Part Two Synchronic Linguistics

§ reconsideration of language in terms of value —language is a system of pure values, the intermediary between thought and sound. —Which is first, an idea or a sound pattern?
—But in fact, the linguistic identity mainly rests upon the function. § Realities and value —realities:sound-sequences with other elements keep one another in a state of equilibrium in accordance with fixed rules.
§linguistic value: material aspects —the value of sound is ancillary, a material the language uses. So is the writing. —Arbitrary and differential ,two correlative properties of the value.
ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ
—in a sequence of linguistic items, people can associate some of them with other items in the mind —syntactic and semantic syntactic
Chapter VI The language Mechanism §Syntagmatic interdependences —almost all linguistic units depend on either what precedes or follows in the spoken sequence; the whole and the part.
Part Two Synchronic Linguistics Chapter I & II General Observation and Concrete Entities of a language §the facts which constitute any linguistic state —the general properties of the linguistic sign ,an internal part of synchronic studies.
—grammar belongs to synchrony —In practice, a linguistic state occupies not a point in time, but a period of time of varying length, changes occurring are minimal. §Entities and units .
Chapter III &IV Identities, Realities, Values § Synchronic Identities —Identities exist throughout all the languages. —the identities of linguistic units: are established in three aspects: sound sequences, concepts, and functions.
●lexicological languages: absence of motivation reaches a maximum. Chinese, the ultralexicological extreme. ●proto-Indo –European and Sanskrit are examples of the ultra-grammatical.
—the language mechanism is like the functioning of a machine in which the components all act upon one another.
§Simultaneous functioning of both (syntagmatic and associative) §Absolute arbitrariness and relative arbitrariness —some are unmotivated, others are not unmotivated to the same extent.
●Saussure :before language was
created, vague and amorphous thoughts and featureless sounds existed separately
●This point of view is in accordance with the arbitrary nature of linguistic signs. —A community is necessary in order to establish values. Only when through usage and general agreement, can values be achieved.
—The capacity applies not only to words but to all linguistic elements. —The conceptual part of linguistic value is determined solely by relations and differences with other signs in the language
●A linguistic entity is not ultimately defined (without units)until it is delimited.
—Units : The delimited entities are also called units, which contrast with one another in the mechanism of the language. (P102) §The method of delimitation of units and its difficulties.
§ The sign as whole —the value of the sign as a whole is negative —A linguistic system is a series of phonetic differences matched with a series of conceptual differences. It gives rise to a system of values.
—a relation between one unit and others in a sequence (the sequential arrangement),
—syntagma: belongs to language §Associative relations (system, vertical, choice)
— entities:Linguistic signs(The signals and significatios)/real objects; the relations between them in a language.
—Two principles of the entities ●any linguistic entity exists only in virtue of the association between signal and signification.
22％ 22％ 6％ 6％ 5％ 4％ 3％
代表语言 英语、法语、俄语、印地语、波 斯语 汉语、藏语、泰语、缅甸语 斯瓦希里语 阿拉伯语、希伯来语 马来西亚语 泰米尔语 土尔其语、蒙古语、哈萨克语
人口 比例 45％ 45％
汉藏（Sino-Tibetan） 汉藏（Sino-Tibetan） 尼日尔－刚果（Niger尼日尔－刚果（NigerCongo） Congo） 亚非（Afro-Asiatic） 亚非（Afro-Asiatic）/闪含 （Hamito-Semitic） Hamito-Semitic） 南岛（Austronesian）印 南岛（Austronesian）印 度尼西亚语、 德拉维达（Dravidian） 德拉维达（Dravidian） 阿尔泰（Altaic） 阿尔泰（Altaic）
—the method: the units are delimited in the sound sequence which matches the division in the sequence of concept.
—practical difficulties: ●Will the units to be delimited turn out to be words or phrases ? In fact, a word is not necessarily a unit. ●A widely held view claims that the A only conrete linguistic units are sentences. But sentences are diversified
—The value of the elements is achieved through correlations (in the realities).
§Linguistic value: conceptual aspect —The value of a word is mainly or primarily thought of in terms of its capacity for representing a certain idea.