Accounting for natural-climatic conditions in the design of roads in western Siberia
(完整版)肖星-财务分析与决策课堂笔记
Cost of Acquisition购买成本
Market Price市场售价
然而，尽管Market Price是最理想反应asset当前价值，但并不是所有资产都能在市场找到售价
e.g. 用了5年的设备，市场上没有一模一样在卖的设备，只能找到新设备再打折来看！那么问题就来了，该打几折？相反若使用cost ofacquisition购买成本，专业术语即historical cost历史成本。就要面对Many assets value fluctuate over time很多资产价值随时间变化而波动
Long-term Investments长期投资：是指不满足短期投资条件的投资，即不准备在一年或长于一年的经营周期之内转变为现金的投资。长期投资按其性质分为长期股票投资、长期债券投资和其他长期投资。
（例：参股其他公司 Inject equity投资子公司 establish subsidiaries购买债券 Purchase bonds）
3. 养鸡场的鸡在报表中属于inventory（鸡是产品）（部分肉鸡是产品而已），对于蛋鸡（生产设备），属于Fixed asset（公鸡普遍存货，母鸡大部分是Fixed asset）
1.5 资产的价值
1. How do we determine the value of assets?资产的价值是如何确定？
会计上解决上述dilemma，提出两大原则：
忽略升值：Ignore the appreciation
记录减值：Record the impairment
故我们选择使用历史成本这种计价体系，在历史成本基础上扣除资产的减值
（The value of assets after impairment on a historical cost basis）
英文会计用语勘定科目
■AAbility / 自己株式の払込剰余金Account / 勘定科目（勘定）Account Analysis /勘定科目分析Accounting / 会計Accounting Period / 会計期間Accounting Principles / 会計原則Accounting System /会計システムAccounts Payable / 買掛金Accounts Receivable / 売掛金Accumulated Depreciation / 減価償却累計額Accelerated Depreciation Method / 加速度的償却法Accumulated Depreciation / 減価償却累計額Accounts Payable Ledger / 買掛金元帳Accrual Basis / 発生主義Accrued Expenses / 未払費用Accrued Revenues / 未収収益Accounting Principles / 会計基準Accrual Basis Accounting / 発生主義会計Accelerated / 加速度的Activity / 活動量Accumulate / 累積するAccounting Entities / 会計実体Accrued Pension Cost / 未払年金費用Accrued Pension Expense / 未払年金費用Accrued / Prepaid Pension Cost / 未払／前払年金費用Accumulated Depreciation / 減価償却累計額Accumulation Benefit Obligation / 累積給付債務Actual Return / 実際の運用益Actual Return on Plan Assets / 年金資産の実際運用益Actuarial Present Value / 年金数理計算による現在価値Actuary / 年金数理士Acquisition / 取得Acquisition Date / 取得日Accountings Changes / 会計上の変更Adjusted Trial Balance / 修正後残高試算表Adjusting Entry / 決算整理仕訳Adjustment / 決算整理Advertising Expense / 広告宣伝費Add / 加算Additions / 受入Administrative Expenses / 一般管理費Additional Paid-in Capital / 資本剰余金Additional Minimum Liability / 追加最小負債Adjusted Trial Balance / 決算整理後試算表Adjustment, Amendment / 修正Additional Paid-in Capital – Common Stock / 普通株式の払込剰余金Adjusted Retroactively / 遡及的修正Additional Paid-in Capital-shock Options Outstanding / 払込剰余金–未行使株式購入選択権Affiliated Group / 関連会社グループAging / 年齢調べAllowance for Uncollectible Accounts / 貸倒引当金Allocation / 配分American Institute of Certified Public Accountants / 米国公認会計士協会Amortization Expense / 償却費Amortization / 償却Amortization of Prior Service Cost / 過去勤務原価の償却Amortize / 償却するAmortized Cost / 償却後のコストAnnual Report / 年次報告書Annual / 年間のAnnuity Due (Annuity in Advance) / 期首（先払い）年金Annual Payments / 毎月の支払額Appropriated Retained Earnings / 優先株式の払込剰余金Appropriated Retained Earnings / 処分済利益剰余金Arm’s Length Transaction / 公正な取引Assets / 資産Asset Gain Deferred / 資産運用益の繰延At Contract Completion / 工事完成時点Audit / 監査Average unit cost / 総平均単価Average Cost / 平均単価Average Method / 平均法Average Rate of Return on Plan Assets / 年金資産の運用益の平均利率Average Remaining Service period / 平均残存勤務期間Available-for-Sale Securities / その他の（売却可能な）有価証券Average Market Price / 平均市場価格■BBalance Sheet / 貸借対照表Bankruptcy / 倒産Bad Debt Expense / 貸倒損失（貸倒引当金繰入額）Bank Reconciliation Schedule / 銀行勘定調整表Bank Statement / 銀行残高証明書Bankruptcy / 破産Basic Earnings Per Share / 基本的一株当たり利益Base-Year Cost / 基準年度ベースの価格による原価Bargain Purchase Option / 割安価格でのリース資産購入選択権Beginning Inventory / 期首棚卸資産Beginning of Year / 期首Beginning Balance / 期首残高Benefits / 給付金の支払いBeginning Balance of Retained Earnings Originally Reported / 修正前の期首残高Beneficiary / 保険金受取人Billings / 請求Billings on Long-Term Contracts / 長期請求契約の請求Bookkeeping / 簿記Buy, Purchase / 購入Bonds Payable / 社債Bond Discount / 社債のディスカウント（社債発行差金）Bond Premium / 社債のプレミアム（社債発行差金）Bond Investment / 投資社債Bonds / 社債Book Value / 簿価Break-Even Point / 損益分岐点Budget / 予算Buy, Purchase / 購入Buy, Purchase / 購入Business Combinations / 企業結合■CCarry Back / 繰戻Carry Forward / 繰延Cash / 現金Cash Ledger / 現金元帳Cash Payment / 支払Cash Receipt / 入金Cash Basis / 現金主義Cash Basis Accounting / 現金主義会計Capital Budget / 資本予算Capital Expenditures / 資本的支出Capital Stock / 資本金Capitalize / 資産計上Carrying Amount, Book Value / 簿価Cash Budget / 資金予算Cash Dividend / 現金配当Cash Equivalents / 現金等価物Cash Inflows / 資金の流入Cash Outflows / 資金の流出Carrying Value, Book Value / 簿価Capital Lease / キャピタルリースCash Dividends / 現金配当Capital Structure / 資本構成Cash Collection / 現金の回収Ceiling / 上限Chart of Accounts / 勘定科目表Changes in Accounting Estimates / 会計上の見積もりの変更Change in Reporting Entity / 報告主体の変更Changes in Accounting Principle / 会計処理の変更Claims / 請求権Closing / 締切Common Stock / 資本金Company / 会社Compensation / 報酬Composed Interest / 複利Consistency / 継続性Contra account / 相殺勘定Contribution Margin / 貢献利益Controller / コントローラーConversion Costs / 加工費Convertible Bonds / 転換社債Cost Accounting / 原価計算Cost Allocation / 原価配賦Cost of Goods Sold / 売上原価Cost / 取得原価Cost Center / コストセンターCost of Capital / 資本コストCost of Goods Available for Sale / 販売可能商品の原価Cost of Goods Sold / 売上原価Conservatism / 保守主義Cost, Acquisition Cost / 取得原価Cost-Volume-Profit / CVP分析Copyright / 著作権Compensated Absences / 有給休暇Compensation / 補償・報酬Contingencies / 偶発事象Contingent Liabilities / 偶発債務Compounding Feature, Compound Interest / 複利Contract Rate / 契約利率Contributions / 資金の払込みCollection / 回収Contingent Rentals / 偶発賃貸料Contract / 契約Collectibility / 回収の可能性Common Stockholder / 普通株式Compensation Expense / 報酬費Contra Stockholders’ Equity Items / 株主持分のマイナス勘定Contributed Capital / 拠出資本Conversation / 転換Convertible Preferred Stock / 転換優先株Cost Method / 原価法Commercial Paper / コマーシャルペーパーContra Account / マイナス勘定Convertible Bonds / 転換社債Consideration / 対価Consolidations / 連結Cost of Registering and Issuing Equity Securities / 株式の登録および発行にかかる費用Cost of the Investment / 投資額Consolidated Financial Statements / 連結財務諸表Consolidated Balance Sheet / 連結貸借対照表Comparative Financial Statements / 比較財務諸表Common Shares Outstanding / 発行済普通株式数Converted / 転換されたCompleted-Contract Method / 工事完成基準Consigned Goods / 委託販売Consignee / 受託者Consignment / 委託販売Consignment Sales Revenue / 委託販売収益Consignor / 委託者Construction Revenue / 建設収益Construction in Expenses / 建設費用Contract Price / 契約価額Costs to Date / 累計原価Construction in Progress / 建設仮勘定Credit / 貸方Credit Balance / 貸方残Current Assets / 流動資産Current Liabilities / 流動負債Current Year / 当年度Current Year Cost / 期末ベースの価格による原価Cumulavive / 累積的Cumulative Effect of a Change in Accounting Principle / 会計処理の変更による累積的影響額Customer / 顧客・得意先Cumulative Unrecognized Net Loss or Gain / 累積未計上損失額または利益額Current Assets / 流動資産Current Cost / 現在原価Current Liabilities / 流動負債Current Period / 当期Current Tax Liability / 当期税負債Cumulative Preferred Stock / 累積優先株Current Portion / 当期分Cumulative Effect of a Change in Accounting Principle / 会計処理の変更による累積的影響額Current Activity / 当期の活動量■DDate / 日付Damages / 損害賠償Debit / 借方Decrease / 減少Decision Making / 意思決定Depreciation / 減価償却Debit Balance / 借方残Denominator / 分母Depletion / 減耗償却Deposit / 預入Deposits in transit / 未達預金Depreciation Expense / 減価償却費Delivery / 引き渡すDepreciation Method / 減価償却の方法Deferred Pension Cost / 繰延年金費用Defined Benefit Pension Plan / 給付金建年金費用Deficiency / 欠陥Dealer / 卸業者Defer / 繰延べDeferred Taxes / 税効果会計Deferred Tax Liability / 繰延税負債Deduct / 控除するDeductions / 所得控除Deferred / 繰延べるDeferred Compensation Expense / 繰延報酬費Debt Securities / 債券Delivering / 発送Deferred Portion / 繰延分Denominator / 分母Deferred Installment Gross Profit / 繰延割賦売上利益Determinable / 分かっている・決定可能であるDeferred Tax Asset / 繰延税資産Differences / 差異Direct Costs / 直接費Direct-Labor Costs / 直接労務費Direct-Material Costs / 直接材料費Direct Financing Lease / 直接金融型リースDisbursement / 支払Disclosure / 開示Discount Rate / 割引率Discontinued Operations / 非継続事業項目Disposal Date / 処分日Discount / ディスカウントDiscount Issue / ディスカウント発行（割引発行）Dividends / 配当金Dividend Income / 配当利益Dividends Payable / 未払配当金Direct Approach / 直接法Direct Control / 直接支配Direct Cost / 直接費Differential / 差額Diluted Basis Earnings Per Share / 希薄化後一株あたり利益Dilutive / 希薄性のあるDiscontinued Operations / 非継続事業項目Discount on Note Payable / 借入金のディスカウントDiscount on Note Receivable / 貸付金のディスカウントDouble-Entry Bookkeeping / 複式簿記Double-Declining Balance / 二倍定率法Dollar Value LIFO / ドル価値後入先出法Double Declining Balance Method / 二倍定率法Due / 満期During Construction / 工事の間■EEarning Per Share / 一株当たりの利益Economic Value Added / 経済的付加価値Effective Interest Method / 実効利息法Effective Rate / 実効利子率Efficiency Variance / 能率差異Eliminating Entry / 消去仕訳Employees / 従業員Employee / 従業員Employer / 雇用主Ending Balance / 期末残高Ending Inventory / 期末棚卸資産End of Year / 期末Entity / 実体Equipment / 設備Equity / 株式Equity financing / 株式発行による資本調達Equity Method / 持分法Equivalent / 等しいEquivalent Units / 換算量Error Correction / 過年度損益項目Estate Tax / 相続税Estimated Gain / 見積利益Estimated Tax Payments / 予定納税Estimated Loss / 見積損失Estimate / 見積るEstimated Warranty Expense / 製品保証費Estimated Cost to Complete / 工事完成までの見積原価Estimated Profit / 見積利益Expected Return / 予想運用益Excess / 超過分Exclusions / 非課税Executory Cost / 履行費用Exercise Date / 行使する日Expected Cost / 予定原価Expected Useful Life 予想耐用年数Expenditures / 支出Expenses / 費用Extraordinary Items / 特別損益項目Exercise / 行使Exercise Price / 権利行使価格Expected Profit / 予想利益■FFace Value / 額面Fair Value of Plan Assets / 年金資産の公正価値Fair Market Value of Leased Assets / リース資産の公正市場価格Fair Market Value / 公正市場価格Face Value of Bonds / 社債の額面Fair Value / 時価Face Value, Par / 額面Face Value, Face Amount / 額面Favorable Expense Variance / 有利費用差異Free Rent / 賃貸料無料Financial Accounting /財務会計Financial Budget / 財務予算Financial Institutions / 金融機関Financial statements / 財務諸表Financial Position / 財政状態Financing Activities / 財務活動Finished goods / 完成品First-in, First-out : FIFO / 先入先出法Fiscal year / 会計年度Fixed Assets / 固定資産Fixed Cost / 固定費Flexible Budget / 変動予算Floor / 下限Foreign Currency Transactions / 外貨建取引Foreign Currency Transaction Gain / 為替差益Foreign Currency Transaction Loss / 為替差損For a Given Accounting Period / 一会計年度Foreign Currency Losses / 為替差損Foreign Tax Credit / 外国税額控除Freight-in / 仕入運賃Freight-out / 販売運賃Freight / 運賃Future Value / 将来価値Future Value of an Amount / 現在の一定額の将来価値Future Value oh an Ordinary Annuity / 期末年金の将来価値Future Deductible / 将来控除Future Taxable / 将来課税■GGain / 利益Gain and Loss from Sale of Equipment / 設備の売却損益Gain or Loss / 利益または損失Gain on Equity Securities / 持分有価証券益Gain on sale of plant / 固定資産売却益Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) / 一般に公正妥当と認められた会計原則General Ledger / 総勘定元帳Gift Tax / 贈与税Goods / 商品Goods Available for Sale / 販売可能な商品原価Goodwill / 営業権Gross Income / 総所得Gross Margin / 売上総利益Gross Profit / 総利益法Gross Profit Percentage / 総利益率Gross Sales / 総売上高Grant Date / 付与日Gross Profit realized on Installment / 割賦実現売上利益Guarantee / 保証するGuaranteed Residual Value / 保証残高価値■HHeld-to-Maturity Securities / 償還まで保有する債券Highly Liquid / 流動性が高いHistrical cost / 取得原価■I“If Converted”Method / 転換仮定方式Improvement / 改良Implicit Interest Rate / リース契約利子率Imprest system / 定額前渡システムIncentives / インセンティブIncome manipulation / 利益操作Income Statement / 損益計算書Income summary account / 損益勘定Income Tax / 所得税Increase / 増加Indirect costs / 間接費Indirect Manufacturing Costs / 製造間接費Insurance Expense / 支払保険料Intangible assets / 無形資産Interest / 利息Interest Expense / 支払利息Interest Revenue / 受取利息Interim Financial Statements / 中間財務諸表Invest Money / 投資Inventory / 棚卸資産Inventory Turnover / 在庫回転率Investment Center / 投資センターInvestments / 投資Invoice / 請求書Inventory Cost / 棚卸資産の取得原価Inventory Valuation Methods / 棚卸資産の評価方法Intangible Asset / 無形固定資産Income Taxes Payable / 未払法人税Income Tax / 法人税Income before Income Taxes / 税引前当期純利益Interest Payable / 未払利息Interest Receivable / 未収利息Income from Continuing Operations / 継続事業利益Intangible Assets / 無形固定資産Inventoriable Costs / 棚卸原価Infrequent in Occurrence / 発生の頻度が低いInsurance/ 保険Inventory Valuation / 棚卸資産の評価方法Interest Payment Date / 利払日Investor / 投資家Initiation / 開始Interest on Projected Benefit Obligation / 予測給付債務の利息Inception / 開始Interest Rate / 利子率Interest Income / 利息収入Income from Investment / 投資利益Intent / 意志Investment Cost / 投資コストInvesting Activities / 投資活動Indirect Control / 間接支配Investment / 投資Intercompany / 連結会社間Intercompany Transactions / 連結会社間取引Investment in Stock 株式投資Income from Continuing Operations / 継続事業利益Income Tax Rate / 法人税率Installment Accounts Receivable / 割賦売掛金Installment Cost of Goods Sold / 割賦売上原価Installment Sales / 割賦販売Installation / 取り付け費Incremental Borrowing Rate / 限界借入利子率Issue Date / 発行日Issue Price / 発行価額Issuer / 発行者Issue, Issuance / 発行Issuing Stock / 株式の発行■JJob-order Costing / 個別原価計算Joint Costs / 結合原価Joint Products / 連産品Journal / 仕訳帳Journal Entry / 仕訳Just-in-time Production System / ジャストインタイム生産システム■KKey Performance Indicators / 重要業績指標■LLabor Time Tickets / 作業時間票Land / 土地Last-in, First-out : LIFO / 後入先出法Layers / 増加額Lawsuit,Litigation / 訴訟Ledger / 元帳Lend Money / 融資Less / 減算Lease / リースLease Bonus / リースボーナスLease Obligation / リース負債Lease Term / リース期間Lease Asset / リース資産Leasehold Improvements / リース物件改良費Lessee / 賃借人Lessor / 賃貸人Lease Receivable / 未収賃貸料Leased Equipment / 貸出し設備Liabilities / 負債Liability from Litigation / 訴訟による負債Liability / 負債Life Insurance Premium Income / 支払生命保険料Liability for Compensated Absence / 有給休暇引当金Loan / 貸付金Local Currency / 現地通貨Long-Term Construction Contracts / 長期請負工事Long-Term Investments / 長期投資Long-Term liabilities / 固定負債Loss on abandonment of equipment / 備品廃棄損Loss on Disposal of Discontinued Division / 非継続事業の処分で生じた損失Loss/Gain on Foreign Currency Exchange / 為替差損益Loss on sale of plant / 固定資産売却損Loss from Early Extinguishment of Bond / 社債の早期償還の損失Loss on Disposal / 処分による損失Loss Contingency / 偶発損失Loss from Litigation / 訴訟による損失Loss / 損失Loss on Equity Securities / 持分有価証券損Loss/Gain on Sale of Fixed Assets / 固定資産売却損益Loss from Operations of Discontinued Division / 非継続事業の営業から生じた損失Lower of Cost or Market / 低価法■MMachine / 機械Management / 経営Managerial Accounting / 管理会計Manufacturer / 製造業Margin of Safety / 安全余裕率Marginal Cost / 限界利益Market Value / 時価Market Rate / 市場利子率Market-Related Value / 市場関連価格Markdowns / 値下Markups / 値上Matching principle / 対応の原則Maturity Date / 満期Maturity Value / 満期額Manufacturer / 製造会社Market Price, Market Value / 市場価格Maturity / 満期Merchandise / 商品Method / 方法Measurement Date / 測定日Medical Expense / 医療費Merger / 吸収合併Minimum Lease Payments / 最低リース支払額Minority Interest / 少数株式持分Moving-Average / 移動平均法Moving Expense / 転勤費用Multiple-Step Income statement / 区分損益計算書Municipal Bond Interest Income / 地方債利息収入■NNet balance / 正味残高Net Book Value / 簿価Net Income / 当期純利益Net Loss / 当期純損失Net of Tax / 税引後Net-present-value Method / 正味現在価値法Net Realizable Value / 正味実現可能価額Net sales / 純売上高Net Unrealized Gain and Loss / 未実現利益（損失）Net Cash Flows / 純資金収支額Noncurrent Liabilities / 固定負債Normal Profit / 正常利益Nonphysical / 形のないNo Important Uncertainties / 重要な不確実性がないNonrefundable / 払戻しにならないNormal Selling Price / 通常の売値Noncurrent Assets / 固定資産Nonconvertible / 転換不可能Noncash Transaction / 現金以外の取引Noninterest-Bearing 無利息No par value / 無額面Notes / 借入・貸付の証明書Notes Payable / 借入金Notes Receivable / 貸付金Not sufficient funds checks / 不渡り小切手Number of Units / 個数Numerator / 分子■OObligation / 債務Officer / 会社の役員Officer’s Salaries / 役員報酬On Account / 掛取引One Year Rule / 一年基準On Credit / 信用取引Organizational Expenditure / 創立費Operating Results / 経営成績Opening inventory / 期首在庫Operating Cycle Rule / 正常営業循環基準Operating Expenses / 営業費用Operating Income / 営業利益Operating Lease / オペレーティングリースOperating Results / 経営成績Operating cycle / 営業サイクルOption Price / 購入選択権の価格Option Shares / 購入選択権の株数Operation Activities / 営業活動Opportunity Cost / 機会原価Organization costs / 創立費Original Issuance / 株式の発行時Other Expenses / 営業外費用Other Revenues / 営業外収益Outstanding checks / 未決済小切手Outstanding deposits / 未達預金Outstanding Stock / 流通している株式Outstanding / 流通、発行済Overstated / 過大計上Owners / 所有者■PPaid / 支払ったPar / 額面Parent company / 親会社Par Issue / 額面発行Participating Preferred Stock / 参加優先株Par Value, Face Value / 額面Par Value Method / 額面法Patent / 特許権Pension / 年金Pension Cost / 年金原価Pension Expense / 年金費用Pension Fund / 年金基金Pension Plan / 年金制度Percentage-of-Completion / 工事進行基準Percent of completion / 完成度合Period / 期間Periodic inventory system / 棚卸計算法Perpetual inventory system / 継続記録法Permanent Differences / 永久的差異Petty cash / 小口現金Phase-out Period / 段階的除去期間Physical inventory count / 実地棚卸Plan Assets, Pension Assets / 年金資産Plug / 差額Point-in-time / 一定時点Pooling Accounting Method, Pooling of Interests / 持分プーリング法Portion of Gain Recognized / 一部利益を認識するPosting / 転記Preferential Rights / 優先的な権利Preferred Dividends / 優先株式配当金Preferred Stock / 優先株式Preferred Stockholder / 優先株主Premium / 社債発行差額Premium Issue / 割増発行Prepaid Expenses / 前払費用Prepaid Rent / 前払賃貸料Present Value / 現在価値Present Value of a Future Amount / 将来の一定額の現在価値Present Value of an Annuity Due / 期首年金の現在価値Present Value of an Ordinary Annuity / 期末年金の現在価値Pretax Financial (Book) Income / 税引前利益Principal / 元本Prior Service Cost / 過去勤務原価Probable / 発生の可能性が高いProceeds / 現金受取額Process Costing / 総合原価計算Producing / 生産Product Costs / 製品コストProductive Output / 生産高比例法Product Warranty / 製品保証Profit / 利益Profit Center / 利益センターProfit Plan / 利益計画Profit Recognition / 利益認識Profit Recognized in Previous Periods / 前期までに認識した利益Pro Forma Amounts / 仮の金額Projected Benefit Obligation / 予測給付債務Property / 資産Property, Plant, and Equipment / 有形固定資産Prospectively / 将来的にPromissory notes / 約束手形Purchase Accounting Method / パーチェス法Purchase allowances / 仕入値引Purchase discounts / 仕入割引Purchase Ledger / 仕入元帳Purchase Price / 購入代価Purchase returns / 仕入戻しPurchases / 仕入■QQuarterly Statements / 四半期報告書Quantity Variance / 数量差異■RRange / 範囲Ratio / 比率Raw materials / 材料Real Property Tax / 固定資産税Realization / 実現Realization Principle / 実現主義Realized Loss / 実現損失Realized Profit / 実現利益Reasonably Estimable / 合理的に見積れるReasonably Possible / 可能性があるReceived / 受け取ったRecognition of Sales / 売上の認識Recognize / 認識するRecord / 記入するRefundable / 払戻しになるRemaining Lease Term / 残余リース期間Remote / 可能性がほとんどないRent / 家賃Rent Expense / 支払家賃Rent Payable / 未払家賃Rent Receivable / 未収家賃Rent Revenue / 受取家賃Replacement Cost / 再調達原価Repurchase / 買戻しResidual Value / 残存価値Resold / 再売却Resources 資源Responsibility Center / 責任センターRestate / 修正Results of Operations / 経営成績Retained Earnings / 利益剰余金Retail inventory method / 売価還元法Return on Investment / 投下資本利益率Retroactive Effect / 遡及的影響Revenue Expenditures / 収益的支出Revenues / 収益Reversing entries / 反対仕訳Royalties / ロイヤリティ■SSalaries Expense / 給料Salaries Payable / 未払給料Sales / 売上Sales allowances / 売上値引Sales Budget / 売上予算Sales Commission / 販売手数料Sales discount / 売上割引Sales Forecast / 売上予測Sale-Leaseback / セールリースバックSales Ledger / 売上元帳Sales returns / 売上戻りSales Transaction / 商品売買Sales-Type-Lease / 販売型リースSalvage Value / 残存価額Scrap value / 残存価額Security / 有価証券Security Deposits / 保証金Self-correcting errors / 自動修正される誤謬Sell at par / 額面発行Seller-Lessee / 売主-賃借人Selling Cost / 販売に要するコストSelling Expenses / 販売費Selling Price / 販売価額Serial Bonds / 連続償還社債Service Cost / 勤務原価Service life / 耐用年数Service Period / サービス期間Service Revenue / サービス収益Settle / 解決するSettlement Date / 決済日Settlement Rate / 決済利率Short-Term / 短期Sick Pay / 病気中の賃金の支払いSignificant Influence / 重要な影響力Single interest / 単利Single-Step Income Statement / 無区分式損益計算書Solely for Cash / 現金取引Sold / 販売したSolvency / 支払能力Special Accounts / 特殊勘定Specific Identification / 個別法Spot Rate / 当日為替レートStandard Cost / 標準原価Stated Rate / 表面利率Statement of Cash Flows / キャッシュフロー計算書Statement of Retained Earnings / 利益剰余金計算書Step-down Method / 階梯式配賦法Stock / 株式Stock Dividends / 株式配当Stock Options / 株式購入選択権Stock Splits / 株式分割Stockholder / 株主Stockholders’ Equity / 資本Straight-Line / 定額法Straight-Line Method / 定額法Subsidiary Company / 子会社Subsidiary Ledger / 補助元帳Sum-of-the-Years’ Digits / 級数法Sunk Cost / 埋没原価■TT-account T-account / Ｔ勘定Tangible Assets / 有形固定資産Tax / 税金Taxable Income / 課税所得Tax Computation / 税額計算Tax Credits / 税額控除Tax Expense Current / 当期法人税Tax Expense Deferred / 繰延法人税Tax Rate / 税率Temporary Differences / 一時的差異Term Bonds / 一括償還社債Testing / 試用運転費Third Party / 第三者Time Value of Money / 貨幣の時間価値Time Value of Money Tables / 貨幣の時間価値表Title / 所有権Total / 合計Total Assets / 資産合計Total Costs / 総原価Total Current Assets / 流動資産合計Total Current Liabilities / 流動負債合計Total Expect Costs, Total Estimated Costs / 見積総原価Total Expenses / 費用合計Total Liabilities / 総負債額Total Liabilities and Stockholders’ Equity / 負債及び資本合計Total Revenues / 収益合計Total Stockholders’ Equity / 資本合計To the Extent Possible / 可能な限りTrade discount / 業者割引Trademark / 商標権Trading Securities / 短期的な売買を想定する有価証券Transaction / 取引Transfer / 移転Transfer of the Title / 所有権の移転Transportation Fringes / 通勤手当Transportation in / 引取運賃Treasury Bills / 米国財務省短期証券Treasury Stock / 自己株式“Treasury Stock”Method / 自己株式方式Trial Balance / 試算表■UUnadjusted Trial Balance / 修正前残高試算表Unappropriated Retained Earnings / 未処分利益剰余金Uncollectible accounts / 回収不能債権Unearned Interest / 未経過利息Unearned Profit, Deferred Gain, Unearned Gain / 前受利益Unearned Rent / 前受家賃Unearned Rent Revenue / 前受家賃Unearned Revenues / 前受収益Unemployment Compensation / 失業保険Unfavorable Expense Variance / 不利費用差異Unguaranteed Residual Value / 無保証残存価値Unit Cost / 単価Unrealized Loss on Equity Securities / 持分有価証券未実現損Unrealized Profit / 未実現利益Unusual in Nature / 性質が異常Unusual or Infrequent Items / 性質が異常または発生の頻度が低い項目Usage methods / 生産高比例法Useful Life / 耐用年数■VValuation / 評価Valuation Account / 評価勘定Valuation Method / 評価方法Variable Budget / 変動予算Variable Cost / 変動費Variables / 変数Variances / 差異Voucher / 証憑■WWarehousing / 倉庫代Warrant / 新株引受権、ワラントWarranty Liability / 製品保証引当金Weighted Average / 加重平均Weighted-Average / 総平均法Withdrawals / 引出Work-in-process / 仕掛品Work Sheet / 精算表Write Off / 償却するｂあ行IFRS・英文会計税務用語●IASC財団IASC Foundation●IRSThe Internal Revenue Service●預け金deposits paid●圧縮記帳deferred tax reserves / reduction entry●圧縮記帳積立金reserve for reduction entry●アドプションadoption●アメリカ合衆国内国歳入庁IRSThe Internal Revenue Service ●売上割戻引当金provision for sales rebates●一時所得occasional income●移動平均法moving-average method●医療費控除medical deduction●印鑑登録証明書certificate of registered seal●印紙税stamp tax●青色申告の承認申請書application for filling form tax returns ●イファースIFRSs●受取手形notes receivable●受取配当金dividends income●受取利息interest income●売上計上モレunderstatement of sales margin, currently taxable●売上計上モレ認容understatement of sales margin, currently taxable in the previous year, currently deductible●売上原価cost of sales●売上債権の増減額decrease (increase) in notes and accounts receivable-trade●売掛金accounts receivable-trade●営業活動によるキャッシュ・フローnet cash provided by (used in) operating activities●営業債権trade receivables●営業債務trade payables●親会社a parent company●親会社株式stocks of parent companyか行IFRS・英文会計税務用語●買掛金accounts payable-trade●会員権membership●開業費business commencement expenses●外形標準課税size-based taxation●会計上の見積もりaccounting estimates●会計方針accounting policies●外国為替レート変動の影響The Effects of Changes in Foreign Exchange Rates●外国税額控除foreign tax credit●解釈指針interpretation●解釈指針委員会SIC : Standing Interpretations Committee●開発費償却amortization of development expenses●加算to add to taxable income●貸倒引当金allowance for doubtful accounts●貸倒引当金繰入超過額excess allowance for doubtful accounts●貸倒引当金戻入額reversal of allowance for doubtful accounts●貸倒損失bad debt loss●カスタマー・ロイヤルティ・プログラムCustomer Loyalty Programmers●課税所得taxable income●課税取引taxable transactions●合併差益merger gain●合併法人the surviving company●可能性が高いprobable●株券share certificates●株式会社kabushikigaisha (joint-stock corporation)●株式交付費stock issuance cost●株式報酬Share-based Payment●株主資本shareholders' equity●株主名簿register of shareholders●借入費用Borrowing Costs●仮受消費税等suspense receipt of consumption taxes●仮払金suspense payments●仮払経理tentative payment based on estimated amount●為替換算調整勘定foreign currency translation adjustment●簡易課税制度simplified tax system●関係会社売掛金accounts receivable from subsidiaries and affiliates-trade●関係会社株式stocks of subsidiaries and affiliates●関係会社短期借入金short-term loans payable to subsidiaries and affiliates●関係会社長期借入金long-term loans payable to subsidiaries and affiliates●関連会社affiliated companies●関連会社に対する投資Investments in Associates●関連当事者についての開示Related Party Disclosures●機械及び装置machinery and equipment●企業会計基準委員会ASBJ（Accounting Standards Board of Japan）●企業結合Business Combinations●基準諮問会議The Standards Advisory Council●規則主義rules-based●基礎控除basis deduction●寄附金控除contribution deduction●キャッシュ・フロー計算書statement of cash flows●給与支払事務所等の開始等届出書tax report for commencement of payroll●給与所得employment income●給与所得控除employment income deduction●教育訓練費の税額控除tax credit for staff training expenses●共同支配企業Jointly Controlled Entities●共同支配投資企業による非貨幣性資産の拠出Non-Monetary Contributions by Ventures ●銀行勘定調整表bank reconciliation●均等割equalization tax●勤労学生控除working student deduction●金融資産financial assets●金融商品financial instruments●金融商品に関する開示の改善Improving Disclosures about Financial Instruments●金融負債financial liabilities●偶発資産contingent assets●偶発債務contingent liabilities●組込デリバティブEmbedded Derivatives●組込デリバティブの再査定Reassessment of Embedded Derivatives●区（市町村）民税ward (municipal) tax●区（市町村）民税ward (municipal) inhabitant tax●繰延税金資産deferred income tax assets●繰延税金資産deferred income tax liabilities●繰延資産deferred assets●繰延ヘッジ損益deferred gains or losses on hedges●継続関与continuing involvement●継続企業going concern●契約にリースが含まれているか否かの判断Determining whether an Arrangement contains a Lease●原価差異cost variance●減価償却資産の償却方法の届出書application for depreciation method of depreciable fixed assets●減価償却累計額accumulated depreciation●現金及び現金同等物cash and cash equivalents●現金主義cash basis●現在価値present value●現在原価current cost / replacement cost●健康保険health insurance●健康保険・厚生年金保険の新規適用届report of the new application for health insurance / welfare pension insurance●健康保険・厚生年金保険の被保険者資格取得届report of insured person for health insurance / welfare pension●現在の債務present obligation●原材料raw materials●源泉所得税の納期の特例の承認に関する申請書application for payment of withholding income tax on a semiannual●源泉所得税の納付書payment slip for withholding income tax●源泉徴収義務obligation to withholding income tax●源泉徴収義務者an employer who is obliged to withholding income tax●源泉徴収対象to be subject to withholding income tax●原則主義principles-based●減損impairment●現物出資contribution in kind●交際費損金不算入額entertainment expenses, not deductible (excess entertainment expenses) ●工事契約Construction Contracts●厚生年金保険料welfare insurance premium●構築物structures●公的年金控除額deduction for government pensions●後発事象Events After the Reporting Period●鉱物資源の探査及び評価Exploration for and Evaluation of Mineral Resources●顧客からの資産の移転Transfers of Assets from Customers●国外源泉所得foreign source income●国際会計基準委員会（IASC）財団The International Accounting Standards Committee Foundation●国際会計基準審議会IASB : International Accounting Standards Board●国際財務報告解釈指針委員会IFRIC : International Financial Reporting Standards●国際財務報告基準IFRSs : International Financial Reporting Interpretations Committee●国際財務報告基準の初度適用First-time Adoption of International Financial Reporting Standards●国内源泉所得domestic source income●固定資産除却損loss on retirement of noncurrent assets●固定資産税fixed assets tax●固定資産廃棄損loss on abandonment of noncurrent assets●固定資産売却損loss on sales and retirement of noncurrent assets●固定負債noncurrent liabilities●個別法specific identification method●雇用保険料employee insurance premium●コンバージェンスconvergenceさ行IFRS・英文会計税務用語●財産目録Breakdown of assets and liabilities●財政状態計算書statement of financial position●最終仕入原価法most recent purchase method●財務諸表の作成及び表示に関する概念フレームワーク。
