The Application of Communicative Language Teaching

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Festival Multisyn Voices for the 2007 Blizzard Challenge

Festival Multisyn Voices for the2007Blizzard Challenge Korin Richmond,Volker Strom,Robert Clark,Junichi Yamagishi and Sue Fitt Centre for Speech Technology ResearchUniversity of Edinburgh,Edinburgh,United Kingdom(korin|vstrom|robert|jyamagis|sue)@AbstractThis paper describes selected aspects of the Festival Mul-tisyn entry to the Blizzard Challenge2007.We provide an overview of the process of building the three required voices from the speech data provided.This paper focuses on new fea-tures of Multisyn which are currently under development and which have been employed in the system used for this Bliz-zard Challenge.These differences are the application of a more ﬂexible phonetic lattice representation during forced alignment labelling and the use of a pitch accent target cost component. Finally,we also examine aspects of the speech data provided for this year’s Blizzard Challenge and raise certain issues for discussion concerning the aim of comparing voices made with differing subsets of the data provided.1.IntroductionMultisyn is a waveform synthesis module which has recently been added to the Festival speech synthesis system[1].It pro-vides aﬂexible,general implementation of unit selection and a set of associated voice building tools.Strong emphasis is placed onﬂexibility as a research tool on one hand,and a high level of automation using default settings during“standard”voice build-ing on the other.This paper accompanies the Festival Multisyn entry to the Blizzard Challenge2007.Similar to the Blizzard Challenges of the previous two years([2,3]),the2007Blizzard Challenge required entrants to build three voices from the speech data pro-vided by speaker“EM001”,then submit a set of synthesised test sentences for evaluation.Theﬁrst voice,labelled voice“A”, used the entire voice database.Two smaller voices,“B”and“C”used subsections of the database.V oice“B”used the set of sen-tences from the ARCTIC database[4]which were recorded by the EM001speaker.For voice“C”,entrants were invited to per-form their own text selection on the voice database prompts to select a subset of sentences no larger than the ARCTIC data set in terms of total duration of speech in seconds.V oices“B”and “C”are intended as a means to compare different text selection algorithms,as well as to evaluate the performance of synthesis systems when using more limited amounts of speech data.Multisyn and the process of building voices for Multisyn is described in detail in[1].In addition,entrants to the Blizzard Challenge this year have been asked to provide a separate sys-tem description in the form of a template questionnaire.For the reader’s convenience this paper will provide a brief overview of Multisyn and the voices built.To limit redundancy,however,we will not repeat all details comprehensively.Instead,we aim to focus here on areas where the use of Multisyn differs from[1]. Those signiﬁcant differences are two-fold.First,we will intro-duce a new technique we have been developing to help in forced alignment labelling.Next,we describe a target cost component which uses a simple pitch accent prediction model.Finally,we will discuss our experience of building voice“C”,and highlight some issues we believe may complicate comparison of entrants’voices“B”and“C”.2.Multisyn voice buildingWe use our own Unisyn lexicon and phone set[5],so only used the prompts and associated waveﬁles from the distributed data, performing all other processing for voice building from scratch. Theﬁrst step of voice building involved some brief examina-tion of the text prompts toﬁnd missing words and to add some of them to our lexicon,ﬁx gross text normalisation problems and so on.Next,we used an automatic script to reduce the du-ration of any single silence found in a waveﬁle to a maximum of50msec.From this point,the process for building Multisyn voices“A”,“B”and“C”described in the remainder of this sec-tion was repeated separately for the relevant utterance subset for each voice.We used HTK tools in a scripted process to perform forced alignment using frames of12MFCCs plus log energy(utter-ance based energy normalisation switched off)computed with a10msec window and2msec frame shift.The process be-gan with single mixture monophone models with three emitting states,trained from a“ﬂat start”.Initial labelling used a single phone sequence predicted by the Festival Multisyn front end. However,as the process progressed with further iterations of reestimation,realignment,mixing up,adding a short pause tee model,and so on,we switched to using a phone lattice for align-ment described in Section3.Once labelling was completed,we used it to perform a waveform power factor normalisation of all waveforms in the database.This process looks at the energy in the vowels of each utterance to compute a single factor to scale its waveform.The power normalised waveforms were then used throughout the remainder of the voice building process,which began with repeating the whole labelling process.Once the labelling had been completed,it was used to build utterance structures1,which are used as part of the internal rep-resentation within aﬁnal Multisyn voice.At this stage,the text prompts were run through a simple pitch accent prediction model(see Section4),and this information stored in the utter-ance structures.Additional information was also added to the utterance structures at this stage;for example,phones with a duration more than2standard deviations from the mean were ﬂagged.Such information could be used later at unit selection time in the target cost function.In addition to labelling and linguistic information stored in utteranceﬁles,Multisyn requires join cost coefﬁcients and RELP synthesis parameters.To create the synthesis parameters, weﬁrst performed pitchmarking using a custom script which makes use of Entropic’s epochs,get resid,get f0 and refcof programs.We then used the sig2fv and sigfilter programs from the Edinburgh Speech Tools for lpc analysis and residual signal generation respectively.The 1a data structure deﬁned in the Edinburgh Speech Tools libraryMultisyn join cost uses three equally weighted components: spectral,f0and log energy.The spectral and log energy join cost coefﬁcients were taken from the MFCCﬁles calculated by HTK’s HCopy used for labelling.The f0contours were pro-vided by the ESPS program get f0.All three of these feature streams were globally normalised and saved in the appropriate voice data structure.During unit selection,Multisyn does not use any acoustic prosodic targets in terms of pitch or duration.Instead,the target cost is a weighted normalised sum of a series of components which consider the following:lexical stress,syllable position, word position,phrase position,part of speech,left and right phonetic context,“bad duration”and“bad f0”.As mentioned above,“bad duration”is aﬂag which is set on a phone within a voice database utterance during voice building and suggests a segment should not be used.Similarly,the“bad f0”target cost component looks at a candidate unit’s f0at concatenation points,considering voicing status rather than a speciﬁc target f0 value.We have also used an additional target cost component for the presence or absence of a pitch accent on a vowel.This is described further in Section4.Finally,we stress that during concatenation of the best can-didate unit sequence,Multisyn does not currently employ any signal processing apart from a simple overlap-add windowing at unit boundaries.No prosodic modiﬁcation of candidate units is attempted and no spectral,amplitude or f0interpolation is performed across concatenation boundaries.3.Finite state phonetic lattice labelling For all three voices for this Blizzard Challenge we employed a forced alignment system we have been developing which makes use of aﬁnite state representation of the predicted phonetic real-isation of the recorded prompts.The advantage of theﬁnite state phonetic representation is that it makes it possible to elegantly encode and process a wide variety pronunciation variation dur-ing labelling of speech data.In the following two sections we ﬁrst give a general introduction to how our phonetic lattice la-belling works,and then give some more speciﬁc details of how the system was applied to building voices for this Blizzard Chal-lenge.3.1.General implementationIf we consider how forced alignment is standardly performed using HTK,for example,the user is required to provide,among other things,a pronunciation lexicon and word level transcrip-tion.The pronunciation lexicon contains a mapping between a given word and a corresponding sequence of phone model labels.During forced alignment,the HTK recognition engine loads the word level transcription and expands this into a recog-nition network,or“lattice”,of phone models using the pronun-ciation dictionary.This lattice is then used to align against the sequence of acoustic parameter vectors.The predominant way to include pronunciation variation within this system is to use multiple entries in the lexicon for the same word.This approach generally suits speech recognition,but in the case of labelling for building a unit selection voice,we could perhaps proﬁt from moreﬂpleteﬂexibility is achieved if we compose the phone lattice directly and pass that to the recognition engine.To build the phone lattice for a given prompt sentence,we ﬁrst lookup each word in the lexicon and convert the phone string to a simpleﬁnite state structure.When a word is not found in the lexicon,we use the CART letter-to-sound rules the ﬁnal festival voice would use to generate a phone string.Where multiple pronunciations for a word are found,we can combine these into a singleﬁnite state representation using the union op-eration.Theﬁnite state machines for the separate words are then concatenated in sequence to give a single representation of the sentence.The topﬁnite state acceptor(FSA)in Figure 1gives a simpliﬁed example of the result of this process for a phrase fragment“...wider economic...”.At this stage,there is little advantage over the standard HTK method,which would internally arrive at the same result.How-ever,once we have a predicted phonetic realisation for a record-ing prompt in aﬁnite state form,it is then straightforward to process this representation further in an elegant and robust way. This is useful to help perform simple tasks,such as splitting stops and affricates into separate symbols for their stop and release parts during forced alignment(done to identify a suit-able concatenation point).More signiﬁcantly,though,we can also robustly apply more complex context dependent postlex-ical rules,for example optional“r”epenthesis intervocalically across word boundaries for certain British English accents.This is indicated in the bottom FSA of Figure1.This may be conveniently achieved by writing rules in the form of context dependent regular expressions.It is then possi-ble to automatically compile these rules into an equivalentﬁnite state transducer which can operate on the input lattice which resulted from lexical lookup(e.g.top FSA in Figure1).Sev-eral variations of compilation methods have been previously described to convert a system of handwritten context dependent mapping rules into an equivalent FST machine to perform the transduction,e.g.[6,7,8].Note that the use of context depen-dent modiﬁcations is moreﬂexible and powerful than the stan-dard HTK methods.For example,a standard way to implement optional“r”epenthesis pronunciation variation using a pronun-ciation lexicon alone would be to include multiple entries for “wider”,one of which contains the additional“r”.However,this introduces a number of problems.The most signiﬁcant problem is the absence of any mechanism to disallow“r”epenthesis in environments where a vowel does not follow.The phonetic lattice alignment code has been implemented as a set of python modules which underlyingly use and extend the MIT Finite State Transducer Toolkit[9].We use CSTR’s Unisyn lexicon[5]to build voices and within the running syn-thesis system.For forced alignment,we use scripts which un-derlying make use of the HTK speech recognition library[10]. Finally,we are planning to make this labelling system publicly available once it reaches a more mature state of development.3.2.Application to EM001voiceSpeaker EM001exhibits a rather careful and deliberate ap-proach to pronunciation during the recordings and uses a rel-atively slow rate of speech.This in fact tends to limit the ap-plicability and usefulness of postlexical rules for the Blizzard Challenge voices somewhat.Postlexical rules are more use-fully applied to the processes of moreﬂuent and rapid connected speech.Thus,in building the three voices for the2007Bliz-zard Challenge,the sole postlexical rule we used was a“tap”rule.Under this rule,alveolar stops in an intervocalic cross word environment could undergo optional transformation to a tap.Speciﬁcally,the left phonetic context for this rule com-prised the set of vowels together with/r,l,n/(central and lateral approximants and alveolar nasal stop),while the right context contained just the set of vowels.4.Pitch accent predictionIn this year’s system,we have experimented with a simple pitch accent target cost function component.To use pitch accent pre-diction in the voices built for the Blizzard Challenge required three changes.First,we ran a pitch accent predictor on the textFigure1:Toy exampleﬁnite state phonetic lattices for the phrase fragment“wider economic”:a)after lexical lookup,the lattice encodes multiple pronunciation variants for“economic”b)after additional“r”insertion postlexical rule,the input lattice(top)is modiﬁed to allow optional insertion of“r”(instead of short pause“sp”).prompts andﬂagged words with a predicted accent as such in the voice data structures.Next,at synthesis time,our front end linguistic processor was modiﬁed to run the accent predictor on the input sentence to be synthesised,and words with a predicted accent were similarlyﬂagged.Finally,an additional target cost component compared the values of the pitch accentﬂag for the word associated with each target vowel and returned a suitable cost depending on whether they match or not.The method for pitch accent prediction we used