The prewarning value of Alexandrium tamarense PSP in an area with frequent outburst of red tide
自考英语二(00015)Unit6 TextA教孩子理智地花钱
New words (P214)
1. stationery n. 文具 同音词：stationary(静止的) 2. fare n. 车费;船费;飞机票价 同音词：fair(公平的) 3. lump sum n. 一次总付的钱款 4. recess n. 课间休息 5. allocate v. 拨(给);划(给);分配(给) allocation n. 6. overspend v. 花钱过多;比(预计的)花得多;超支 7. opt v. 选择;挑选 option n. optional adj. 8. constraint n. 限制;限定;约束 9. budget v. 谨慎花钱;把…编入预算 10. overindulge v. 过多地享用(尤指食物或饮料) 11. short-sighted adj. 目光短浅的;没有远见的 12. mentality n. 心态;思想状况;思想方法 13. sibling n. 兄;弟;姐;妹
Have you ever thought about your spending habits?
Text A
Teaching Children to Spend Pocket
Money Wisely
教孩子们理性地使用零花钱
Pre-reading Questions (P213)
❖1. Recall and describe how your parents allocated pocket money to you and how you spent it. 回忆并描述过去你 父母是如何给你分配零花钱,你又是怎么花的。 allocate v. 拨(给);划(给);分配(给)
新旧济贫法
１９世纪英国的济贫院制度初探作者：郭家宏唐艳内容提要从１７世纪开始，济贫院在英国逐步发展起来；１８３４年后，院内救济成为新济贫法体系的核心。
济贫法委员会希望通过济贫院的威慑作用，促使贫民自力更生，减少济贫开支。
济贫院遵循“劣等处置”和“济贫院检验”两个原则，院内的生活比较悲惨，被大众冠以穷人的“巴士底狱”，到１９世纪７０年代后才逐步得到改善。
济贫院制度在英国社会保障制度和福利国家形成过程中起到不可忽视的作用。
关键词济贫院新济贫法社会保障济贫院是为穷人提供工作和弱者提供生计的机构，它起源于济贫法。
{1}１６０１年济贫法将救济穷人的责任分配给各教区，后来教区建立济贫院。
１８３４年《济贫法修正案》使院内救济成为整个英国济贫法的标准制度，也成为新济贫法体系的核心。
在新济贫法下，对有劳动能力者的户外救济遭到禁止，所有想得到救济的人必须生活在济贫院里。
济贫院遵守“劣等处置”和“济贫院检验”两大原则，目的是使穷人更倾向于在院外自立生活。
它试图成为救济穷人的唯一方式，但未能成功。
１９世纪末期，济贫院内的条件得到了改善。
２０世纪上半叶，社会福利政策和社会保障制度逐步取代了济贫院制度。
近年来，对西方国家社会保障制度发展与演变的研究逐渐受到我国学术界的重视，并取得了一定的成果。
对于英国济贫院制度的研究，目前国内尚无专门的成果。
在英国学者中，涉及１９世纪的通史性著作中几乎都对济贫院进行了描述，关于济贫院问题也有一些专著和大量论文问世。
另外还有一些关于济贫院的文学性著作，如狄更斯的《雾都孤儿》、约翰·阿尔丁的剧本《济贫院蠢驴》（ＴｈｅWｏｒｋｈｏｕｓｅDｏｎｋｅｙ）。
本文拟对济贫院的起源发展、济贫院内的生活和管理进行简要介绍，并试对济贫院进行评价。
济贫院的起源与发展济贫院在英国历史上存在了较长时期，根据其发展的特点，大致经历了三个阶段。
（１）１７世纪初期到１８３４年新济贫法颁布这一时期，济贫院多倾向于救济穷人，而不是惩戒懒惰，统治者也仅把它作为一种权宜之计。
现代大学英语精读 Paper Tiger 英汉版本
Lesson 1 Paper TigersWhat happens to all the Asian-American overachievers when the test-taking ends?当考试结束时，所有的亚裔美国人都会有怎样的表现呢？By Wesley Yang Published May 8,2011para 1Sometimes I’ll glimpse my reflection in a window and feel astonished by what I see. Jet-black hair. Slanted eyes. A pancake-flat surface of yellow-and-green-toned skin. An expression that is nearly reptilian in its impassivity. I’ve contrived to think of this face as the equal in beauty to any other. But what I feel in these moments is its strangeness to me. It’s my face. I can’t disclaim it. But what does it have to do with me?有时我会从窗户里瞥见我的倒影，我会对我所看到的感到惊讶。
乌黑的头发。
斜眼。
黄绿色肤色的薄煎饼状的表面。
一种近乎爬行动物般冷漠的表情。
我想方设法地认为这张脸在美貌上与其他任何人都不相上下。
但在这些时刻我感觉到的是它对我来说很奇怪。
这是我的脸。
我不能否认。
但这和我有什么关系呢？Para 2Millions of Americans must feel estranged from their own faces. But every self-estranged individual is estranged in his own way. I, for instance, am the child of Korean immigrants, but I do not speak my parents’ native tongue. I have never dated a Korean woman. I don’t have a Korean friend. Though I am an immigrant, I have never wanted to strive like one.一定有无数的美国人对他们自己的长相会有一种疏离感,但是其中每个人的原因却又不尽相同。
Taxes, Loans, Credit and Debts in the 15th Century
Economics World, ISSN 2328-7144 April 2014, Vol. 2, No. 4, 281-289 Taxes, Loans, Credit and Debts in the 15th Century Towns ofMoravia: A Case Study of Olomouc and Brno *Roman ZaoralCharles University, Prague, Czech RepublicThe paper explores urban public finance in the late medieval towns on the example of two largest cities inMoravia—Olomouc and Brno. Its purpose is to define similarities and differences between them, to express changeswhich have taken place in the course of the 15th century, and to distinguish financial administration and types ofinvestments in the towns situated in the Eastern part of the Holy Roman Empire from those in the West. The primarysources (municipal books, charters, and Jewish registers) are analyzed using quantitative and comparative methodsand the concept of the 15th century financial crisis is reconsidered. The analysis proved that each town within theEmpire paid a fixed percentage of the total tax sum of central direct taxation through a system of repartition so thateach tax increase caused an ever growing pressure on its finances. New taxes collected in Brno and Olomouc after1454 were not proportional to the economic power and population of both cities and gave preferential benefit toOlomouc. At the same time the importance of urban middle classes as tax-farmers started to grow. They increasinglygained influence on the financial and fiscal regime, both through political emancipation as well as by serving asfinancial officials. The Jewish registers document a general lack of money in the 1430s and 1440s which played intohands of the Jewish usurers. Accounting records from the 1480s and 1490s, to the contrary, give evidence of thegrowth of loans, debts and credit enterprise. The restructuring of urban elites, caused by financial crises and socialconflicts, was centered round the wish for a more efficient management of urban financial resources and moreintensive control rights. It was a common feature of towns in the West just as in the East of the Empire. On the otherside, the tax basis in the West was rather created by indirect taxes, while direct taxes prevailed in the East. Tradeactivities played more important role in the West, whereas rich burghers in the East rather invested into land estates.From the research also emerged that the establishment of separate cashes is documented in the West only, themanagement of urban finance in the East remained limited to a single-entry accounting.Keywords: urban public finance, financial crisis, taxation, Jewish capital, late medieval towns, Moravia IntroductionThe study of public finances has received considerable attention during the last decade because of its key role in European state formation by serving as an instrument to extract the capital needed for the realization of political goals from the economic systems that formed the base of all public finances. With Stasavage (2011) * The paper was supported by The Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic—Institutional Support for Long-Term Development of Research Organizations—Charles University, Faculty of Humanities. Roman Zaoral, Ph.D., Faculty of Humanities, Charles University. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Roman Zaoral, Charles University, Faculty of Humanities, UAll Rights Reserved.TAXES, LOANS, CREDIT AND DEBTS IN THE 15TH CENTURY TOWNS OF MORA VIA 282recent publication States of credit, he has made a valuable contribution to the debate on the emergence ofpublic credit as a decisive element in the state formation processes that took place in late medieval and earlymodern Europe. In his work, Stasavage emphasizes the importance of geographic scale of political units and theform of political representation within polities for the access to capital markets and thus the possibility to createfunded public debt in order to finance the consolidation or expansion of their relative position within politicalnetworks and regions. The foundation of this public debt was provided by the fiscal revenues originating fromdirect or indirect taxation.Blockmans (1997) pointed out in this debate the importance of scale and timing with respect to local political representative structures. In the larger Flemish cities such as Ghent or Bruges, the participation ofmiddle classes in town governments and thus control over public finances developed in an earlier stage (the14th century), whereas these developments in less-urbanized regions with smaller urban populations such asHolland and Guelders (and in fact in the whole Holy Roman Empire) did not occur until the 15th century. Inthis way, the hypothesis can be stated tentatively that the position of urban elites influenced the managementof urban finances at large, and urban fiscal systems in particular. The degree to which urban elites were able tomonopolize urban government was also determining the room left for other intermediaries to have a say in thefinancial policies of a town and to function in the management of the fiscal systems that were the basis ofmost urban finances. The socio-political backgrounds and the interplay between the political elites, urbanofficials and tax farmers are thus an important topic for knowledge of the intricate mechanisms, which are atthe crossing point of the economic, social, political, and financial developments in the late-medieval urbansociety.All Rights Reserved.Research QuestionsThe author’s attention is paid to the towns situated in the East of the Holy Roman Empire, namely in the Czech lands, in order to show which similarities and differences can be found between towns in the Westernand Eastern part of the Empire, in which way and to what degree the 15th century economic and financial crisesand social conflicts influenced the management of urban fiscal systems (and the closely-linked system of publicdebt) of two traditional capitals1and at the same time the largest cities in Moravia—Brno and Olomouc, theeconomic potential of which remarkably started to differ, particularly during the second half of the 15th century.In the period between 1420 and 1500, Olomouc as the seat of Moravian bishopric grew from round 5,000 tomore than 6,000 inhabitants at the turn of the 16th century, whereas Brno as the former seat of MoravianMargraves decreased from round 8,000 to less than 6,000 inhabitants during the same time (Šmahel, 1995, p.360; Macek, 1998, p. 27).Research MethodsIt is the purpose of this paper to quantify data obtained from the analysis of municipal books, charters and Jewish registers relating to urban public finance in the late medieval cities of Moravia (Czech Republic),particularly in Olomouc and Brno, and to compare so the financial situation of towns situated in the Easternpart of the Holy Roman Empire with those in the West. The concept of the 15th century financial crisis isreconsidered.1The