会计英语
会计英语1－10课Text 1 Accounting and Its EnvironmentDevelop an accounting vocabulary for decision making. Accounting is a system for measuring, processing, and communicating financial information. As the “language of business,” accounting helps a wide range of decision makers. Accounting dates backs to ancient civilizations, but its importance to society has been greatest since the Industrial revolution.Apply accounting concepts and principles to analyze business transactions. The three basic forms of business organization are the proprietorship, the partnership, and the corporation. Whatever the form, accountants use the entity concept to keep the business’s records separate from the personal records of the people who run it. Accountants at all levels must be ethical to serve their intended purpose. Generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) guide accountants in their work. Among these guidelines are the entity concept, the reliability principle, the cost principle, the going-concern concept, and the stablemonetary-unit concept.Use the accounting equation to describe an organization’s financial position. In its most common form, the accounting equation is Assets=Liabilities + Owner’s Equity.Use the accounting equation to analyze business transactions. Transactions affects a business’s assets, liabilities, and owner’s equity. Therefore, transactions are analyzed in terms of their effect on the accounting equation.Prepare the financial statements. The financial statements communicate information for decision making by the entity’s managers, owners, and creditors and by government agencies. The income statement presents a video of the entity’s operations in terms of revenues earned and expenses incurred during a specific period. Total revenues minus total expenses equal net income. Net income or net loss answers the question, How much income did the entity earn, or How much loss did it incur during the period? The statement of owner’s equity reports the changes in owner’s equity during the period. The balance sheet provides a photograph of the entity’s financial standing in terms of its assets, liabilities, and owner’s equity at a specific time. It answers the question, What is the entity’s financial position? The statement of cash flows reports the cash coming in and the cash going out during the period. It answers, Where did cash come from , and, Where did it go?Evaluate the performance of a business. High net income indicates success in business; net loss indicates a bad year.New wordsaccounting 会计学，结算measure 估量，衡量，计算process 初步分类，整理apply to 把···应用于transaction 交易principle 原理proprietorship 独资企业，所有权partnership 合伙关系，合伙企业corporation 公司，企业entity 实体，统一的，权益ethical 合乎道德的intended 预期的GAAP 普通会计原理guideline 方针，指南entity concept 主体概念reliability principal 可信性原则cost principal 成本原则going-concern concept 持续经营概念stable-money-unit concept 稳定货币单位的概念equation 等式owner’s equity 投资者权益financial statement 财政报表agency 机构income statement 损益报表video 说明revenues 总收入incurrent 遭受minus 减去balance sheet 资产负债表，决算表indicate 表明，暗示expenses 开支，消费Text 2 Recording Business TransactionDefine key accounting terms: account, ledger, debit, and credit. The account can be viewed in the form of the letter “T”. The left side of each T-account is its debit side. The right side is its credit side. The ledger, which contains a record for each account, groups and numbers accounts by category in the following order: assets, liabilities, and owner’s equity (and its subparts, revenues and expenses).Apply the rules of debit and credit. Assets and expenses are increased revenues are increased by credits. Liabilities, owner’s equity, and revenues are increased by credits and decreased by debits. The side—debit or credit—of the account in which increases are recorded is that account’s normal balance. Thus the normal balance of assets and expenses is a debit, and the normal balance of liabilities, owner’s equity, and revenues is a credit. The Withdrawals account, which decreases owner’s equity, normal has a debit balance. Revenues, which are increases in owner’s equity, have a normal credit balance. Expenses, which are decreases in owner’s equity, have a normal debit balance.Record transactions in the journal. The accountant begins the recording process by entering the transaction’s information in the journal, a chronological list of all the business’s transactions.Post from the journal to the ledger. The information is then posted-transferred-to the ledger accounts. Posting references are used to trace amounts back and forth between the journal and the ledger. Businesses list their account titles and numbers in a chart of accounts.Prepare a trial balance is a summary of all the account balance in the ledger. When double-entry accounting has been done correctly, the total credits in the trial balance are equal.Set up a chart of accounts for a business. The first step in accounting is to set up the chart of accounts.Analyze transactions without a journal. Decision makers must often make decisions without a complete accounting system. They can analyze the transactions without a journal.We can now trace the flow of accounting information through these steps:Business Transaction→ Source Documents → Journal Entry → Posting to Ledger → Trial Balance.New wordsledger 分类帐debit 记入借方的款项，借方assets 资产liabilities 债务subpart 分类chronological 按时间顺序的transfer 转移chart 图表accountant 会计Text 3 Measuring Business Income: the Adjusting ProcessDistinguish accrual basis accounting from cash-basis accounting. In accrual-basis accounting, business events are recorded as they affect the entity. In cash-basis accounting, only those events that affect cash are recorded. The cash basis omits important events such as purchases and sales of assets on account. It also distorts the financial statements by labeling as expenses those cash payments that have long-term effects, such as the purchases of buildings and equipment. Some small organizations, use cash-basis accounting, but the generally accepted method is the accrual basis.Apply the revenue and matching principles. Businesses divide time into definite periods--such as a month, a quarter, and a year--to report the entity's financial statements. The year is the basic accounting period, butcompanies prepare financial statements as often as they need the in- formation. Accountants have developed the revenue principle to determine when to record revenue and the amount of revenue to record. The matching principle guides the accounting for expenses.Make adjusting entries at the end of the accounting period. Adjusting entries are a result of the accrual basis of accounting. These entries, made at the end of the period, update the accounts for preparation of the financial statements. One of the most important pieces of business information is net income or net loss, and the adjusting entries help to measure the net income of the period. Adjusting entries can be divided into five categories: prepaid expenses, depreciation, accrued expenses, accrued revenues, and unearned revenues.Prepare an adjusted trial balance. To prepare the adjusted trial balance, enter the adjusting entries .next to the unadjusted trial balance and compute each account's balance.Prepare the financial statements from the adjusted trial balance .The adjusted trial balance can be used to prepare the financial statements. The there financial statements are related as follows: Income, shown on the income statement, increases the owner's capital, which also appears on the statement of owner' s equity. The ending balance of capital is the last amount reported on the balance sheet.New Wordsaccrual n. 自然增长,自然增长额accrual-basis accounting 权责发生制cash-basis accounting 现金收付制omit vt. 省略，删distort vt. 曲解label vt. 把……列为definite adj. 明确的,确切的accounting period 结算期revenue principle 收益原则matching principle 配比原则adjusting entries 调整分录update vt . 使现代化net income 纯收入prepaid expenses 待摊费用depreciation n.贬值accrued expense 应计费用accrued revenues 应计收入unaccrued revenues 未实现收入adjusted trial balance 经调整过的试算表unadjusted trial balance 未经调整过的试算表Text 4 Completing the Accounting CyclePrepare an accounting worksheet, The accounting cycle is the process by which the accountants produce the financial statements for a special period of time. The cycle starts with the beginning account balances. During the period，the business journalizes transactions & posts them to the ledger accounts. At the end of the period, the trail balance is prepa red, and the accounts are adjusted in order to measure the period’s net income or net loss. Completion of the accounting cycle is aided by use of a work sheet. This multicolumned document summarizes the effects of all the activity of the period.Use the work sheet to complete the accounting cycle. The work sheet is neither a journal nor a ledger but merely a convenient device for completing the accounting cycle. It has columns for the trail balance, the adjustments, the adjusted trail balance, the income statement, and the balance sheet. It aids the adjusting process, and it is the place where the period’s net income or net loss is first computed. The work sheet also provides a data for the financial statements & the closing entries. It is not, however, necessity. The accounting cycle can be completed from the less elaborate adjusted trail balance.Close the revenue, expense, and the withdrawal accounts. Revenue, expenses, and withdrawal represent, increases and decreases in owner’s equity for a specific period. At the end of the period, their balances are closed out to zero, and, for this reason, they are called temporary accounts. Assets, liabilities, and capital are not closed because they are the permanent account. Their balances at the end of one period become the beginning balances ofthe next period. The final accuracy check of the period is the postclosing trail balance.Correct typical accounting errors. Accountants correct errors by making correct journal entries.Classify assets and liabilities as current or long-term. The balance sheet reports current and long-term assets and current and long-term liabilities. It can be presented in report format or account format.Use the current & debt ratios to evaluate a business. Two decision-making aids are the current ratio—total current assets divided by total current liabilities—and the debt ratio—total liabilities divided by total assets.New Wordsaccounting cycle 会计循环account balance 帐户余额journalize 记日记帐ledger 分类帐，分户帐ledger account 分户帐目completion 完成，结束multicolumned 栏目纵横的worksheet 备忘单，工作底稿compute 计算，估算closing entries 项目终结elaborate 详尽阐述的withdrawal 提款temporary account 临时帐户permanent account 永久帐户postclosing trail balance 结帐后试算current 流动的，通用的report format 报告试account format 帐户试ratio 比率current ratio 流动比率debt ratio债务比率divide 整除Text 5 Merchandising and the AccountingUse sales, gross margin, and operating income to evaluate a company. The major revenue of a merchandising business is. sales revenue, or net sales. The major expense is cost of goods sold. Net sales minus cost of goods sold is called gross margin, or gross profit. This amount measures the business' s success or failure in selling its products at a higher price than it paid for them.The invoice is the business document generated by a purchase or sale transaction. Most merchandising entities offer discounts to their customers and allow them to return unsuitable merchandise. They also grant allowances for damaged goods that the buyer chooses to keep. Discounts and Returns and Allowances are contra accounts to Sales Revenue.Account for the purchase and sale of inventory. The merchandiser's major asset is inventory. In a merchandising entity the accounting cycle is from cash to inventory as the inventory is purchased for resale, and back to cash as the inventory is sold.Compute cost of goods sold and gross margin. Cost of goods sold, or cost of sales, is the cost of the inventory that the business has sold. It is the largest single expense of most merchandising businesses. Gross margin equals net sales revenue minus cost of goods sold.Adjust and close the accounts of a merchandising business. The end-of-period adjusting and closing process of a merchandising business is similar to that of a service business. In addition, a merchandiser adjusts inventory for theft losses, damage, and accounting errors.Prepare a merchandiser's financial statements. The income statement may appear in the single-step format or the multiple-step format. A single-step income statement has only two sections--one for revenues and the other for expenses--and a single income amount for net income. A multiple-step income statement has subtotals for gross margin and income from operations. Both formats are widely used.Use the gross margin percentage and the inventory turnover ratio to evaluate a business. Two key decision aids for a merchandiser are the gross margin percentage and the rate of inventory turnover .Increases in these measures in these measure usually signal an increase in profits.New Wordsmerchandising business 商品流通企业sales revenue = net sales 销售净收入cost of goods sold= cost of sales 销售产品成本，销售成本minus 减去gross margin = gross profit 毛利润invoice 发票discount 折扣allowance 折让return 退货inventory存货end-of-period 期终theft loss 失窃造成的损失single-step format单步骤化格式multistep format多步骤化格式subtotal 小计，部分和percentage比例，比率turnover周转gross margin percentage 毛利润比例rate of inventory turnover 存货周转率Text 6 Accounting Information SystemsDescribe the features of an effective accounting information system. An effective accounting information system should capture and summarize transactions quickly, accurately, and usefully. It should generate a variety of accounting reports, including financial statements and trial balances, that aid management in operating a business. The four major aspects of a good accounting system are (1) control over operations, (2)compatibility with the particular features of the business, (3) flexibility in response to changes in the business, and (4) a favorable cost/benefit relationship such that benefits outweigh costs.Understand how computerized and manual accounting systems are used. Computerized accounting systems process inputs faster than do manual systems and can generate more types of reports. The key components of a computerized accounting system are hardware, software, and company personnel. Account numbers play a bigger role in the operation of computerized systems than they do in manual systems, because computers classify accounts by account numbers. Both computerized and manual accounting systems require transactions to be classified by type.Computerized systems use a menu structure to organize accounting functions. Posting, trial balances, financial statements, and closing procedures are carried out automatically in a computerized accounting system. Computerized accounting systems are integrated so that the different modules of the system are updated together.Understand how spreadsheets are used in accounting. Spreadsheets are electronic work sheets whose grid points, or cells, are linked by means of formulas. The numerical relationships in the spreadsheet are maintained whenever changes are made to the spreadsheet. Spreadsheets are ideally suited to detailed computations as in budgeting.Use the sales journal, the cash receipts journal, and the accounts receivable subsidiary ledger. Manual accounting systems use special journals to record transactions by category. Credit sales are recorded in a sales journal, and cash receipts in a cash receipts journal. Posting goes to the general ledger and to the accounts receivable subsidiary ledger, which lists each customer and the amount receivable from that customer. The accounts receivable subsidiary ledger is the main device for ensuring that the company collects from customers.Use the purchases journal, the cash disbursements journal, and the accounts payable subsidiary ledger. Credit purchases in a manual system are recorded in a purchases journal and cash payments in a cash disbursements journal. Posting from these journals is to the general ledger and to the accounts payable subsidiary ledger. Theaccounts payable subsidiary ledger helps the company stay current in payments to suppliers.New Wordsaccounting information system 会计信息体系accurately 准确，精确generate导致，产生aspect方面compatibility 一致性，和谐性flexibility 机动性，灵活性outweigh 超过manual 用手操作的component 组成部分，成分hardware 硬件software 软件personnel全体成员，全体职员menu 菜单，目录automatically 自动地integrate使一体化module 组件，模块spreadsheet 电子工作表grid point 格点formula 程式numerical数字的budgeting 预算journal日记账cash receipt 现金收讫发票category 种类，类目credit 贷款，赊欠general ledger 总分类账subsidiary ledger 明细分类账，辅助帐账disbursement付出款cash disbursement 现金付出款purchase购买，购置purchase journal 购买议事录supplier 供应者Text 7 Internal Control, Cash Transaction, and Ethical Issues1 Define internal control. Internal controls should safeguard assets, ensure accurate accounting records, promote operational efficiency, and encourage adherence to company policies.2 Identify the characteristics of an effective system of internal control. An effective internal control system includes these features: reliable personnel, clear-cut assignment of responsibility, proper authorization, and separation of duties, which is the primary element of internal control. Many businesses use security devices, audits, and specially designed documents and records in their internal control systems. Effective computerized internal control systems must meet the same basic standards that good manual systems do.3 Prepare a bank reconciliation and the related journal entries. The bank account helps to control and safeguard cash. Businesses use the bank statement and the bank statement and the bank reconciliation to account for banking transactions.4 Apply internal controls to cash receipts. Different methods are used to control cash receipts over the counter and cash receipts by mail.5 Apply internal controls to cash disbursements. A key control over cash disbursements is payment by check.6 Account for petty cash transactions. An imprest system is used to control petty cash disbursements.7 Weigh ethical judgments in business. Ethical judgments can be aided by a process that identifies the ethical issues, specifies the alternative actions, identifies the people involved, and assesses the possible consequences.New WordsSafeguard vt. 保卫，捍卫adherence n. 坚持，遵守promote vt. 促进，提高reliable personnel 可信赖的全体职工clear-cut adj. 明确的，鲜明的clear-cut assignment of responsibility 明确的责任分工authorization n. 授权，委任proper authorization 合理的授权separation of duties 职能的划分audit n. 查账reconciliation n.调节（指表示一个帐户的输字如何得之余另一帐户的计算过程）bank account 银行帐户bank statement 银行报表bank reconciliation 银行调节imprest n. 预付款imprest system 预支款体系alternative adj.选择的assess vt 对……进行估计Text 8 Accounts and Notes Receivables1 Use the allowance method of accounting for uncollectibles. Credit sales create receivables. Accounts receivable are usually current assets, and notes receivable may be current or long-term. Uncollectible receivables are accounted for by the allowance method or the direct write-off method. The allowance method matches expenses to sales revenue and also results in a more realistic measure of net accounts receivable.2 Estimate uncollectibles by the percentage of sales and the aging approaches. The percentage of sales method and the aging of accounts receivable method are the two main approaches to estimating bad debts under the allowance method.3 Use the direct write-off method of accounting for uncollectibles. The direct write-off method is easy to apply, but it fails to match the uncollectible-account expense to the corresponding sales revenue. Also, Accounts receivable are reported at their full amount, which misleadingly suggests that the company expects to collect all its accounts receivable.In credit-card sales, the seller receives cash from the credit-card company (American Express, for example), which bills the customer. For the convenience of receiving cash immediately, the seller pays a fee that is a percentage of the sale.4 Identify internal control weaknesses in accounts receivable. Companies that sell on credit receive most customer collections in the mail. Good internal control over mailed-in cash receipts means separating cash-handling duties from cash accounting duties.5 Account for notes receivable. Notes receivable are formal credit agreements. Interest earned by the creditor is computed by multiplying the note's principal amount by the interest rate times the length of the interest period.Because notes receivable are negotiable, they may be sold. Selling a note receivable--called discounting a note--creates a contingent(possible) liability for the note’s payee.6 Report receivable on the balance sheet. All accounts receivable, notes receivable, and allowance accounts appear in the balance sheet. However, companies use various formats and terms to report these assets.7 Use the acid-test ratio and days' sales in receivables to evaluate a company's position. The acid-test ratio measures ability to pay current liabilities from the most liquid current assets. Days' sales in receivables indicates how long it takes to collect the average level of receivables.New Wordsallowance method 备抵法uncollectibles n. 