here is very simple.It is centred on a look-up table of probabilities that a word will be accented,or“accent ratios”,along the lines of the approach described in[11].The accent predictor simply looks up a word in this list.If the word is found and its probability for being accented is less than the threshold of0.28,it is not accented.Otherwise it will receive an accent.These accent ratios are based on the BU Radio Corpus and six Switchboard dialogues.The list contains157words with an accent ratio of less than0.282.The pitch accent target cost component has recently been evaluated in a large scale listening test and was found to be beneﬁcial[12].5.Voice“C”and text selection Entrants to the2007Blizzard Challenge were encouraged to enter a third voice with a voice database size equal to that of the ARCTIC subset,but with a freely selected subset of utterances. The purpose of this voice is to probe the performance of each team’s text selection process,as well as to provide some insight into the suitability of the ARCTIC data set itself.5.1.Text selection processOrdinarily,when designing a prompt set for recording a unit selection voice database,we would seek to avoid longer sen-tences.They are generally harder to read,which means they are more taxing on the speaker and are more likely to slow down the recording process.In this case,however,since the sentences had been recorded already,we decided to relax this constraint.In a simple greedy text selection process,sentences were chosen in an iterative way.First,the diphones present in the EM001text prompts were subcategorised to include certain contextual features.The features we included were lexical stress,pitch accent and proximity to word boundary.Syllable boundary information was not used in the speciﬁcation of di-phone subtypes.Next,sentences were ranked according to the number of context dependent diphones contained.The top ranking sen-tence was selected,then the ranking of the remaining sentences was recomputed to reﬂect the diphones now present in the sub-set of selected sentences.Sentences were selected one at a time in this way until the total time of the selected subset reached the 2using the accent ratio table in this way is essentially equivalent to using an(incomplete)list of English function words.count of diphone type in full EM001 setcountofcountsofmissingdiphonetypesFigure2:Histogram of counts of unique context dependent di-phone types present in the full EM001set which are missing from the selected subset used to build for voice“C”.prescribed threshold.This resulted in a subset comprising431 utterances,with a total duration of2908.75seconds.Our deﬁnition of context dependent diphones implied a to-tal of6,199distinct diphones with context in the entire EM001 corpus.Our selected subset for voice“C”contained4,660of these,which meant1,539were missing.Figure2shows a his-togram of the missing diphone types in terms of their counts in the full EM001data set.We see that the large majority of the missing diphone types only occur1–5times in the full EM001 dataset.For example,773of the diphone types which are miss-ing from the selected subset only occur once in the full EM001 set,while only one diphone type which is missing occurred as many as26times in the full data set.5.2.Evaluation problemsAlthough it is certainly interesting to compare different text se-lection algorithms against the ARCTIC sentence set,we suggest the way it has been performed this year could potentially con-fuse this comparison.Theﬁrst issue to which we would like to draw attention concerns the consistency of the recorded speech material throughout the database.The second issue concerns the question of how far the full EM001data set satisﬁes the se-lection criteria used by arbitrary text selection algorithms.5.2.1.Consistency of recorded utterancesFigures3–5show plots of MFCC parameter means from the EM001database taken in alphabeticalﬁle ordering.To produceEMOO1 File (alphabetical sorting)m e a n f o r 9t h M F C C c h a n n e lFigure 3:Mean value for 9th MFCC channel for each ﬁle of the EM001voice database.EMOO1 File (alphabetical sorting)m e a n f o r 7t h M F C C c h a n n e lFigure 4:Mean value for 7th MFCC channel for each ﬁle of the EM001voice database.EMOO1 File (alphabetical sorting)m e a n f o r 11t h M F C C c h a n n e lFigure 5:Mean value for 11th MFCC channel for each ﬁle of the EM001voice database.these plots we have taken all ﬁles in the EM001data set in al-phabetical ordering (along the x-axis)and calculated the mean MFCC parameters 3for each ﬁle.In calculating these means,we have omitted the silence at the beginning and end of ﬁles us-ing the labelling provided by the force alignment we conducted during voice building.A single selected dimension of this mean vector is then plotted in each of the Figures 3–5.From these ﬁgures,we notice that there seem to be three distinct sections of the database,which correspond to the “ARC-TIC”,“BTEC”and “NEWS”ﬁle labels as indicated in the plots.Within each of these blocks,the MFCC mean varies randomly,but apparently uniformly so.Between these three sections,however,we observe marked differences.For example,com-pare the distributions of per-ﬁle means of the 9th (Fig.3)and 7th (Fig.4)MFCC parameters within the “NEWS”section with those from the other two sections of the database.We naturally expect the MFCC means to vary “randomly”from ﬁle to ﬁle according to the phonetic content of the utter-ance contained.However,an obvious trend such as that exhib-ited in these plots suggests the inﬂuence of something more than phonetic variation alone.Speciﬁcally,we suspect this situation has arisen due to the signiﬁcant difﬁculty of ensuring consis-tency throughout the many days necessary to record a speech corpus of this size.We have observed similar effects of incon-sistency within other databases,both those we have recorded at CSTR,as well as other commercially recorded databases.Recording a speech corpus over time allows the introduction of variability,with potential sources ranging from the acous-tic recording environment (e.g.microphone placement relative to speaker)to the quality of the speaker’s own voice,which of course can vary over a very short space of time [13].In addi-tion,even the genre and nature of the prompts themselves can inﬂuence a speaker’s reading style and voice characteristics.Note that although we do not see any trends within each of the three sections of the EM001data set,and that they appear relatively homogeneous,this does not imply that these subsec-tions are free of the same variability and inconsistency.These plots have been produced by taking the ﬁles in alphabetical,and hence numerical,order.But it is not necessarily the case that the ﬁles were recorded in this order.In fact,it is likely the ﬁle order-ing within the subsections has been randomised which has the effect of disguising inconsistency within the three sections.The inconsistency between the sections is evident purely because the genre identity tag has maintained three distinct groups.Therefore,despite the probable randomisation of ﬁle order within sections,we infer from the patterns evident in Figures 3–5that the speech data corresponding to the ARCTIC prompt set was recorded all together,and constitutes a reasonably con-sistent “block”of data.Meanwhile,the rest of the data seems to have been recorded at different times.This introduces in-consistency throughout the database,which a selection algo-rithm based entirely upon text features will not take account of.This means that unless it is explicitly and effectively dealt with by the synthesis system which uses the voice data,both at voice building time (ing cepstral mean normalisation dur-ing forced alignment)and at synthesis time,voice “C”stands a high chance of being disadvantaged by selecting data indis-criminately from inconsistent subsections of the database.The forced alignment labelling may suffer because of the increased variance of the speech data.Unit selection may suffer because the spectral component of the join cost may result in a nonuni-form probability of making joins across sections of the database,compared with the those joins within a single section.This has the effect of “partitioning”the voice database.3extractedusing HTK’s HCopy as part of our force alignment pro-cessing,and also subsequently used in the Multisyn join costThe Multisyn voice building process currently takes ac-count of amplitude inconsistency,and attempts waveform power normalisation on a per-utterance basis.However,other sources of inconsistency,most notably spectral inconsistency are not currently addressed.This means that Multisyn voice “C”is potentially affected by database inconsistency,which in-troduces uncertainty and confusion in any comparison between voices“B”and“C”.Within the subset of431sentences we se-lected to build voice“C”,261came from the“NEWS”section, 169came from the“BTEC”section,and the remaining36came from the“ARCTIC”section.This issue of inconsistency can potentially affect the com-parison between the“C”voices from different entrants.For example,according to our automatic phonetic transcriptions of the EM001sentence set,the minimum number of phones con-tained in a single sentence within the“NEWS”section is52. Meanwhile,the“BTEC”section contains1,374sentences with less than52phones.Although we have not done so here,it is not unreasonable for a text selection strategy to favour short sentences,in which case a large majority may be selected from the“BTEC”section.This would result in avoiding the large discontinuity we observe in Figures3and4and could poten-tially confer an advantage which is in fact unrelated to the text selection algorithm per se.The problem has the potential,however,to introduce most confusion into the comparison between entrants’voices“B”and “C”,as there is most likely to be a bias in favour of the ARCTIC subset,which seems to have been recorded as a single block. We suggest there are at least two ways of avoiding this bias in future challenges.One way would be to provide a database without the inconsistency we observe here,for example through post-processing.This is likely to be rather difﬁcult to realise, and our own previous attempts have failed toﬁnd a satisfactory solution,although[14]reported some success.A second,sim-pler way would be to record the set of ARCTIC sentences ran-domly throughout the recording of a future Blizzard Challenge corpus.5.2.2.Selection criteria coverageThe second problem inherent in attempting to compare text se-lection processes in this way arises from differing selection cri-teria.It is usual to choose text selection criteria(i.e.which di-phone context features to consider)which complement the syn-thesis system’s target cost function.Hence the criteria may vary between systems.The set of ARCTIC sentences was selected from a very large amount of text,and so the possibility for the algorithm to reach its optimal subset in terms of the selection criteria it used is maximised.In contrast,the text selection required for voice “C”was performed on a far smaller set of sentences.Although, admittedly,it is likely to be phonetically much richer than if the same number of sentences had been selected randomly from a large corpus,it is possible that the initial set of sentences does not contain a sufﬁcient variety of material to satisfy the selec-tion criteria of arbitrary text selection systems.This again may tend to accord an inherent advantage to voice“B”.6.ConclusionWe have introduced two new features of the Multisyn unit selec-tion system.We have also raised issues for discussion concern-ing the comparison of voices built with differing subsets of the provided data.Finally,we note that,as in previous years,par-ticipating in this Blizzard Challenge has proved both interesting and useful.7.AcknowledgmentsKorin Richmond is currently supported by EPSRC grant EP/E027741/1.Many thanks to Lee Hetherington for making the MITFST toolkit available under a BSD-style license,and for other technical guidance.Thanks to A.Nenkova for process-ing the Blizzard text prompts for pitch accent prediction.8.References[1]R.A.J.Clark,K.Richmond,and S.King,“Multisyn:Open-domain unit selection for the Festival speech syn-thesis system,”Speech Communication,vol.49,no.4,pp.317–330,2007.[2]R.Clark,K.Richmond,V.Strom,and S.King,“Multisyn voice for the Blizzard Challenge2006,”in Proc.Blizzard Challenge Workshop(Inter-speech Satellite),Pittsburgh,USA,Sept.2006, (/blizzard/blizzard2006.html).[3]R.A.Clark,K.Richmond,and S.King,“Multisyn voicesfrom ARCTIC data for the Blizzard challenge,”in Proc.Interspeech2005,Sept.2005.[4]J.Kominek and A.Black,“The CMU ARCTIC speechdatabases,”in5th ISCA Speech Synthesis Workshop,Pitts-burgh,PA,2004,pp.223–224.[5]S.Fitt and S.Isard,“Synthesis of regional English usinga keyword lexicon,”in Proc.Eurospeech’99,vol.2,Bu-dapest,1999,pp.823–826.[6]M.Mohri and R.Sproat,“An efﬁcient compiler forweighted rewrite rules,”in Proc.34th annual meeting of Association for Computational Linguistics,1996,pp.231–238.[7]R.Kaplan and M.Kay,“Regular models of phonologicalrule systems,”Computational Linguistics,vol.20,no.3, pp.331–378,Sep1994.[8]L.Karttunen,“The replace operator,”in Proc.33th an-nual meeting of Association for Computational Linguis-tics,1995,pp.16–23.[9]L.Hetherington,“The MITﬁnite-state transducer toolkitfor speech and language processing,”in Proc.ICSLP, 2004.[10]S.Young,G.Evermann,D.Kershaw,G.Moore,J.Odell,D.Ollason,D.Povey,V.Valtchev,and P.Woodland,TheHTK Book(for HTK version3.2),Cambridge University Engineering Department,2002.[11]J.Brenier,A.Nenkova,A.Kothari,L.Whitton,D.Beaver,and D.Jurafsky,“The(non)utility of linguistic features for predicting prominence on spontaneous speech,”in IEEE/ACL2006Workshop on Spoken Language Technol-ogy,2006.[12]V.Strom,A.Nenkova,R.Clark,Y.Vazquez-Alvarez,J.Brenier,S.King,and D.Jurafsky,“Modelling promi-nence and emphasis improves unit-selection synthesis,”in Proc.Interspeech,Antwerp,2007.[13]H.Kawai and M.Tsuzaki,“Study on time-dependentvoice quality variation in a large-scale single speaker speech corpus used for speech synthesis,”in Proc.IEEE Workshop on Speech Synthesis,2002,pp.15–18. [14]Y.Stylianou,“Assessment and correction of voice qualityvariabilities in large speech databases for concatentative speech synthesis,”in Proc.ICASSP-99,Phoenix,Arizona, Mar.1999,pp.377–380.。