Moravian Diet, starting in the 13th century, the Moravian Land Tables and the Moravian Land Court were all seated in bothTAXES, LOANS, CREDIT AND DEBTS IN THE 15TH CENTURY TOWNS OF MORA VIA 283 The political and economic difficulties which troubled the Margraviate of Moravia during the 15th century (the Hussite wars in the 1420s and 1430s and the Bohemian-Hungarian wars in the 1460s and 1470s) did notonly influence the fiscal system itself, mainly by creation of new taxes and by increase of the tax burden tocover the growing urban public debt. The financial crises, bankruptcies, and financial reforms also had animpact on the official involvement of the burghers and guilds in the management of the urban fiscal systems,following their relatively late political emancipation in the 15th century (Marek, 1965). Until that time, thelocal elites had been formed from the closed merchant oligarchy, which monopolized the town government,defended its own particularistic interests through privileged autonomy and controlled the urban finances.In the 15th century, the importance of urban middle classes as tax-farmers started to grow, they increasingly gained influence on the financial and fiscal regime, both through political emancipation as well asby serving as financial officials. They also demanded more insight in the financial management, both ofindirect taxation and the management of urban debt. They were given a central role in the financial reformsnecessary to face the growing tension between economic stagnation and the financial demands. In this way, theimpact of these socio-political changes on the management of the urban fiscal systems can be displayed.The concept of a financial crisis has recently been addressed by what is now known as the “New fiscal history”. The emergence of public finance, fiscal systems, and the creation of public debt are at the heart ofthese discussions: In this sense, a financial crisis occurs when expenditure structurally outweighs the normalrevenues from taxation and the ability to borrow money in order to meet current financial obligations (Bonney,1995, pp. 5-8). The 15th century is generally seen as a period of structural political and economic crisis notonly in the West of the Empire, in the Low Countries (Van Uytven, 1975), but also in the East, in the Czech All Rights Reserved.lands (Šmahel, 1995, pp. 208-220). This crisis also had consequences for urban public finance and itsmanagement. Each town within the Empire had to pay a fixed percentage of the total tax sum of central directtaxation through a system of repartition and so the increased tax burden had forced several towns to sellannuities on an unprecedented scale, because these sums were paid directly through the urban finances(Blockmans, 1999, pp. 287, 297-304). Thus, central direct taxation indirectly tapped into the financial resourcesof the towns, which in turn led to an ever growing pressure on the urban finances causing an increase of urbanindirect taxation to cover the funded debt caused by these annuity sales.AnalysisUrban Public Finance During the 15th Century Financial CrisisOlomouc as leading royal city in Moravia, which exceeded Brno in population size at the end of the 15th century, represented a craft town producing for export on one side and a consume town on the other side(Marek, 1965, p. 125). The urban population grew particularly in the 1450s and 1460s due to new incomersfrom Silesia and North Moravia. Among them, there were craftsmen from 85 percent, mostly cloth weavers, butalso representatives of other textile, food, shoe, leather, and wood processing crafts, ranking into sociallyweaker groups, while the number of merchants was much smaller (Mezník, 1958, pp. 350-353). From theviewpoint of the economic structure, Olomouc was close to Breslau in Silesia.In the 1420s, catholic Olomouc spent a lot of money for its defense against attacks of the Hussite troops, for the building wooden fortifications and for its own mercenary troops. During fights, its burghers had todispatch city troops and to get armor for the king, all beyond the usual yearly tax. So for example, in 1424interests from the war debts of the city exceeded an amount of 200 marks which substantially strangled itsTAXES, LOANS, CREDIT AND DEBTS IN THE 15TH CENTURY TOWNS OF MORA VIA 284trading activities (Nešpor, 1998, p. 79). In connection with the blockade of Olomouc in the second half of the1420s, the long-distance trade was put at risk. The city council covered financial expenses by the sale of realestate, of yearly pays of altar servers and by loans from the Jews as well as from own burghers. The Jewishloans were, however, burdened with a high interest and the council used them only once for the war with theHussites.2Loans from own burghers for the so-called fair credit up to 10 percent were more advantageous.The Role of Jewish CapitalYet the Jewish capital represented an important reservoir of financial means for many inhabitants. The surviving Olomouc Jewish register dated back to 1413-1428, which makes it possible to look into the practiceof lending money, gives evidence on the Jewish loans of craftsmen, merchants, and shopkeepers (Kux, 1905).3However, many other hidden loans, which had been going on with the active participation of Christianinhabitants, did not get into the register at all. The credit had three forms: loans in cash, pledge loans, or tradetransactions with goods. As it was necessary to sell unpaid pawns, the usurer became a shopkeeper and hissmall shop was a junk shop at the same time.The Jews usually required one groschen a week as the interest from each shock or mark of silver which they justified by high taxes and other charges. The average yearly credit taxation reached 86 percent from oneshock (= 60 Prague groschen), respectively 81 percent from one mark(= 64 Prague groschen, a half of pound).The debtor paid so 112 groschen per year from one shock and 116 groschen from one mark (Kux, 1905, pp.24-25). At lower installments, the interest could farther go up and when installments have not been paid at allthe debt grew in geometric progression.All Rights Reserved.Unless the debtor was not able to refund an amount, which he had loaned, the creditor could exact some goods in the loan value, such as expensive cloth, furs, gold jewels, silver dishes, horses, or cattle. Carpets,armor, wine barrels, or real estate are documented among pledges as well. A number of the Olomouc Jews,having been engaged in trade with money, ranged between 12 in 1413 and 20 in 1420. Some of them granted10, the others 100 and more loans. Forty percent of all deposits were entered by Solomon, the richest Jewishcreditor in Olomouc. The most frequently lent amounts ranged between one and six pounds, the lowest loanmade 10 groschen, the largest 100 marks, which was a value of two or even three houses located in the centerof Olomouc(Veselý & Zaoral, 2008, pp. 40-41).A general lack of money among inhabitants, particularly in the post-Hussite period in the 1430s and 1440s,played into hands of the Jewish usurers. A high number of small debts in range between one and 10 shocks(mostly three-five shocks) and a small number of big debts were typical for that period. The fact that amountsof the two thirds of debtors represented only 13 percent of all debts gave evidence on the general becomingpoor of population. On the other side, the only entry of the sum of 600 Hungarian florins, which Johann vonAachen owed to Johann Weigle, represented 42 percent of all declared owed money in the 1440s (Zaoral, 2009,p. 111). In the 1450s, a number of the highest (above 100 shock of silver) and of the lowest debts (under oneshock of silver) increased, which was the evidence on a slight economic recovery and on the graduallyincreasing social differentiation of the Olomouc inhabitants. Superiority in single-entry accounting, onedebtor-one creditor relations, attests, however, insufficiently developed finance in the milieu of guild craftsmenand shopkeepers. The Jewish credit represented, to the contrary, a source of more flexible forms of enterprise.2Olomouc District State Archive, Olomouc City Archive, books, sign. 164, fol. 235r.TAXES, LOANS, CREDIT AND DEBTS IN THE 15TH CENTURY TOWNS OF MORA VIA 285 Despite a danger of large indebtedness, some wealthy people were lending money from the Jews for more times. The owner of the magistrate mansion Wenceslas Greliczer is entered into the Jewish register even 26times. He made loans from more usurers at the same time, going once in cash, going twice he bought horses oncredit and at another time he pledged silk bedding or pearl bracelet of his wife. The Greliczer family, whichplayed a leading role in the city for some 10 years, had at the end to sell all its property and after 1430 itdisappeared out of stage (Kux, 1905, p. 27). The presence of a number of other prominent councilors in theJewish register was a symptom of their later financial bankruptcy, which strengthened anti-Jewish mood in thecity.A lack of money among burghers occurred again in the 1440s as it was evident from the Olomoucmemorial book dated back to 1430-1492 (Spáčilová & Spáčil, 2004). Particularly the year 1442 was critical formany inhabitants as it was evident from the number of loans. In response to rapidly worsening financialsituation, the council decided in 1446 to grant loans in an amount of 10 pounds of silver for damage reduction(Zaoral, 2009, p. 112). Some years later, in 1454, Ladislaus Posthumus, King of Bohemia (1453-1457),expelled the Jews from Moravian royal towns.Urban TaxesThe annual tax in an amount of 600 marks of groschen, collected in Brno and Olomouc, was slightly changing during the 15th century. In 1437 the margrave Albrecht II of Austria (1437-1439) cut