不能收回的款项;坏帐receivables n.应收帐款long-term n. 长期(一年以上) account vt. 会计处理write--off n. 销记,划销,转销revenue n. 收入,收益accounts receivable n. 应收帐款credit sales n.赊销notes receivable n. 应收票据current asset n. 流动资产net accounts receivable n. 应收帐款净额approach n. 方法aging of accounts receivable 应收帐款帐龄分析bad debts n. 呆帐,坏帐corresponding adj. 相应的,对应的American Express n. 美国运通卡fee n. 费用internal adj. 内部的,内在的receipts n. (复数)收入creditor n. 债主,债权人compute vt.计算multiply vt. 乘principal adj. 主要的;资本的;本金的negotiable adj. 可转让的,可流通的discount vt. 打折扣,贴现contingent adj.应急的,意外的liability n. 负债payee n.收款人balance sheet n. 资产负债表format n. 形式acid- test ratio 酸性实验比率(以流动负债与流动资产作比较)evaluate v.估价,评价current liabilities n. 流动负债,经常性贷款,短期贷款Text 9 Mechandise Inventory1 Account for inventory by the perpetual and periodic systems. Accounting for inventory plays an important part in merchandisers' accounting systems because selling inventory is the heart of their business. Inventory is generally the largest current asset on their balance sheet, and inventory expense--called cost of goods sold--is usually the largest expense on the income statement.Merchandisers with high-price-tag items generally use the perpetual inventory system, which features a running inventory balance. In the past, most merchandisers handling low-price-tag items used the periodic system. Recent advances in information technology have led to replacement of periodic inventory systems with perpetual systems.A physical count of inventory is needed in both systems for control purposes.2 Apply four inventory costing methods: specific unit cost, weighted-average cost, FIFO, and LIFO. Businesses multiply the quantity of inventory items by their unit cost to determine inventory cost. Inventory costing methods are specific unit cost ; weighted-average cost ; first-in, first-out (FIFO) cost ; and last-in, first-out (LIFO) cost. Only businesses that sell unique items, such as automobiles and jewels, use the specific identification method. Most other companies use the other methods. FIFO reports ending inventory at the most current cost. LIFO reports cost of goods sold at the most current cost.3 Distinguish between the income effects and the tax effects of the inventory costing methods. When inventory costs increase, LIFO produces the highest cost of goods sold and the lowest income, thus minimizing income taxes. FIFO results in the highest income. The weighted-average cost method avoids the extremes of FIFO and LIFO.4 Convert a company's net income from the LIFO basis to the FIFO basis. Companies that use LIFO also disclose FIFO inventory amounts that can be used to convert the company's income to the FIFO basis. LIFO liquidation creates a problem because it increases income taxes.5 Prepare a perpetual inventory record. Some companies combine elements of the perpetual and periodic inventory systems at FIFO cost.Some companies keep perpetual inventory records at weighted-average cost, but few keep such records at LIFO cost.6 Apply to inventory the lower-of-cost-or-market rule. The consistency principle demands that a business stick with the inventory method it chooses. If a change in inventory method is warranted, the company must report the effect of the change on income. The lower-of-cost-or-market rule-an example of accountingconservatism--requires that businesses report inventory on the balance sheet at the lower of its cost or current replacement value.7 Compute the effects of inventory errors on the cost of goods sold and on net income. Although inventory overstatements may be counterbalanced by inventory understatements in an adjacent period, effective decision making is aided by accurate inventory information.8 Estimate inventory by the gross margin method. The gross margin method is a technique for estimating the cost of inventory. It comes in handy for preparing interim financial statements and for estimating the cost of inventory destroyed by fire or other casualties.New Wordsperpetual inventory system n. 永续盘存制periodical inventory system n. 定期盘存制merchandiser n. 交易者,买卖者income statement n. 收益表,利润表tag n.标签feature vt. 是...的特色,以...为特色running inventory n. 永续盘存replacement n. 取代count n. 计算specific adj. 具体的,明确的weighted average cost n. 加权平均的成本FIFO(first-in, first out) n. 先进先出法LIFO(last-in, first out) n. 后进先出法unique adj. 唯一的,独一无二的automobile n.汽车,机动车identification n.识别,鉴定distinguish vt. 区别ending inventory n.期末存货income effects n.收益效果,收益的影响tax effect n. 税金,税金影响效果minimize vt. 最小化extreme n.极端,极度convert vt. 使转变,使变换liquidation n.清理,清算,了结lower-of-cost-or market 成本与市场价孰低consistency n.一致性,连贯性stick with 支持,坚持warrant vt.保证,担保conservatism n.稳健主义,保守主义,谨慎性overstatement n. 估值过高,夸大understatement n. 少报counterbalance vt. 平衡,自动抵消estimate vt.accurate adj. 准确的,精确的gross margin n.毛利,销货毛利technique n. 技术,技巧come in handy 派得上用处interim adj.暂时的,临时的,中期的destroy vt. 破坏,摧毁casualty n.(复数)伤亡Text 10 Plant Assets, Intangible Assets, and Related Expenses1 Identify the elements of a plant asset's cost. Plant assets are long-lived assets that the business uses in its operation. These assets are not held for sale as inventory.2 Explain the concept of depreciation. The process of allocating a plant asset's cost to expense over the period the asset is used is called depreciation. The cost of all plant assets but land is expensed through depreciation.3 Account for depreciation by four methods. Businesses may compute the depreciation of plant assets by four methods: straight-line, units-of-production, and the accelerated methods: double-declining-balance and sum-of-years '-digits. To measure depreciation, the accountant subtracts the asset's estimated residual value from its cost and divides that amount by the asset's estimated useful life. Most companies use the straight-line method for financial reporting purposes.4 Identify the best depreciation method for income tax purposes. Almost all companies use an accelerated method for income tax purposes. Accelerated depreciation results in greater tax deductions early in the asset's life. These。
外文原文：环境会计
Environmental AccountingWhere We Are Now, Where We Are HeadingBy Joy E. HechtInterest is growing in modifying national income accounting systems to promote understanding of the links between economy and environment.The field of environmental accounting has made great strides in the past two decades, moving from a rather arcane endeavor to one tested in dozens of countries and well established in a few. But the idea that nations might integrate the economic role of the environment into their income accounts is neither a quick sell nor a quick process; it has been under discussion since the 1960s. Despite controversies described in this article, however, interest is growing in modifying national income accounting systems to promote understanding of the links between economy and environment.Why Change?Governments around the world develop economic data systems known as national income accounts to calculate macroeconomic indicators such as gross domestic product. Building a nation's economic use of the environment into such accounts is a response to several perceived flaws in the System of National as defined by the United Nations and used internationally. One flaw in the SNA often cited is that the cost of environmental protection cannot be identified. Consequently, money spent, say, to put pollution control devices on smokestacks increases GDP, even though the expenditure is not economically productive, some argue. These critics call for differentiating “defensive” expenditures from others within the account s.Also misleading is the fact that some environmental goods are not marketed though they provide economic value. Fuelwood gathered in forests, meat and fish gathered for consumption, and medicinal plants are examples. So are drinking and irrigation water, whose sale prices reflect the cost of distribution and treatment infrastructure, but not the water itself. While some countries do include such goods in their national income accounts, no standard practices exist for doing so. When nonmarketed goods are included in the accounts, they still cannot be distinguished from those that are marketed.Valuing environmental services such as the watershed protection that forests afford and the crop fertilization that insects provide is difficult. Though some experts call for their inclusion in environmentally adjusted accounts, typically neither the economic value nor the degradation of these services is included. On the other hand, however, the alternate goods and services needed to replace them-water treatment plants, for example—do contribute to GDP, which can be rather misleading.Still another problem is that national income accounts treat the depreciation of manufacturedcapital and natural capital differently. Physical capital—a building or a machine, for instance—is depreciated in accordance with conventional business accounting principles, while all consumption of natural capital is accounted for as income. Thus the accounts of a country that harvests its forests unsustainably will show high income for a few years, but will not reflect the destruction of the productive forest asset. While opinions vary on how to depreciate natural capital, they converge on the need to do so.Which Indicators Are Useful?Some proponents advocate simple “flag” indicators to alert policymakers to the broad role of the environment in the economy, for example, comparing conventional GDP with environmentally adjusted GDP, or conventional savings with so-called “genuine” savings that account for environmental factors. Both of these indicators can provide valuable warnings of the impacts of environmental degradation on an economy. However, such flags are less useful in determining the source of environmental harm or identifying a policy response. For this reason, many economists place primary importance not on the bottom line, but on the underlying data used to build environmental accounts. These data can help answer such questions as how natural catastrophes like the fires that raged in Indonesia in the summer of 1998 may affect economic growth, or how environmental protection policies such as green taxes may affect the economy.Who Is Doing This?Environmental accounting is underway in several dozen countries, where bureaucrats, statisticians, and other proponents both foreign and domestic have initiated activities over the past few decades. Several countries have made continuous investments in data systems, which are integrated into existing statistical systems and economic planning activities. Others have made more limited efforts to calculate a few indicators, or analyze a single sector. Some of the earliest research on environmental accounting was done at RFF by Henry Peskin, working on the design of accounts for the United States.One of the first countries to build environmental accounts is Norway, which began collecting data on energy sources, fisheries, forests, and minerals in the 1970s to address resource scarcity. Over time, the Norwegians have expanded their accounts to include data on air pollutant emissions. Their accounts feed into a model of the national economy, which policymakers use to assess the energy implications of alternate growth strategies. Inclusion of these data also allows them to anticipate the impacts of different growth patterns on compliance with international conventions on pollutant emissions.More recently, a number of resource-dependent countries have become interested in measuring depreciation of their natural assets and adjusting their GDPs environmentally. One impetus for their interest was the 1989 s tudy “Wasting Assets: Natural Resources in the National Income Accounts,” in which Robert Repetto and his colleagues at the World Resources Institute estimated the depreciation of Indonesia’s forests, petroleum reserves, and soil assets. Onceadjusted to a ccount for that depreciation, Indonesia’s GDP and growth rates both sank significantly below conventional figures. While “Wasting Assets” called many to action, it also operated as a brake, leading many economists and statisticians to warn against a focus on green GDP, because it tells decisionmakers nothing about the causes or solutions for environmental problems.Since that time, several developing countries have made long-term commitments to broad-based environmental accounting. Namibia began work on resource accounts in 1994, addressing such questions as whether the government has been able to capture rents from the minerals and fisheries sectors, how to allocate scarce water supplies, and how rangeland degradation affects the value of livestock.The Philippines began work on environmental accounts in 1990. The approach used there is to build all economic inputs and outputs into the accounts, including nonmarketed goods and services of the environment. Thus Filipinos estimate monetary values for such items as gathered fuelwood and the waste disposal services provided by air, water, and land; they then add in direct consumption of such services as recreation and aesthetic appreciation of the natural world. While their methodology is controversial, these accounts have provided Philippine government agencies and researchers with a rich array of data for policymaking cymaking and analysis.The United States has not been a leader in the environmental accounting arena. At the start of the Clinton administration, the Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA) made a foray into environmental accounting in the minerals sector, but this preliminary attempt became embroiled in political controversy and faced opposition from the minerals industry. Congress then asked the National Research Council (NRC) to form a blue ribbon panel to consider what the nation should do in the way of environmental accounting. Since then, Congressional appropriations to BEA have been accompanied by an explicit prohibition on environmental accounting work. The ban may be lifted, however, once the recommendations of the NRC study are made public.How to Account?How environmental accounting is being done varies in a number of respects, notably the magnitude of the investment required, the objectivity of the data, the ability to compare different kinds of environmental impacts, and the kinds of policy purposes to which they may be applied. Here are some of the methods currently in use.Natural Resource Accounts. These include data on stocks of natural resources and changes in them caused by either natural processes or human use. Such accounts typically cover agricultural land, fisheries, forests, minerals and petroleum, and water. In some countries tries, the accounts also include monetary data on the value of such resources. But attempts at valuation raise significant technical difficulties. It is fairly easy to track the value of resource flows when the goods are sold in markets, as in the case of timber and fish. Valuing changes in the stocks, however, is more difficult because they could be the result either of a physical change in the resource or of a fluctuation in market price.For environmental goods and services that are not sold, it is that much harder to establish the value either of the flow or of a change in stock. However, even physical data can be linked to the economy for policy purposes. For example, changes in income can sometimes be traced to changes in the resource base or to the impact of environmental catastrophes on the economy.Emissions accounting . Developed by the Dutch, the National Accounting Matrix including Environmental Accounts (NAMEA) structures the accounts in a matrix, which identifies pollutant emissions by economic sector, Eurostat, the statistical arm of the European Union, is helping EU members apply this approach as part of its environmental accounting program. The physical data in the NAMEA system are used to assess the impact of different growth strategies on environmental quality. Data can also be separated by type of pollutant emission to understand the impact on domestic, transborder, or global environments. If emissions are valued in monetary terms, these values can be used to determine the economic cost of avoiding environmental degradation in the first place, as well as to compare costs and benefits of environmental protection.Disaggregation of conventional national accounts.Sometimes data in the conventional accounts are taken apart to identify expenditures specifically related to the environment, such as those incurred to prevent or mitigate harm, to buy and install protection equipment, or to pay for charges and subsidies. Over time, revelation of these data makes it possible to observe links between changes in environmental policy and costs of environmental protection, as well as to track the evolution of the environmental protection industry.While these data are of obvious interest, some people argue that looking at them in isolation can be misleading. For example, while end-of-pipe pollution control equipment is easily observed, new factories and vehicles increasingly are lowering their pollutant emissions through product redesign or process change rather than relying on special equipment. In such cases, no pollution control expenditures would show up in the accounts, yet environmental performance might be better than in a case where expenditures do show up.Value of nonmarketed environmental goods and services. Considerable controversy exists over whether to include the imputed value of nonmarketed environmental goods and services in environmental accounts, such as the benefits of an unpolluted lake or a scenic vista. On the one hand, the value of these items is crucial if the accounts are to be used to assess tradeoffs between economic and environmental goals. Otherwise, the accounts can end up reflecting the costs of protecting the environment without in any way reflecting the benefits. On the other hand, some people feel that valuation is a modeling activity that goes beyond conventional accounting and should not be directly linked to the SNA .The concern underlying their view is that it is difficult to standardize valuation methods, so the resulting accounts may not be comparable across countries or economic sectors within a country.Green GDP.Developing a gross domestic product that includes the environment is also a matter of controversy. Most people actively involved in building environmental accountsminimize its importance .Because environmental accounting methods are not standardized, a green GDP can have a different meaning in each project that calculates it, so values are not comparable across countries. GDP Moreover, while a green GDP can draw attention to policy problems, it is not useful for figuring out how to resolve them. Nevertheless, most accounting projects that include monetary values do calculate this indicator .Great interest in it exists despite its limitations.Toward Consensus on MethodEnvironmental accounting would receive a substantial boost if an international consensus could be reached on methodology .The UN Statistics Department has coordinated some of the ongoing efforts toward this end since the 1980s. In 1993, the UN published the System for Integrated Economic and Environmental Accounting (SEEA) as an annex to the 1993 revision of the SNA.SEEA is structured as a series of methodological options, which include most of the different accounting activities described above; users choose the options most appropriate to their needs.No consensus exists on the various methods that the UN recommended. In fact, SEEA is now undergoing revision by the so-called “London Group,” co mprised primarily of national income accountants and statisticians from OECD countries. The group's work will be an important step toward consensus on accounting methods, but the process will be lengthy: Development of the conventional SNA took some forty yearsToward Widespread UseA number of steps can be taken now toward the goal of ensuring that environmental accounting is as well established as the SNA. First, information must circulate freely about existing environmental accounts and how they are contributing to economic and environmental policy. Ongoing work needs to be identified and systematically reviewed and analyzed to learn lessons, which may inform the design and implementation of future accounting activities. The Green Accounting Initiative of the World Conservation Union has embarked on this effort, and a number of other organizations are calling for similar activities. Use of the World Wide Web may facilitate access to unpublished work, although it will require a concerted effort to obtain accounting reports and seek permission to load them on the Internet.Second, development of a core of internationally standardized methods will contribute to willingness to adopt environmental accounting. Experts in the—field--including economists, environmentalists, academics, and others outside of the national statistical offices—should take a proactive role in tracking the work of the London Group and insist that the standard-setting process involve participants representing a spectrum of viewpoints, countries, and interested stakeholders. An opportunity exists for research institutes to take a lead in identifying the financial resources needed to facilitate a broader standard setting process, and to elicit a full range of voices to build a consensus on methodology.Finally, and perhaps most importantly, the more countries institutionalize construction of environmental accounts, the greater the momentum for more of the same.Still, building accounts--like developing any timeseries statistics—will not happen overnight. Their construction will require sustained institutional and financial commitment to ensure that the investment lasts long enough to yield results. But the experiences of Norway, Namibia, and the Philippines show that such a commitment can pay off; it is a commitment that more countries around the world need to make.Joy E. Hecht coordinates the Green Accounting Initiative at the International Union for the Conservation of Nature. /greenacct.html. While on the RFF staff in 1980–81, she began working on environmental accounting. This article is based on a talk she gave last fall as part of RFF's Wednesday Seminar Series.。
会计英语第二章复习
New words, Phrases and Special Terms
recapture 夺回，收回 （政府对公司超额收益或利润的征收） excess 超过，超额 designate 制定的，特指的 concede 承认，容许 exact 准确的，精确的 realization 实现，领悟 conservatism 保守，保守主义，谨慎性 materiality 重要性，物质性 desirable 合意的，令人满意的 omission 忽略，遗漏，省略
Questions:
1. ( )are the preconditions of identifying, measuring, recording and reporting economic transactions. 2. ( ) assumption implies the life of business should be divided into short ones. 3.( ) assumes the business will continue for a quite long time. 4. ( )requires that money be used as the basic measuring unit .