ApplicationforIntensiveEnglishProgram美国语言中心申请表

Application for Intensive English Program美国语言中心申请表joe.guziolek@internatladm@Return Form To:请将此表格提交至以下地址C/O Office of International AdmissionThe University of Toledo MS 1322801 W. Bancroft St.Toledo, OH 43606-3390 USA1.I am applying for (我正在申请（春季 2）（夏季 1）（秋季 1）（秋季 2）（春季 1）2.Have you ever applied to The University of Toledo? （您之前申请过托莱多大学吗？）Yes（不是） If yes,（如果您选择了是，请您提供学号）R# ___________________ BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION （个人信息） (Please type or print in ink. Please complete all sections) （请录入文字或用水性笔填写以下所有内容）（姓名）______________________________________________________________________________Last/Family Name（姓） First/Given/Personal Name（名） Middle（中间名）4.Current Mailing Address（当前邮寄地址）____________________________________________________Street Address（街道地址） Apt #（公寓号码）___________________________________________________________________________________________ City（市） State/Province（省） Postal Code（邮政编码） Country（国家）5.Home Country Address (if different from above)（中国家庭住址（如果和以上地址不相同））___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________6.Phone Number （电话号码）_______________________________7.Email Address （电子邮箱）________________________________8.（男）（女）9.Date of Birth（出生日期）: ________________________________________________________Month（月） Day（日） Year（年）10.Country of Birth（出生国家） ___________________________11.Country of Citizenship（您拥有公民权的国家） __________________________12.Type of United States visa you currently hold or hope to obtain?（请问您当下持有或者希望获得的美国签证类型是？） _______________________________13.Domestic applicants only, date you began living permanently in Ohio (month/year) （仅限于身在美国境内的申请人，请问您是从什么时间成为俄亥俄州常驻居民的？（月/年））________________14.How did you learn about ALI?（请问您是通过什么途径知道ALI的呢？（ALI：美国语言中心））UT Representative（托莱多大学代表）UT Graduate（托莱多大学毕业生）Friend or Relative at UT（在托莱多大学的朋友或者亲戚）Advertisement（广告）Advising Center（辅导中心）Internet/Website（网络/网站）（其他）______________________ACADEMIC INFORMATION (教育背景)15.If you have attended any intensive English programs in the United States, please write their namesbelow:（如果您曾经在美国参与过任何英语强化课程，请在下面提供它们的信息）Name of Institution Location (City, State) Attendance (From - To) （机构）（地址（市，州））（参与日期（从-到））_________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________16.Are you currently, or have you ever been charged with or subject to disciplinary action for academic orbehavioral misconduct at any educational institution? (Yes/No)（请问您是否在任何教育机构受到过学术或行为不当方面的纪律处分？）（是/否） _____________a.If yes, please explain the circumstances that resulted in the charge or disciplinary action:（如果您回答了是，请解释当时被处分的原因及情况）____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________17.Have you ever been charged or convicted with a violation of the law? (Yes/No) （您曾经因为违反法律被控告或定罪吗？）（是/否） _____________a.If yes, please explain the circumstances that resulted in the charge or conviction, and theoutcome including any penalties: （如果您回答了是，请解释当时被指控或定罪的情况，及结果，包括任何的处罚）____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ FINANCIAL INFORMATION （财务信息）The American Language Institute is not able to offer any financial assistance to international students. The estimated amount necessary for one calendar year (twelve months) is $20,400USD. This includes tuition, fees, health insurance, and living expenses. （美国语言机构无法给国际学生提供任何经济支援。

高二英语The-universal-language课件1

ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ
2020最新白菜彩金大全
[问答题,简答题]什么是精馏的原理？ [填空题]铁路运输部门应当将（）列为重要运输物质，应对其优先运输，重点保证。 [单选]将某个证据与本案其他证据联系起来进行综合对比分析，加以认证，这种证据的审查方法是（）。A.整合认证法B.资格确认法C.对照分析法D.比较取舍法 [单选]下列哪些不属于颈浅丛属支()A．lesseroccipitalnerveB．greatauricularnerveC．transversenerveofnerveD．supraclavicularnerveE．trochlearnerve [填空题]巷道变形、破坏的原因主要是受到（）、（）和（）的作用，其中主要受（）的作用。只有在（）和（）、侧压大的情况下，才会底鼓。 [单选]推进鄱阳湖生态经济区建设，遵循什么的理念，改变传统的生产方式和消费方式，创新体制机制、合理利用资源、发展生态经济，有助于推动工业文明向生态文明迈进，为转变发展方式、实现科学发展提供示范。（）A、工业经济产业化、生态经济工业化B、产业经济生态化、生态经济产业 [问答题,简答题]调整抄表段应依据哪些信息？ [单选,A2型题,A1/A2型题]肺结核患者咳痰带血，最恰当的处理是（）A.可待因0.03gB.垂体后叶素5～10UC.6-氨基己酸4～6gD.10％葡萄糖酸钙10mlE.安静休息，避免紧张情绪 [单选,A1型题]创伤治疗可用于（）A.抑郁症患者B.精神病患者C.早期遭受性虐待患者D.惊恐发作患者E.解离患者 [单选]判断幽门螺杆菌是否根除首选的是（）A.活组织幽门螺杆菌培养B.组织学检查找幽门螺杆菌C尿素酶呼气试验D.快速尿素酶试验E.血清抗幽门螺杆菌抗体检测 [单选]下列有关资本资产定价模型的表述中，错误的是（）。A.资本资产定价模型中的资本资产，主要是指股票资产B.证券市场线对任何公司、任何资产都是适合的C.证券市场线的一个暗示是，全部风险都需要补偿D.Rm-Rf称为市场风险溢酬 [单选,A1型题]急性中毒的病因有（）A.工业性毒物B.农药C.药物D.有毒动、植物E.以上都是 [单选]推荐性国家标准的代号是（）。A.GBB.GB/TC.GB-TDB/T [单选]根据当事人的立足点和出发点所设立的系统称为（）A．本级系统B．上级系统C．同级系统D．下级系统 [单选,A4型题,A3/A4型题]男，30岁，反复阵发性心动过速史10余年，每次心动过速突然发作，持续数十分钟至数小时，此次心动过速发作1小时而来医院就诊。体格检查：BP100/70mmHg，心脏无扩大，心率200次/分，节律规则。最佳的治疗措施为()A．静注西地兰(毛花苷C)B．静注胺碘酮C．静注 [判断题]在工作中如发现有漏油现象，如问题不大可在工作后再维修。A.正确B.错误 [多选]进出境邮寄物检疫的范围包括（）。A.动植物、动植物产品及其他检疫物的国际邮寄物品B.来自疫区的被传染病病体污染的或可能成为传染病传播媒介的国际邮寄物品C.微生物、人体组织、生物制品、血液及其制品等特殊物品的国际邮寄物品D.通过邮政渠道运递并需实施检疫的其他国际邮 [单选,A2型题,A1/A2型题]Auer小体易见于（）ALLB.CMLC.AML-M3D.AML-M0E.AML-M7 [单选]根据火场残留物被烧的轻重程度，一般将()初步确定为起火点。A、局部出现灰化区或炭化区的部位B、局部烧得重的部位C、现场破坏最严重的部位D、局部烧得重，并有以此为中心向周围连续蔓延痕迹的部位 [填空题]泵的运行工况点是（）和（）的交点。 [单选]以下标准按照“要求从高到低”的顺序排列正确的是（）。A.国家标准、行业标准、企业内控标准B.行业标准、国家标准、企业内控标准C.国家标准、企业内控标准、行业标准D.企业内控标准、行业标准、国家标准 [多选]（）驾驶机动车的，由公安机关交通管理部门处二百元以上二千元以下罚款，可以并处十五日以下拘留。A.驾驶证遗失期间B.未取得机动车驾驶证C.机动车驾驶证被吊销D.机动车驾驶证被暂扣期间 [问答题,简答题]什么是投资连结保险？ [问答题,简答题]《预算法》是何时颁布和施行？《预算法》对国库管理有哪些规定？ [单选]当外网水压周期性不足，室内要求水压稳定，允许设置高位水箱的建筑时，应首先考虑采用()。A．直接给水方式B．单设水箱给水方式C．设贮水池、水泵的给水方式D．设水泵、水箱的给水方式 [单选]对煤的工业分析包括测定煤的（）。A.灰分、水分、挥发分、固定碳B.灰分、水分、挥发分、粘结性C.灰分、水分、发热量、硫分 [单选]下列哪项不符合辨别新感与伏邪的实际意义？（）A.阐明温病初起不同发病类型B.区别病变的浅深轻重C.归纳病证的不同性质D.指示病机的传变趋向 [单选]具有清热，解毒，养阴功效的药物是（）A.玄参B.赤芍C.紫草D.生地黄E.牡丹皮 [单选,A型题]不属于火邪致病的特点是：A.易于动血B.易于耗气C.易于生风D.易伤阴津E.易于伤肺 [单选]货币供给量由（）决定A、由私人银行决定B、由私人银行和政府决定C、由中央银行决定D、由私人银行系统和中央银行共同决定 [单选]母公司将子公司的控制权移交给它的股东属于（）。A.标准式公司分立B.换股式公司分立C.解散式公司分立D.拆股式公司分立 [单选]分包工程发包人没有将其承包的工程进行分包，在施工现场所设项目管理机构的①项目负责人、②技术负责人、③项目核算负责人、④质量管理人员、⑤安全管理人员不是工程承包人本单位人员的，视同（）。A．肢解发包B．劳务分包C．再分包D．允许他人以本企业名义承揽工程 [多选]哪些是导致冠状血流减少的因素A.左室舒张期末压升高B.平均动脉压下降C.主动脉舒张压升高D.主动脉舒张压下降E.肺动脉舒张压下降 [问答题,案例分析题]王先生，40岁。工伤导致右前臂损伤。于现场检查见右前臂有反常活动，伤口有活动性出血。要求：请用止血带、夹板等为患者行止血、固定处理。 [单选]下列关于川乌、草乌在痹证治疗中的用法哪项不正确（）A.两药皆为祛风除湿，温经止痛之品B.应用时，应从小剂量开始服用，逐渐增加C.适用于风寒湿痹的疼痛剧烈者D.久煎或与甘草同煎可以缓和毒性E.服药后患者若出现唇舌麻木或手足麻木、恶心、心悸等症状时，可不减量继续服用 [单选]FMGS的组件包括：（）A、2FMGS2MCDU2FAC2FCUB、2FMGS2MCDU2FAC1FCUC、2FMGS2MCDU2FAC2ECAMD、2FMGS2MCDU1FAC2ECAM [单选]50人的团体旅客，按照对团体旅客优惠办法的规定，应购买（）的车票。A、49B、48C、47D、46 [单选]保税仓库的经营者需要向（）负责A．货主和海关B．货主和承运人C．承运人和海关D．海关 [单选]道路运输管理机构收到道路旅客运输经营申请后，应当自受理申请之日起（）内审查完毕，作出许可或者不予许可的决定。A、40日B、30日C、20日 [单选,A2型题,A1/A2型题]下列疾病需采用严密隔离的是（）A.疟疾B.破伤风C.霍乱D.肺结核E.新生儿脓疱疮