Olomouc urbantaxes as a reward for help in fight against the Hussites. After 1454 the annual tax in Olomouc decreased from600 to 587 marks and 40 groschen and this amount remained unchanged until 1526. On the contrary, the tax in All Rights Reserved.Brno increased from 600 to 656 pounds 16 groschen as a recompense for the expelled Jews. Such a tax burdenwas not proportional to the economic power and population of both cities and gave preferential benefit toOlomouc (Dřímal, 1962, pp. 86-87, 116; Zaoral, 2009, pp. 107-109). The different economic potential ofOlomouc and Brno could be also seen from a number of yearly markets which increased in Olomouc from twoup to three and decreased in Brno from four to two (Šebánek, 1928, p. 51; Čermák, 2002, pp. 25-27).Despite the fact that the city had to pay war debts to private creditors with difficulty and for a long time, the standard of living of the urban population in Olomouc was gradually increasing during the 15th century.The municipal tax-payers growth was so big in the second half of the 15th century that collected moneyexceeded the municipal tax amount more than three times (Dřímal, 1962, pp. 122-123). To the contrary, anumber of taxpayers in Brno was decreasing during the whole 15th century and still in 1509 their number wasunder the level of the year 1432. At the same time a number of members of the middle strata, poor craftsmenand sole traders even decreased on one half of the state in 1365 (Dřímal, 1964, pp. 277-280).The administration of urban finances was characterized by a disorganized evidence of assets and liabilities.The municipal collection (the so-called losunga), collected from all town inhabitants with a sufficient propertybase, represented a relevant quota of municipal incomes. The “losunga” amount, paid from a concrete house,was determined by three criteria: a built-up surface, a house location, and an existence of the certain rightconnected with the house. This amount was intentionally undervalued; it did not reflect price fluctuations ofreal estates and remained more or less the same. Craft plying, beer and wine sale, lucrative cloth trade, andannuities were a subject of taxation as well. But only a part of collected money flew to the royal treasury, whichwas often used as pledges for aristocrats. In 1514, pledges in Olomouc were even higher than an amount of themunicipal tax (Dřímal, 1962, p. 93).TAXES, LOANS, CREDIT AND DEBTS IN THE 15TH CENTURY TOWNS OF MORA VIA 286The increasing purchases of houses on the basis of the Law of Emphytheusis4represented another serious problem. Some noblemen ignored compulsory payments from these properties. It caused conflicts withburghers, but the pressure put by the urban representation was only partly successful.In the 1490s, the citycouncil expressed concern about the fact that it supported high nobility and clergy from its own money andjoined insurgent burghers. In the early 16th century, the city found a solution how to get rid of unwelcomecreditors. In 1508, it offered the Bohemian king Vladislaus II (1471-1516) to pay off pledged revenues. Thecity used them to its own benefit for 20 years (Dřímal, 1962, pp. 89-94).Under these circumstances, taxes and administrative fees, which the town succeeded to buy back from the ruler, gained importance all the more. Provincial castle tolls, customs duties (ungelt), and bridge tolls belongedto the most important. The incomes from the town overhead business and from various financial operationsincreased. The town council bought up villages and yards in the immediate walls surroundings. However, thereal value of charges from the town villages was gradually decreasing because charges did not reflect adecrease of the payment power of money in circulation. Thanks to completion of the large farm system in thetown ownership at the end of the 15th century, Olomouc was offered a considerable space for series ofactivities. The incomes from brewing and fish farming were not negligible as well. But the main share ofmunicipal incomes was represented by money paid from the town property and toll (Kux, 1918, pp. 12-13).Despite a varied scale of incomes, the town was never endowed with large sums in cash. Practically all gained money was immediately given out. Particularly taxes as a relevant phenomenon of municipal economicswere draining big amounts of money from the city budget.Superiority of weight unites (marks) over numeric units (shocks of groschen) in all types of written All Rights Reserved.sources gave evidence on a general lack of quality coins. In the 1450s, when the financial crisis culminated, theking Ladislaus gave the burghers of Olomouc permission to repay loans in the petty coins and thereby made awidely used practice legal.5At the same time, gold coins, which replaced counting in marks, have started topenetrate into everyday life since the 1440s. The Olomouc burghers repaid two thirds of their loans in silverand one third in gold. The creditors accepted as a general rule groschen coins from the craftsmen andHungarian florins from the merchants. Payments in goldguldens occurred rarely in the sources. The increaseddemand for gold coins reflected a contradiction between a long-term lack of gross silver coins in circulationand a necessity of the financial covering of trade transactions with real estates and credit (Zaoral, 2009, pp.118-119).The oldest surviving tax register in Olomouc came from 1527. According to it, about two thirds of taxpayers paid less than eight groschen, middle class (about 25 per cent) paid 10 to 26 groschen from the taxbase of 1.5 to four marks and eight percent of wealthy people paid 32 to 102 groschen from the tax base of fiveto 16 marks. These 89 richest burghers owned more than 40 percent of all taxed property. The tax was paid by1,096 persons. Among that, there were about 25 percent of cottars, who did not own any immovable property.Even when it takes into account that most payers also paid the craft tax in an amount of six groschen, a totalaverage levy did not exceed 20 groschen per head (Szabó, 1983, p. 57). Thus the tax burden itself was not highin the case of at least minimal incomes. It ranged on the level of some percent of yearly income. Much bigger4The Law of Emphyteusis is a feudal form of a hereditary land lease. It is a right, susceptible of assignment and of descent,charged on productive real estate, the right being coupled with the enjoyment of the property on condition of taking care of theestate and paying taxes, and sometimes the payment of a small rent.TAXES, LOANS, CREDIT AND DEBTS IN THE 15TH CENTURY TOWNS OF MORA VIA 287 damage was caused to city population and to the royal treasury by reduction of the groschen value and by riseof prices. Unlike Brno, in the long-term low share of persons, having been unable to pay a municipal tax, andan increasing share of poor journeymen and cottars in the urban population are apparently other valuableindicators of growing prosperity in Olomouc (Veselý & Zaoral, 2008, pp. 48-51).Urban Public Finance at the Turn of the 16th CenturyLoans and debts started to increase after the overcoming of financial crisis and the losses reduction from the Bohemian-Hungarian war. The total volume of money in circulation increased particularly in the 1480s and1490s, when debt amounts usually reached even some hundreds of florins.6Since the second half of the 15thcentury, the credit enterprise has been closely connected with trade. Bills of debt and entries into shopkeeper’sregisters became the most common record form of loans. Objections to Christian usurers, which lent moneyinstead of the Jews, were frequent. A number of wealthy burghers sold pays with interest, lent money on credit,or practised open usury. Some amounts were quite high, when, for example, the town Mohelnice borrowed 300marks of silver on 10 percent interest from Nicolas Erlhaupt, burgher of Olomouc.7The city council ofOlomouc also conducted financial business. In 1509, for example, it bought from Wolfgang of Liechtenstein(1475-1525), the owner of Mikulov (Nikolsburg), annuities from the South Bohemian town Pelhřimov(Pilgrams) and became a tax collector there (Zemek & Turek, 1983, p. 507).Tradesmen who could not invest money to trade started to speculate with land estates, for example, the Salzer family held a hereditary magistrate mansion and two villages. Speculations with land estates weretypical also for the city council. While in the early 15th century Olomouc owned six villages, at the end of the All Rights Reserved.same century the extent of the city landed property increased twofold to 12 villages and this upward trendcontinued also in the 16th century (Papajík, 2003, p. 51). A lot of money was spent for various buildingactivities (reconstruction of the municipal hall, new buildings of monasteries, churches and chapels) as well asfor hospitals and other forms of social care (Kuča, 2000, pp. 650-652).Corruption, monopolization of the brewing and other rights as well as bias in favor of guilds were the causes of disputes between elites and other segments of the urban population. It led to open revolts of thecommunity against shopkeepers in 1514 and once again in 1527. A letter of complaint, sent to the king in1514, referred to economic privileges of shopkeepers, free market right, beer prices, and mile right(Dřímal, 1963, pp. 133-142). A strong core of the old type patricians in Olomouc caused the craftsmengained control over urban finances only in the mid-16th century, while in Brno they occurred in the citycouncil already in the 15th century (Kux, 1942, pp. 190-197; Mezník, 1962, pp. 291, 302-306; Szabó, 1984,pp. 68-73).ConclusionsFinancial crises and social conflicts directed the aim of restructuring power of the old ruling elites, and finally were centered round the wish for a more efficient management of urban financial resources and moreintensive control rights for those urban social groups that provided the capital for the realization and protectionof “common” urban interests. It was a common feature for the cities in the West just as in the East of the6Disputes over repayments of debts, debated before the councillors of Breslau, can serve as an example. In 1485-1496 an amountof bills of debt of Olomouc burghers ranged between 30 and 700 florins. See Olomouc District State Archive, Olomouc CityArchive, books, sign. 6671, fol. 2r-18v.。
