學術生涯獲獎無數，2007年德沃金獲頒由挪威國會撥款成立，具有人文社會科學領域諾貝爾獎美譽的「霍爾堡國際紀念獎」(Holberg International Memorial Prize)。

霍爾堡獎的學術委員會稱讚德沃金「闡述了一套自由主義的平等理論」，並強調德沃金致力於發展一套「具有原創性與高度影響力，將法律奠基於道德之上的法理論，這套理論的特徵在於將抽象的哲學觀念與論證和日常具體的法律、道德與政治關懷相結合的獨特能力」。

二、思想德沃金的法律哲學始自於對法實證主義的批判。

以哈特為代表的法實證主義認為，法律是一套規則的體系，有效的法律規則，可以透過某種社會成規─例如承認規則(the Rule of Recognition)─來加以辨識。

對法實證主義來說，一個法律命題的真假可以無涉於道德價值判斷，而完全仰賴於某些社會事實。

比方說，「某甲有權在地下電台刊播藥物廣告」這個法律命題是否為真，取決於立法者事實上是否制定了允許人民透過地下電台刊播藥物廣告的法律規範，或者過去的司法判決是否曾經肯認人民有這樣的權利。

至於立法者的決定或司法判決為什麼能夠成為支持法律命題為真的根據，完全是法律社群中約定俗成的安排。

法實證主義者更認為，如果一個案子沒有一個有效的法律規則可以適用，或者規則本身的文字模糊不清而具有解釋上的開放空間，這時法官就要運用裁量(discretion)來解決這個案子的法律問題。

須要透過裁量來解決的案件，通常會有多種可能的答案，但沒有哪一個答案是唯一正確的。

法官進行裁量時，他並不是在適用法律，而是像立法者一樣可以自由地訴諸法律以外的標準（例如政策或社會通行的價值觀等等）來選擇他要採取哪一種解決方案。

德沃金完全反對法實證主義的觀點。

在「規則的模式」一文中，德沃金認為法律體系除了規則(rules)之外，還包括了原則(principles)。

以上面的例子來說，當我們要判定某甲是否有權在地下電台刊播藥物廣告時，我們可能會想到要適用憲法上保障言論自由的規定，但是「人民有言論自由」這樣的憲法條文太過空泛，這個時候我們就會訴諸一些抽象的原則，比方說「言論自由的目的在於健全民主程序」或者「保障言論自由是為了促進個人自我實現」等等，來論證某甲是否享有在地下電台刊播藥物廣告的權利。

按照德沃金的看法，這些抽象的道德原則無法透過像是承認規則這種社會成規來加以辨識，這些原則之所以具有法律上的拘束力，是因為它們對於言論自由的概念及其所體現的道德價值能夠提供具有說服力的詮釋，而不是因為它們曾經被某個有權機關（如國會或法官）所制定或採納之故。

德沃金主張，對於法律命題是否為真的判斷，是一種建構詮釋的過程：我們必須根據我們對於既存的法律實踐（例如過去政治決定的文本）所呈現的意義或價值為何的理解，建構出一組能夠對整體法律實踐提供道德上最佳證立的原則，一個法律命題為真，當且僅當它能夠從這組原則所推導而出。

因此，對於德沃金而言，判斷一個法律命題的真假，必然要涉及某種道德價值判斷。

德沃金並不否認，這樣的判斷往往會有爭議，但他認為，這樣的爭議是一種詮釋性的爭議：亦即我們所爭論的，是用什麼樣的方式才能夠對我們所共同擁有的一些價值性概念─例如「法治」、「自由」、「平等」、「民主」、「正義」等等─有更好的理解。

德沃金更進一步主張，當我們真誠地投入詮釋性的爭議時，就必須預設或承認我們所爭論的問題有一個唯一正確的答案，而這個正確的答案正是爭論的各方所亟欲尋求的。

什麼樣的道德原則才能夠對於一個社群（或至少是德沃金身處的美國社會）的整體法律實踐提供道德上的最佳證立？德沃金提出「原則一貫性」(Integrity)這個抽象的政治道德原則來回答這個問題。

原則一貫性「要求政府對所有公民，必須要以一個聲音說話、以一個具原則性且融貫的方式來行動、把自己對某些人所使用的公平或正義之實質性標準，擴張到每個人。

」（德沃金，《法律帝國》，頁174）顯然地，原則一貫性所體現的是另一個更為抽象、層次更高的政治道德原則，那就是德沃金所稱的「至上美德」：平等，更確切地說，是政府應該把每個成員視為平等之身(treating as equals)，對每個人都給予平等的關懷與尊重(equal concern and respect)。

所謂「平等關懷」，指的是政府應該把每個人的人生視為一樣重要；「平等尊重」，指的是政府應該讓每個人自主地去界定他所想要實現的人生理想與人生計畫；而一個人要實現自己的人生理想與人生計畫，需要各種資源，包括外在資源（如財貨）和人身資源（如身體狀態和稟賦才能），因此，「平等的關懷與尊重」蘊含了一種資源平等觀：政府應該讓每個人都有同等的資源去追求他心目中的美好人生，至於每個人要選擇什麼樣的人生目標，如何使用所分配到的資源去實現自己的人生理想，則是個人自己的責任，政府應該尊重個人的自由選擇，不能任意干涉。

德沃金資源平等觀的另一個重要主張則是，人必須為自己的真正選擇負責，但不應該由於那些與自己選擇無關的因素（例如純粹機運所造成的出身環境、種族、性別、遺傳、天賦差異等等）而處於較不利的境地。

因此，平等的資源分配必須是「敏於志向，鈍於稟賦」(ambition sensitive, endowment insensitive)：對於因為個人自我選擇所造成的資源差異，政府不應加以干預，但除非有適當的補償，否則政府不應允許由於純粹機運所造成的資源差異，至於什麼額度的補償才算適當，德沃金主張以「假設性的保險市場」來加以決定。

德沃金的洞見在於指出了「平等」和「自由」並不是互相衝突的價值，平等的關懷與尊重，才是個人自由之所以成立的根本前提，這正是德沃金政治哲學的核心主張：「以平等為本的自由主義」。