现代语言教学的十大原则

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靳洪刚：现代语言教学的十大原则
习者进一步明确语言学习的最终目的是完成生活中的各种任务，解决生活中的各种问题。任务教学设计一般须包含三个任务阶段及五个基本组成部分。任务的三个阶段分别
是：前期任务、核心任务、后期任务。前期阶段是任务准备阶段，多在课下完成。前期任务的目的是激活学习者已有知识，为新的语言学习奠定基础。从语言输入、信息来源、交际背景等方面为学生提供语言及交际框架（ scaffolding），帮助学生顺利进入核心任务阶段。因此，这一阶段的教学主要以激活已有知识、处理语言输入为主，活动多以理解诠释性阅读、听力为主。核心任务阶段包含两个方面的教学，一是以语言形式为中心的教学，目的是给学习者建立完成核心任务的交际框架，帮助学习者整合信息；二是以语言使用为中心的任务模拟、教学实施，多以口语输出、人际交流的方式在课上完成。核心任务的目的是提供具有一定认知及语言复杂度的模拟任务，让学习者有目的地使用目标语言，完成任务，取得预期结果。主要形式为，首先采用合班学习语言形式，然后分组互动，完成信息交换、信息组合、意见交换等任务。后期阶段是任务总结、反思、实际生活应用阶段，多以实地操作、书面输出或口头演说的方式在课上或课下完成，主要采用书面总结、实地调查、口头报告等形式。
一引言现代语言教育在近二十年来受到了三大领域科学研究成果的极大影响。这三大领域分别是：语言习得研究、认知心理学以及教育学。就第二语言习得领域而言，在过去的五十年中，研究者通过各种实验研究，如语言对比、错误分析、语言普遍原则、认知心理学、语言获得过程等方面的实验，对不同语言的习得顺序、习得速度、语言输入及输出的作用、课堂过程、学习策略等方面进行了系统研究，得出了不少定论。这些研究成果形成了第二语言教学领域的部分教学原则。就认知心理学来看，研究者从普遍学习理论，人类认知过程，大脑记忆、储存、加工等语言的处理过程，记忆储存方式，输入频率，视觉、听觉凸显性，反例对比等方面，提出具体的语言学习理论及第二语言教学策略，极大地影响了第二语言课堂过程及学习过程的教学原则。就教育学来看，研究者强调教学要以学习者为中心，要让学习者参与学习过程，进行各种合作及个人化的教学，强调与实际经验结合起来。从这一理论出发形成了多种第二语言教学方法，它们强调以学生为中心，以沟通为目的，通过任务教学的方式达到第二语言教学的目的。这些领域的科学研究及学科发展成果引入第二语言教学领域后，语言教学领域发生了巨大变革和根本性转变。这一根本性转变表现在语言教学的六个方面：第一，就语言教学原则（ methodological principles）而言，现代语言教学在教学经验的基础上，更重视借鉴科学的实证研究来指导教学（ empirically motivated methodological principles）；第二，就教学内容（ instructional content）而言，现代语言教学不再是单一的语言知识的学习，而是跨越三种交际模

The Application of Satellite Communications to the Data Link Requirement for Unmanned Groun

THE APPLICATION OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS TO THE DATA LINK REQUIREMENT FOR UNMANNED GROUND VEHICLESElizabeth A. Bierden* and ThomasJet Propulsion LaboratoryPasadena, California 91109Russell M.developed by NASA at the Jet Propulsion Laboratoryand its remote control stationresearchUGVS require near-real time video to be passed back to the RCS. This puts a heavy bandwidth requirement on the data link system even when pushing the current technology limits of video data compression. Various forms of autonomous UGV navigation make less of a demand on data link bandwidth, but bandwidth requirements upwards of 10 kbps can still be expected. A UGV mission package also often makes heavy bandwidth demands; for example, the current mission package in the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) UGV program is reconnaissance, surveillance, and target acquisitionfrom LTG Paul E. Funk, Commander* CPT Bierden is an Army officer working at JPL as partmobile satellite technology, specifically the AMT, was developed as the primary link for the UGV to RCS communications. This paper describes the results of the communications portion of Project Mustang as well as future plans for a terrestrial auxiliary communications capability.PROJECT MUSTANG SYSTEMThe robotic vehicle is a modified High Mobility, Multi-purpose Wheeled Vehicle (HMMWV) with a RSTA mission package. The regular vehicle driver’s station remains unencumbered and could be used by a soldier in the normal manner with all robotic actuators automatically disengaged. For robotic navigation, the vehicle is equipped with a autonomous retro-traverse capability. Using a combination of differential global positioning and inertial navigation systems, the vehicle can retrace a previous “learned”path when driven as a “manned” vehicle. The vehicle’s velocity is controlled to match the speed previously used by the human driver. Ecamera is mounted on a turret head that has left and right traverse of 135° from the vehicle centerline, andcamera is panned to each of the operator-selected areas-of-interestIf moving targets are detected, the Operator Work Stationcan be engaged with the MILES weapon simulator, or target UTM coordinates can be generated for indirect-fire weapons. The UGV turret head carries a visual modification representing a 25mm cannon and appropriate MILES components to allow it to both “shoot” and be “shot at”. The turret control system is capable of compensating for processing and communication delays, can calculate target lead,RF convertermodem that includes such features as coherent BPSK with concatenated convolutional and Reed-Solomon coding, and interleaving. It is operational at data rates ranging from 9.6 kbps to 2.048 Mbps.The vehicle antenna is a “passive” elliptical reflector-type antenna used in conjunction with a separate high powered amplifier, Complete with a spherical radome, it stands approximately 5 inches in height, and is approximately 8 inches in diameter at its base. This antenna is fully tracking in azimuth, and manually positioned in elevation to one ofthe parameters set to attain an approximateFor Project Mustang, the communications sy HMMWV with the onboard systems as illust antenna radome is visible behind the gun tu Figure 1. The UnmaThe RCS is housed in a converted HMMWV ambulance as illustrated in Figure 2. The OWS in theduring operations, thepath and electronically markPROJECT MUS1-ANG RESULTSThe robotic vehicle provided FLIR and visual images, autonomous target recognition, target tracking, andof approximately 11 dB. This allowed the commander to receive reconnaissance, surveillance, and target acquisition information through compressed real time video.The exercise terrain at Ft. Hood, TX had many hills and sporadic trees and bushes making terrestrial line of sight communications difficult. By using the satellite system, the scouts were able to traverse any terrain and maintain or quicklyprovided robust communications between the RCSand the UGV - with the majority of fades due to blockage transparent to the UGV operators. The throughput achieved on the links due to the protocol overhead was in excess of 200 kbps. Because the link margin was high, a data rate of 384 kbps may have been possible but due to the mission, this was not attempted, All systems on the UGV communicated with the RCS and compressed real-time video was viewed at the Battalion TOC.Recognizing the need for an alternate path, at the end of the exercise, a commercial 900MHz terrestrial communications link was tested as part of the communications system.When the bridge/router is set for routing, two WAN connections can be utilized - allowingmultiple radio communication links between the RCS and the UGV. The router thenchooses the highest throughput link among the available communication links fortransmission using the Xyplex protocol. In preliminary testing it was found that the switchfrom the primary link to a secondary link is transparent when both links are initiallyavailable and the primary link is lost. When operating over the secondary link and theprimary link became available again, a delay of approximately 10 seconds to switch fromthe secondary to the primary link was observed. This crossover was again transparentto the RCS and UGV systems. This hybrid capability will be evaluated and optimizedbefore a future series of exercises to be conducted in 1996.CONCLUSIONSThe use of the ACTS and the AMT in the UGV as the solution to the data link problemhas proven successful. Data rates upwards of 256communications system based on ACTS and theD., “AMT Experiments Results,” international Mobile Satellite Conference 1995, June 6-8, Ottawa, Canada.[2] Lay, N. and Dessouky, K.,“A Communication Protocol for Mobile Satellite Systems Affected by Rain Attenuation,”IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications, Vol. 10, No. 6, August, 1992.。

应用语言学.

The best course must be designed to meet the demand of the specific learners.
Applied linguistics is a process-oriented science
Applied linguistics is an interdisciplinary science
Example I: a situation in which
decisions about language need to be taken. (Cook, 2003)
Zramzshra is a small (fictional) island in the Indian Ocean. The Zramzshraran language uses a unique alphabet which developed from the Phoenician alphabet when traders came to the island 3,000 years ago. Zramzshra’s Finance Minister argues for a reform in which this alphabet will be replaced by the Roman alphabet (the one used in English and many other languages). This change, he argues, will make the island’s life easier and more prosperous, with benefits for English teaching, computer-mediated communication, trade, and tourism. Is this the best policy?