$
3,000 800 2,200
$
Stable monetary unit币值稳定假设
All financial transactions are in a single monetary unit or currency. Assumes a stable monetary unit - no inflation
Realization principle :收入确认原则
Recognize revenue when it is earned. In another words, sales (revenue) recognized in the accounts when sale is agreed or the service is performed.
ACCOUNTING FOR PPE
ACCOUNTING FOR P P EThe accounting for IAS 16, Property, Plant and Equipment is a particularly important area of the Paper F7 syllabus. You can almost guarantee that in every exam you will be required to account for property, plant and equipment at least once.This article is designed to outline the key areas of IAS 16, Property, Plant and Equipment that you may be required to attempt in the F7 exam.IAS 16, PROPERTY, PLANT AND EQUIPMENT OVERVIEWThere are essentially four key areas when accounting for property, plant and equipment that you must ensure that you are familiar with:∙initial recognition∙depreciation∙revaluation∙derecognition (disposals).INITIAL RECOGNITIONThe basic principle of IAS 16 is that items of property, plant and equipment that qualify for recognition should initially be measured at cost.One of the easiest ways to remember this is that you should capitalise all costs to bring an asset to its present location and condition for its intended use.Commonly used examples of cost include:∙purchase price of an asset (less any trade discount)∙directly attributable costs such as:• cost of site preparation• initial delivery and handling costs• installation and testing costs• professional fees∙the initial estimate of dismantling and removing the asset and restoring the site on which it is located, to its original condition (ie to the extent that it is recognised as a provisionper IAS 37, Provisions, Contingent Assets and Liabilities)∙borrowing costs in accordance with IAS 23, Borrowing Costs.Example 1On 1 March 2008 Yucca acquired a machine from Plant under the following terms:$List price of machine 82,000Import duty 1,500Delivery fees 2,050Electrical installation costs 9,500Pre-production testing 4,900$Purchase of a five-year maintenance contractwith Plant 7,000In addition to the above information Yucca was granted a trade discount of 10% on the initial list price of the asset and a settlement discount of 5% if payment for the machine was received within one month of purchase. Yucca paid for the plant on 25 March 2008.How should the above information be accounted for in the financial statements? (See 'Related links' for the solution to Example 1.)Example 2Construction of Deb and Ham’s new store began on 1 April 2009. The following costs were incurred on the construction:$000Freehold land 4,500Architect fees 620Site preparation 1,650Materials 7,800Direct labour costs 11,200Legal fees 2,400General overheads 940The store was completed on 1 January 2010 and brought into use following its grand opening on the 1 April 2010. Deb and Ham issued a $25m unsecured loan on 1 April 2009 to aid construction of the new store (which meets the definition of a qualifying asset per IAS 23). The loan carried an interest rate of 8% per annum and is repayable on 1 April 2012.RequiredCalculate the amount to be included as property, plant and equipment in respect of the new store and state what impact the above information would have on the income statement (if any) for the year ended 31 March 2010.(See 'Related links' for the solution to Example 2.)Subsequent costsOnce an item of PPE has been recognised and capitalised in the financial statements, a company may incur further costs on that asset in the future. IAS 16 requires that subsequent costs should be capitalised if:∙it is probable that future economic benefits associated with the extra costs will flow to the entity∙the cost of the item can be reliably measured.All other subsequent costs should be recognised as an expense in the income statement in the period that they are incurred.Example 3On 1 March 2010 Yucca purchased an upgrade package from Plant at a cost of $18,000 for the machine it originally purchased in 2008 (Example 1). The upgrade took a total of two days where new components were added to the machine. Yucca agreed to purchase the package as the new components would lead to a reduction in production time per unit of 15%. This will enable Yucca to increase production without the need to purchase a new machine.Should the additional expenditure be capitalised or expensed? (See 'Related links' for the solution to Example 3.)DepreciationDepreciation is defined in IAS 16 as being the systematic allocation of the depreciable amount of an asset over its useful economic life. In other words, depreciation applies the accruals concept to the capitalised cost of a non-current asset and matches this cost to the period that it relates to.Depreciation methodsThere are many methods of depreciating a non-current asset with the most common being: ∙Straight line• % on cost, or• Cost – residual valueUseful economic life∙Reducing balance• % on carrying valu eExample 4An item of plant was purchased on 1 April 2008 for $200,000 and is being depreciated at 25% on a reducing balance basis.Prepare the extracts of the financial statements for the year ended 31 March 2010. (See 'Related links' for the solution to Example 4.)Useful economic lives and residual valuesIAS 16 requires that these estimates be reviewed at the end of each reporting period. If either changes significantly, the change should be accounted for over the useful economic life remaining.Example 5A machine was purchased on 1 April 2007 for $120,000. It was estimated that the asset had a residual value of $20,000 and a useful economic life of 10 years at this date. On 1 April 2009 (two years later) the residual value was reassessed as being only $15,000 and the useful economic life remaining was considered to be only five years.How should the asset be accounted for in the years ending 31 March 2008/2009/2010? (See 'Related links' for the solution to Example 5.)Component depreciationIf an asset comprises two or more major components with different economic lives, then each component should be accounted for separately for depreciation purposes and depreciated over its own useful economic life.Example 6A company purchased a property with an overall cost of $100m on 1 April 2009. The property elements are made up as follows:$000 Estimated lifeLand and buildings(Land element $20,000) 65,000 50 yearsFixtures and fittings 24,000 10 yearsLifts 11,000 20 years100,000Calculate the annual depreciation charge for the property for the year ended 31 March 2010. (See 'Related links' for the solution to Example 6.)REVALUATIONSThis is an important topic in the exam and features regularly in Question 2, so you should ensure that you are familiar with all aspects of revaluations.IAS 16 rulesIAS 16 permits the choice of two possible treatments in respect of property, plant and equipment:∙The cost model (carry an asset at cost less accumulated depreciation/impairments).∙The revaluation model (carry an asset at its fair value at the revaluation date less subsequent accumulated depreciation impairment).If the revaluation policy is adopted this should be applied to all assets in the entire category, ie if you revalue a building, you must revalue all land and buildings in that class of asset. Revaluations must also be carried out with sufficient regularity so that the carrying amount does not differ materially from that which would be determined using fair value at the reporting date. ACCOUNTING FOR A REVALUATIONThere are a series of accounting adjustments that must be undertaken when revaluing a non-current asset. These adjustments are indicated below.The initial revaluationYou may find it useful in the exam to first determine if there is a gain or loss on the revaluation with a simple calculation to compare:Carrying value of non-current asset at revaluation date XValuation of non-current asset XDifference = gain or loss revaluation XRevaluation gainsA gain on revaluation is always recognised in equity, under a revaluation reserve (unless the gain reverse’s revaluation losses on the same asset that were previously recognised in the income statement – in this instance the gain is to be shown in the income statement).The revaluation gain is known as an unrealised gain which later becomes realised when the asset is disposed of (derecognised).Double entry:∙Dr Non-current asset cost (difference between valuation and original cost/valuation) ∙Dr Accumulated depreciation (with any historical cost accumulated depreciation)∙Cr Revaluation reserve (gain on revaluation)Example 7A company purchased a building on 1 April 2007 for $100,000. The asset had a useful economic life at that date of 40 years. On 1 April 2009 the company revalued the building to its current fair value of $120,000.What is the double entry to record the revaluation? (See 'Related links' for the solution to Example 7.)Revaluation lossesA revaluation loss should be charged against any related revaluation surplus to the extent that the decrease does not exceed the amount held in the revaluation reserve in respect of the same asset. Any additional loss must be charged as an expense in the income statement.Double entry:∙Dr Revaluation reserve (to maximum of original gain)∙Dr Income statement (any residual loss)∙Cr Non-current asset (loss on revaluation)Example 8The carrying value of Zen’s property at the end of the year amounted to $108,000. On this date the property was revalued and was deemed to have a fair value of $95,000. The balance on the revaluation reserve relating to the original gain of the property was $10,000.What is the double entry to record the revaluation? (See 'Related links' for the solution to Example 8.)DepreciationThe asset must continue to be depreciated following the revaluation. However, now that the asset has been revalued the depreciable amount has changed. In simple terms the revalued amount should be depreciated over the assets remaining useful economic life.Reserves transferThe depreciation charge on the revalued asset will be different to the depreciation that would have been charged based on the historical cost of the asset. As a result of this, IAS 16 permits atransfer to be made of an amount equal to the excess depreciation from the revaluation reserve to retained earnings.Double entry:∙Dr Revaluation reserve∙Cr Retained earningsBe careful, in the exam a reserves transfer is only required if the examiner indicates that it is company policy to make a transfer to realised profits in respect of excess depreciation on revalued assets. If this is not the case then a reserves transfer is not necessary.This movement in reserves should also be disclosed in the statement of changes in equity. Example 9A company revalued its property on 1 April 2009 to $20m ($8m for the land). The property originally cost $10m ($2m for the land) 10 years ago. The original useful economic life of 40 years is unchanged. The company’s policy is to make a transfer to realised pro fits in respect of excess depreciation.How will the property be accounted for in the year ended 31 March 2010? (See 'Related links' for the solution to Example 9.)EXAM FOCUSIn the exam make sure you pay attention to the date that the revaluation takes place. If the revaluation takes place at the start of the year then the revaluation should be accounted for immediately and depreciation should be charged in accordance with the rule above.If however the revaluation takes place at the year-end then the asset would be depreciated for a full 12 months first based on the original depreciation of that asset. This will enable the carrying amount of the asset to be known at the revaluation date, at which point the revaluation can be accounted for.A further situation may arise if the examiner states that the revaluation takes place mid-way through the year. If this were to happen the carrying amount would need to be found at the date of revaluation, and therefore the asset would be depreciated based on the original depreciation for the period up until revaluation, then the revaluation will take place and be accounted for. Once the asset has been revalued you will need to consider the last period of depreciation. This will be found based upon the revaluation rules (depreciate the revalued amount over remaining useful economic life). This will be the most complicated situation and you must ensure that your working is clearly structured for this; ie depreciate for first period based on old depreciation, revalue, then depreciate last period based on new depreciation rule for revalued assets. Example 10A company purchased a building on 1 April 2005 for $100,000 at which point it was considered to have a useful economic life of 40 years. At the year end 31 March 2010 the company decided to revalue the building to its current value of $98,000.How will the building be accounted for in the year ended 31 March 2010? (See 'Related links' for the solution to Example 10.)Example 11At 1 April 2009 HD Ltd carried its office block in its financial statements at its original cost of $2 million less depreciation of $400,000 (based on its original life of 50 years). HD Ltd decided to revalue the office block on 1 October 2009 to its current value of $2.2m. The useful economic liferemaining was reassessed at the time of valuation and is considered to be 40 years at this date. It is the company’s policy to charge depreciation proportionally.How will the office block be accounted for in the year ended 31 March 2010? (See 'Related links' for the solution to Example 11.)DerecognitionProperty, plant and equipment should be derecognised when it is no longer expected to generate future economic benefit or when it is disposed of.When property, plant and equipment is to be derecognised, a gain or loss on disposal is to be calculated. This can be found by comparing the difference between:Carrying value XDisposal proceeds XProfit or loss on disposal XTip: When the disposal proceeds are greater than the carrying value there is a profit on disposal and when the disposal proceeds are less than the carrying value there is a loss on disposal. Example 12An asset that originally cost $16,000 and had accumulated depreciation on it of $8,000 was disposed of during the year for $5,000 cash.How should the disposal be accounted for in the financial statements? (See 'Related links' for the solution to Example 12.)Disposal of previously revalued assetsWhen an asset is disposed of that has previously been revalued, a profit or loss on disposal is to be calculated (as above). Any remaining surplus on the revaluation reserve is now considered to be a ‘realised’ gain and therefore should be transferred to retained earnings as:∙Dr Revaluation reserve∙Cr Retained earningsIn summary, it can be seen that accounting for property, plant and equipment is an important topic that features regularly in the Paper F7 exam. With most of what is examinable feeding though from Paper F3 this should be a comfortable topic that you can tackle well in the exam.。
Carbon sink by the forest sector options and needs for implementation
Forest Policy and Economics 4(2002)65–771389-9341/02/$-see front matter ᮊ2002Elsevier Science B.V .All rights reserved.PII:S1389-9341Ž02.00005-9Carbon sink by the forest sector—options and needs forimplementationClark S.Binkley ,David Brand ,Zoe Harkin ,Gary Bull ,N.H.Ravindranath ,12334Michael Obersteiner ,Sten Nilsson ,Y oshiki Yamagata ,Max Krott*556Institute for Forest Policy and Nature Consevation,Georg-August University of Gottingen,Gottingen,Germany¨¨Received 4February 2002AbstractThe important role of forests in the carbon cycle suggests that the management of forests might be used to offsetemissions.Newly developing markets will support these socially desirable ends only if a new specified policy framework is formulated and the landowners develop individually tailored projects.From the point of view of the developing countries,carbon-sink policy needs to be integrated in an overall policy against deforestation and forest degradation.Managing the risk of climatic change is an underestimated challenge for all branches of forest science and might bring dramatic changes to all stakeholders in the forest sector.Most worrisome is the current state of the quality of global forest information.But further uneasy scientific questions about forest carbon sinks remain open.ᮊ2002Elsevier Science B.V .All rights reserved.1.A minimum policy framework required to support voluntary action on climate change:a view from the carbon market (Clark S.Binkley,David Brand )The important role of forests in the carbon cycle*Corresponding author.Tel.:q 49-551-393412;fax:q 49-551-393415.E-mail address:mkrott@gwdg.de (M.Krott ).Managing Director and Chief Investment Officer,Hancock 1Timber Resource Group Boston,USA.Director,Carbon programs,Hancock Natural Resource 2Group Australia.University of British Columbia,Vancouver,Canada.3Centre for ASTRA,Indian Institute of Science,Bangalore,4India.International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis,Vien-5na,Austria.Social and Environmental Systems Division,National 6Institute for Environmental Studies,Ibaraki,Japan.(Houghton,1997;Pena and Grunbaum,2001)suggests that the management of forests might be used to offset emissions associated with fossil-fuel use,or even to reduce atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide itself.Forest growth is one of the few ways of actually taking carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere;indeed many studies find that afforestation counts to the lowest cost methods for controlling the increase Of CO in the atmos-2phere.These facts are recognized in Articles 3.3and 3.4of the Kyoto protocol.Article 3.3refers to carbon fixed in ‘new’forests established on land not forested in 1990,and Article 3.4refers to carbon fixed in extant forests (IPCC,2000).However,in the absence of economic incentives,forest landowners are unlikely to take the actions needed to achieve these socially desirable ends.The presence of carbon credits—a payment for the66 C.S.Binkley et al./Forest Policy and Economics4(2002)65–77carbon-fixing services of forests—should induce profit-maximizing forest land-owners to increase the amount of carbon held in forests.The increasein carbon reserves can occur in two main ways: by lengthening the rotation age,and by increasing the amount of forest lands;with this later effect being especially important(van Kooten et al., 1995;Binkley,2000).In addition,forest products manufactured from the harvested timber can store substantial amounts of carbon if the useful life of these products is long(such as it is for housing or furniture).Using forest biomass-based energy sources to offset fossil-fuel consumption is another way in which forests can help to reduce the accumulation of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. In the United States,the Bush policy govern-ment has moved away from mandatory reductions in CO emissions and from the Kyoto Protocol.At 2the same time,the US government has affirmed its belief in the underlying science,and the need for some kind of positive,albeit voluntary,action. This regulatory uncertainty creates significant business risk for companies in the energy and industrial sectors.The economics of a large,long-lived capital investment could be completely reversed if carbon regulations were imposed after the design and construction of the facility.Yet,the lack of any policy framework makes voluntary action very difficult.Indeed,some companies fear that early action will simply raise the benchmark above which later regulatory regimes to take effect. We are left in a conundrum.Credible scientific evidence indicates significant material societalrisks around CO-induced climatic change.A well-2designed regulatory system to counter this threat has not been yet in place.Yet a growing number of businesses seeks to hedge their potential liability by taking action now,particularly in concert with investment in such long-lived capital as a coal-fired power plant.We report on over1year’s experience gauging the market for carbon offsets, and,based on that experience,describe a minimum policy framework that will make it possible to ‘credit’voluntary action and to enable private market transactions even without direct govern-mental regulation.1.1.What is the market telling us?Our experience in the marketplace is to develop Kyoto-compatible afforestation projects with investment programs.The objective of these pro-grams is the maximization of financial returns from the joint production of carbon and timber with the ongoing flexibility to hedge one market against the other.This experience tells us:i.Carbon emitters want carbon credits,notforestry projects.Contrary to our original belief,utility and energy companies have not been receptive to forestry investment programs that provide the added benefits of carbon cred-its,regardless of the environmental and conser-vation credentials of these projects.These companies have complex businesses,and do not have the additional managerial burden of having to understand a new(to them)kind of investment,timberland.In addition,the returns from afforestation projects,absent significant financial engineering,are generally too low when compared with other investments availa-ble to these firms.Public companies generally cannot justify committing equity to environ-mental offsets unless the investment meets corporate hurdle rates of15%or more,based on net income returns as calculated using gen-erally accepted accounting principles(GAAP).This approach generally understates forestry returns because:(i)GAAP does not recognize forest growth;and(ii)GAAP generally over-states the economic depreciation associated with timber panies measure the cost of carbon delivered from an afforestation project,based on the opportunity cost of their capital investment—the difference between their hurdle rate and the GAAP returns from the project—per tonne of carbon dioxide sequestered.In many forestry systems,this opportunity cost can be$US10per tonne of carbon dioxide or more.At this price point, companies determine that they would be better off buying credits,rather than investing in the underlying assets.ii.The cheapest carbon credits from afforesta-tion projects may involve never cutting the67 C.S.Binkley et al./Forest Policy and Economics4(2002)65–77trees.Joint production of timber and carbon reduces carbon yield in two ways:First,cutting trees reduces the long-term carbon stock of a forest.The reduction is particularly pronounced with periodic clear-falling on a short rotation such as with wood-chip plantations.As a con-sequence,land acquisition,afforestation and ongoing management costs are spread across a smaller pool of carbon,driving up the cost of carbon production.Second,the costs of man-aging a forest for timber production appear to be much higher than the costs of managing the same forest for conservation objectives.An investor who buys land,afforests it,strips out the carbon credits and then contributes it to either government or a conservation organiza-tion(potentially with a tax credit or cash proceeds from a sale),may be able to gain the carbon at a very low net cost(in effect,the ongoing management costs are transferred with the land).In some cases these types of invest-ment structures can deliver carbon at a price of$US1–2per tonne of carbon dioxide.Under these economics,carbon investors will readily give away the potential financial returns from the timber investment to get low-price carbon credits.panies prefer individually tailored,pro-ject-based activities to securitized invest-ments.Our experience indicates that,in the absence of a broad regulatory system,compa-nies look for carbon offsets once specific events trigger concern.Examples of such triggering events include local regulations(e.g.as now exist in the states of Massachusetts and Oregon),or the need to manage through the environmental politics associated with a new project development.In such cases the com-pany is seeking carbon offsets that are compat-ible with the specifics of the triggering