读巴黎圣母院前两章的读后感
读巴黎圣母院前两章的读后感英文版After reading the first two chapters of "The Hunchback of Notre Dame", I was left with a myriad of emotions and thoughts. Victor Hugo's vivid descriptions and intricate character development truly bring the story to life.The introduction of the main characters, such as Quasimodo, Esmeralda, and Claude Frollo, immediately drew me into the complex web of relationships and motivations that drive the narrative forward. Quasimodo's tragic backstory and isolation tugged at my heartstrings, while Esmeralda's beauty and innocence captivated me.Hugo's portrayal of the bustling city of Paris in the 15th century is both enchanting and gritty. The contrast between the grandeur of Notre Dame and the squalor of the streets provides a rich backdrop for the unfolding drama.As I delved deeper into the story, I found myself pondering themes of love, betrayal, and societal injustice. The moral ambiguity of characters like Claude Frollo and the harsh realities faced by the marginalized members of society left me questioning my own beliefs and values.Overall, reading the first two chapters of "The Hunchback of Notre Dame" was a thought-provoking and emotionally charged experience. I look forward to exploring the rest of the novel and uncovering the mysteries and complexities of Hugo's masterful storytelling.读巴黎圣母院前两章的读后感阅读完《巴黎圣母院》的前两章后，我心中涌动着各种情感和思绪。
35Longfellow
His verse narrative The Song of Hiawatha (1855) had sold 50,000 copies; its successor, The Courtship of Miles Standish, racked up 10,000 purchases on its first day in London when it appeared in 1858. This popular success, combined with a nearly unstinting critical acclaim (one notable dissenting voice belonged to Edgar Allan Poe, who years earlier had savaged Longfellow's Ballads and Other Poems in a review, fuming that its author”s “conception of the aim of poetry is all wrong”) won for Longfellow an audience and eminence in the nineteenth century that even such beloved American poets as Frost and Sandburg were not to rival in later generatiard
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow亨利·沃兹沃思·朗费罗1807-1882 1．1833-1835创作完成散文浪漫作品《海外记游》his prose romance “Outre-Mer”; 2．在《海华沙》中，他采用芬兰民间故事写作手法追忆了美洲印第安人的传说using Finish folk meter in his celebration of American Indian Legends in “Hiawatha”.他最大的成就就是他使诗歌成为了人人都能看，都能写的 一种文学体裁his greatest virtue is that he made poetry seem worth reading and worth writing. 3．1838年他第一部诗集名叫《夜吟》Longfellow’s first collection of poems entitled “Voices of the Night”； 1839年浪漫散文作品《许珀里翁》出版“Hyperion” the prose romance.。 1841年《歌谣及其他》“Ballads and other Poems”; 1842年《奴隶制度诗篇》“Poems on Slavery”; 1847年诗歌《伊凡吉林》“Evangeline”; 1855年《海华沙之歌》“Song of Hiawatha”; 1858年《迈克尔·斯坦狄什的求婚》“The Courtship of Miles Standish”; 戏剧作品《迈克尔·安吉洛》dramatic work “Michael Angelo” 翻译作品《神曲》翻译成就最高“Divine Comedy”. 4．他的其它作品：《金星号遇难》、《人生礼赞》、《精益求精》、《乡村铁匠》、《逝去的青春》 “The Wreck of the Hesperus”; “A Psalm of Life”; “Excelsior”; “The Village Blacksmith”; “My Lost Youth”. 5．朗费罗去世后被安葬在威斯敏斯特教堂的诗人之角，他也是美国惟一获此殊荣的诗人，他的诗歌因高雅宜人 ，纯正有韵味而大受欢迎after his death, he became the only American to be honored with a bust in the Poet’s corner of Westminster Abbey. The gentleness, sweetness, and purity for which his poetry was popular during his lifetime. 6．教材作品：《人生礼赞》：“A Psalm of Life”;
新编英国文学选读复习资料
新编英国⽂学选读复习资料En glish Lite ra ture a nd the Se le cte d Re adingsDevelopmentof EnglishLiterature1.EarlyandMedievalEnglishliterature(-1485)2.TheEnglishRenaissance(1550-1642?)3.The17thCentury–ThePeriodofRevolutionandRestoration 4 . The 1 8thCentury–T h e AgeofEnlightenm ent5.TheRomanticPeriod(1798-1832)6.TheVictorianAge(1832-1901)7.Th e20t hCen t uryLit erat ure–Mod ern is man dPo st-Mod ern ismChapter1EarlyandMedievalEnglishliterature⼀．Epic （史诗）Apoemthatcelebrateintheformofacontinuousnarrativetheachievementsofone ormoreheroicpersonagesof historyortradition. AmongthegreatepicsoftheworldmaybementionedtheIliad,OdysseyandAeneidof classical.Be owulf1.HistoricalBackground1)) Thre e Invasions:A.The Rom a n Conq u e st ( 5 5B. C - 4 10 A.D)B.The English Conqu e s t ( The Anglo-Sa xon Period)C.TheNormanConquest(TheAnglo-NormanPeriod)2)) Tw o Wars:A.TheHundredYearsWar(1337-1453)B.TheWarof theRose(1455-1485)a.Anglo-SaxonPoetry: Pagan(异教的）&ChristianBeowulf /worksofCaedmonandCynewulf.b.Anglo-NormanPoetry:Romancec.Poe try in Age of Cha u cer：d..PopularBallads:BalladsofRobinHood2.评价1）Beowulfisanationalepic（史诗）ofEnglishpeople.2）ItistherepresentativeworkoftheearlyEnglishliteraturewith3000lines.3）Itswriterisunknown.4）BeowulfisafolklegendbroughttoEnglandbytheAngloSaxonfromtheirprimitiveNorthernEurope.5）Beowulfwaspasseddownfrommouthtomouth. 6）Beowulfwaswrittendowninthe10th century.3.Charactersinthestory:Beowulf:anephewofkingofGents,apeopleinDenmark.Hrothgar:kinGre nde l: a m onster.She-monster(⼥妖怪):Grende l’s mother.Dra go n:a fire dra gon, a m onster.4.OutlineofTheSongofBeowulfTe u tonic(⽇⽿曼的） h e ro Be ow u lf, the ne phe w of the king of the Ge a t la nd, he lpe d Hrothga r kill them onste r ha lf-hu m a n ,Gre nd e l a s w e ll a s his viciou s m oth e r. W ith his he roic de e ds, he w a s m a de the kingofScyldings(Sweden)for50years. Theninordertogainmoretreasurefor hispeople,he foughthardwitha fieryfiredrakeandwasdeadlywounded,eventuallydied.Hislastwillwastoaskhispeopletobuildhistombintoabeaconfortheseafarerswhosailedalongt hecoast. 5.ThewritingfeaturesofBeowulf?1）Themostimportantisinalliterative(头韵的)verseandinartisticform.Eg：Thus made their mourning the men ofGeatland,Fo rtheirh ero’sp assin g,h ish earth-comp an io n s2）Anotheristhefrequentuseofmetaphorsandunderstatements(低调陈述)forironicalhumor.ring-giver:kinghearth-companions:attendantwarriors whale’s r oad:sea-wood:nottroublesome:verywell⼆Romance（传奇）1．介绍1）Theliteraturefortheupper class2）Alongcompositioninverseorprose,about knights—adventures3）Subjectmatters:about thematterofBritain,thematerofFrance,thematterofRome4）content:lovechivalryandreligion5）骑⼠精神：loyalty,bravely.honesty2 .代表作1 ） King Arthur a nd His Knights of the Round Ta ble :the most importa nt roma nce of the pe riod2）Sir GawainandtheGreenKnight:Thebest Arthurian romance,anonymous,inalliterativeverseItscharacters:KingArthur, SirGawain,theGreenKnight三Ballad（民谣）1.Aballadisastorytoldinsong,usuallyin4-linestanzas,withthe2ndand4thrhymed.2.TheSubjectsofEnglishBallads1)struggleofyounglovers2)theconflictbetweenloveandwealth3)thecrueltyofjealousy4 ) the criticism of th e civil war5)themattersofclassstruggle3.代表作Robinhoodballads四．Ge offre y Cha ucer1.评价1）ThefirstgreatEnglishpoet2）ThefatherofEnglishpoetry2.Chauce r’s threeliterary periods:1 ）Th e first or th e Fre nch period:TheRomauntoftheRose《玫瑰传奇》atranslation,popularinMiddleagesTheBookoftheDuchess《悼公爵夫⼈》 , thebest w orkofthe t im e Chauce r’s literarycare er 2）ThesecondortheItalianperiod: TroilusandCriseyde《特罗伊拉斯和克莱西德》apoemofalovestory3）ThethirdortheEnglishperiod,hisbestperiod:TheCanterburyTales《坎特伯雷故事集》,ismasterpieceandarepresentativeworksof theMiddleAges.The Ca nte rbury Ta les1.OutlineIt op e ns w ith a ge ne ra l prologu e w he re w e a re told of a com pa ny of pilgrim s , 3 2 one s th a t ga the re d atTa b a rd Inn in Sou th w a rk, a su bu rb of Londo n. The y a re on the ir w a y to the shrine of St. Thom a s Be cke tatCanterbury.Theysetouttogetherwiththejollyinnkeeper,HarryBaily,whoproposedthateachpilgrimshouldtelltwotalesonthewayto Canterburyandtwomoreonthewayback.But,totallyonly24talesarefinished.The pilgrim s a re from va riou s pa rts of Engla nd, re pre se n ta t ive s of a ll w a lks of life a nd socia l grou ps,knights,monks,widowsandpriestetc.Hisworkshowedastrikinglybrilliantandpicturesquepanoramaofhistimeandhiscountry.2.Ch aucer’slan g uag e:1)Hislanguageisfullofhumorandsatire.2)Hislanguageisvivid,exactandsmooth,amasterofword-pictures.3) He is the first to u se h e roic co uple t w hich he introduce d from Fra nce.4)He is the first gre a t poe t w ho w rote in the English la ngu a g e , m a king the dia le ct of London the sta n d a rdforthemodernEnglishspeech.Ps:1.Wh atist h e?heroicco uplet??Th e h e roic cou ple t is a ve rse form in e pic poe try, w ith lin e s of te n sylla ble s a nd five stre sse s , in rhymingpairs.(英雄诗体：⽤于史诗或叙事诗，每⾏⼗个⾳节，五个⾳部，每两⾏押韵。
现代大学英语精读5第一课中英文对照
现代大学英语精读5第一课中英文对照Martin Luther King Speech - Where do we go from hereNow, in order to answer the question, "Where do we go from here?" which is our theme, we must first honestly recognize where we are now. When the Constitution was written, a strange formula to determine taxes and representation declared that the Negro was 60 percent of a person. Today another curious formula seems to declare he is 50 percent of a person. Of the good things in life, the Negro has approximately one half those of whites. Of the bad things of life, he has twice those of whites. Thus half of all Negroes live in substandard housing. And Negroes have half the income of whites. When we view the negative experiences of life, the Negro has a double share. There are twice as many unemployed.The rate of infant mortality among Negroes is double that of whites and there are twice as many Negroes dying in Vietnam as whites in proportion to their size in the population.现在,为了回答这个问题,“我们该何去何从呢?”是我们的主题,我们首先必须坦白承认我们现在是在什么地方。