Pragmatic Awareness in SLA-2008

E VA A L CÓN A N D M A R I A P I L A R S AF O N T J O R DÀPRAGMATIC AWARENESS IN SECOND LANGUAGEACQUISITIONI N T R O D U C T I O NPragmatic awareness is the conscious,reﬂective,explicit knowledge about pragmatics.It thus involves knowledge of those rules and conventions underlying appropriate language use in particular com-municative situations and on the part of members of speciﬁc speech communities.Following an educational perspective,we deal with prag-matic awareness in relation to the construct of communicative compe-tence,and we consider research on the role of awareness in pragmatic learning.First,pragmatic competence is introduced as part of the over-all framework of communication.Second,we raise the need to focus on pragmatics including pragmalinguistic and sociopragmatic aware-ness.Third,a review on research dealing with learners’pragmatic awareness is provided.Finally,some future directions deriving from the previous subsections are brieﬂy mentioned.E A R LY D E V E L O P M E N T SThe notion of communicative competence originated from those criti-cisms raised by the Chomskyan notion of linguistic competence (1965).Scholars of differentﬁelds,namely those of linguistics,psy-chology,sociology and anthropology,argued against the absence of aspects related to language use in the concept of linguistic competence, as it merely accounted for an ideal grammatical knowledge shared by native speakers of a given language.Hymes(1972)ﬁrst suggested the substitution of Chomsky’s linguistic competence into a wider con-cept,that of communicative competence,which would also include social and referential aspects of the language.Nevertheless,the term communicative competence may involve much more than the mere extension of linguistic competence.According to Cenoz(1996),it also implies a qualitative change and a distinct approach to the study of lan-guage use,since communicative competence is a dynamic concept that depends on the interlocutors’negotiation of meaning.The construct of communicative competence has been particularly inﬂuential in theﬁeld of language learning as it bears a direct relation-ship with the communicative approach to language teaching.For this J.Cenoz and N.H.Hornberger(eds),Encyclopedia of Language and Education,2nd Edition,Volume6:Knowledge about Language,193–204.#2008Springer Science+Business Media LLC.194 E.A L CÓN A N D M.P.S A F O N T J O R DÀreason,different scholars in theﬁeld of applied linguistics have attempted to describe that construct by identifying various components that would constitute a whole model for the study of learners’communi-cative competence.One of the most representative and signiﬁcant mod-els that have arisen within theﬁeld of applied linguistics is that of Bachman(1990)as it was theﬁrst explicitly identiﬁed pragmatics as one of the two major components of communicative competence.Bachman (1990)distinguishes between organisational and pragmatic competence. On the one hand,organisational competence refers to those abilities taking part in the production and identiﬁcation of grammatical and ungrammatical sentences,and also in understanding their meaning and in ordering them to form texts.These abilities are sub-divided into gram-matical and textual competence.On the other hand,pragmatic compe-tence is understood as dealing with the relationship between utterances and the acts performed through these utterances as well as with the features of the context that promote appropriate language use.The rela-tionship between utterances and acts concerns the illocutionary force, whereas the context involves those sociolinguistic conventions taking part in using the language.The illocutionary competence is deﬁned in terms of Searle’s speech acts(1969)and Halliday’s language functions (1973),since it involves the relationship between the utterances and speakers’intentions speciﬁed in them.In addition,the sociolinguistic competence refers to sensitivity to differences in variety,register and to the ability of interpreting cultural references.Bachman’s model(1990)points out the idea that communicative com-petence can not only be achieved by improving learners’grammatical knowledge,but it also concerns the development of other competencies such as the textual and pragmatic ones.From this point of view,prag-matics has become a common target in the language classroom,as illustrated by current proposals(Bardovi-Harlig and Mahan-Taylor, 2003).In those proposals,most suggestions and lessons for pragmatic instruction focus on routines as part of the pragmalinguistic compo-nent that constitutes pragmatic competence.Hence,weﬁnd lesson plans for teaching how to make requests(Mach and Ridder,2003; Yuan,2003),others dealing with refusals(Kondo,2003),apologies (Bardovi-Harlig and Mahan-Taylor,2003)or complaints(Reynolds, 2003).Yet few proposals consider a sociopragmatic perspective in foreign/second language teaching,thus presenting a partial view of the pragmatic component.However,the literature on inter language pragmatics(ILP),by referring to pragmatic awareness as learners’conscious and explicit knowledge about pragmatics,has pointed out that both pragmalinguis-tic and sociopragmatic aspects should be included.For instance, Safont(2005)suggests that unless students are provided with socio-cultural and sociolinguistic information,their difﬁculty to understandP R A G M AT I C AWA R E N E S S195 politeness issues affecting the use of the target language will increase. This has raised the need for focusing on pragmatic awareness and pro-duction in the language classroom.Pragmatic awareness might beachieved by fostering learners’connections between their previous pragmalinguistic knowledge(both in their L1and the TL)and newpragmatic information they may be provided with.In addition,prag-matic production should focus on appropriateness,thus paying atten-tion to both propositional content,on the one hand,and culturaleffects on the other.M A J O R C O N T R I B U T I O N SAnalysing language use in context has provided language teachers andlearners with a research-based understanding of the language forms and functions that are appropriate to the many contexts in which a languagemay be used.From this perspective,research in cross-cultural and ILPhas provided information on the interactive norms in different lan-guages and cultures.Cross-cultural studies with a focus on speakers’pragmatic performance aim to determine whether the same speech actcan be found in different cultures,and if so,to what extent it is per-formed.Likewise,explanations that account for those differences areprovided.Among them,pragmatic transfer at the level of formal,semantic and speakers’perception of contextual factors seems to explain some of the differences between L1and L2speakers’use ofthe language.In addition to transfer,learning effects,which may beof a formal or informal nature have been reported to cause a deviation from the target language norm.Examples of types of learning effectsinclude overgeneralization,hypercorrection,or responses that do notreﬂect reality.Research from an inter language perspective takes into accountacquisitional rather than contrastive issues,as is the case of cross-cultural perspectives stated earlier.Barron’s(2003)study follows this acquisitional perspective in inter language development.Barron’s(2003,p.10)deﬁnition of pragmatic competence states that it involves ‘knowledge of the linguistic resources available in a given language for realising particular illocutions,knowledge of the sequential aspectsof speech acts and knowledge of the appropriate contextual use of theparticular languages linguistic resources’.In the same line,Bachman (1990)and Thomas(1983)account for the realisation of speech acts in which they distinguish between pragmalinguistic and socio-pragmatic components.Hence,while dealing with pragmatics they sug-gest that not only routines and forms speciﬁc to particular pragmatic realisations should be considered,but also the context of use.Most studies to date(see contributions to Rose and Kasper’s volume, 2001and Kasper and Rose,1999)have focussed on the former196 E.A L CÓN A N D M.P.S A F O N T J O R DÀcomponent,that is,routines and pragmalinguistic realisations.A wide amount of studies now exist with a focus on request realisations (Hassall,1997;Li,2000;Rose,2000,among many others).Other speech acts that have received some attention on the part of scholars may be refusals(Félix-Brasdefer,2004),compliments(Rose and Ng, 2001)and apologies(Trosborg,1995).We may alsoﬁnd exceptional studies in which sociopragmatic factors have been dealt with,but they usually refer to descriptions of situations presented to learners so that they acknowledge the most appropriate routine(Lorenzo-Dus,2001). However,it seems as argued by Kasper(2000),that the sociopragmatic component has received less attention in ILP.The relevance of the sociopragmatic view in L2pragmatic develop-ment is also put forward by Jung(2002).The author states that L2 pragmatic acquisition should be studied from both the psycholinguistic perspective of the learner that has traditionally paid attention to vari-ables such as proﬁciency level,or the type of task(among others), and the socio cultural perspective,which emphasises the need to analyse sociopragmatic development just as pragmalinguistic develop-ment has been investigated(Barron,2003;Kasper and Rose,2002). Bou-Franch and Garcés-Conejos(2003)acknowledge such need in their proposal for teaching linguistic politeness.The authors particu-larly focus on avoiding sociopragmatic failure in the language classroom.Sociopragmatics is here understood as related to‘our knowledge,beliefs and perceptions of socially adequate linguistic behaviour’(see Bou-Franch and Garcés-Conejos,2003,p.2).On that account,these authors’proposal is based on Brown and Levinson’s (1987)politeness variables—namely those of power,distance and ranking of imposition—and Scollon and Scollon’s(1995)suggested politeness systems.Scollon and Scollon(1995)identify three main politeness frameworks on the basis of face relationships.The former one,also named deference politeness system,relates to those relations where there are no power differences,but there is social distance(e.g. colleagues at work).The second system refers to solidarity politeness, where there are no power differences or social distance(e.g.family members).Finally,the third system relates to hierarchical politeness, where there are power differences and social distance(e.g.boss and employee).Although Scollon and Scollon’s(1995)proposed politeness systems have been criticised for including a simplistic view of human communication(see Bou-Franch and Garcés-Conejos,2003),it may serve as a point of departure for research in sociopragmatic develop-ment.In fact,these politeness systems may be employed to test the effect of instruction in sociopragmatic development,just as speech act routines and linguistic realisations have been used in testing the acquisition of pragmalinguistic aspects.P R A G M AT I C AWA R E N E S S197 Second language pragmatics learning is also L2culture learning(see also Fenner,Cultural Awareness in the Foreign Language Classroom,V olume6).This may imply learners’modiﬁcation of their own worldview,thus including attitudes and ethnolinguistic variation while ac-quiring foreign/second language pragmatics.In fact,as suggested byThomas(1995)and Jung(2002),one’s own linguistic and culturalidentity is usually best acknowledged when being confronted with a different reality.From this perspective,awareness is probably theﬁrststep to the earlier quoted shift as it would involve knowledge of thesepoliteness systems.Research on learners’pragmatic awareness may in turn provide us with suitable information on those needs and difﬁculties,which also relate to their language learning process.As stated by various scholars,learners’pragmatic awareness mani-fested in their ability to recognise and identify speech act types is lim-ited.For instance,Kasper’s(1984)investigation of the pragmaticcomprehension of German-speaking English learners,suggested that failure to comprehend the illocutionary force of speech acts could beexplained by learners’inability to produce those illocutionary devicesin non-conventional indirect speech acts.In addition,the effect of pro-ﬁciency on language learners’pragmatic awareness has been examined by Koike(1996),Cook and Liddicoat(2002)and García(2004).Koike(1996)found that the more proﬁcient participant could recognise speech act type and understand the illocutionary force of the utterance better than less proﬁcient participants.Similarly,Cook and Liddicoat’s (2002)study reveals that there is a proﬁciency effect for interpreting request speech acts at different levels of directness.In the same line, García(2004)shows that there are proﬁciency-related differences in the identiﬁcation of speech acts.However,the author suggests that con-textual knowledge and linguistic ability should be viewed as comple-menting variables that interact with each other in the comprehension of indirect speech acts.In addition,it is suggested that by examining L2learners’pragmatic awareness we can infer learners’pragmatic comprehension,and we might also discover linguistic factors that con-tribute to comprehension as well as to enhance the provision of those conditions for understanding pragmatic meanings.This is particularly relevant in second language learning,since in contrast to native speak-ers,who may not need to recognise speech act type consciously,second language learners’attention to pragmatic issues seems to play a role in developing pragmatic competence.The fact that second language learners need to recognise speech act conventions in a conscious way may determine the importance of pragmatic comprehension in the lan-guage classroom.Yet,awareness understood as conscious pragmatic knowledge would not only refer to comprehension but also to produc-tion as long as both involve some degree of consciousness.198 E.A L CÓN A N D M.P.S A F O N T J O R DÀW O R K I N P R O G R E S SCurrent research has been motivated by an attempt to establish a more direct link between theﬁelds of ILP research and SLA studies,which address learners’development of