event.Until carbon credits or offsets become univer-sally defined and subject to international emis-sions trading,fund-type products are destined to be assessed on the core financial returns rather than the value of carbon offsets.For those interested in forest-based carbon sequestration,the market-place is providing a decidedly mixed message.On the one hand,most companies that emit carbon understand that they face potentially significant regulatory costs,and wish to get on with the task of managing these costs.On the other hand,regulatory confusion around forest-based carbon sequestration precludes early action.What is needed to induce investment in carbon-related forestry projects?1.2.What is the minimum policy framework required?As long as carbon emissions are not priced, there is little incentive for business to factor a cost of emissions in their financial modelling,invest-ment or operating decisions.Even those state holders or business people who see climate change as a trend in their business environment,or a risk factor to be mitigated,are confounded by a lack of clear policy guidance.One path out of this apparent deadlock is for governments to create a policy framework that encourages voluntary action.In the case of a forest-based carbon seques-tration,what would these be?Five appear to be important:i.Establish a framework to credit‘early action’against any mandatory reductions that might subsequently be imposed.Such a framework would logically work on the Kyoto baselines.It would include a mechanism for disclosing and registering emissions.Note that the regis-tration body would not need to be the govern-ment-accounting firms,NGOs or special-purpose entities could handle the job.But governments need to set the rules about what will be credited and what will not be. ii.Create an‘official’registry for carbon credits, and the associated legal framework to attach ‘carbon covenants’to land deeds.Because carbon emitters do not necessarily want to be in the forestry business,there is a need to intermediate transactions between carbon-credit producers and carbon-credit purchasers.In essence,there needs to be clear property rights to that forest-based carbon so it cannot be sold more than once,so that buyers have confidence that carbon stocks will be maintained,and so68 C.S.Binkley et al./Forest Policy and Economics4(2002)65–77that the right to that carbon can be traded.Sucha registry would function much like a land titleregistry.It could be run either by the govern-ment,or by regulated third-party private entities.iii.Endorse a carbon accounting standard,first for plantations,and then for the more complex issues related to natural forests and conserva-tion areas.Nowhere is forest science and car-bon-sequestration policy more divergent than in answering the question‘what counts?’Many forest scientists and forestry professionals argue that any activity,which increases carbon stocks in forests should‘count’for the purposes of awarding carbon sequestration credits.Quali-fying activities would include longer rotations, establishment of conservation areas,and the carbon fixed in forest products.Participants from outside the forest sector are quite sceptical about many aspects of the accounting for for-est-based carbon.A compromise path forward is to agree on standards for those activities where there is agreement(e.g.new plantings), and then move forward on other activities as agreement is reached on them.iv.Confer tax free status on the sale of carbon credits registered in accordance with govern-ment standards.A little-understood impediment to carbon-based forestry is the tax treatment of carbon credits generated from afforestation pro-jects.Although there appears to be no formal guidance from national tax authorities on this matter(at least in the US,Australia or Japan), the interpretations of private tax authorities lead to onerous tax burdens(the tax burden is similar to the problem of ad valorem taxes in traditional forest management).v.Establish an accreditation system for climate-neutral products based on the use of offsets against emissions released in product manufac-ture or use.Similar to forest management certification,firms selling carbon-intensive products could gain advantage in consumer markets by selling carbon-neutral products.For example,BP is currently marketing a’green petrol’product that is linked to offsets certified by an Australian government program.Creating this form of certification encourages consumersto choose low emissions products.These steps may lead the forest sector to a different future,where environmental services of forests are as important a driver of capital invest-ment as are the material products that the forests produce.2.Carbon sinks in the forestry sector—options and needs for implementation(Zoe Harkin, Gary Bul)2.1.IntroductionIn order to offset global warming and meet internationally agreed emission targets,Articles3.3 and3.4of the Kyoto Protocol acknowledge the role of forests as carbon‘sinks’.In anticipation of an emissions-constrained future,a number of large emitters of greenhouse gases(GHGs)have expressed interest in imple-menting forest carbon sink projects as a low-cost means of offsetting their emissions.This has sig-nificant economic and policy implications for the management of forests as a carbon sink.2.2.What is the potential of the forestry sector act as a carbon sink?There is significant potential of the forestry sector to mitigate climate change by acting as a sink for carbon.The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC)estimates that the terres-trial biosphere could mitigate between10and20% of the world’s fossil fuel emissions by2050(IPCC, 2001a).Vine et al.(1999)describe three main ways that forests play a role:(1)by preserving existing forests,thereby avoiding emissions due to deforestation;(2)by increasing the amount of carbon uptake(sequestration)from the atmosphere by afforestation,reforestation or implementation of additional forest management activities;and(3) by utilization of forest biomass as an energy source or transforming the biomass into wood products (IEA Bioenergy,2001).First,forest carbon sinks can be preserved by preventing deforestation due to natural distur-bances(e.g.fire or insect attack)or human distur-bances.In the past20years,deforestation(mainly69 C.S.Binkley et al./Forest Policy and Economics4(2002)65–77harvesting or land conversion in the tropics)has been responsible for between10and20%of global GHG emissions(IPCC,2001b).One factor limi-ting the potential for forest preservation is the restriction on sink projects under the Clean Devel-opment Mechanism(CDM)of the Kyoto Protocol. At present,the CDM does not give credit for forest preservation projects conducted in developing countries.In addition,only partial credit is given for forest management activities under Article3.4 after emissions due to deforestation under Article 3.3have been offset(Hayes,2001).Second,the potential for sequestration via affor-estation and reforestation activities will be deter-mined by a number of factors:the market demand for emission offsets,the rules related to forest carbon sinks in future commitment periods,the ecological response of forests to climate change and elevated CO concentrations(Oren et al.,22001),suitability of land available for afforestation or reforestation(Onigkeit et al.,2000);competi-tion from other landuses;and finally,whether or not the Kyoto Protocol is actually ratified.In a study to determine the global potential for carbon sequestration due to afforestation and refor-estation,Onigkeit et al.(2000)used the IMAGE-2model to estimate that 4.3Gt C could be sequestered annually by2100(Ibid,2000).This is equivalent to offsetting1.3times the average annual emissions in the1990s(IEA Bioenergy, 2001).Third and finally,there are three main ways that carbon substitution projects can mitigate climate change:(1)by utilization of‘carbon neutral’biomass as an energy source instead of fossil fuels; and(2)by using wood products in place of goods that are fossil-fuel intensive to produce;and(3) by storage of carbon in wood products(IEA Bioenergy,1998).Forest bioenergy substitution projects are particularly suitable to climate change mitigation,as long as biomass is used to replace fossil fuels.It is a particularly attractive option since the amount of emission offsets generated is theoretically infinite(IEA Bioenergy,2001).It is estimated that bioenergy projects have the potential to reduce global emissions by approximately1.4–4.2Gt C y year,which is roughly40–130%of average annual emissions in the1990s(IEA Bioe-nergy,2001).What are the obstacles and needs for implemen-tation,and how can research in forest economicsand policy contribute towards solving these prob-lems?To utilize the full sink potential of forests,there are three main issues that must be addressed:(1)clarification of international climate change agreements and rules related to forest carbonaccounting;(2)increased technical precision inforest carbon accounting;and(3)policy and mar-ket-related infrastructure development.Lack of certainty related to international climatechange negotiations has constrained efforts toexpand the global forest carbon sink.Prior to theSixth Conference of Parties(COP6)in July2001,the only forest-based activities that were includedwith any degree of certainty in the Kyoto Protocolwere‘afforestation’,‘reforestation’and‘defores-tation’(ARD)under Article3.3(Bull et al.,2001).In addition,it was uncertain as to whether sink-based projects would be eligible in developingcountries under the Clean Development Mecha-nism(CDM).Following agreement at COP7inMarrakesh,November2001,the following deci-sions were made:(1)a range of‘forest manage-ment’activities are now eligible for inclusionunder the Kyoto Protocol,in addition to ARD(UNFCCC,2001);(2)afforestation and refores-tation are eligible under the CDM for the first commitment period;and(3)the final forest-related definitions were determined(Ibid,2001).It is hoped that the increased certainty of the role of forest carbon sinks in the Kyoto Protocol will stimulate investment in forest carbon sink projects. Technical complications related to forest carbon sinks have been the source of debate in recent climate change negotiations.The major issues are linked to the notions of permanence,additionality and leakage of forest carbon sinks.Permanence refers to the potential reversibility of forest carbon sequestration,in the event that the forest is har-vested,burned,subject to insect attack or poor management practices(Harkin and Bull,2001). Temporal fluctuations in forest carbon can be accounted for using the stock change;average carbon storage or ton-year method(Ibid,2001). Research is needed to investigate the economic70 C.S.Binkley et al./Forest Policy and Economics4(2002)65–77and political implications of each of these temporalaccounting methods.Additionality implies that action to mitigateclimate change must be in excess of‘business asusual’activities(Pollution Probe,2002).Researchis essential to methods to separate carbon seques-tration due to business-as-usual activities fromdirect human-induced activities(IISD,2001).Leakage is defined as the unexpected loss ofGHG reduction benefits when activities or marketsare displaced,resulting in emissions elsewhere(Schlamadinger and Marland,2000).The issues of leakage can be addressed through careful projectmanagement,documentation and implementationof stringent legislation.Another complication isthe lack of specific protocols for the establishment,management,measurement or verification of forestcarbon projects.This is problematic,given thatenvironmentalists and buyers of forest carbon arelikely to demand strict standards for forest carbonmeasurement.Finally,technical complications arerelated to the science of forest carbon sequestra-tion.Some studies have suggested that the poten-tial for forests to mitigate climate change has beenoverestimated(Oren et al.,2001;Schlesinger andLichter,2001).Other studies cast doubt on whetherforests will be net absorbers or emitters of carbonin the future(Betts,2000;Hadley Centre forClimate Prediction and Research,1998;US GlobalChange Research Program,2000).There is muchscope for research on the ecological response offorests to elevated CO and temperature.2There are three main policy and market-relatedinfrastructure requirements that must be in placein order to facilitate the implementation of forestcarbon sink projects:(1)policy to distinguishforest carbon ownership and provide incentives toreduce GHGs;(2)emissions trading infrastructure;and finally(3)market leadership.Establishmentof forest carbon ownership is critical for thesuccessful trade in forest carbon(Heal,2000).Assigning property rights to forest carbon allowsthe atmospheric benefits provided by the forest tobe sold separately from the forest and the landitself.Carbon ownership legislation is also requiredto establish liability in the event of carbon loss.Incentive-based policies are needed from federalgovernment to establish a firm commitment to meeting the requirements of the Kyoto Protocol:this will provide greater market certainty.A market infrastructure will also help maximizeforest carbon sink potential by reducing transactioncosts and ensuring that trade is conducted in atransparent and verifiable manner.For these rea-sons,an emissions-trading platform and a nationalcarbon registry are valuable.Emissions tradingplatforms function in a range of capacities,includ-ing:emissions-trade;management advise;verifi-cation and monitoring;registry services;financialand legal advise and insurance.In anticipation ofan emissions-constrained future,a number ofonline emissions trading platforms are emerging(; and ).National registries arealso necessary to ensure the careful documentationof trade as well as the emission and sequestrationof carbon(Bull et al.,in press).The foundations of the policy and market-relatedaspects of markets for forest carbon are advancingin many nations already.The final step that isrequired to fully explore the possibilities of forestcarbon sinks,is market leadership exerted bybuyers and sellers.A number of bilateral trades inforest carbon have been conducted already(e.g.The Nature Conservancy and AES Corporation forthe protection of60,000hectares of forest inParaguay;Innoprise Corp.and New England Elec-tric Systems for a reduced impact logging projectin Malaysia).Further trades in forest carbon needto be conducted in order to shift from a‘grey’market where the nature of the contracts are nottransparent to a formal,fully operational emis-sions-trading system.2.3.ConclusionManaging forest carbon sinks represents aunique‘win–win’situation for industry,non-gov-ernmental organizations,indigenous people andgovernments.Forest carbon management can mit-igate climate change and contribute to the efforts to apply sustainable forest management practices in our forest worldwide.However,it is clear that substantial research is still needed to address the scientific,technical,economic and policy issues.71 C.S.Binkley et al./Forest Policy and Economics4(2002)65–773.Carbon sink:options and need for implemen-tation in developing countries(N.H. Ravindranath)3.1.Forest carbon sink:opportunities for devel-oping countriesDeveloping countries continue to experience deforestation.The net forest loss in developing countries during1980–95is estimated to be200 Mha,at an annual rate of13.5Mha(FAO,1997). Population,demand for land(for agriculture and infrastructure)and biomass is growing in devel-oping countries,further enhancing the socio-eco-nomic pressure on forests.Climate change is projected to exacerbate the socio-economic and land use pressures on forests.Thus,the developing countries are seriously concerned about the deg-radation of forests and the need for its conservation for biodiversity,watershed and other roles.The global climate negotiations under UNFCCC have focused significant attention on the mitigation opportunities and potential of Land Use,Land Use Change and Forestry sector(LULUCF)or simply the carbon sinks.Under the‘Kyoto Protocol’,‘the Bonn Agreement’and the‘Marrakesh Accord’, afforestation,reforestation and(slowing)defores-tation are eligible activities under Article33;forest management,grazing land management,cropland management and revegetation are eligible under Article3.4;afforestation and reforestation are eli-gible activities under Article12.Several issues related to definitions and modalities for including afforestation and reforestation activities under Arti-cle12in the first commitment period,non-per-manence and additionality,leakage,uncertainties and socio-economic and environmental impacts, including impacts on biodiversity and natural eco-systems are yet to be sorted out before sink activities under CDM become operational.The IPCC(International Panel on Climate Change)is addressing these issues.Sink activities were at the centre of global negotiations on several occasions starting from Conference of Parties(COP)-3in 1997.There is disagreement among the countries, experts and NGOs on the role,need for and implementation of sink activities,particularly in the developing countries,to achieve stabilization of GHG concentration in the atmosphere.3.2.Mitigation optionsThe forest sink activities have been broadly grouped into three categories;carbon sink conser-vation(halting deforestation),carbon sink creation or expansion(afforestation and reforestation)and fossil fuel substitution(bioenergy substituting fos-sil fuel or fossil fuel electricity).A large number of cropland and grassland management activities are potential LULUCF mitigation activities.Bio-mass conservation,sustainable forest management, efficient forest product processing,and forest prod-uct recycling activities are also being considered as mitigation opportunities.A wide range of options is available for different land and forest categories,socio-economic situations and stake-holders(forest managers,timber companies,farm-ers and forest dwellers).Thus,every country is likely to have opportunities for carbon mitigation in the forest sink sector,although not all the potential activities are included in the Kyoto Protocol.3.3.Mitigation potential of carbon sinks Mitigation potential of forest sectors is estimated to be at60–87Gt C during the period1995–2050 (Brown et al.,1996).The Third AssessmentReport of the IPCC has estimated the LULUCF sector mitigation potential to be100Gt C during 2000–2050,at an annual average rate of2Gt C, accounting for approximately10–20%of aggre-gate CO emission projected for the period upto 22050(Kauppi and Sedjo,2001).A recent assess-ment of13developing countries(10Asian,2 African and Mexico)showed a technical mitiga-tion potential of32Gt C(Sathaye and Ravindran-ath,1998)compared with the global mitigation potential of45–72Gt C estimated for all tropical countries and Chinas.by the Second Assessment Report of the IPCC(Brown et al.,1996).The technical mitigation potential cannot always be realized due to financial,legal and institutional barriers.Further,the mitigation potential is also a function of carbon price.Currently,there are no。
雅思听力单词必备-
雅思听力常用场景词1. 住宿场景accommodation 住宿,食宿apartment (美公寓compound apartment 复式公寓apartment hotel 酒店公寓studio apartment 单间的公寓房flat (英student hostel 学生旅社hall of residence 学生宿舍dormitory 学生宿舍detached house 独立式住宅suit 套房homestay 留学生与户主一起居住的一种居家方式landlord 房东landlady 女房东tenant 房客surroundings 环境downtown 市中心suburb郊区rural area 乡村near the center/ railway station/ campus 靠近市中心/火车站/ 校园bedsit 卧室兼起居室attic 阁楼bathroom 浴室balcony 阳台shared kitchen (共用厨房parking place / lot 停车场basement 地下室garage 车库laundry room 洗衣房lounge 休息厅furniture 家具furnished 配备家具的refrigerator 冰箱electric stove 电炉子gas stove 煤气炉shower set淋浴设备central air conditioning 中央空调microwave oven 微波炉kettle 水壶tap 水龙头sink 洗碗池cupboard 橱柜dishwasher 洗碗机radiator 暖气cordless phone 无绳电话closed circuit TV 闭路电视cable and internet 有线和网络heating system 加热系统carpet 地毯blanket 毛毯cushion 软垫mattress 床垫rug 小地毯pillow 枕头utensil 器皿cooking utensils 烹饪用具kitchen utensils 厨房用具shutter / blind 百叶窗curtain 窗帘deposit 押金lease租赁execution of contract 合同生效renewal of a contract 续约maximum rent 最高房租minimum rent 最低房租bills extra 不含水电费bills included 包含水电费English proficiency 英语水平intermediate 中等advanced 高级水平2.描述人的外表、衣着gender 性别hair color 头发颜色blond 金发碧眼的bald 秃头beard 落腮胡moustache/mustache 上唇上的小胡子clean-shaven 胡子刮得很干净wearing glasses 戴眼镜contact lenses 隐型眼镜dimple 酒窝pimple 粉刺freckle 雀斑wrinkle 皱纹beauty spot 美人痣scar 疤pullover 套头毛衣sandal 凉鞋jewelry 珠宝be in red/green/dark 身着红/绿/黑色衣服wear/be in tie 戴领带sweater 套头衫,运动衫cardigan 开襟衫slim 苗条的stout 结实的、矮胖的plump 丰满的3.方位A block away 一个街区远a couple of hundred yards away两三百码远arrow 箭头be parallel to 平行于Be one’s left/right 在….左右be nearby 附近northbound/southbound 北行的/ 南行的opposite 对面的main access 主入口rear access 后门wheelchair access 轮椅crossing 十字路口pedestrian crossing 人行横道zebra crossing 斑马线junction 交叉路口intersection 十字路口landmark 路标wing/annex 配楼4运动休闲/ 文艺节目stadium 露天体育场gym 健身房hi-tech fitness center 高科技健身中心yoga 瑜伽cycling 自行车运动jogging 慢跑weight training 举重训练aerobics 有氧运动water polo 水球squash 壁球cricket 板球rugby 橄榄球golf 高尔夫bowling 保龄球billiard house 台球厅pool 落袋snooker 斯诺克ice hockey 冰上曲棍球skating 滑冰badminton 羽毛球baseball 棒球softball 垒球beach volleyballtreadmill 跑步机track and field 田径martial art 武术wrestling 摔跤judo 柔道karate 空手道box 拳击canoeing 划独木船announcement 宣布acrobat 杂技演员acrobatics 杂技animal performance 动物表演aerial display 空中表演circus 马戏团clown 小丑puppet 木偶puppeteer 操纵木偶的人drama 戏剧a poetic drama 诗剧Greek drama 希腊戏剧album 唱片ballet 芭蕾box office 售票处brass 铜管乐器instrument 乐器solo 独奏曲soloist 独唱者drum band 鼓乐队guitar 吉他violin 小提琴piano 钢琴saxophone 交响乐jazz band 爵士乐队symphony 交响乐队orchestra 管弦乐队string 弦乐队sonata 奏鸣曲western music 西方音乐classical music 古典音乐rock music 摇滚乐5.旅游出行travel agency旅行社flight number航班号take off起飞land降落check in办理登机手续motel汽车旅馆youth hostel青年旅社book the ticket订票passport护照visa签证credit card信用卡driving license、licence驾照expire(v.驾照、护照等过期platform站台reservation 预订schedule 日程安排extra charge 额外收费brochure 旅游小册子non-open time 非对外开放时间resort 旅游胜地museum博物馆castle 城堡cathedral 大教堂ancient temple 古寺庙aquarium 水族馆botanical garden 植物amusement park 游乐场organic farm 有机农场valley 峡谷Great Barrier Reef 大堡礁go camping 宿营Sydney Opera HouseStonehenge 巨石阵wild-life zoo 野生动物园waterfall 瀑布hot spring 温泉bush 灌木丛beach 海滩coast 海岸heritage 遗产rain forest 雨林leisure activity 休闲活动vineyard 葡萄园souvenir纪念品art gallery画廊hiking徒步旅行hitch-hike搭便车旅行scuba-diving(潜水surfing冲浪water skiing滑水hang gliding 滑翔off-road driving 越野four-wheel drive 四轮驱动车parachuting 跳伞bag-packer肩背大包自助旅行的人hold-all sack(旅行袋 ,net, repellent(杀虫剂walking boots, jumper(带帽子的衣服sun block 防晒霜bathing suit 泳衣trunks 泳裤sun-glasses 太阳镜beach- towel 大浴巾tent 帐篷compass 指南针helmet 头盔torch 手电筒mosquito net 蚊帐irritation plants 刺激性植物jellyfish 水母海蜇poisonous plants / snake / spider 有毒植物/毒蛇/毒蜘蛛7 学业生活场景enrollment 注册registration 注册application form 申请表Administration building 行政楼orientation meeting (新生入门指导 preparatory course (预备课程 course arrangement (课程安排course requirement(课程要求 selective/ elective/ option/ optional course ( 选修课required / compulsory course (必修课 curriculum 课程office hour 教授与学生面谈的时间handout 上课发的材料presentation 专题发言assessment 对学生情况进行评估tutorial 助教的辅导School of Arts and Science 文理学院seminar 小组研讨debate 辩论methodology 教学法paper / term paper 学期论文dissertation 毕业论文final report 期末报告plagiarism 抄袭final exam 期末考试objective exam 客观考试subjective exam 主观考试open-book exam 开卷考试pop test 抽考placement testaptitude test 学能测试resit 重考score 成绩credit 学分diploma 文凭degree 学位certificate 证书学校的职务chancellor 名誉校长president 大学校长professor 教授associate professor (副教授 assistant professor 助理教授lecturer 讲师teaching assistant T/A 助教coordinator 班主任dean 系主任adviser 顾问staff 系主任school counselor 校辅导员tutor 导师faculty 系学校生活场所campus 校园dinning hall 餐厅cafeteria 自助小餐厅type of accommodation 住宿类型teaching building 教学楼auditorium 大礼堂administration office 行政办公室laboratory / lab 实验室students’ union 学生会society 学生团体students’ club 学生俱乐部international students office 留学生处专业Art 艺术literature 文学history 历史psychology 心理学philosophy 哲学anthropology人类学journalism 新闻学economics 经济学politics 政治学physics 物理学micro-biology 微生物marine-biology 海洋生物applied science 应用科学chemistry 化学mathematics 数学statistics 统计学information technology 信息科技archaeology 考古学architecture 建筑学engineering accounting 会计学banking 行学biochemistry cartography制图学hospitality 酒店管理archaeology 考古学astronomy 天文学geography 地理学geology 地质学zoology 动物学botany 植物学ecology 生态学8. 