文艺复兴英语作文
The Renaissance was a period of great cultural change and achievement in Europe that spanned the14th to the17th century.It marked the transition from the Middle Ages to the Modern era.The term Renaissance is derived from the French language,meaning rebirth,and it is often associated with the revival of learning based on classical sources, the development of linear perspective in painting,and educational reform.The Origins of the RenaissanceThe Renaissance began in Italy,in cities such as Florence,Venice,and Rome.It was a time when the rediscovery of ancient Greek and Roman texts led to a renewed interest in science,art,and literature.The movement was fueled by the wealth of Italian citystates, which provided patronage for artists and scholars.The Medici family,in particular,were notable patrons of the arts.Art and ArchitectureOne of the most significant aspects of the Renaissance was the transformation of art. Artists such as Leonardo da Vinci,Michelangelo,and Raphael developed techniques that allowed for more realistic and lifelike representations.The use of perspective, chiaroscuro the contrast of light and dark,and anatomical accuracy became hallmarks of Renaissance art.In architecture,the Renaissance saw a return to the principles of classical antiquity. Buildings were designed with symmetry,proportion,and the use of columns and arches. Filippo Brunelleschis dome for the Florence Cathedral is a prime example of Renaissance architecture.Literature and PhilosophyThe Renaissance also had a profound impact on literature and philosophy.Writers such as Dante Alighieri,Petrarch,and Boccaccio explored themes of humanism,which emphasized the potential for human achievement and the importance of individual experience.The works of these authors,along with those of Shakespeare and Cervantes, are considered some of the most important in Western literature. Philosophically,the Renaissance was a time of questioning traditional authority and seeking knowledge through empirical observation.This led to the development of the scientific method,with figures like Galileo Galilei and Francis Bacon making significant contributions to the field.Education and the Printing PressEducational reform was another key feature of the Renaissance.Humanist scholars advocated for a wellrounded education that included the study of the humanities, mathematics,and science.The invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in the15th century greatly facilitated the spread of knowledge,as books became more accessible and affordable.The Spread of the RenaissanceThe influence of the Italian Renaissance eventually spread throughout Europe,reaching France,England,and the Low Countries.In each region,the Renaissance took on its own unique characteristics,but the emphasis on human potential and the value of secular knowledge remained consistent.Legacy of the RenaissanceThe Renaissance is often seen as the bridge between the medieval and modern worlds.It laid the groundwork for the Enlightenment and the Scientific Revolution,and its emphasis on individualism and secularism has had a lasting impact on Western thought and culture.In conclusion,the Renaissance was a period of profound cultural and intellectual transformation.Its legacy can be seen in the art,literature,philosophy,and scientific achievements that continue to influence our world today.The Renaissance was not just a rebirth of the arts and sciences it was a rebirth of the human spirit,a celebration of human potential,and an exploration of the world around us.。
鲍德里亚学术思想_后现代与媒介转向The_postmodern_tur
“仿真理论”，是鲍德里亚最著名的理论之一。他的 思想主旨，就在于从历史序列的角度，为后现代主义 文化设定一个坐标系。鲍德里亚提出了拟像的三个发 展阶段（The Three Orders of Simulacra）说。拟 像的三个阶段与价值规律的突变相匹配，自文艺复兴 时代以来依次递进：
The Precession of Simulacra 让•鲍德里亚（Jean Baudrillard）
随之，仿真（simulations）和拟像 （simulacra）、媒介和信息、科学和新技术、内 爆和超现实构成了一个新的后现代世界——在他会模式中所有 的边界、分类以及价值。
The Precession of Simulacra 让•鲍德里亚（Jean Baudrillard）
《The Precession of Simulacra （拟像 先行）》，节选自鲍德 里亚《Simulacra and Simulation（拟像与仿 真）》一书中的第一章
The Precession of Simulacra 让•鲍德里亚（Jean Baudrillard）
The Precession of Simulacra 让•鲍德里亚（Jean Baudrillard）
第三阶段：构建“仿真理论”，继《象征交 换与死亡》之后，鲍德里亚的思考重心开始转 向对现代大众媒介和媒介技术的哲学思考。这 些思考体现在了其上个世纪70年代中后期到80 年代初的一系列著作中，如《拟像与仿真》、 《在沉默大众的阴影中》，等等，其中涉及到 了一系列重要概念——拟像、仿真、超真实等， 开始了其后现代性的媒介分析描述。
The Precession of Simulacra 让•鲍德里亚（Jean Baudrillard）
黑格尔法哲学批判导言英语
黑格尔法哲学批判导言英语Introduction to Hegelian Critique of JurisprudenceIntroduction:The Hegelian critique of jurisprudence is a groundbreaking analysis of legal theory presented by the renowned philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel. Hegel's philosophy is known for its complex and systematic approach to understanding reality. This article aims to provide an overview of the key concepts and ideas in Hegel's critique of jurisprudence.I. Hegel's Philosophy of Law:Hegel's philosophy of law is based on the idea that law is not simply a set of rules imposed by external forces but rather an expression of the inherent rationality and freedom of individuals. According to Hegel, law reflects the collective will of a society and plays a crucial role in maintaining social order.A. Freedom and Rationality:Hegel argues that the essence of law lies in the recognition and protection of individual freedom. He sees freedom as the ability to act in accordance with one's own reasoning and desires while respecting the freedom of others. This concept of freedom is rooted in rationality, as individuals must possess the capacity to understand and follow the laws that govern their actions.B. Dialectical Process:Central to Hegel's philosophy is the concept of dialectics, which refers to the process of thesis, antithesis, and synthesis. In the context of law, Hegel suggests that legal conflicts arise when individuals clash over their different interpretations of their rights and duties. Through the dialectical process, these conflicts can be resolved, leading to the formation of a higher level of legal consciousness.II. Critique of Traditional Jurisprudence:Hegel's critique of traditional jurisprudence focuses on its formalistic and abstract nature. He argues that traditional legal theories fail to address the dynamic and evolving nature of society and its understanding of justice.A. Abstract Rights:One of Hegel's main criticisms is directed towards the concept of abstract rights, which he believes divorces law from its social context. Abstract rights, according to Hegel, cannot adequately account for the complexities of human relationships and the interplay between individual and community interests.B. Isolation of Legal Principles:Hegel also criticizes jurisprudence for isolating legal principles from their historical and social context. He argues that by separating legal concepts from their lived realities, traditional jurisprudence fails to grasp the true nature of law as a product of societal evolution.III. Hegel's Concept of Objective Spirit:To overcome the limitations of traditional jurisprudence, Hegel introduces the concept of objective spirit. Objective spirit refers to the collective consciousness of a society and encompasses its language, customs, laws, and institutions. It represents the embodiment of human freedom in the form of shared values and norms.A. Spirit vs. Abstract Rights:Hegel argues that objective spirit should be the primary focus of legal theory, rather than abstract rights. By considering the social and historical context, objective spirit provides a more comprehensive understanding of the role of law in society.B. Role of Institutions:According to Hegel, institutions play a crucial role in shaping the objective spirit. By embodying the values and norms of a society, institutions ensure the stability and coherence of the legal system. They provide a framework within which individuals can exercise their freedom in a harmonious and mutually beneficial manner.IV. Conclusion:In conclusion, Hegel's critique of jurisprudence offers a groundbreaking perspective on the nature and function of law in society. By emphasizing the importance of freedom, rationality, and the objective spirit, Hegel provides a comprehensive framework for understanding the complexities of legal theory. His ideas continue to be influential in shaping contemporary legal philosophy and offer valuable insights into the dynamic relationship between law and society.。
物以稀为贵英文作文
物以稀为贵英文作文Title: The Value of Rarity。