pragmatics(Kasper and Rose,2002). From this perspective,studies have been conducted to address whether the instructional contexts provides opportunities for pragmatic learn-ing.Furthermore,the teachability hypothesis in the pragmatic realm has been tested in several studies.In relation to the conditions offered in second and foreign language learning contexts to develop pragmatic competence,Bardovi-Harlig and Hartford(1996)illustrate how the input offered to learners in academic contexts may not result in prag-matic learning.The authors point out that in an ESL context the sug-gestions made were status-bound,and as a consequence they could not serve as direct models for the learner.In this line,Nikula’s(2002) study also focuses on how pragmatic awareness is reﬂected in the use of modifying elements of talk by two non-native speakers(NNSs)in EFL and content-based classrooms.Findings of this study reveal a ten-dency towards directness in teachers’performance,which is explained in terms of the constraints of the classroom and the teacher’s status compared to that of students.In addition,Rose(1999)claims that large classes,limited contact hours and little opportunity for intercultural communication are some of the features of the EFL context that hinder pragmatic learning.Apart from the analysis of the input,other studies have examined if textbooks present pragmatically accurate models for learners(Bardovi-Harlig,1996;Crandall and Basturkmen,2004; Vellenga,2004).Results of these studies have showed that the way speech acts or conversational functions are considered in textbooks is not adequate.Bardovi-Harlig(1996)showed that textbooks do not often present a particular speech act or language function at all,and very often when they do,it may not reﬂect authentic language use. Finally,according to Vellenga(2004),textbooks do not include sufﬁ-cient metapragmatic explanations to facilitate learners’awareness of pragmatic issues.As a consequence of the difﬁculties mentioned earlier to develop pragmatic competence in language learning contexts,several investiga-tions draw on Schmidt’s(1993,2001)noticing hypothesis to address awareness-raising as an approach to the teaching of pragmatics(see also Robinson,Attention and Awareness,V olume6).First,the use of authentic audiovisual input has received special attention as a way to foster learners’pragmatic knowledge;being that knowledge conscious it would then refer to pragmatic awareness.Audiovisual input(the use of video,ﬁlms and TV)has been stated to be useful to address knowl-edge of a pragmatic system,and knowledge of its appropriate use.P R A G M AT I C AWA R E N E S S199 The studies conducted by Rose(2000),Grant and Starks(2001), Washburn(2001)and Alcón(2005)were motivated by the assumption that both pragmalinguistic and sociopragmatic awareness are particu-larly difﬁcult for those studying in an EFL context.From this perspec-tive,the authors claim that authentic audiovisual input provides ample opportunities to address all aspects of language use in a variety of contexts.Besides,as quoted by Rose(2000),audiovisual materialﬁrst offers language teachers the possibility of choosing the richest and most suitable segments,analyse them in full,and design software to allow learners to access pragmatic aspects as needed.Secondly,it may be useful to expose learners to the pragmatic aspects of the target language.Thirdly,pragmatic judgment tasks can be based on audiovi-sual discourse analysis and prepare learners for communication in new cultural settings.This last aspect takes into account the issue of task design and task implementation,which in turn is related to research focussing on the effect of instruction on learners’noticing of pragmatic target features.As pointed out in various studies on pragmatic instructional inter-vention(House and Kasper,1981;House,1996;Rose and Ng,2001, Takahashi,2001),explicit metapragmatic instruction seems to be more effective than implicit teaching.However,more recently,research has focussed on the effect of implicit instruction for pragmatic learning fol-lowing a focus on form approach.Taking into account that a higher level of awareness can be achieved by manipulating input,the studies conducted by Fukuya,Reeve,Gisi and Christianson(1998),Fukuya and Clark(2001),Martínez-Flor(2004)and Alcón(2005)aim to prove whether learners’intake of pragmatic target forms can be enhanced even in implicit conditions.Fukuya,Reeve,Gisi and Christianson (1998)implemented recasts as implicit feedback on learners’produc-tion of requests.Results of the study did not support the hypothesis that this implicit feedback would result efﬁcient in comparison to the group that received explicit instruction on the sociopragmatic factors that affected appropriateness of requests in different situations.In a similar vein,the studies conducted by Fukuya and Clark(2001)and Martínez-Flor(2004)used input enhancement techniques to draw learn-ers’attention to the target features.In Fukuya and Clark’s(2001) study,ﬁndings from the three groups’performance(i.e.focus on forms, focus on form and control group)did not reveal signiﬁcant differences on learners’pragmatic ability.The authors claimed that a different operationalisation of the input enhancement may have involved differ-ences as far as potential of saliency is concerned.To their explanation, it could be added Izumi’s(2002)suggestion of using a combination of implicit techniques to help learners notice the target features. In line with Izumi(2002),Martínez-Flor(2004)used a combination200 E.A L CÓN A N D M.P.S A F O N T J O R DÀof implicit techniques to analyse the effect of explicit and implicit teaching on the speech act of suggestion.Results of her study demon-strated that both implicit and explicit instructional treatment groups outperformed the control group in awareness and production of the speech act of suggesting.Alcon’s(2005)study also showed an advan-tage of explicit and implicit instructed learners over uninstructed ones in their awareness and production of requests.However,the author indicates the need to consider the delayed effect of explicit and implicit teaching on pragmatic learning in future research.P R O B L E M S A N D D I F F I C U LT I E S:F U T U R ED I RE C T I O N SThe research mentioned earlier is based on the assumption that aware-ness is related to acquisition of pragmatic competence.From a cogni-tive perspective,research on pragmatic awareness and language learning is based on one of the tenets of SLA theory that claims that attention to input determines intake.Thus,drawing on Schmidt’s theo-retical framework(1993)which points out the need to implement ped-agogical intervention on pragmatic issues,most of the studies on pragmatic awareness and language learning address learners’noticing of L2features as a requirement for further second language develop-ment.However,although it is possible that Doughty’s(2001)micro-processes,which potentially contribute to learning-selective attention and cognitive comparison,may be activated through direct and indirect pragmatic consciousness raising instruction,it is not clear the extent to which awareness is sufﬁcient to gain absolute proﬁciency at the prag-matic level.According to Schmidt(1993),the noticing hypothesis pos-tulates two levels of awareness:at the level of noticing(referring to the targets without mentioning any rules)and awareness at the level of understanding(referring to the explicit formulation of rules).However, since it is hypothesised that even awareness at the level of understand-ing may be insufﬁcient to gain absolute proﬁciency(Gass,Svetics and Lemelin,2003;Rosa and Leow,2004),the noticing hypothesis may be further examined in empirical studies at the pragmatic realm.To do that,ﬁrst it should be tested empirically.For instance,it needs to be tested whether Tomlin and Vila’s(1994)functions of attention(alert-ness,orientation and detection)are separable,or,as suggested by Simard and Wong(2001),they are activated at the same time in processing pragmatic information.In addition,and related to research conducted in cognitive psychology,a different operationalisation of awareness may be needed in ILP research.While in cognitive psychol-ogy awareness is usually linked to the ability to verbally report aP R A G M AT I C AWA R E N E S S201 subjective experience(Schmidt,2001;Tomlin and Vila,1994),most SLA studies dealing with the role of instructional techniques to draw learners’attention to formal aspects of the input,assess what is attended to by means of post-exposure tasks(Fotos,1993).Following this procedure to measure awareness,most studies point to an indirect evidence on the role played by attention and awareness on pragmatic language learning,but more direct assessment of attention and aware-ness,for instance by using think-aloud protocols,should be included in further research.Secondly,considering Izumi’s(2002)suggestion of using a combination of implicit techniques to help learners notice the target features,input enhancement of pragmalinguistic and socio-pragmatic factors,together with other techniques such as positive feed-back,need to be examined to shed light on how they help implicit instructed learners to pay attention to pragmatic features of the lan-guage.Thirdly,since the effect of instructional treatments has been proved effective for pragmatic awareness,the delayed effect that prag-matic awareness(both at the level of noticing and understanding)may have on learners’pragmatic learning should be addressed in the future. Likewise,in line with Takahashi(2005)and Safont(2005),further studies that examine to what extend pragmatic awareness is related to learners’individual variables are desirable.In relation to the pedagogical insights which are likely to be drawn from research on pragmatic awareness,it should be pointed out that, in line with second language acquisition research,the focus is not to transform results into pedagogical ideas.Nevertheless,some implica-tions can be drawn.First,due to the limitations involved in classroom discourse and in textbooks presentation of pragmatic issues,more valid data can be obtained from authentic audiovisual input,and awareness and comprehension of different pragmatic meanings can be achieved by drawing attention to the linguistic forms and the sociopragmatic variables of selected speech events.Thus,a possibility would be designing material that combines the different speech acts taxonomies of linguistic formulations,and the actual face relations described in terms of different politeness systems.See Also:Anne-Brit Fenner:Cultural Awareness in the Foreign Language Classroom(Volume6);Peter Robinson:Attention and Awareness(Volume6)REFERENCESAlcón,E.:2005,‘Does instruction work for learning pragmatics in the EFL context?’, System3,417–435.202 E.A L CÓN A N D M.P.S A F O N T J O R DÀBachman,L.F.:1990,Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing,Oxford University Press,Oxford.Bardovi-Harlig,K.and Hartford,B.S.:1996,‘Input in an institutional setting’,Studies in Second Language Acquisition18,171–190.Bardovi-Harlig,K.and Mahan-Taylor,R.:2003,Teaching Pragmatics,US Depart-ment of State Ofﬁce of English Language Programs,Washington,DC. Barron, A.:2003,Acquisition in Interlanguage Pragmatics’,John Benjamins, Amsterdam.Bou-Franch P.and Garcés-Conejos,P.:2003,‘Teaching linguistic politeness:A method-ological proposal,IRAL41,1–22.Brown,P.and Levinson,S.C.:1987,Politeness:Some Universals in Language Usage, Cambridge University Press,Cambridge.Cenoz,J.:1996.‘La competencia comunicativa:Su origen y componentes’,in J.Cenoz and F.Valencia(eds.),La Competencia Pragmática:Elementos Lingüísti-cos y Psicosociales,Servicio Editorial de la Universidad del País Vasco,Bilbao. Chomsky,N.:1965,Aspects of the Theory of Syntax,MIT Press,Cambridge,Mass. Cook,M.and Liddicoat,A.J.:2002,‘The development of comprehension in interlan-guage pragmatics:The case of request strategies in English’,Australian Review of Applied Linguistics25,19–39.Crandall,E.and Basturkmen,H.:2004,‘Evaluating pragmatics—focused materials’, ELT Journal58(1),38–49.Doughty,C.:2001,‘Cognitive underpinnings of focus on form’,in P.Robinson(ed.), Cognition and Second Language Instruction,Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,206–257.Félix-Brasdefer,J.J.:2004,‘Interlanguage refusals:Linguistic politeness and length of residence in the target community’,Language Learning54(4),587–653. Fotos,S.:1993,‘Consciousness-raising and noticing through focus on form:Grammar task performance versus formal instruction’,Applied Linguistics14,385–407. Fukuya,Y.J.and Clark,M.K.:2001,‘A comparison of input enhancement and explicit instruction of mitigators’,in L.Bouton(ed.),Pragmatics and Language Learning, V olume10,Division of English as an International Language Intensive English Institute,University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign,111–130,Urbana,IL. Fukuya,Y.J.,Reeve,M.,Gisi,J.,and Christianson,M.:1998,‘Does focus on form work for teaching sociopragmatics?’,Paper presented at the12th International Conference on Pragmatics and Language Learning,University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign,Urbana,IL(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED 452736).García,P.:2004,‘Pragmatic comprehension of high and low level language learners’, Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language8,1–10.Gass,S.,Svetics,I.,and Lemelin,S.:2003,‘Differential effects of attention’, Language Learning53(3),495–543.Grant,L.and Starks,D.:2001,‘Screening appropriate teaching materials’,Closings from textbooks and television soap operas,International Review of Applied Linguistics39,39–50.Halliday,M.:1973,Explorations in the Functions of Language,Edward Arnold,London. Hassall,T.J.:1997,Requests by Australian Learners of Indonesian’,Unpublished doctoral dissertation,Australian National University,Canberra.House,J.:1996,‘Developing pragmaticﬂuency in English as a foreign language’, Studies in Second Language Acquisition18,225–253.House,J.and Kasper,G.:1981,‘Zur rolle der kognition in kommunikationskursen’, Die Neueren Sprachen80,42–55.Hymes,D.:1972,‘On communicative competence’,in B.J.Pride and J.Holmes(eds.), Sociolinguistics,Penguin,Harmondsworth.。