图书馆general-loan section 借阅部reference section 参考书库reserve section 预借书库closed reserve 非外借书库be available for reference only只用于参阅不外借publication 指定教材standards 标准出版物street map 市区地图works 作品fiction 小说Periodical 期刊current issue 期刊杂志的最新一期back issue 过刊bound periodical 装订期刊encyclopedia 百科全书supplementary reading material补充阅读材料abstract 摘要indexed journal 索引期刊index 索引catalog 分类author 作者photocopy 映印microform 微缩版printer 打印机frame computer 主控台计算机available 可借到的out on loan / out of circulation 已借出renew 续借be due 到期be overdue 过期loan period借出期限date of expiry 到期时间circulation desk 流通部9.看病kinds of doctors:mental hospital精神病医院clinic诊所physician、internist内科医surgeon外科医生dentist牙医extract拔牙vet兽医shrink心理医生process:make an appointment预约see a doctor看病send for a doctor请医生diagnosis 诊断case history病历take one’s temperature量体温feel one’s pulse量脉搏take one’s blood pressure量血压give a prescription开药方have an operation 动手术therapy 治疗optic examination 眼科检查Symptom(症状:have、catch a cold感冒have a sore throat嗓子痛have a stomachache胃痛have a fever发烧pneumonia肺炎flu流感have a cough咳嗽have a headache头痛have a toothache牙痛liver trouble肝炎allergy(be allergic to对什么过敏过敏症雅思提高段听力补充材料 twisted、sprained 扭伤的 feel dizzy 头晕 feel chilly 觉得发冷 insomnia 失眠 leprosy 麻风病 Medicine: prescription 处方 pills(药丸: vitamin 维他命 tablet 药片 penicillin 盘尼西林 antibiotic 抗生素 ointment 药膏 medication 药物 aspirin 阿司匹林 injection 注射 preventive injection 预防针 cold cure 感冒药sweating medicine 发汗药 febrifuge 退烧药 capsule 胶囊 species 物种 crocodile 鳄鱼11. 银行场景 bank book、pass book 存折 open an account 开户 fill out、in 填写 earn interest 赚取利息 savings account 储蓄存款帐户 current account 活期存款帐户check、cheque account 支票帐户 deposit account 定期存款帐户 annual interest rate 年利率 daily interest account 日利率 joint account 联名账户 expense account 公款支付帐户 instant account 速成账户 the balance of your bank account 账户余额 service charge 服务费、手续费 signature card 签名卡 draw、withdraw 提款 chequebook、checkbook支票簿 order check、cheque 记名支票 rubber check、cheque 空头支票 blank check、cheque 空白支票traveler’s check、cheque 旅行支票 money order 汇票 exchange rate 汇率 credit card 信用卡 overdraw、overdraft 透支 10. 动物类 endangered animals / species rare species kangaroo 袋鼠 koala 考拉 lizard 蜥蜴 emu 鸸鹋 penguin 企鹅 bat 蝙蝠 kiwi 几维鸟 toad 蟾酥 dinosaur 恐龙 goat 山羊 rare lion 狮子 migrant bird 候鸟marsupial 有袋动物 parrot 鹦鹉 zebra 斑马 elephant 大象 rhino 犀牛 falcon 猎鹰 hippo 河马 shark 鲨 12 自然环境常考词 water resources 水资源 shortage 短缺 drinking water 饮用水 underground water 地下水 dry continent 干旱的大陆 second only to Antarctica in its lack of rainfall 雨量的缺乏仅次于南极洲 searing wind 灼热的风 standing water / dams / puddles 储存水，水坝，水坑 barely penetrates the soil 几乎没有渗透到土 6雅思提高段听力补充材料 pumped to the surface 抽水到水面 tapped water 自来水human consumption 人类的消耗 irrigation of crops 庄稼的灌溉 underground reservoir 地下水库 the regulation of flooding 洪水治理 mineral resources 矿产资源 natural resources 自然资源 freshwater resources 淡水资源 non-renewable resources 不可再生资源 alternative energy 替代能源 evaporation 蒸发 forestation 造林 deforestation 采伐森林 fossil fuels 化石原料 greenhouse effect 温室效应 greenbelt 绿化带 global warming 全球变暖 haze 薄雾 hydroelectric power 水电动力 overexploitation 过度开采ozone layer 臭氧层 pesticide pollution 农药污染 sewage 污水 solar radiation 太阳辐射tide 潮汐 arctic region 北极地区 biogas 沼气 biodiversity 生物多样化 carbon dioxide 二氧化碳 cattle breeding 养牛 charcoal 木碳 climatic issue 气候问题 conservation 保护wildlife conservation 野生动物保护 cruel oil 原油雅思听力-地名汇总一、 U.K.、the United Kingdom、 Great Britain 英国（大不列颠） London 伦敦 England 英格兰Liverpool 利物浦 Manchester 曼彻斯特 Sheffield 谢菲尔德 Birmingham 伯明翰Coventry 考文垂 Leeds 利兹 Scotland 苏格兰 Glasgow 格拉斯哥 Edinburgh 爱丁堡Wales 威尔士 Cardiff 加的夫 North Ireland 北爱尔兰 Belfast 贝尔法斯特二、Ireland 爱尔兰 Dublin 都柏林三、Australia 澳大利亚 Canberra 堪培拉 Queensland 昆士兰州Brisbane 布里斯班 New South Wales 新南威尔士州 Sydney 悉尼 South Australia 南澳大利亚州 Adelaide 阿德莱德 Victoria 维多利亚州 Melbourne 墨尔本 WesternAustralia 西澳大利亚州 Perth 珀斯四、New Zealand 新西兰 Wellington 惠灵顿五、Canada 加拿大 Ottawa 渥太华 British Columbia 不列颠哥伦比亚省 Victoria 维多利亚 Vancouver 温哥华 Alberta 艾伯塔省 Edmonton 埃德蒙顿 Ontario 安大略省Toronto 多伦多 Quebec 魁北克省 Montreal 蒙特利尔六、The United States of America 美国 Washington 华盛顿 New York 纽约 Boston 波士顿 Atlanta 亚特兰大Seattle 西雅图 Los Angeles、L.A.洛杉矶 Chicago 芝加哥 7。
重视大自然的价值
CPA环境会计O ENVIRONMENTAL ACCOUNTING071 Hong Kong Institute ofCertified Public Accountants香港会计师公会重视大自然的价值自然资本会计(Natural Capital Accounting)是计量公司对环境影响的方法，本文探讨赋予自然资源价值的益处与挑战。
文/Nicky Burridge插图/Gianfranco Bonadies试想想一家矿业公司在它拥有开采权的土地开采铜矿,然后从铜矿制成产品出售。
从账面上来看，这家公司可能有不错的利润，但采矿对环境造成的负面影响，则难以从账目以货币价值得知。
香港科技大学环境及可持续发展学部客席教授J•罗伯特•吉布森(J Robert Gibson)说："如果把相关影响以货币价值一并计算，这家公司的业绩或许会差很多。
”自然资本会计是指在公司资产负债表上记录货币交易、资产和负债等一般信息外，也计量公司对自然环境依赖程度的会计方式。
传统企业的社会责任聚焦在对环境和社会的影响上，而自然资本会计则不同，它还计算环境对企业可能产生的影响。
“自然资本”涵盖空气、水、土地、矿物和森林，以至生物多样性和生态系统健康等方面。
自然资本会计的实践仍处于起步阶段，至今全球只有少数公司实行。
国际会计师联合会(International Federation of Accountants,I FAC)副总监斯塔西斯•古尔德(Stathis Gould)认为：“事实上，多数企业在运作和决策上都没有考虑到自然资本的可持续性。
”他说道，“许多企业都没有评估业务对自然资本的依赖程度，以及这种依赖所带来的机会和风险。
”自然效益专家认为实行自然资本会计可以为公司带来很多益处。
自然资本联盟(Natural CapitalCoalition)是由多方组成的国际平台，支持商界建立自然与社会资本估值方法，其会员组织之一气候披露标准委员会(Climate Disclosure StandardsBoard)的常务理事马尔迪•麦克布赖恩(Mardi McBrien)指出,自然资本会计让公司计算其商业模式对自然资源的依赖程度和公司行为的影响，从而做岀更明智的知情决策。
论会计环境对会计确认与计量的影响(英文版)
ContentsAbstract ..................................................................................................................... I Introduction .............................................................................................................. II Efficient Accounting Systems ................................................................................... 1 Chapter 1 Accounting .. (1)1.1 Tlie decision of accounting (2)1.2 Tlie fiinctions of accounting ........................................................................................ 4 Chapter 2 Accountingenvironment (7)2.1 The goal of accountant is the starting point in which accounting environmentaffects the accounting information system (9)2.2 Accounting assumed reveals close link between accounting and its interdependentexternal environment (10)2.3 Accounting standards disclose the request of accounting environment toaccounting infomiation ..................................................................................................... 13 Chapter 3 Accounting system ................................................................................ 15 ReferencesThanks ...... Conclusion ............................... (30)31 (32)Efficient Accounting SystemsThe existence and development of everything are under certain environmental conditions. Accounting, as one of the most important practice of human activities is not a cases outside. Accounting environment have the base sense for the smooth conduct of the activities of accounting, while various accounting environmental factors will have isolated impact on total activity of the accounting system. The study of the structure of the accounting environment system and the relations between the various elements in this system made us to be much more realistic in this area of accounting theoiy and practice, to build a harmonious Environmental System for clear direction, so as to promote the accounting cause of sustainable development.Chapter 1 Accounting1.1The decision of accountingAccounting is one of the fastest growing fields in the modern business world・Every new shore, school, restaurant, or filling station indeed, any new enterprise of any kind increases the demand for accountants・ Consequently, the demand for accountants is generally much greater than the supply. Government official often have a legal background: similarly, the men and women in management often have a background in accounting. They are usually familiar with the methodology of finance and fundamentals of fiscal and business administration・Today's accountants are as diverse as their job assignments・ Accountants may be male or female, outgoing or conservative, but they are all analytical. They mayhave backgrounds in art history or computer programming. They come from every ethnic and cultural background・The accounting backgrounds can open doors to most lines of business・ In short, accounting deals with all facets of an organization —purchasing, manufacturing, marketing, and distribution. This is why accounting provides such an excellent basis for business experience・ Accounting is an information system necessitated by the great complexity of modern business・1.2The functions of accountingOne of the most important functions of accounting is to accumulate and report financial information that shows ail organization^ financial position and the results of its operations to its interested users・ These users include managers, stockholders, banks and other creditors, governmental agencies, investment advisors, and the general public. For example, stockliolders must have an organization^ financial iiifonnation in order to measure its managementperfbnnance and to evaluate tlieii' own holdings・ Banks and other creditors must consider the financial strength of a business before permitting it to borrow funds. Potential investors need financial data in order to compare prospective investments. Also many laws require that extensive financial information be reported to the various levels of government. Businesses usually publish such reports at least annually. To meet the needs of the external users, a framework of accounting standards, principles and procedures known as ^generally accepted accounting principles^ have been developed to insure the relevance and reliability of the accounting information contained in these external financial reports. The subdivision of the accounting process that produces these external reports is referred to as financial accounting・Another important function of accounting is to provide the management inside an organization with the accounting iiifonnation needed in the organization^ internal decision-making, which relates to planning, control, and evaluation within an organization. For example, budgets are prepared under the directions of a company's controller on an annual basis and express the desires and goals of the company's management. A performance report is supplied to help a manager focus his attention on problems or opportunities that mightotherwise go unnoticed. Furthermore, cost-benefit data will be needed by a company^ management in deciding among the alternatives of reducing prices, increasing advertising, or doing both in attempt to maintain its market shares. The process of generating and analyzing such accounting information for internal decision -making is often referred to as managerial accounting and the related information reports being prepared are called internal management reports・ As contrasted with financial accounting, a management accounting information system provides both historical and estimated information that is relevant to the specific plans on more frequent basis・ And managerial accounting is not governed by generally accepted accounting principles.Chapter 2 Accounting environmentThe growth of organizations, changes in technology, government regulation, and the globalization of economy during the twentieth century have spurred the development of accounting・ As a result, a number of specialized fields of accounting have evolved in addition to financial accounting and managerial accounting, which include auditing, cost accounting, tax accounting, budgetary accounting, governmental and not -for-profit accounting, human resources accounting, environmental accounting, social accounting, international accounting, etc. For example, tax accounting encompasses the preparation of tax returns and the consideration of the tax consequences of proposed business transactions or alternative courses of action. Governmental and not-for-profit accounting specializes in recording and reporting the transactions of various governmental units and other not-for-profit organizations. International accounting is concerned with the special problems associated with the international trade of multinational business organizations. All forms of accounting, in the end, provide information to the related users and help them make decisions.Accountant the environment has, the development closely with accountant related, and decided that accountant the thought that the accounting theory, accountant organize, accountant the legal system as well as the accountancy level of development historic condition and the particular case・Studies accountant the environment the influence which develops to accountant,should take accountant the goat accountant suppose, the accounting standards as the clue.2.1 The goal of accountant is the starting point in which accounting environment affects the accounting information systemEach kind of accountant under the pattern accountant the goal concrete difference may sum up as accountant the environment different result. Looking from longitudinal, the different historical period, accountant the environment is different, accountant the goal is also different, from this causes the accounting information existence huge difference; Looking from crosswise, different national accountant the environment is different, accountant the goal content has the difference, its accounting iiifonnation is also unique. About accountant the goal, the theorists have “the policy-making usefill view” and "the management responsibility view" the stmggle・ What policy-making useful view interdependence is the developed capital market, the resources request and is entiusted with something the relations are establishes through the capital market. Thus, the resources entrusting party and is entrusted with something the side responsibility relations intermediary becomes because of the capital market fuzzy. But the responsibility view to base the resources request which forms in the direct intercourse with is entrusted with something the relations. Western various countries and the international accounting standards committee approve the policy-making useful view. If the international accounting standards committee said that “must focus the attention to provide to the economic decision-making useful iiifbnnation n. Comparatively speaking, the management responsibility view depends on each other accountant the environment and the Chinese present stage economic reform and the development actual situation even more tallies. The current our country financial inventory accountings essential target, should locate, in approaches the tmstee to report the fiduciary duty in the fulfillment situation. Because of from the time, the management responsibility view mainly faces the future, but faces in the past and the present. But in accountant confirmed that the standard and the measurement foundation s choices aspect, the foothold in the past and the present must be easier than in the future the foothold, provided the information quality even more drew close to the goal the request.Because just accountant the goal affects the accounting information systems basic reason, therefore, the environment embarks from accountant to accountant the goal locates,can cause the accounting theory to move toward the accounting practice from Yu the accounting practice.2.2accountants supposed has promulgated accountant between the external environment close relations which depended on each other with it.Accountant supposes is the accounting personnel the reasonable judgment which locates to the accounting the change which does not decide accountant who the environment makes, is the accounting basic premise Accountant supposes to financial inventory accounting has the overall importance influence, it is the behavior main body and the general situation embarks from accountant constructs the system info, American Accounting standards Committee Respective Accountant Research depaitment's first memoir is "accountant's fimdamental assumption^. Although theoretically speaking, the sound value information will have the guidance compared to the historical costs information regarding the user future economic decision-making, just like but US Chartered accountant the Association financial report Technical committee will publish the topic will be'Improvement Enterprise Reported that -- Customer Guidance" said that the numerous users did not advocate by the sound value pattern substitution historical costs pattern, its reason will mainly be stems from the guarantee financial report information consistency, reliable and the cost - benefit principle consideration. However, they advocate many kinds of measurement attribute mix valuation.Accountant supposes is based on the external environment uncertainty proposed that therefore, may say that accountant supposes is the accounting theory and accountant the environment connected border meeting point, depends on each other accountant with it the environment to have the extremely close relationship・2.3The accounting standards disclose accountant the environment to the accounting information requestAccountant the environment to accounting standards* influence, may manifest in the accounting standards technical nature, the social two aspects・1.Technical nature. The accountins standards were considered that is one kind of pure objective restraint organization, one merely technicals standard method, its goal is enables accounting practice processing the science, to be reasonable, to be consistent. Sinceproduces the behavior has universal restraint accountant after accountant the standard system, accountant reforms mainly displays in accountant the standard system s reform, but accountant standard system's reform, displays for concrete accountant the computing technique innovation.2・ Sociality. The different accounting standards will have the different accounting information, thus affects the different main body benefit, it will cause part of people to profit, but another part of people possibly suffer injury. The accounting standards produce the economic consequences prove its and impure objective. Accounting standards* sociality materially is the economic interest question, immediate influence to economic interest between related various aspects assignment. One of market economy's base elements is the fair competition ； All market economy participants cannot different form the rank difference because of the right status. If the administrative right trades the behavior with the market economy to unify in together, will destroy the market mechanism, will be unable to realize the market economy effective disposition resources function. Therefore accounting standards* formulation organization must be the neutral organization, guarantees the accounting standards fairness and the rationality.Chapter 3 Accounting SystemAccounting system refers to establish accounting and accounting supervision procedure and method of business activities. Effective accounting system should do:1.Confirmed and record all real business, timely and detailed description of economic business, so in the financial and accounting reports of economic business appropriately classified・2.Measurement value of economic business, so in the financial and accounting reports records in the appropriate monetary value・3.Determine the time, business to business records in the appropriate accounting period ・4.In the financial and accounting reports, business and proper disclosure of expression related matters・有效会计体系任何事物都是在一定的环境条件下存在和发展的，作为人类重要实践活动之一的会计活动也不例外。
会计英语期末知识点总结
会计英语期末知识点总结1. Basic Concepts of Accounting1.1. Financial AccountingFinancial accounting is the process of recording, summarizing, and reporting financial transactions of a business to external parties such as investors, creditors, and regulators. It provides a comprehensive view of the financial performance and position of a company.1.2. Managerial AccountingManagerial accounting is the process of providing financial and non-financial information to internal management for decision making, planning, and control. It focuses on providing relevant and timely information to support the management in making informed decisions.1.3. Accounting PrinciplesGenerally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) are a set of guidelines and rules that govern the accounting practices and procedures in the United States. These principles ensure consistency and comparability in financial reporting.1.4. Double-Entry AccountingDouble-entry accounting is a system in which every financial transaction has equal and opposite effects on at least two different accounts. This system ensures accuracy and completeness in recording financial transactions.1.5. Accrual Basis vs. Cash Basis AccountingAccrual basis accounting recognizes revenues when earned and expenses when incurred, regardless of when cash is received or paid. Cash basis accounting, on the other hand, recognizes revenues and expenses only when cash is received or paid.2. Financial Statements2.1. Balance SheetA balance sheet is a financial statement that shows the financial position of a company at a specific point in time. It presents the assets, liabilities, and equity of the business, providinga snapshot of its financial health.2.2. Income StatementAn income statement, also known as a profit and loss statement, shows the revenues, expenses, and profits (or losses) of a company over a specific period of time. It provides a summary of the company's financial performance.2.3. Statement of Cash FlowsThe statement of cash flows shows the sources and uses of cash in a company's operating, investing, and financing activities. It provides insights into the cash flow dynamics of a business.2.4. Statement of Retained EarningsThe statement of retained earnings shows the changes in a company's retained earnings over a specific period, including net income, dividends, and other adjustments. It reconciles the beginning and ending balances of retained earnings.3. Key Principles in Accounting3.1. Historical Cost PrincipleThe historical cost principle requires assets to be recorded at their original cost, rather than their current market value. This principle ensures reliability and objectivity in financial reporting.3.2. Revenue Recognition PrincipleThe revenue recognition principle states that revenues should be recognized when earned, regardless of when cash is received. This principle ensures that revenues are matched with the expenses incurred to generate them.3.3. Matching PrincipleThe matching principle requires expenses to be recognized in the same period as the revenues they help generate. This principle ensures that the income statement accurately reflects the profitability of a company.3.4. Full Disclosure PrincipleThe full disclosure principle requires companies to disclose all relevant information in their financial statements and footnotes, providing a complete and transparent view of their financial position and performance.3.5. Consistency PrincipleThe consistency principle requires companies to use the same accounting methods and techniques from one period to the next, providing consistent and comparable financial information.In conclusion, accounting is a vital function in any business organization. It provides crucial information that helps in decision-making, planning, and control. By understanding the basic concepts, financial statements, and key principles in accounting, stakeholders can make informed judgments about the financial health and performance of a company.。
会计英语Chapter 5 Plant Assets and Depreciation
1.Explain plant assets. 2.Determine the cost of plant assets. 3.Distinguish between capital expenditures and revenue expenditure. puter depreciation by the straight-line and double-declining-balance methods. puter depreciation for income tax purposes using MACRS.
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5.2.1 Some Special Considerations
Land: When land is purchased, various incidental costs are generally incurred, in addition to the purchase price. These additional costs may include commissions to real estate brokers, escrow fees, legal fees for examining and insuring the title, delinquent taxes paid by the purchaser, and fees for surveying, draining, clearing the property. All these expenditures become part of the cost of the land.