In today's world, the saying "物以稀为贵" (literally translated as "rare things are valuable") holds true across various aspects of life. Whether it's in the realm of economics, natural resources, or even personal possessions, rarity often adds significant value. This phenomenon is not only observed in traditional markets but also extends to the realms of art, culture, and human relationships. Understanding the significance of rarity can offer insights into how we perceive and assign value to things in our lives.First and foremost, let's delve into the economic aspect of rarity. In economics, scarcity is a fundamental principle governing supply and demand. When a resource becomes scarce, its value tends to increase due to heightened demand and limited availability. This is evident in various commodities such as precious metals like goldand silver, rare gemstones, or even limited edition collectibles. The scarcity of these items drives up their prices, making them more valuable in the eyes of consumers and investors alike.Moreover, rarity often enhances the perceived prestige and exclusivity associated with certain goods or services. Luxury brands capitalize on this concept by producing limited quantities of high-end products, catering to a niche market willing to pay a premium for uniqueness and rarity. Owning rare or exclusive items not only signifies wealth but also reflects one's social status and taste. In this context, rarity serves as a status symbol, elevating the desirability and perceived value of the item.Beyond the realm of economics, rarity plays a crucial role in preserving biodiversity and ecological balance. Endangered species, for instance, are valued not only for their intrinsic worth but also for their role in maintaining the delicate equilibrium of ecosystems. The rarity of these species underscores the importance of conservation efforts to protect them from extinction.Organizations and governments around the world invest significant resources in preserving biodiversity, recognizing the inherent value of rare and endangered species in sustaining the planet's ecological health.Furthermore, rarity holds cultural and sentimental significance in the context of art and personal possessions. Rare artifacts, antiquities, and artworks often command exorbitant prices at auctions due to their historical significance and scarcity. Similarly, family heirlooms and mementos acquire sentimental value when passed down through generations, their rarity adding to their emotional worth. These objects become cherished treasures, imbued with memories and stories that enrich their perceived value beyond monetary considerations.On a more abstract level, rarity extends to human relationships and experiences. Genuine connections and meaningful experiences are often cherished precisely because they are rare and fleeting. In a world inundatedwith superficial interactions and digital distractions, authentic relationships are increasingly rare and thushighly valued. Moments of genuine connection, heartfelt conversations, and shared experiences become precious amidst the noise and busyness of modern life.In conclusion, the concept of "物以稀为贵" transcends mere economic transactions and encompasses a wide spectrum of human experiences and values. Whether it's in the domain of economics, ecology, culture, or personal relationships, rarity adds depth, meaning, and value to our lives. By recognizing and appreciating the significance of rarity, we can cultivate a greater sense of appreciation for the unique and precious aspects of our world.。
庞贝古城的读后感英语
庞贝古城的读后感英语The ruins of Pompeii are a haunting testament to thepower of nature, a city frozen in time by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. The preserved remains of everyday life offera unique glimpse into the past, a stark reminder of thefragility of human existence.Walking through the ancient streets, one can almost hear the echoes of laughter and the bustle of a thriving community. The sudden silence that followed the eruption is palpable, a chilling reminder of the unpredictability of life.The intricate mosaics and frescoes that adorn the wallstell stories of a civilization that was both sophisticatedand vibrant. It's awe-inspiring to think of the artists who created these masterpieces, their lives cut short by a force beyond their control.The plaster casts of the victims are particularly poignant, capturing the final moments of their lives in a hauntingly lifelike manner. They serve as a stark reminder of the universality of human experience, transcending time and culture.Pompeii's tragedy is also a lesson in resilience. Thecity's rediscovery has allowed us to learn from its past, to appreciate the value of preservation and to understand the importance of disaster preparedness.Visiting Pompeii is not just a journey through an archaeological site; it's an exploration of the human spirit. The city's ruins are a testament to the enduring legacy of the people who once called Pompeii home.In conclusion, Pompeii is a poignant reminder of the impermanence of life and the enduring power of history. It challenges us to reflect on our own mortality and to appreciate the world we live in today.。
国富论的英文版原名
国富论的英文版原名Here is an essay on the English title of "The Wealth of Nations" with over 1000 words, written in English without any additional titles or unnecessary punctuation marks.An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations is the original English title of the groundbreaking economic treatise written by the renowned Scottish philosopher and economist Adam Smith, first published in 1776. This seminal work is widely regarded as one of the most influential books in the history of economic thought, laying the foundations for modern economic theory and policy.At the heart of Smith's masterpiece is the idea that the pursuit of individual self-interest, when channeled through the mechanisms of the free market, can lead to the greatest benefit for society as a whole. This concept, known as the "invisible hand," was a revolutionary departure from the prevailing mercantilist economic doctrines of the time, which favored government intervention and protectionism.Smith's central thesis is that the wealth of a nation is not determinedby the amount of precious metals or bullion it possesses, as the mercantilists believed, but rather by the productive capacity of its labor force and the efficiency of its economic system. He argued that individuals, motivated by their own self-interest, will engage in the most productive activities, leading to the optimal allocation of resources and the maximization of national wealth.The Wealth of Nations is divided into five books, each of which explores a different aspect of Smith's economic philosophy. The first book delves into the division of labor, the factors that determine the value of goods, and the role of money in the economy. The second book examines the nature and sources of capital, the accumulation of wealth, and the role of banking and financial institutions.The third book focuses on the historical development of economic systems, tracing the evolution from feudalism to capitalism and the rise of cities and the commercial class. The fourth book critiques the mercantilist system and advocates for the principles of free trade and limited government intervention, while the fifth book discusses the role of the state in providing public goods and maintaining the rule of law.One of the most enduring and influential ideas in The Wealth of Nations is Smith's concept of the "invisible hand," which posits that the pursuit of individual self-interest, when unhindered bygovernment interference, will lead to the most efficient allocation of resources and the greatest benefit for society as a whole. This idea has been central to the development of classical and neoclassical economic thought, and has had a profound impact on policy debates and the development of modern capitalism.Another key contribution of The Wealth of Nations is its emphasis on the division of labor as a driver of productivity and economic growth. Smith argued that the subdivision of tasks and the specialization of workers led to increased efficiency and output, a concept that has been widely adopted in industrial and manufacturing processes.The Wealth of Nations also made significant contributions to the understanding of the role of money in the economy, the nature of capital and its accumulation, and the historical development of economic systems. Smith's insights into these areas have had a lasting impact on economic theory and have continued to be the subject of scholarly debate and research.Despite its enduring influence, The Wealth of Nations has also been the subject of criticism and debate. Some scholars have argued that Smith's theories fail to fully account for the complexities of modern economic systems, particularly the role of government intervention in addressing market failures and ensuring social welfare. Others have critiqued the limited scope of Smith's analysis, which focusedprimarily on the British economy and did not fully consider the perspectives of non-Western societies.Nevertheless, The Wealth of Nations remains a seminal work in the history of economic thought, and its influence continues to be felt in both the academic and policy realms. Its insights into the nature of economic systems, the role of the individual, and the dynamics of wealth creation have made it a touchstone for economists, policymakers, and scholars alike.In conclusion, the English title of Adam Smith's masterpiece, "An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations," reflects the breadth and depth of its analysis, as well as its enduring significance in the field of economics. The work's focus on the role of the individual, the free market, and the drivers of economic growth have made it a foundational text for modern economic theory and policy, and its legacy continues to shape our understanding of the complex and ever-evolving world of economics.。
价值投资 亚当 读后感
价值投资亚当读后感英文回答："The Intelligent Investor" by Benjamin Graham is considered a foundational work in the field of value investing. Graham, known as the "father of value investing," presents a comprehensive framework forevaluating and selecting undervalued securities. The book emphasizes the importance of fundamental analysis, marginof safety, and long-term investing.Graham's value investing philosophy revolves around the concept of intrinsic value, which he defines as the present value of a company's future cash flows. According to Graham, investors should only invest in companies whose stockprices are trading at a discount to their intrinsic value. This margin of safety provides a buffer against potential downside risks and increases the likelihood of favorable returns over the long run.To determine intrinsic value, Graham advocates for a thorough analysis of a company's financial statements, including its income statement, balance sheet, and cashflow statement. He also emphasizes the importance of understanding the company's industry, competitive landscape, and management team.Graham encourages investors to adopt a disciplined and patient approach to investing. He stresses the importanceof avoiding emotional decision-making and adhering to sound investment principles. Graham advises investors todiversify their portfolios across multiple industries and asset classes to mitigate risk.He also cautions investors against the perils of leverage, excessive speculation, and overconfidence. Graham emphasizes the importance of maintaining a rational and conservative mindset throughout the investment process.中文回答：《聪明的投资者》是价值投资领域的一本奠基之作。