英语教学法流派(英语)

Disadvantage
1 Major fallacy of Direct Method was belief that
second language should be learned in way in which first language was acquired - by total immersion technique. But obviously far less time and opportunity in schools, compared with small child learning his mother tongue. 2 It takes much time for teachers to explain complicated words.
4. 讲解课文：教师逐句念课文，要求学生分析
语法与翻译成汉语。教师随时纠正学生的错误。
5. 巩固新课：学生跟教师逐句朗读课文后，教师根据课文提问，学生按课文内容回答。
6. 布置作业：拼写单词；语法填空；背诵某段课文。
Advantages
1.It can help students to have a better understanding of the meaning of abstract words and complicated sentences.
T: Zhang, please stand up. (After Zhang stood up.)
T: (To the class): Now Zhang is standing, but you are all sitting.
T: (To Zhang): Zhang, please go to the door.

应用在各行各业英语作文

In the modern world,the application of English is ubiquitous and spans across various industries and professions.Here is an exploration of how English is utilized in different sectors:1.Business and Finance:English is the lingua franca in the global business community.It is essential for conducting international trade,drafting contracts,and participating in business meetings.Knowledge of English enables professionals to communicate with clients and partners worldwide.2.Technology and IT:The majority of programming languages are based on English,and most software documentation,user interfaces,and online resources are in English. Professionals in this field must be proficient in English to stay updated with the latest technological advancements and collaborate with international teams.cation:English is a key subject in educational curricula around the world.It is used as a medium of instruction in many institutions,especially at the tertiary cators and students alike rely on English to access a vast array of academic resources and participate in global scholarly discussions.4.Tourism and Hospitality:The tourism industry heavily relies on English as a common language for communication between tourists and service providers.English proficiency is crucial for hotel staff,tour guides,and other hospitality professionals to cater to a diverse clientele.5.Media and Entertainment:English is the dominant language in the global media landscape,including film,television,music,and publishing.Artists,journalists,and content creators often use English to reach a broader audience and participate in international collaborations.6.Science and Research:English is the primary language of scientific research and publication.Researchers and scholars publish their findings in English to ensure that their work is accessible to the global scientific community.It is also the language used in most international conferences and academic journals.7.Healthcare:In the medical field,English is often used for medical terminologies and pharmaceutical instructions.Healthcare professionals need to understand English to stay informed about the latest medical research and treatments and to communicate with international colleagues.w and Governance:English is frequently used in legal documents and internationalwyers and policymakers often need to be proficient in English to navigate the complexities of global legal systems and to participate in international negotiations.9.Agriculture and Environmental Science:English is used to share knowledge and research findings in agriculture and environmental science.It helps in the dissemination of best practices,innovative farming techniques,and conservation strategies across the globe.10.Arts and Culture:English serves as a bridge between different cultures in the arts community.It is used for international exhibitions,cultural exchanges,and the translation of literary works,allowing for a broader appreciation of diverse artistic expressions.In conclusion,English has become an indispensable tool in various professional fields, facilitating communication,collaboration,and the exchange of knowledge.Its widespread use underscores the importance of English language education and proficiency for individuals seeking to excel in their respective industries.。

英语作文-国外高等教育行业的国际合作与交流项目

英语作文-国外高等教育行业的国际合作与交流项目In the realm of higher education, international collaboration and exchange programs have become pivotal in fostering global understanding and advancing academic research. These initiatives are not just about student and faculty mobility; they are about creating a shared space for innovation, knowledge transfer, and cultural exchange that transcends geographical boundaries.The essence of these programs lies in their ability to bring together diverse perspectives. When universities from different countries collaborate, they pool their resources, expertise, and unique cultural insights to tackle global challenges. For instance, joint research projects on climate change or public health can benefit from the varied approaches and experiences of international teams, leading to more comprehensive and impactful outcomes.Moreover, exchange programs enrich the educational experience for students. They are immersed in a new academic environment, often with a different pedagogical approach, which can broaden their intellectual horizons. Beyond the classroom, living in a foreign country helps students develop a deeper understanding of other cultures, fostering empathy and intercultural competence.Such programs also have a significant economic impact. They encourage the flow of ideas and innovation, which can lead to commercial applications and partnerships between academia and industry. Additionally, international students contribute to the economy of the host country, not only through tuition fees but also by participating in the local workforce, either during or after their studies.The success of these initiatives often hinges on the quality of partnerships formed between institutions. Effective collaboration requires clear communication, mutual respect, and a shared vision. It also necessitates robust support systems for students and faculty, ensuring that logistical challenges do not impede the exchange of knowledge.In conclusion, international cooperation and exchange programs in higher education are more than just academic ventures; they are bridges that connect societies, economies, and cultures. As the world becomes increasingly interconnected, these programs will continue to play a crucial role in shaping a collaborative and enlightened global community. Through these efforts, higher education institutions not only contribute to individual growth but also to the collective progress of humanity. 。

外国语言学及应用语言学英文

外国语言学及应用语言学英文《Foreign Language Linguistics and Applied Linguistics》Foreign Language Linguistics and Applied Linguistics are two interrelated fields that study language and its applications in different contexts. This article will provide an overview of these two disciplines and their significance in today's globalized world.Foreign Language Linguistics is the scientific study of foreign languages, including their structure, use, and evolution. It aims to understand the intricacies of language systems and how they shape human communication. Linguists who specialize in foreign languages investigate various aspects such as phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. They analyze the sounds, words, grammar, meaning, and social context of languages from different cultures. By comparing languages, linguists can identify universal patterns and unique features that contribute to our understanding of language acquisition, language processing, and the relationship between language and culture.Applied Linguistics, on the other hand, focuses on practical aspects of language study and how theory can be applied to real-life language use. It has a broader scope and involves the application of linguistic knowledge to language teaching, translation, language planning, language policy, and language technology. Applied linguists collaborate with educators, translators, language planners, and software developers to solve language-related problems, improve language learning strategies, and develop effective communication tools. They research language acquisition, bilingualism, language assessment, discourse analysis, and language teaching methodologies, seeking to enhance language proficiency and promote effective cross-cultural communication.The importance of foreign language linguistics and applied linguistics cannot be overstated in today's globalized society. With increasing globalization, the ability to understand and communicate in different languages has become a mandatory skill. The study of foreign languages equips individuals with the ability to connect with people from diverse cultures, opens up opportunities for travel, work, and cultural exchange, and fosters mutual understanding and appreciation among different communities.Furthermore, applied linguistics plays a crucial role in language education and policy-making. It helps shape language teaching methodologies that are based on empirical research and incorporate the latest insights from linguistics. Applied linguists also contribute to language policy development by advising on the integration of minority languages, the promotion of multilingual education, and the maintenance of linguistic diversity.In conclusion, foreign language linguistics and applied linguistics are dynamic fields of study that have a significant impact on our understanding of languages and their practical applications. The scientific analysis of language systems and the application of linguistic theories in real-life contexts play a crucial role in promoting effective communication, cultural understanding, and the development of language policies for a diverse world.。

Ruangguru应用的产品与视觉设计通信策略说明书

5th Bandung Creative Movement International Conference on Creative Industries 2018 (5th BCM 2018) Designing A Communication Strategy of Product and Visual for Ruangguru ApplicationTyana Anggraeni1*, Ilhamsyah21,2Visual Communication Design, Telkom University, Bandung, IndonesiaAbstract. R uangguru is an online learning application that providesbenefits for various levels of education, especially 12th grade high schoolstudents. From Ruangguru promotions that have been done before, thecurrent totals have not reached the number of targeted users. For 12th gradestudents, the National Examination, always be their main concern ofstudying. Many ways used to deal with it, one is make a learning group thatusually placed at fast food restaurants. However, they often forget thepurpose to learn and play smartphones instead. This problem can be solvedby Designing a Communication Strategy of Product and Visual forRuangguru Application. This campaign design uses qualitative methods tofind a suitable strategy to inform the benefits and features that exist inRuangguru application to achieve the target desired. This design aims toprovide product-related information and provide innovation in a learningapplication promotion. The result of this research is the design of productpromotion using AISAS method as media strategy, utilizing various meansof information to spread Ruangguru utility, and main media in the form ofan event. Hopefully this design can assist the exploration of advertisers andvisual communication designers in solving the promotional problems ofsimilar products.Keywords:Promotion, Advertising, Application, Digital Campaign.1 IntroductionChanges in current behavior of people, especially adolescents, are strongly influenced by the development of digital technology. Including how they learn, not a few high school students take advantage of internet access to learn and complete their schoolwork. Ruangguru is a service provider in educational content based on technology as an answer to this change in learning behavior. Ruangguru comes in an easy-to-use application, utilizing the internet network across various gadgets, one of them is smartphones. According to Adamas Belva Syah Devara, CEO of Ruangguru, Ruangguru’s number of users currently hit 6 million students. Ruangguru itself was just released April 21, 2014 and started its application in 2017. According to Raisha (Content Writer Ruangguru), Ruangguru is still in the stage of creating* Corresponding author: **************************awareness to the audience to increase the number of users. Ruangguru hopes the number of users keep increasing and used by 52 million students in Indonesia.Grade 12 students is the most influential target audience because they will face the National Examination (UN). For grade 12 students, UN is playing an important role in determining their graduation, so that always makes them feel burdened. In order to get the attention of grade 12 students, a promotional strategy that involves various media, advertising and other marketing communications tool is required. Those kind of strategy is called integrated media strategy, in the hope that the penetration of Ruangguru application usage is stronger among the 12th graders. One of the results of field analysis is their current learning behavior, such as making a learning group in fast food restaurants. It becomes a challenge in designing media strategy that will be used. This research will be aimed at grade 12 students in Bekasi City. Based on data from the Ministry of Education and Culture (KEMENDIKBUD) website, Bekasi is the second largest number of UN participants in all High School (SMA) in 9 (nine) cities in West Java. However, the highest number of decreasing marks in National Examination also occurred in Bekasi City, that is 63.7%.Based on the explanation above, this study aims to find the design of communication and media strategies in accordance with the target audience character is targeted. In addition, it is also necessary to determine the visual design characteristics in accordance with the target audience. Due to space limitations of writing, so it will be explained only a few visual design ads only.2 Literature ReviewPromotion is the determination of success or failure of a product or service from one of the marketing mix activities [1]. Also mentioned marketing mix includes product, price, placement, and promotion. Meanwhile, promotion is the communication from producers to consumers who inform, persuade, and persuade them persuasively to gain an action [2].According to Basu Swastha in Jaiz, the promotion mix uses advertising, personal selling and other promotional tools as the right strategy to achieve the ultimate goal [2]. However, as the development of technology in the digital age, the promotion mix developed into:−AdvertisingForm of disseminating message information about a product or service that is persuasive.−Personal SalesA face-to-face encounter between marketers with an audience for immediate or repeatpurchase purposes, such as the use of a salesman or a salesgirl in a shopping center. −Sales PromotionIn the form of offers in the form of additional product benefits for immediate purchase purposes.−Public RelationsIn the form of activities whose purpose is to improve the image of a product or service to create a good relationship between companies with the audience.Example; sponsor, open house / company visit, press release, field tour, donation, special event.Meanwhile, according to Kotler and Armstrong, the current promotion mix also includes digital marketing (digital marketing), which in the presentation of marketing conducted in various social media with the aim of interacting directly with consumers [3]. Examples areEDM (Email Direct Marketing), telemarketing, catalog marketing, online channel, mail, phone, facsimile or all communications that get direct response from customers.Media strategy theory in this research use AISAS from Kotaro Sugiyama and Tim Andree titled The Dentsu Way [4]. AISAS itself is a method of development from AIDMA that has been long enough used in advertising world. However, the criticism of the AIDMA method is that there are too many passive elements in the process, namely Attention, Interest, Desire and Memory, so it is no longer suitable with current condition. By using AISAS, promotions can be made by creating mechanisms that increase the target audience's interest in the product (Attention, Interest). The next step is to encourage the target audience to be more active such as finding information or product (search) either offline or online, or take action (action) either try or buy. Then, in accordance with the behavior of target audiences, they will share the moment until the Word of Mouth effect occurs.In translating the suitable visuals for the promotional media that will be used for knowledge in Visual Communication Design (DKV). Definitely, Visual Communication Design is a knowledge that has a purpose to learn concepts, ways, creative communication process by utilizing the media in the delivery of messages, shown through the visual form of graphic elements, with the intention of the message will be easily accepted by the audiens [5]. In DKV, an interesting and effective visual design procedure, such as layout, composition, visual styling, typography, illustration and photography, and other supporting visual elements are described.3 MethodThe method used in this writing is qualitative research methods. The author uses qualitative methods because the research used mostly refers to the facts and phenomena that occurs in society. Supported by statements by Bogdan and Taylor, qualitative research methods include research that generates descriptive data from data and audience behavior [6]. One of the facts from observation obtained is a model of learning conducted in the public sphere, one of them placed at fast food restaurant.The method of analysis used is SWOT analysis that is positioning the product on an important gap in his life. By knowing the power, it can be raised one thing that became an interesting keyword in getting the attention of the audience. Likewise with knowing the weakness, it can minimize the possibility of the emergence of disadvantages. Meanwhile, by knowing the opportunities, it can place the product position in the eyes of consumers. For threats, a strategy is needed in taking a gap that is good for the product [3].While the method of audience analysis used is AOI analysis. Consumers with different values, different attitudes and beliefs, different opinions, motivations, and interests, including different lifestyles, will produce different decisions. Here are some components of AOI (activities, opinions, interests) that can be used to develop psychographic profiles from consumers [7].−Activities: work, hobbies, social events, vacations, entertainment, club membership, community, shopping, sports.−Opinions: self, social issues, politics, business, economics, education, products, future, culture.−Interest: family, home, office, community, recreation, fashion, food, media, achievement.4 Result & DiscussionAccording to observations in some cafes and fast food restaurants, the behavior is found in grade 12 students that is learning together there. They spend a long time to learn and sometimes sharing stories with friends or playing smartphones. The purpose of communication from the design of this campaign is to inform, persuade, and remind the target audience about Ruangguru with all its usefulness and benefits. The expected results is the target audience will use Ruanguru to guide them in facing the National Exam, as well as another examinations.The communication approach used in the design of this promotion is based on the lifestyle of the target audience which is generally still in the scope of friendship, academic and non academic to the relationship with the opposite sex. This affects the author to create a message in case when the target audience does not focus on academic goals, then they fail to focus. The message to be conveyed is the result of thought of product benefit and consumer insight. Based on the observation and interview information, the product benefit owned and often delivered by Ruangguru is "learning by fun", "everytime everywhere", "instant learning", and "exciting". While the results of the analysis of consumer insight, in the form of "an urge to be professional", "want to be smart fastly", "passed with good grades", "successful", "lazy", "distraction" and so forth.Based on the above analysis, then found a message in the design of this campaign, namely:Message:“Kapan Aja Dimana Aja Bareng Ruangguru Bikin Kamu Gagal Gagal Fokus”Fig. 1. Draft Message Chart (Source: Author's Personal Document)The message above is created with the intention that the target audience can continue to focus and discover the true potential of self by using various Ruangguru features that fit the time and place you want. Used tagline is#gagalgagalfokus.From message above, the author specifies the #gagalfagalfokus tag to be a message reminder in various media that will be designed on the design of this promotion. #gagalgagalfokus also be the basis of the message that is in every step of media strategy that is expected to be easily remembered by the target audience and become viral.To find out what strategies and media are suitable to communicate with the target audience, the authors make observations and interviews to get the answer. After that, the authors analyze the results of the process like what the favorite movie genre, what kind of events you want, daily activities, what you want from an app, dress style, to emotional bonds between family, friends and the opposite sex.Fig. 2. Moodboard Audience Audiences Source: Author's Personal DocumentConsumer journey is a method of understanding the behavior and use of media on a specific target audience. That is by choosing one of the most appropriate target targets for known activity, interest, and opinions. Fia is a 12th grader of SMAN 4 Kota Bekasi who is worried about the National Examination that will be faced later. Fia is active in all academic and non-academic activities at school. Her anxiety made her unfocused in learning, so she felt overwhelmed when learning a lesson she found difficult. Fia often do group learning activities with friends in a fast food restaurant, but she sometimes forgets the main purpose. Finally Fia and her friends just eat and talk to go home.Table 1. Alifia Activities from Monday to Friday (school day) (Source: Author's Personal Document)5 Visual StyleBased on the results of the analysis from the table above, the target audience tend to like something fun, interesting and emotional. Supported by Mia Maria, Public Education in Jakarta Biennale 2015, mentioned that teenagers are identical with something positive and creative. With that, the authors plan to design a visual in a campaign that feels emotionally and fun but still does not eliminate the image and color of Ruangguru.Fig. 3. Visual References (Source: Author's Personal Document)Based on data above, the authors find the right media in the design of this campaign. Therefore, the authors do the brainstorming process by choosing AISAS media strategy, namely Attention, Interest, Search, Action, and Share. The media used in this strategy are:5.1. Attention: Poster, Ambient Ad, OutdoorThe existence of this poster aims as a teaser in the design of promotion to attract the attention of target audiences through social media, namely Instagram and Official Account LINE Ruangguru. While ambient ad takes place in a café or fast food restaurant frequented by target audiences in the form of paper on food tray or trayliner with the same poster and school’s wall magazine.Fig. 4. Poster for Physics5.2. Interest: Vogon, Mini SeriesStarts with vogon for 5 seconds as a teaser of the Mini Series. Vogon and Mini Series can be enjoyed via YouTube Ruangguru.Fig. 5.Mini Series: “Gagal Gagal Fokus” and personality test5.3. Search: Personality Test (Microsite)Following the mini series, target audiences can test their interests and talents in a major in lectures according to the characters in the mini series in the microsite.5.4. Action: Event (Try Out Online Bersama)At Try Out Online Together, the target audience is required to download the Ruanguru app and run the exam via smartphone. In this event, they can also receive an explanation of sharing with the discussion of majors in the lecture.Fig. 6. Poster dan Konten Media Sosial di Instagram5.5. Share: LINE Sticker, Gimmick Event (Merchandise)LINE Sticker aims to remind the target audience for the existence of Ruangguru applications via their nearest platform. In addition, target audiences also get merchandise earned by following the event. They can also share moments at events on their respective social media by marking Ruangguru.Fig. 7. LINE Stickers and merchandises6 ConclusionConcerns in facing the National Examination will always happen every year by all students in Indonesia. However, the way of learning of the children will always develop along with the improving technology. Learning groups or studying together in a café or fast food restaurant becomes a solution to the fatigue of students, especially in grade 12 in preparation for the National Exam. Ruangguru has made a promotion but has not reached a satisfactory number and still want to increase the number of users. The solution of this problem is bymaking the Designing A Communication Strategy of Product and Visual for Ruangguru Application, so that the target audience can know and be interested that can increase the number of Ruangguru users. The author designed the event as the main media in the hope that the existence of Try Out Online Bersama, so that the target that Ruangguru wants to increase the number of users can be achieved. The author also hopes that the existence of this research can provide innovation in making a similar product promotion design. Reference1.T. Wijayanti, Marketing Plan! Dalam Bisnis(PT. Elex Media Komputindo, .Jakarta,2017)2.M. Jaiz, Dasar-Dasar Periklanan (Graha Ilmu, Yogyakarta: 2014)3.G. Amstrong, & P. Kotler, Dasar-dasar Pemasaran Jilid 1, Alih Bahasa AlexanderSindoro & Benyamin Molan (Prenhalindo. Jakarta, 1996)4.K. Sugiyama, A. Tim, The Dentsu Way (Mc Graw Hill, New York, 2010)5. A. Kusrianto, Pengantar Desain Komunikasi Visual (Penerbit Andi, Jakarta, 2007)6.L.J. Moleong, Metodologi Penelitian Kualitatif, (PT Remaja Rosdakarya Offset,Bandung, 2007)7.S., Moriarty, N. Mitchell, & W. Wells, Advertising (Kencana, Jakarta, 2011)。