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中国大米的作文英语
中国大米的作文英语Rice is one of the most important staple foods in China and has been cultivated in the country for thousands of years. China is the world's largest producer and consumer of rice, accounting for nearly 30% of global rice production. The diversity of rice varieties grown in China is truly remarkable, with each region boasting its own unique strains adapted to the local climate and soil conditions.At the heart of China's rice production lies the fertile plains of the Yangtze River basin, which has long been the country's rice bowl. The region's warm, humid climate and abundant rainfall provide ideal conditions for rice cultivation. Farmers in this area have honed their rice-growing techniques over generations, passing down traditional methods that maximize yields while preserving the land's natural resources.One of the most famous rice varieties from the Yangtze region is Wuchang rice, named after the city of Wuchang in Hubei province. Wuchang rice is renowned for its delicate flavor, fluffy texture, and beautiful pearly-white grains. The rice is grown in the nutrient-richalluvial soils along the Yangtze River, which lend it a distinct sweetness and fragrance. Wuchang rice has been a staple of the Chinese diet for centuries and is highly prized for its exceptional quality.Further north, in the provinces of Heilongjiang and Jilin, farmers cultivate a different type of rice known as Heilongjiang rice or Northeastern rice. This hardy variety is able to withstand the region's cold, continental climate, with its long, harsh winters and short growing seasons. Heilongjiang rice is known for its firm texture, high starch content, and ability to retain its shape and flavor even after prolonged cooking. It is a staple food for many families in the Northeast and is also highly sought after for its nutritional value and versatility in cooking.Moving to the south, the lush, tropical climate of Guangdong and Guangxi provinces gives rise to another renowned rice variety –Xiaodongjiang rice. This medium-grain rice is renowned for its delicate aroma, soft and fluffy texture, and subtle sweetness. Xiaodongjiang rice is often used in traditional Cantonese cuisine, where it is steamed and served as a simple yet flavorful accompaniment to a variety of dishes.In the mountainous regions of Yunnan and Guizhou, farmers cultivate a unique type of rice known as Yunnan black rice orForbidden rice. This ancient grain is prized for its deep purple-black color, which is the result of high levels of anthocyanins, powerful antioxidants that give the rice its distinctive hue. Yunnan black rice has a nutty, slightly sweet flavor and a firm, chewy texture. It is not only a culinary delight but also highly nutritious, containing high amounts of fiber, vitamins, and minerals.Beyond the major rice-growing regions, China is home to numerous other rice varieties, each with its own unique characteristics. In the coastal provinces of Zhejiang and Jiangsu, farmers grow a delicate, fragrant rice called Dongting rice, named after the Dongting Lake region. In the northern province of Shandong, the famous Jiaozhou rice is prized for its plump, tender grains and mild, sweet flavor.The diversity of rice cultivated in China is not just a testament to the country's rich agricultural heritage but also a reflection of its geographical and climatic diversity. Each region's rice variety has been shaped by the local environment, traditional farming practices, and the culinary preferences of the local population.Preserving this rice diversity is of utmost importance, not only for maintaining China's food security but also for safeguarding the cultural and ecological heritage associated with rice cultivation. Many traditional rice varieties are under threat from the rapid modernization of agriculture, which has led to the widespreadadoption of high-yielding hybrid strains and the abandonment of traditional farming methods.In recent years, however, there has been a growing movement to protect and promote China's heritage rice varieties. Farmers, researchers, and food enthusiasts are working together to revive traditional rice cultivation techniques, promote the cultivation of heirloom rice strains, and educate the public about the cultural and nutritional value of these unique grains.One such initiative is the establishment of rice banks, which serve as repositories for the preservation of rare and endangered rice varieties. These banks not only safeguard the genetic diversity of rice but also provide farmers with access to a wider range of rice strains, allowing them to experiment with different cultivars and adapt to changing environmental conditions.In addition, many local governments and non-profit organizations have launched programs to support small-scale, sustainable rice farming practices. These initiatives provide training, technical assistance, and marketing support to help farmers maintain traditional rice cultivation methods and bring their high-quality, heritage rice products to the market.The efforts to preserve China's rice diversity are not just aboutsafeguarding a food crop – they are also about preserving the rich cultural heritage and ecological balance associated with rice cultivation. Rice has been deeply woven into the fabric of Chinese society, with its cultivation and consumption intertwined with the country's traditions, customs, and even spiritual beliefs.From the intricate rice paddy terraces of Yunnan to the lush, verdant rice fields of the Yangtze River basin, China's rice-growing landscapes are a testament to the ingenuity and resilience of its farmers. These landscapes not only produce the staple food that has nourished the Chinese people for millennia but also serve as vital habitats for a diverse array of flora and fauna, contributing to the overall ecological balance of the regions.As China continues to modernize and industrialize, it is crucial that the country's policymakers and agricultural stakeholders recognize the immense value of preserving the country's rice diversity. By supporting small-scale, sustainable rice farming, promoting the cultivation of heritage rice varieties, and educating the public about the cultural and nutritional significance of these grains, China can ensure that its rich rice heritage continues to thrive and nourish generations to come.。
climate resilience accounting resource
climate resilience accounting resourceThere are several resources available that can help with climate resilience accounting. Some of the key resources include:1. The Climate Disclosure Standards Board (CDSB): CDSB offers guidance on how to integrate climate-related financial information into mainstream corporate reporting. Their framework helps companies measure, manage, and disclose climate-related information in financial terms, enabling better climate resilience accounting.2. The Task Force on Climate-related Financial Disclosures (TCFD): TCFD provides recommendations for disclosing climate-related financial information. Their framework helps organizations understand and report on climate-related risks and opportunities, including how these may impact financial performance.3. The Global Reporting Initiative (GRI): GRI provides guidelines for sustainability reporting, including climate-related reporting. Their standards help organizations measure and report on climate risks and resilience measures in a structured and transparent manner.4. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO): ISO has developed the ISO 14090:2019 standard on adaptation to climate change - Principles, requirements and guidelines. This standard provides a framework for organizations to assess and manage climate change risks and resilience.5. Guidance from industry-specific organizations: Many industry-specific organizations provide guidance on climate resilience accounting for their respective sectors. Examples include the Sustainability Accounting Standards Board (SASB) for sectors such as transportation and agriculture, and the Carbon Disclosure Project (CDP) for measuring and reporting carbon emissions. These resources can help organizations integrate climate resilience accounting into their financial reporting and decision-making processes, enabling better management of climate risks and opportunities.。
陕西省西咸新区泾河新城第一中学2023-2024学年高二上学期第一阶段考英语试题
陕西省西咸新区泾河新城第一中学2023-2024学年高二上学期第一阶段考英语试题学校:___________姓名：___________班级：___________考号：___________一、阅读理解Crossing your legs is an extremely common habit; most people don't even notice that they're doing it when they sit down. While you may find it comfortable to sit with one knee crossed over the other, it might be causing health problems that you are not aware of.A study published in Blood Pressure Monitoring stated that sitting with your legs crossed can increase your blood pressure. The reason for this is that the blood in your legs has to work against gravity to be pumped back to your heart and that crossing one leg over the other increases resistance, making it even harder for the blood to circulate. This causes your body to increase your blood pressure to push the blood back to the heart. You won't feel any immediate effects, but repeated, drawn-out increases in blood pressure can cause long-term health issues. So, planning to sit for a long period of time? Don't keep your legs crossed.Crossing your legs at the knee can also cause pressure on the major nerve in your leg that passes just below your knee and along the outside of your leg, explains Richard Graves, a medical expert. This pressure can cause numbness and temporary paralysis (麻痹) of some of the muscles in your foot and leg, preventing you from being able to raise your ankle—what we know as that “pins and needles” sensation. While the feeling of discomfort may only last a minute or two, repeatedly crossing your legs until they feel numb can cause permanent nerve damage.So next time you sit down, try to get yourself in the habit of sitting with both of your feet on the floor. Not only will it help your posture and stability, but it will also save your health in the long run.1．What can we learn about crossing one's legs?A．It is a very bad social habit.B．It can do harm to people's health.C．It is usually practiced deliberately.D．It can make others feel uncomfortable.2．According to the study, sitting with your legs crossed can________.A．affect your blood pressure B．resist gravity effectivelyC．lead to heart attacks easily D．improve the function of legs3．In the third paragraph “pins and needles” probably means________.A．being highly flexible B．being a little tiredC．serious muscle injuries D．slight sharp pains4．What is the main purpose of the text?A．To compare common habits.B．To evaluate effects of an experiment.C．To give readers some advice.D．To introduce research methods.When Roy Austin went on his first wildlife trip back in 2018, his only goal for the leisurely vacation was to catch sight of some African wildlife in its natural habitat — but he ended up finding something much more meaningful. He was most captivated (迷住) by the people he met in rural Kenya — particularly at the Amboseli Primary and Secondary School in Amboseli National Park.In addition to befriending many of the students and teachers, Austin was surprised to learn how difficult it was to get books and school supplies for the children. “In rural Kenya, the government does not build school buildings. You either build it yourself or raise money to have it built,” says Austin. “A teacher was asked if they had a library. She replied, ‘No, but we would love to have a library.’ That stuck in my mind.”When Austin eventually returned to his home in Bluffton, South Carolina, he launched Libraries for Kids International. Since starting the charity, Austin has managed to ship more than 1,000 books to 11 schools across Kenya and Tanzania. He sends the books through the post office rather than FedEx to keep the shipping costs down.As he continues to collect books and donations for additional shipments, Austin says that the charity is now helping to move a shipping container of 22,000 books from Atlanta to Kenya. In the future, the philanthropist (慈善家) hopes to start sending donations to South America as well.“Many people told me that it can’t be done. It’s too expensive to ship books, and they will disappear going through customs,” Austin says. “However, every worthwhile project will have problems and barriers. If you focus on the problems, you will never start. On the contrary, if you focus on the aim and solve the problems as they arise, almost anything is possible.”5．What problem does Austin find in rural Kenya?A．Education depends on charity.B．Students lack education resources.C．Books get lost going through customs.D．Families can’t afford the kids’ schooling. 6．What does Austin do for the people in rural Kenya?A．He teaches at school.B．He funds a library for them.C．He reduces the shipping costs.D．He ships books to schools.7．What can we learn from Austin’s story?A．It is the first step that costs.B．Opportunity belongs to the preparingC．Every bit of effort makes a big difference.D．Nothing is difficult to a determined mind.8．Which of the following best describes Austin?A．A crazy adventurer.B．A devoted educator.C．A charity enthusiast.D．A passionate volunteer.Climate change is known to negatively affect agriculture and livestock, but there has been little scientific knowledge on which regions of the planet would be touched or what the biggest risks may be. New research led by Aalto University assesses just how global food production will be affected if greenhouse gas emissions are left uncut.The researchers assessed how climate change would affect 27 of the most important food crops and seven different livestock, accounting for societies' varying capacities to adapt to changes. The results show that threats affect countries and continents in different ways; in 52 of the 177 countries studied, the entire food production would remain in the safe climatic space in the future. These include Finland and most other European countries.Already vulnerable countries such as Benin, Cambodia, Ghana, Guinea-Bissau, Guyana and Suriname will be hit hard if no changes are made; up to 95 percent of current food production would fall outside of safe climatic space. Alarmingly, these nations also have significantly less capacity to adapt to changes brought on by climate change when compared to rich western countries. In all, 20% of the world's crop production and 18% of livestock production under threat are located in countries with low capacities to adapt to changes.“If we let emissions grow, the increase in desert areas is especially troubling because in these conditions barely anything can grow without irrigation. By the end of this century, we could see more than 4 million square kilometres of new desert around the globe,” MattiKummu, professor of global water and food issues at Aalto University says. “We need to lighten climate change and, at the same time, improve our food systems and societies' capacities to adapt to changes—we cannot leave the vulnerable behind. Food production must be sustainable.”9．How does the author show the effect of climate change on the food production in paragraph 2?A．By raising questions.B．By stating arguments.C．By analyzing research data.D．By making comparisons.10．What is the third paragraph mainly about?A．The measures to be taken.B．The threat to the vulnerable countries.C．The assistance of rich countries.D．The damage to crop production. 11．What do Kummu's words suggest?A．He feels very desperate.B．He cares more about others.C．He was in charge of the study.D．He is worried about the vulnerable. 12．From which section of a newspaper is the text taken?A．Environment.B．Technology.C．Culture.D．Politics.二、七选五Cultures have nonverbal forms of communication, but there are still rules. Hand gestures add emphasis. Voice levels add to our communication. 13Body language is not the same everywhere. The same body postures and gestures can have different meanings in different cultures. For example, holding your hand out, fingers together, and palm (手掌) facing outward means stop in North America. 14 Ojigi, or Japanese bowing, is used as a way to say hello, a way to say sorry, and a way to show respect. 15 Fifteen degrees is the common greeting bow for those you already know or who are on an equal social level. The highest respect bow is forty-five degrees and is used when you say sorry.Other forms of nonverbal communication include clothing, hairstyles, and even how close we stand to one another. Proxemics is the study of the cultural use of space. 16 The use of color in one's physical space is an example of proxemics of physical territory. A health spa (休闲健身中心) is more likely to use cool greens and blues to create a relaxingenvironment. 17 This differs depending on the other person and the situation. For example, in the United States public space is between twelve to twenty-five feet. Intimate (亲密的) space is less than a foot. We may feel uncomfortable if any of these distances are reduced without an invitation.A．In Greece, the same gesture is highly rude.B．Personal space is between two and four feet.C．Even silence can be a useful form of communication.D．The degree of the bow shows the amount of respect.E．This can be both someone’s personal and physical territory.F．It is not impolite to look the other person in the eye while bowing in Europe.G．Personal territory refers to the space we keep between others and ourselves.三、完形填空My daughter had talent for acting. When Alex was accepted into New York University’shad total 29 of her business. I was one of many who 30 from her patient encouragement. Over time, my lower-back pain disappeared and I could lift a heavy box 31 . Through my training, I learned she knew the right 32 for herself. 18．A．expected B．prepared C．pictured D．treasured 19．A．awkward B．hard C．appealing D．rewarding 20．A．exercising B．wandering C．struggling D．teaching 21．A．announced B．searched C．changed D．rejected 22．A．training B．trying C．performing D．socializing 23．A．active B．fit C．positive D．ambitious 24．A．passion B．theory C．refusal D．decision 25．A．suggestion B．warning C．analysis D．dream 26．A．research B．business C．occupation D．organization 27．A．spotting B．opposing C．admiring D．correcting 28．A．job B．hobby C．personality D．achievement 29．A．impression B．ignorance C．control D．understanding 30．A．restored B．benefited C．resulted D．learned 31．A．in charge B．with assistance C．in comfort D．with ease 32．A．method B．routine C．path D．progress四、用单词的适当形式完成短文阅读下面短文，在空白处填入1个适当的单词或括号内单词的正确形式。
全球变暖应对：商业界的应对措施说明书
Carbon Accounting Reflection as a Response to Face the Climate ChangeProf. Dr. Sri Iswati, CADirector of Postgraduate SchoolUniversitas Airlangga Surabaya, IndonesiaEmail : ****************.ac.id ; *********************Abstract- Climate change has been a global issue inthe 21st century. Climate change is the inevitableimpact of the rapid development of industrialworld and the fast growing of technology in the 21stcentury. A change in climate around the world isthe trigger for global warming. The negative effectof global warming could be catastrophic for humankind. This paper is aimed at sharing a provokingthought on solutions for the business world to facethe impact of global warming that can damage theenvironment and become a disaster for humans.Carbon-accounting is an alternatively offered toindustrial and management as a response to thisnatural phenomenon.Key words-climate change, global warming, carbon-accounting, industrial-manufacturingINTRODUCTIONThe development of technology and the rise of industry are the inevitable situation of the 21st century. The very real impact of both situations is on the environment. Lately there is often a flood disaster that is almost evenly distributed throughout the world, not to mention landslides or other natural disasters. Indirectly, these disasters are the result of climate change in the world. Climate change is what causes global warming happening around the world. 1. Why carbon-accounting existsGlobal warming, climate change, environmental damage, decreasing natural resources availability, that is a very influencing issue to the companies. The fact about business activity which significantly affected to economy is real, although the effect to the environment and society can’t be less striking. For example, what recently happened was hail in Bandung, West Java, Indonesia, tsunami, landslide, dry weather and the unpredictable rainy season. Global warming is the increase in the average temperature of the earth's surface due to an increase in the amount of greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere. Global warming will be followed by climate change. Climate change is a long-term change, in the distribution of weather patterns statistically over a period of time from decades to millions of years. This term may also mean changes, it means as well weather conditions or changes in the distribution of average weather events, for example, the number of extreme weather events that are increasingly or slightly smaller. Climate change is limited to a specific region or can occur in all regions of the Earth (https:///wiki/Perubahan_iklim). IPCC (2001) states that climate change refers to the average variation in a place's climatic conditions or to its statistically significant variability for long periods of time (usually decades or more). It is also clarified that climate change may occur due to internal natural processes as well as external forces, or human activities that are constantly changing atmospheric composition or land use.Global Warming and Climate Change are theresult of human activities, especially those related to the use of fossil fuels (petroleum and coal) as well as other activities related to forests, agriculture, and livestock. Human activity in these activities directly or indirectly causes a change in the natural composition of the atmosphere, namely the increase in the amount of greenhouse gases globally. Global warming is the increase in the average temperature of the atmosphere, the earth, and the oceans. While climate change is a significant change in climate, such as air temperature or rainfall, over a period of 30 years or more. Climate change is aprojection of the continuation of global warming.(Https:///2013/04/24/mengen al-pemanasan-global-dan-perubahan-iklim/) The greenhouse is an analogue of the Earthsurrounded by glass cups. In fact what happens is to take it into the earth's atmosphere covered with gas. At the time of sunlight into the earth then it must penetrate the gas/glass in the form of radiation. The rays are partially absorbed by the earth and some will be reflected back into space. Like the greenhouse processin the agricultural industry, this greenhouse is used to warm the temperature, so the plants can thrive. The problem is, when high human activity causes an increase in the thickness of the gas blanket in the atmosphere (greenhouse gases). As a result, the heat ofthe sun can not be reflected back perfectly, this is called the greenhouse effect.1st International Conference Postgraduate School Universitas Airlangga:Implementation of Climate Change Agreement to Meet Sustainable Development Goals (ICPSUAS 2017)There are six gases included in greenhouse gas. The following list based on the biggest contribution the greenhouse gas, are: 1) carbon dioxide (CO2), 2) methane (CH4), 3) dinitro oxide (N2O), those three substances driven by fossil energy resources, deforestation and agriculture. Next 4) hydrofluorocarbons (HFC), 5) perfluorocarbons (PFC), 6) sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) are only contribute 1%.The largest sources of CO2 are coal-fired power plants, motor vehicles, fossil-based energy industries. Based on this fact the management accountants should start thinking about how to manage carbon extraction within the company. This issue makes the role of environmental accounting stronger, especially in reducing the amount of carbon in the industry better known as carbon-accounting.2.The role of carbon-acconting in facing globalwarmingCarbon-accounting refers generally to processes undertaken to "measure" amounts of carbon dioxide equivalents emitted by an entity. It is used inter alia by nation, states, corporation, individuals to create the carbon credit commodity traded on carbon markets (or to establish the demand for carbon credits). Correspondingly, examples for products based upon forms of carbon accounting can be found national inventories, corporate environmental reports or carbon footprint calculators. Likening sustainability measurement, as an instance of ecological modernisation discourses and policy, carbon accounting is hoped to provide a factual ground for carbon-related decision-making. However, social scientific studies of accounting challenge this hope (Lohman, 2009) pointing to the socially constructed character of carbon conversion factors (McKenzie, 2009) or of the accountants' work practice (Lippert, 2012) which cannot implement abstract accounting schemes into reality.