投资经典翻译系列之一：虚幻的盛宴
虚幻的盛宴BLOWING BUBBLES in the Punch Bowl 作者：JOHN RUBINO虚幻的盛宴通过研究估值过高的公司的历史，投资者将受益匪浅，可以发觉未来的警告信号2000年春天，技术股泡沫泛滥时，Jeff Bronchick的电话响了，他的几个资金经理的朋友打电话问他同样的问题：“你有没有听到Bill Miller怎么评论你？”Jeff Bronchick是CFA，现在任洛杉矶的Reed Conner & Birdwell公司的首席投资官。
当时，他是热门网站“”为数不多的几个“价值”评论员之一。
他在最近的专栏文章中，尖锐地质问Legg Mason 公司著名的基金经理Miller大举进仓公司的股票是否明智。
Bronchick回忆道，专栏文章发出不久，Miller在一次投资者会议上说：“他（Bronchick）发表演讲，做PPT展示，然后说：‘现在我们有了Bronchick模型。
’接着，他又在全球最聪明的400个人面前羞辱我。
”事实证明Bronchick是正确的，而Miller是错误的。
Amazon公司的股票在下一年中下跌了80%。
现在Amazon的股票交易仍然活跃，价格也不错，但是，即使是今天，其价格仍低于2000年初的水平。
这里面至少可以吸取两个教训。
第一，退出快速成长的股票可能会损害你的声誉，至少在短期内会影响。
第二，当市场位于高位时，即使是最聪明的投资者也会被定价极不合理的股票所戏弄。
所以，如果估值过高的股票在所难免，他们的出现是不是有什么预兆和规律呢？答案是：既有也没有。
具体情况因股票而异，但有一些共同适用的规律，包括：新颖。
1929年时，估值过高的股票有上百只，但1933年时却很少。
为什么呢？购买恐慌通常发生在市场气氛高涨、贪婪超过恐惧的时候。
当新技术、新商业惯例、或者领导层变更使投资者认为经济周期已经结束时，这种状况最容易发生。
如果经济衰退已经过去，那么那些过时的、规避风险的商业惯例和估值模型也要成为过去。
高英(现代大学英语)精读5 paraphrase 原文+译文
1.The job of arousing manhood within a people that have been taught for so many centuries that they are nobody is not easy. It is no easy job to educate a people who have been told over centuries that they were inferior and of no importance to see that they are humans, the same as any other people.2.Psychological freedom, a firm sense of self-esteem, is the most powerful weapon against the long night of physical slavery. If you break the mental shackles imposed on you by white supremacists, if you really respect yourself, thinking that you are a Man, equal to anyone else, you will be able to take part in the struggle against racial discrimination.3.The Negro will only be free when he reaches down to the inner depths of his own being and signs with the pen and ink of assertive manhood his own emancipation proclamation.The liberation of mind can only be achieved by the Negro himself/herself. Only when he/she is fully convinced that he/she is a Man/Woman and is not inferior to anyone else, can be he/she throw off the manacles of self-abnegation and become free. 4.Power at its best is love implementing the demands of justice, and justice at its best is power correcting everything that stands against that stands against love.Power in the best form of function is the carrying out of the demands of justice with love and justice in the best form of function is the overcoming of everything standing in the way of love with power.5.At that time, economic status was considered the measure of the individual’s ability and talents.At that time, the way to evaluate how capable and resourceful a person was to see how much money he had made(or how wealthy he was).6.The absence of worldly goods indicated a want of industrious habits and moral fiber.A person was poor because he was lazy and not hard-working and lacked a sense of right and wrong.7.It is not the work of slaves driven to their tasks either by the task, by the taskmaster or by animal necessity.This kind of work cannot be done by slaves who work because the work has to be done, because they are forced to work by slave-drivers or because they need to work in order to be fed and clothed.8.When the unjust measurement of human worth on the scale of dollars is eliminated.When the unfair practice of judging human value by the amount of money a person has got is done away with.9.He who hates does not know God, but he who has love has the key that unlocks the door to the meaning of ultimate reality. Those who harbor hate in their hearts cannot grasp the teachings of God. Only those who have love can enjoy the ultimate happiness in Heaven.10.Let us be dissatisfied until America will no longer have a high blood pressure of creeds and an anemia of deeds.Let us be dissatisfied until America no longer only talk about racial equality but is unwilling or reluctant to take action to end such evil practices racial as racial discrimination.1.I pictured this prodigy part of me as many different images, trying each one on for size.I imagined myself being different types of prodigy, trying to find out which type would best suit me.2.I had new thoughts, willful thoughts, or rather thoughts filled with lots of won’ts.Some new thoughts came to my mind, thoughts that I deliberately wanted to be disobedient, or to be more exact, thoughts that I would say lots of “ I won’t …” to my mother.3.The girl had a sauciness of a Shirley Temple.The girl was somewhat like Shirley Temple, a bit rude, but in an amusing way.4.It felt like worms and toads and slimy things crawling out of my chest, but it also felt good, as if this awful side of me had surfaced, at last. While saying these, I was scared as if some very unpleasant, horrible things had got out of my chest; but at the same time, I felt a bit delighted for I was finally able to make this awful part of me known to my mother.5.And I could sense her anger rising to its breaking point, I wanted to see it spill over.And I could feel that her anger was coming to the point where her endurance and self-control would collapse, but I wanted to see what exactly she would do when that happened.6.The lid to the piano was closed, shutting out the dust, my misery, and her dreams.When the lid to the piano was closed, it not only shut out the dust but also put an end to my misery and my mother’s dreams as well.1.Yet globalization…Is a reality, not a choice.However, as one report said, globalization “ is now an ordinary fact of life, not something one can choose to have or not.”2.Popular factions sprout to exploit nationalist anxieties.Political groups favored by the general public have appeared in large numbers to take advantage of existing worries and uneasiness among the people about foreign “cultural assault.”3.Where xenophobia and economic ambition have often struggled for the upper hand.Where the two trends- the dislike and fear of things foreign and the desire to build China into one of a powerful, industrialized economy- have often contended with each other for dominance.4.Those people out there should continue to live in a museum while we will have showers that work.Those people in countries like China should continue to live a backward life while we ourselves will enjoy a comfortable life with all modern facilities.5.Westernization is a phenomenon shot through with inconsistencies and populated by very strange bedfellows. Westernization is a concept full of self-contradictions and held by people of very different backgrounds and views.6.You don’t have to be cool to do it; you just have to have the eye.You don’t have to look fashionable or attractive in order to find out what will be the future trend; you only need to be observant and be able to make judgments about it.7.He was up in the cybersphere far above the level of time zones.He was playing the game on the Internet with people living in different parts of the world, an activity that goes far beyond the limit of time zones.8.In the first two weeks of business the Gucci Store took in a surprising $100,000.In the first two weeks after starting business in Shanghai, the Gucci Store made as much as $100,000, a surprisingly large amount of money.9.Early on I realized that I was going to need some type of compass to guide me through the wilds of global culture.Early before that/ From the very beginning I realized I was going to need some guidance that would lead me through the rich and wide variety of global cultures.10.The penitence may have been Jewish, but the aspiration was universal.The way of expressing repentance may have been characteristic of the Jews, but the desire for forgiveness from God was common to people of all cultures.1.Pianos and models, Paris, Vienna and Berlin, masters and mistresses, are not needed by writer.Unlike a pianist or a painter who must have a piano or hire models, or visit famous cities like Paris, Vienna and Berlin, or to be taught by masters and mistresses, a writer does not need all this.2.she would have plucked the heart out of my writing.Those conventional attitudes and beliefs( represented by the Angel) would have taken away the essence/ soul of my writing.3.Thus, whenever I felt the shadow of her wing or the radiance of her halo upon my page, I took up the inkpot and flung it at her. Thus whenever I felt the influence of traditional Victorian values and attitudes( about gender roles) on my writing, I fought back with all my power.4.For though men sensibly allow themselves great freedom in these respects, I doubt that they realize or can control the extreme severity with which they condemn such freedom in women.This is because, even though men readily allow themselves full freedom in speaking or writing about such as the body and passions, I don’t think they realize how severely they condemn or can control their extremely severe condemnation of, such freedom in women.5.Indeed it will be a long time still, I think, before a woman can sit down to write a book without finding a phantom to be slain, a rock to be dashed against.No doubt, it will still take a long time, as I believe, before women are finally able to enjoy the freedom of writing without having to fight those conventional values, beliefs and prejudices that are unfavorable to them.6.Even when the path is nominally open- when there is nothing to