(https:///wiki/carbon_accounti ng)In 1993 the United Nations issued the Handbook of National Accounting: System for Integrated Environmental and Economic Accounting (SEEA), during an international workshop organized by the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) and the World Bank. The SEEA publications are directed to provide a framework for presenting information related to the environment and its impact on the economy.In 2003 the SEEA was revised. The framework of this report is used as a guide to disclose information on institutional sustainability to the public. The drafting process of this framework involves more than 60 countries consisting of companies, public, academia, workers, and professional institutions.The Kyoto Protocol is an international amendment on climate change. Countries that have ratified it are committed to reducing carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gas emissions. This Protocol was ratified by 181 States, signed on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005. The official name of this agreement is "Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)" (/wiki/Protokol_Kyoto).Sustainability report is a report published by the company to reveal the company's performance from economic, environmental and social aspects, better known as the concept of triple bottom line (people, planet, profit). This report is prepared under the Sustainability Reporting Guidelines (SRG) guidelines issued by the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI). This report has 3 principles, namely: accuracy, completeness, and reliability. The contents of SRG generally consist of: 1) Company Profile, 2)Report Profile, 3) Scope, 4) GCG, 5) Stakeholder Engagement, 6) Environmental Performance Indicators, 7) Employment and Human Resources, 8) Consumer.From the previous description, it can be seen that the company / industry is one of the largest CO2 (carbon dioxide) estimates. Awareness of the need to commit to reduce gas emissions to save the world starts from the Kyoto Protocol. The company's commitment is demonstrated by the Sustainability report, which is the company's commitment to the economy, environment and social.In Indonesia, regulations related to the implementation and disclosure of sustainable businesses include:1)Bappepam regulations requiring disclosure of CSRactivities in annual reports since 20052)Inc. (Incorporated)/Ltd. (Limited LiabilityCompany) Act No. 40 of 2007All BUMN are required to allocate 1-3% of net income to finance community development programs and submit separate audited reports. Indonesia also has an Appraisal of Corporate Performance Rating in Environmental Management called PROPER. The legal basis is the Decree of the Minister of Environment No. 127 / MENLH / 2002 on the Corporate Performance Rating Program in Environmental Management. In practice, PROPER uses Environmental Performance Indicators (EPI) and is defined based on context and content according to the assessed company. PROPER performance ratings are ranked in five colors: Gold, Green, Blue, Red and Black.3.The readiness of industries managing carbon-accountingIn conjunction with accounting, carbon cost management is a new era in the idea of economic transactions based on ecology, which we call carbon-accounting. Some research on carbon-accounting in Indonesia shows the following results: Ja'far and Yogi (2009) who conduct research on manufacturing companies, show that: (1) The quality of awareness of the environment at the company is low, (2) Already have efforts to efficiency carbon emissions, (3) Need to be designed development of carbon accounting standards, (4) Carbon management reporting can be used as a measure of environmental performance. In addition, Ja'far and Kartikasari (2009) state that industry actors require accounting standards for carbon.Carbon-accounting is the process of calculating the amount of carbon released by industrial processes, reduction targets, the establishment of systems and programs to reduce carbon emissions, and reporting on the progress of the program (Louis et al., 2010). With carbon accounting, companies can know the level of carbon emissions it produces from the measurement results, then the company's management can establish strategies to reduce carbon emissions and report it to the company's stakeholders. Carbon-accounting will encourage companies to reduce carbon emissions levels (Zvezdov, Dimitar and Stefan Schaltegger, 2015).In a case study conducted by Delphine Gibassier and Stefan Schaltegger (2015) demonstrates that it is possible to connect two carbon management accounting approaches focusing on products and the organization into a combined carbon management accounting system. This has potential impact in making carbon management accounting in organizations leaner, and more efficient in terms of performance measurement and external communication.Finally, a simple research conducted by the author in April - May 2017 on private enterprise managers shows that managers generally understand and understand and feel the climate change, they have also allocated funds to manage the environment, but in general they have never Heard about carbon-accounting.Based on the results of the research presented in Section 3 of this paper, it can be said that Carbon-accounting becomes an inevitable requirement. The triggers include waste & carbon emissions generated by industry increasingly a real cause for global warming which in turn causes climate change. To provide understanding and understanding of the importance of carbon-accounting, it is necessary to socialize the company's managers in the form of seminars or workshops. Also more research is required to produce popular scientific and writing papers on the media. In addition, to encourage carbon-accounting, it is necessary to support the carbon accounting standard as the foundation of transparency and accountability in the implementation of carbon-management reporting. CONCLUSIONSAs global warming has sequential impact onclimate change and environmental damage then in turn will influence ondecreasing in natural resources availability. One of the elements that contribute to global warming is manufacturing. Therefore, to face the climate change should face by implementing carbon-accounting which include these steps, namely: 1)Global Warming and Climate Change are the resultof human activities, related to the use of fossil fuels, and other activities related to forests, agriculture, and livestock. Human activity in these activities directly or indirectly causes a change in the natural composition of the atmosphere, namely the increase in the amount of greenhouse gases globally.2)Regulations related to the implementation ofsustainability report for companies in Indonesia, namely:a.Bappepam regulation that requires disclosure ofCSR activities in annual reports since 2005b.Act No. 40 of 2007 PTc.All SOEs are required to allocate 1-3% of netincome to finance community development programs and submit a separate, audited report. 3)Rating of the Company's Performance Rating inEnvironmental Management in Indonesia is called PROPER. The legal basis is the Decree of the Minister of Environment No. 127 / MENLH / 2002.4)Carbon-accounting will encourage companies toreduce carbon emissions levels.5)Required accounting tools that can be used toimplement carbon-accounting.ReferencesCarbon Accounting,https:///wiki/CarbonaccountingDelphine Gibassier, Stefan Schaltegger, 2015."Carbon management accounting andreporting in practice: A case study onconverging emergentapproaches", Sustainability Accounting,Management and Policy Journal, Vol. 6 Issue:3, pp.340-365, doi: 10.1108/SAMPJ-02-2015-0014Ja’far, Muhammad Shodiq, danYogi Trisita Febri,2009. “Sistem Akuntansi dan Pelaporan EmisiKarbon: Dasar Pengembangan StandarAkuntansi Karbon (Studi Ekspolrasi padaPerusahaan Manufaktur di BEI)”, UniversitasIslam Sultan AgungJa’far, Muhammad Shodiq, dan L Kartikasari, 2009, “Need Assesments: Standar Akuntansi Carbondan Praktik Carbon Accounting”, Palembang:SNA 12Lippert, I. 2012. Extended carbon cognition as a machine. Computational Culture, 1(1), 2011.and Lippert. Carbon classified? Unpackingheterogeneous relations inscribed intocorporate carbon emissions. Ephemera,12(1/2):138–161, 2012.Lippert, I. 2013. Enacting Environments: AnEthnography of the Digitalisation andNaturalisation of Emissions. University ofAugsburg, 2013.Lohmann, L. 2009. Toward a different debate in environmental accounting: The cases ofcarbon and cost–benefit. Accounting,Organizations and Society, 34:499–534, Apr2009.Louis, S., I. Raditya, dan S o fia n. 2010. "Peran Carbon Accounting d a l a m ImplementasiCorporateSocialResponsibility untukM e n g u ra n g i P o l u s iIndustri",Makalahdisampaikan padaPekanIlmiah MahasiswaN a s i on a l (PIMNAS)ke-XXIII, B a l i.MacKenzie, D. 2009.Making things the same: Gases, emission rights and the politics of carbonmarkets. Accounting, Organizations andSociety, 34(3-4):440–455, Apr 2009. Perubahan Iklim,https:///wiki/Perubahan_iklim Perubahan iklim dan global warming,https:///2013/04/24/mengenal-pemanasan-global-dan-perubahan-iklim/ Sustainability Report,https:///2014/10/10/sustainability-reporting-sebagai-informasi-bentuk-pertanggungjawaban-perusahaan-terhadap-lingkungan-sosialnya/United Nation, 1998, “Kyoto Protocol to The United Nation Framework Convention on ClimateChange”,https:///wiki/Protokol_Kyoto Zvezdov, Dimitar and Stefan Schaltegger, 2015.“DecisionSupportThrough CarbonManagement Accounting—A Framework-BasedLiterature Review”. Switzerland:SpringerInternationalPublishing.About the Author:Prof. Dr. Sri Iswati, CA., currently is the Director of Postgraduate School, and lecturer at Economic & Business Faculty of UniversitasAirlangga (UNAIR) in Surabaya, Indonesia. She can be reached at ****************.ac.id,************************。
可持续发展的绿色核算国际和世行经验-Sustainabi
Forests generate substantial rents – but rents accrue to private sector (which is also subsidized)
8
Assessing the “cost” of equity – Example from Norway 净资产的费用评估－挪威案例
East Asia & Pacific Latin America & Caribbean
Middle East & North Africa South Asia
Sub-Saharan Africa
15
Stark differences between traditional and adjusted net savings 传统和调整后的净储蓄的差异
resources Improve policies that encourage better pollution management
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Adjusted net savings 经过调整的净储蓄 % of GNI 2002 占国民总收入的百分比2002
Name
Gross Consumptio
调整的净储蓄
5. Looking ahead 未来发展
2
1 – Introduction 前言 Asset accounting for sustainable development 可持续发展的资产 核算
3
A condition for sustainable development 可持续发展的一个条件
national n of fixed Net national Education Energy Mineral Net forest
会计英语作文押题模板
会计英语作文押题模板英文回答：Accounting in the 21st Century: Trends and Challenges。
The 21st century has witnessed unprecedented technological advancements that have had a profound impact on the business landscape. The accounting profession is no exception to this digital transformation, with new technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI), blockchain, and cloud computing revolutionizing the way accounting is performed. These technological advancements have brought about numerous benefits, including:Improved efficiency and accuracy: AI-powered accounting software can automate many routine and repetitive tasks, such as data entry, reconciliation, and invoice processing. This frees up accountants to focus on more value-added tasks, such as financial analysis and strategic planning.Enhanced data security: Blockchain technology provides a secure and immutable ledger for recording financial transactions. This reduces the risk of fraud and errors,and it also makes it easier to track and audit financial data.Greater accessibility and flexibility: Cloud computing allows accountants to access their work from anywhere, at any time. This provides greater flexibility and convenience, and it also makes it easier for accountants to collaborate with colleagues and clients in different locations.However, the adoption of new technologies also presents challenges for accountants. These challenges include:Job displacement: AI-powered accounting software can automate many routine tasks that are currently performed by human accountants. This could lead to job displacement in the accounting profession, especially for those who are not able to adapt to the new technologies.Data privacy and security concerns: The increasing use of digital technologies raises concerns about data privacy and security. Accountants must ensure that they have adequate measures in place to protect sensitive financial data.Need for new skills and knowledge: The adoption of new technologies requires accountants to develop new skills and knowledge. Accountants will need to be proficient in using AI-powered accounting software, blockchain technology, and cloud computing.Despite the challenges, the adoption of new technologies is essential for the continued growth and success of the accounting profession. Accountants who are able to adapt to the new technologies will be in high demand, and they will be well-positioned to play astrategic role in the businesses of the future.中文回答：21世纪会计，趋势与挑战。
19版《会计学原理》会计英语双语词汇 怀尔德
Accounting terms会计术语Accounting; account; accountant; CPA, CMA, CIA, CB, CFE; financial accounting; managerial accounting; auditor; internal control; financial management; bookkeeping recordkeeping;会计;账户;会计师;注册会计师,注册管理会计师,注册内部审计师,注册簿记员,注册舞弊检查员;财务会计,管理会计,审计员,内部控制;财务管理;记账；记录;R&D, Research & Development; HR Human Resource; distribution; logistics; marketing; Not-for-profit organization; shareholder; stakeholder; lender; creditor; debtors; supplier; customer; regulator; legislator; board of director; broker; mortgage; wholesaler, retailer; merchandiser; manufacturer; services; consignor; consignee; Entrepreneur, entrepreneurship; sole proprietorship; partnership; corporation; common stock or ordinary share; preferred stock or preference share; corporate governance system; limited company; SOE：state-owned enterprise; SME：small and medium sized enterprise;研发、研发、人力资源;分配；物流;销售;非营利组织;股东;利益相关者;出借人;债权人,债务人;供应商;客户;监管;立法;董事会;代理;抵押贷款;批发商、零售商,推销商,制造商,服务,发货人,收货人,企业家,企业家能力;个人独资,合伙企业;企业;普通股或普通股,优先股或优先股;公司治理系统;有限公司；国有企业,中小企业,Financial statement; financial report; footnotes to financial statement; interim financial statement; annual, semiannually, quarterly, monthly financial statement; balance sheet; income statement; cash flow statement; statement of owner’s equity; cla ssified financial statement; pro forma financial statements; unadjusted trial balance; adjusted trial balance; post-closing trial balance; book; journal; ledger; general journal; specific journal; general ledger; subsidiary ledger; chart of accounts; double-entry accounting; working papers; work sheet;财务报表、财务报告、财务报表附注;中期财务报表,年度,每半年、季度、月度财务报表,资产负债表,损益表,现金流量表,所有者权益表;财务报表分类;形式上的财务报表;调整前试算表,调整后试算表,结帐后试算表;账簿;日记账;分类账;一般日记账;特定日记账,总账、明细分类帐;会计科目表;复式会计;工作底稿;工作表;Accounting ethics; accounting fraud, scandal; bogus accounting report; accounting oversight; stringent internal control; accounting principle, assumption, and standard; social responsibility; FASB, GAAP, SEC, IASB, IFRS; general principle, specific principles; cash basis accounting; accrual basis accounting; cost principle; revenue reorganization principle; matching principle; materiality constraint (cost-to-benefit constraint); full disclosure principle; going-concern assumption; monetary unit assumption; time period assumption (periodicity assumption) ; business entity assumption; consistency concept; conservatism constraint; lower of cost or market; LIFO conformity rule;会计道德;会计欺诈，丑闻,虚假的会计报告;会计监督;严格的内部控制,会计原则,假设,和标准;社会责任;财务会计准则委员会,公认会计准则,证券交易委员会,国际会计准则委员会,国际财务报告准则;一般原则,具体原则;收付实现制;权责发生制会计;成本原则;收入确认原则,配比原则;物质性约束(效益成本约束);全面披露原则,持续经营假设;货币计量假设;会计分期假设(周期性假设);会计主体假设;一致性概念;保守主义约束;降低成本或市场;后进先出一致性规则;Accounting cycle; operating cycle; accounting documents; source documents; sales tickets; checks; purchase orders; bills; invoice; cash register; money and any medium of exchange; deposit; money orders; promissory note; written promise; Asset; tangible asset; intangible asset; liability; owner’s equity; revenue; expense; profit; current asset; non-current asset; fixed asset; plant and equipment; cash discount; cost of goods sold; credit memorandum; credit period; credit terms; debit memorandum; discount period; EOM (end of month); FOBshipping point; FOB destination; general and administrative expenses; gross margin; inventory; list price; multiple-step income statement; periodic inventory system; perpetual inventory system; purchase return and allowance; shrinkage; supplementary records; trade discount; damage and loss in transit; transportation-in，transportation-out; itemized cost; physical count; deterioration;会计循环;营业周期;会计凭证;原始凭证;销售票据,检查,采购订单,账单;发票;收银台;金钱和任何交换的媒介,存款,汇票,本票,书面承诺;资产,有形资产,无形资产,负债,所有者权益,收入,费用,利润,流动资产、非流动资产、固定资产、厂房和设备,现金折扣,销货成本;信用证;信贷时期,信贷条件;借项通知单;折扣期间，月末;寄发地交货,目的地交货;一般及行政费用,毛利;存货;定价;多级损益表;定期盘存制;永续盘存制;回购和津贴;损失;补充记录;商业折扣,伤亡和损失在运输过程中,运入运费，运出运费;会计成本;实物盘点;衰退;T-account; contra account; permanent accounts; temporary accounts; transaction and event; what-if or proposed transaction; liquidation; net income or loss; Income Summary; sale on credit, sale on account; receivables; payables; capital; supplies; notes payable; accumulated depreciation; straight-line depreciation; reduced balance depreciation; withdrawal; deferral; accruals; deferred expenses or revenues; accrued expenses or revenues; working capital; beginning balance; ending balance, end-of-period balance; normal balance; opposite normal balance; short-term, long-term; point of time, period of time; prior period; fiscal year, 12 consecutive months or 52 weeks; calendar year; natural business year; closing entries; prepaid account; premium; journal entry; year-end adjusting entry; posting reference column; unearned revenue;丁字式帐户;抵销帐户;永久账户;临时账户,交易和事件,提出假设或事务;清算;净利润或损失;收益汇总;赊销,赊销;应收,应付款;资本;物料;应付票据,累计折旧;直线折旧,余额递减折旧;撤资;延迟;权责发生额;递延费用或收入;应计费用或收入,营运资本,期初余额,期末余额,期末余额;正常平衡;相反的正常平衡,短期、长期,时点,时期,前期;财政年度,连续12个月或52周,历年;自然年;结帐分录;预付帐户;溢价;日记账分录,年终调整分录;过账备查账,预收收入;business decision; lending decision; investment; return; financing; cost of capital; dividend; bonus; principal amount; interest rate; book value; historical value; residual value; salvage value; amount; Pro rata basis; gift card; gift certificate; coupon; premium; salary; wage; pension; welfare; interest; vacation, vocation; carton, cartoon; patent; trademarks; copyrights; franchise; goodwill; licensing agreement; inflation; deflation; goods in transit; goods on consignment; goods damaged or obsolete (deteriorate) ; goods work-in-progress; incidental cost; inventory costing method; physical flow of goods and cost flow of inventory; cost in or out of inventory; specific identification; First-in, First-out; Last-in, First-out; Weighted average;商业决策;贷款决策;投资;回报;融资;资本成本;股息,红利,本金;利率;账面价值;历史价值;残值;残值;数量;按比例;礼品卡;礼券,礼券,奖金;工资,工资,养老金;福利;利息;假期,假期,纸箱,卡通,专利,商标,版权,特许经营;商誉;许可协议;通货膨胀,通货紧缩,货物在运输途中,货物托运;货物损坏或过时(恶化),货物在制品;杂项费用,存货成本核算方法;商品实质流程和存货成本流;成本或库存,具体识别;先进,先进先出,后进先出,加权平均,,identify; record; classify; communicate; analyze; interpret; prepare financial statement (trial balance); present; manipulate; disclose; withdraw; own; owe; yield; prescribe; summarize; journalize; post; credit; debit; understate; overstate; adjust; defer; subtract; add; multiply; divide; transfer; update; come due; smooth out changes in cost; match cost with revenue;识别、记录、分类;沟通;分析;解释;准备财务报表(试);现在,操纵;披露;撤资;自己所有的;欠;产量;规定;总结;记日记账;宣布;贷方;借方;低估;高估;调整;推迟;减少;增加;乘;分化;转移;更新;到期;平滑变化成本;成本与收入匹配;Financial management terms财务管理方面Part A-Chapter 1部分一章1Financial accounting, Managerial accounting, and Financial management财务会计、管理会计和财务管理Investment decision, Financing decision, and Dividend decision投资决策、融资决策和股利决策Enterprise, company, firm, business, proprietorship, partnership, corporation企业、公司、公司、企业,独资企业,合伙企业,公司Listed company or quoted company上市公司或上市公司Stock exchange listing regulation证券交易所上市的监管Voluntary and Not-for-profit organization, economy, effectiveness and efficiency自愿和非营利性组织、经济、有效性和效率Corporate strategy and financial strategy公司战略和财务战略Accounting principle, rules, standards, and assumptions会计原则、规则、标准和假设Going-concern basis, accounting period, accounting entity, and stable monetary unit assumption 持续经营基础上,会计期间、会计主体和稳定货币单位的假设Monetary and non-monetary measures货币和非货币性的措施Financial statement and Financial report财务报表和财务报告Balance sheet or statement of financial position资产负债表或财务状况的声明Income statement, Cash flow statement, and Statement of owner’s equity损益表、现金流量表和所有者权益的声明Financial objectives or targets财务目标或目标Identification and formulation of objectives识别和制定目标The welfare of employee, of management, of society员工的福利,社会的管理The fulfillment of responsibility towards customers and suppliers实现对客户和供应商的责任Shareholders’ wealth maximization股东财富最大化Profitability, growth, customer satisfaction盈利能力、增长、客户满意度Financial achievement财务成果Actual performance and forecast performance实际性能和预测性能Disproportionate to true worth不成比例的真实价值Drawback, advantage, disadvantage, shortcoming缺点,优点,缺点,缺点Agency relationship, goal congruence代理关系,目标一致Corporate governance, internal control, and risk management公司治理、内部控制和风险管理Reward scheme, performance-related pay, extrinsic and intrinsic rewards奖励计划,绩效工资,外在和内在的回报Accountability, good supervision,问责,监督好,Remuneration committee, nomination committee, independent non-executive director薪酬委员会、提名委员会、独立非执行董事Accountant and Auditor会计和审计Shareholder or stockholder, and Stakeholder, creditor and debt holder股东或股东和利益相关者,债权人和债务持有人Employees, directors; managers, pensioners, shareholders, debt holders, investors, customers, bankers, suppliers, competitors, government, pressure groups, local and national communities, professional and regulatory bodies雇员、董事、管理人员、退休人员、股东、债权人、投资者、客户、银行家、供应商、竞争对手、政府、压力团体,地方和全国社区、专业和监管机构Securities, bond, stock, loan, bank overdraft, saving, debenture, treasury, accounts receivable,证券,债券,股票,贷款,银行透支,储蓄、债券、财政部、应收帐款、Working capital, shareholders’ fund or equity营运资本,股东的基金或股票Input, output, yield, product, production, productivity,输入、输出、产量、产品、生产、生产力、As set, liabilities, owners’ equity, revenue, expense profit资产、负债、所有者权益、收入、费用利润Current asset, accounts receivable, inventory流动资产、应收帐款、库存Non-current asset, plant and equipment, fixed asset非流动资产,厂房和设备,固定资产Volume of investment, risk and return of investment的投资,投资的风险和回报Short-term, medium-term, long-term funds, shortfall in fund短期、中期、长期的基金,基金缺口Net present value, book value, market value, added value, nominal value and real value 净现值、账面价值、市场价值,附加价值,名义价值和实际价值Benefit, gain, interest, dividend, earnings, retained earnings, profit retention利益,收益,利息、股息、获利、留存收益、利润保留Ordinary share, preference share普通股、优先股Business risk and financial risk商业风险和金融风险Accounting profit and economic profit会计利润和经济利润Manipulation of profit操纵利润Capitalization资本化Ratio, index, indicator, variables比率指标,指标变量Bad debt, depreciation坏账、折旧Cost of goods sold销货成本Provision for depreciation or anticipated losses折旧准备或预期的损失Overhead cost, development cost, and various expenses间接成本、开发成本和各种费用Administration or selling and distribution expenses管理或销售和分销费用Cum dividend or Ex dividend带息或除息Financial analysis, ratio analysis财务分析中,比率分析Return on equity, return on investment, asset turnover, gearing level,股本回报率,投资回报率,资产周转率,杠杆水平,Profit before and after tax之前和税后利润Profit before interest and tax (PBIT)息税前利润(PBIT)Gross profit margin and net profit margin毛利率和净利润率Return on capital employed (ROCE) or return on investment (ROI)已投资资本回报(ROCE)或投资回报(ROI)EPS, earnings per share每股收益,每股收益Earnings attributable to ordinary shareholders业绩归因于普通股东Profit distributable to ordinary shareholders普通股东可分配利润Weighted average number of ordinary shares加权平均普通股的数量P/E ratio市盈率Dividend per share每股派息Dividend yield股息收益率Part B-Chapter 2, Chapter 3一部分B-Chapter 2,第3章Microeconomics, macroeconomics; policy instrument; economic growth, low inflation, full employment, balance of payment stability; monetary policy, fiscal policy, exchange policy, external trade policy; retail price index (RPI), gross domestic production (GDP); speculation; national income; living standard; subsidies; economies of scale; imperfect competition; acquisition and merger; monopoly; legislation, regulation, deregulation; privatization;微观经济学,宏观经济学,政策工具;经济增长、低通胀、充分就业,收支稳定;货币政策,财政政策,汇率政策、对外贸易政策;零售价格指数(RPI),国内生产总值(GDP);投机;国民收入,生活水平;补贴;规模经济、不完全竞争、兼并;垄断;立法、监管、放松管制、私有化;aggregate demand; surplus and deficit; demand and supply; expenditure; saving, borrowing, lending, spending, deposit, loan; raise money; interest rate, exchange rate, rate of return; fixed, floating and managed (dirty) exchange rate; hard currency; intermediate or forward; outsource; market segmentation;总需求;盈余和赤字;供需;开支;储蓄,借贷,借贷,消费,存款、贷款;筹集资金,利率,汇率,回报率;固定,浮动汇率和管理(脏);硬通货;中间或向前;外包;市场细分;financial intermediaries or institution; money market, capital market; main market, interbank market; primary market, secondary market; insurance company and pension fund, trust company, venture capital organization; risk pooling; diversified portfolios; mutual fund;金融中介机构或机构,货币市场、资本市场,主要市场,银行间市场,一级市场、二级市场、保险公司和养老基金,信托公司,风险资本组织;风险池;多元化投资组合,共同基金;Part C-Chapter 4, Chapter 5C-Chapter 4部分,第五章Working capital; cash, raw materials, work in progress, finished goods, accounts receivable, accounts payable, marketable securities;营运资本;现金,原材料、工作进展,成品,应收账款,应付账款,有价证券;Cash operating cycle, working capital cycle, trading cycle, cash conversion cycle;现金营业周期、流动资金循环,交易周期,现金转换周期;Liquidity ratio; current ratio, quick ratio (acid test ratio, instant ratio), accounts receivable payment period, inventory (accounts payable) turnover, inventory turnover period; over-capitalization, over-trading;流动比率,流动比率,速动比率(酸性测试比率,即时比率),应收账款的付款期,库存(应付帐款)营业额,存货周转期;over-capitalization,交易;Economic order quantity, bulk discount, buffer inventory, lead time, re-order level, safety inventory level,stock-out, just-in-time procurement,经济订货批量、批量折扣、缓冲库存,交货时间,再订购水平,安全库存水平、库存中断,及时采购、Creditworthiness assessment, factoring, invoice discounting, credit insurance,信誉评估、保理、发票贴现、信贷保险,。