prevent a woman from being a doctor, a lawyer, a civil servant -there are many phantoms and obstacles, as I believe, looming in her way.Even though the path is now open to women in name only, when they have the freedom to choose to be a doctor, a lawyer, a civil servant, I believe that there still exist many false ideas and obstacles to impede a woman’s progress.7.You have won rooms of your own in the house hitherto exclusively owned by men.By fighting against the Angel in the House and through your painstaking efforts, you have gained a position and some freedom in a society which has so far been dominated by men.1.It took me a long time and much painful boomeranging of my expectations to achieve a realization everyone elseappears to have been born with: that I am nobody but myself.It took me a long time to get rid of illusions and realize the simple and apparent truth that I am nobody but myself. It was a painful process. I started with high expectations only to be deeply disappointed and thoroughly disillusioned.2.And yet I am no freak of nature, nor of history. I was in the cards, other things having been equal (or unequal) 85 years ago. I am perfectly normal physically and I am a natural product of history; my growth reflects history. When things seemed likely to happen to me, other things has been equal (or unequal) 85 years ago.3.About eighty-five years ago they were told that they were free, united with others of our country in everything pertaining to the common good, and in everything social, separate like the fingers of the hand.About 85 years ago, they were told that they were freed from slavery and became united with the white people in all the essential things having to do with the common interests of our country, but in social life the blacks and whites still remain separated.4.In those pre-invisible days I visualized myself as a potential Booker T. Washington.In those days before I realized I was an invisible man, I imagined that I would become a successful man like Booker T. Washington.5.I wanted at one and the same time to run from the room, to sink through the floor, or go to her and cover her from my eyes of the others with my body; to feel the soft thighs, to caress her and destroy her, to love her and murder her.On the one hand, I felt so embarrassed that I wanted to run away from the ballroom. On the other hand I took pity on the girl and so wanted to protect the naked girl from the eyes of the other men. I wanted to love her tenderly because she was an attractive girl, but at the same time I wanted to destroy her because after all she was the immediate cause of our embarrassment.6.Should I try to win against the voice out there? Would not this go against my speech, and was not this a moment for humility, for nonresistance?If I should try my best and win the fight, then I would be winning against the bet of that white man, who shouted “I got my money on the big boy. " In that case I would not behave with humility, and yet my speech talked about humility as the essence of success. So maybe I should let that big boy win without putting up resistance, for this was time for me to show humility. 7. “ Cast down your bucket where you are” - cast it down in making friends in every manly way of the people of all races by whom we are surrounded.Make full use of what you have and do the best you can. Take this attitude in making friends in every honorable way, making friends with people of different races among whom we live.8.“You weren't being smart, were you, boy?" "We mean to do right by you, but you've got to know your place at all times.”You were not trying to seem clever in a disrespectful way, were you, boy? We intend to do the right thing by setting you up as role model, but you must never forget who you are.1. And I was conscious of his superiority in a way which was embarrassing and led to trouble.I knew that Oppenheimer was a man of great talent his way of showing his talent at seminars caused uneasiness and resentment among people, especially among his fellow students.2.This did not seem to be the sort of anecdote that would go over especially well at a conference devotes to poetry.Since those attending the conference were people devoted to poetry, such an anecdote, though interesting, might not be appreciated by the audience.3.Pitted against these excellent reasons for my not going to the conference were two others that finally carried the day. These were two reasons for my going to the conference ser against the reasons for my not going and they became decisive in my final decision.4.He is, for me, one of those people whose writing about their writing is more interesting than their writing itself. According to my view, Spender belongs to the group whose writings about their lives, experiences that is whose autobiographies, are more interesting than their literary works.5.Auden’s Dirac-like lucidity, the sheer wonder of the language, and the sense of fun about serious things …Were to me irresistible. Like Dirac, Auden was outstanding in clarity. He was also outstanding in the powerful use of the language and the sense of fun about serious issues. All these greatly fascinated me.6.Spender’s journal entry on his visit is fascinating both for what it says and for what it does not say.Spender’s record of this visit is interesting not only because of the things he mentions but also because of the things he doesn’t say.7.Oppenheimer appears in Spender’s journal as a disembodied figure with no contextual relevance to Spender’s own life. In his book Spender fails to give a connected, complete picture of Oppenheimer and does nit mention that Oppenheimer’s background and situation has quite a lot to do with Spender.8.The real thing was much better.The real person looked much better than the pictures.9.One probably should not read too much into appearance.Maybe one should not attach too much importance to appearance.10. He had outlived them all, but was still under their shadow, especially that of Auden…He had lived longer than any of his more famous friends but traces or influences of these friends, especially those of Auden, could still be found on him.1. Your imagination comes to life, and this, you think,is where Creation was begun.The landscape makes your imagination vivid and lifelike, and you believe that the creation of the whole universe was begun right here.2.But warfare for the Kiowas was preeminently a matter of disposition rather than of survival, and they never understood the grim ,unrelenting advance of the U.S. Cavalry.The Kiowas often fought just because they were good warriors, because they fought out of habit, character, nature, not because they needed extra lands or material gains for the sake of surviving and thriving. And they could not understand why the U.S. Cavalry never gave up pushing forward even when they had won a battle.3.My grandmother was spared the humiliation of those high gray walls by eight or ten years.Luckily my grandmother did not suffer the humiliation of being put into a closure for holding animals, for she was born eight or ten years after the event.4. It was a long journey toward dawn, and it led to a golden age.They moved toward the east, where the sun rises, and also toward the beginning of a new culture, which led to the treatest moment of their history.5.They acquired horses, and their ancient nomadic spirit was suddenly free of the ground.Now they got horses. Riding on horseback, instead of walking on football, gave them this new freedom of movement, thus completely liberating their ancient nomadic spirit.6.From one point of view, their migration was the fruits of an old prophecy, for indeed they emerged from a sunless world. In a sense, their migration confirmed the ancient myth that they entered the world from a hollow log, for they did emerge from the sunless world of the mountains.7.The Kiowas reckoned their stature by the distance they could see, and they were bent and blind in the wilderness.Their stature was measured by the distance they could see. Yet, because of the dense forests, they could not see very far, and they could hardly stand straight.8.Clusters of trees and animals grazing far in the distance cause the vision to reach away and wonder to build upon the mind. The earth unfolds and the limit of the land is far in the distance, where there are clusters of trees and animals eating grass. This landscape makes one see far and broadens one's horizon.9. Not yet would they veer southward to the caldron of the land that lay below;they must wean their blood from the northern winter and hold the mountains a while longer in their view.They would not yet change the direction southward to the land lying below which was like a large kettle. First they must give their bodies some time to get used to the plains. Secondly, they did not want to lose sight of the mountains so soon.10.I was never sure that I had the right to hear, so exclusive were they of all merely custom and company.I was not sure that I had any right to overhear her praying, which did not follow any customary way of praying, add which I guess she did not want anyone else to hear.11. Transported so in the dancing light among the shadows of her room she seemed beyond the reach of time. But that was illusion; I think I knew then that I should not see her again.In this way she was entranced in the dancing light among the shadows of her room, and she seemed to be timeless(what sh represented would last forever)12.The women might indulge themselves; gossip was at once the mark and compensation of their servitude.On these special occasions, women might make loud and elaborate jokes and talk among themselves. Their gossip revaeled their position as servants of men and a reward for their servitude.。