多媒体在英语教学中的应用

Current Trends
Today, multimedia is an integral part of English teaching, with a wide range of tools and resources available to educators, including online platforms, mobile apps, and virtual reality technology
Evaluation of the effectiveness of multimedia in English teaching
Improved Engagement
Multimedia resources are often engaged through traditional textbooks, leading to increased student motivation and participation in class
• Improved comprehension: Multimedia can provide contextualized examples of language use, helping students to better understand and remember new vocabulary and grammar structures
Reading instruction
要点一
Electronic textbooks
Multimedia allows for the creation of interactive electronic textbooks that include audio, video, and interactive elements to enhance the reading experience

交际法PPT培训资料

Four dimensions of communicative competence: Grammatical competence 语法能力 Sociolinguistic competence 社会语言能力 Discourse competence 话语能力 Strategic competence 策略能力
American linguistits: structural linguistic theory
British linguistits:the functionnal and communicative potential of language; focus in language teaching on communicative proficiency rather than merely master the structures.
Theoretical Basis
Theory of language
(a) Hymes’communication compentence (b) Hillday’s functional account of language use (c) Henry widdowson, Canale and Swain:
through practicing language skills.
(c) Johnson and Littlewood: a skill-learning
CA in China 7. Conclusion
The background of the CLT
The origins of Communicative Approach are to be found in the changes in the British teaching tradition, dating from the late 1960s.

会话含义理论文献综述

1. Introduction of conversational implicature theoryImplicature is a technical term in the linguistic branch of pragmatics coined by Paul Grice. It refers to what is suggested in an utterance, even though not expressed or strictly implied by utterance. Take the following dialog for example.Sam: Do you think David is a good teacher?Amy: Well, today is a sunny day.From the literal meaning, it seems that Sam does not like David as a teacher but Amy disagree his mind. Conversational implicature are typical examples of more being conveyed than said.2. Application of conversational implicature theory at home:2.1 Application in China Classical literature a dream of red mansions:Concerning the Lin Taiyu’s conversations made just before her death, this tex t explores the application of Grice’s Cooperative Principle and conversational implication theory onconversations of the novel. This analysis can not only help us understand the character’sbehavior, psychological changes and their personality profoundly, but further learn andcomprehend Grice’s theory.2.2 Application in daily conversations between the couple:A wonderful marriage needs a great communication between the couple when they livetogether for a long time they can comprehend another’s intention easily but sometimes actually she or he is smatter. The results cause unnecessary misunderstanding in relationship. This article will take the conversational implicature theory of pragmatics, as the foundation, inconversations between husband and wife, for example to explore the inference of conversational implicature and understanding.2.3 Application in English AdvertisingDavid Ogilvy said that advertising is the career of words. This kind of saying reveals the significance of advertising language to advertising. Similarly, another advertising guru Leo Burnett also said words are the best tool in advertising. Words in expression can inject enthusiasm and soul in our mind. Advertising is something that we are all exposed to everyday. It is also something that is likely to affect us in a number of different spheres of our lives. Advertising takes many forms, in most of which, however, language is of crucial importance. As it is known to all, English advertising is a kind of language. So from the above sentences we can infer that English advertising has close relationship with pragmatics since pragmatics is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. [1] Therefore we can explain some phenomena in advertisements from the perspective of CP and Conversational Implicature theory in pragmatics.3. ConclusionThe theory of conversational implicature is considered one of the key concepts in pragmatics for its powerful explanatory role in language communication. In communication, the meanings of words or sentences depend on certain contexts specified by implicature. The knowledge and correct application of conversational implicature is of great significance in communication and English learning.4. Reference[1] Conversational Implicature Theory and English Advertising[2] 杨婷. Grice会话理论的语用分析——以《红楼梦》黛玉香消玉殒前夕话语为例[J].江西师范大学外国语学院2013.4[3] 李亚敏.从Grice 会话理论看夫妻间的日常对话[M].延安大学西安创新学院2012。

情景教学法

Reflections on the Application of Communicative Approach inEnglish Teaching in High SchoolAbstract: The ability to communicate in English effectively is now an important goal in English language teaching. English as a language should be used as a tool to promote communication. Communicative approach is a method in language learning which is applied in many aspects of language acquisition. In this paper, I will discuss some principles and the application of communicative approach in English teaching in high school.Key words: English teaching Communicative approach Situation CommunicationFrom some experience, Chinese student may have a better pronunciation, but once he tries to enter into serious discussions on a topic in English, his ability of speaking will be found just as wanting as his ability to write.1 This situation leads us to see that it is also necessary to help students to acquire communicative ability and skills in English learning and the communicative approach begin to expend in English learning. Communicative approach aims at develop students‟communicative ability and arouse their interest. It changes the traditional teaching methods which emphasize the form of language itself but not the listening and speaking ability as a teaching method. It provides an effective method for the real purpose of English learning. Communicative approach helps students to realize the functions of different language forms and the purpose of English learning.I. The principles the teacher should be obeyed in English teaching with CA.1.CA should pay attention to the communicative ability.In our traditional English teaching teacher is the leading role in the whole class and the main target is to explain language points, to get the learners to memorize English grammar rules and vocabulary. It is impossible for the learners to obtain the ability to listen and speak English correctly and fluently. If the teacher sends the students the message that the purpose of the course is just to learn information about the language and pass tests, the learner are likely to lose motivation and see English as just another compulsory subject in the academiccurriculum. Since now, we have different demands about English learning, the goals of communicative approach are at least of the following two2:a. To enable the learners to communicate in real English both spoken and written.b. To enable the learners to read technical publications in real English.The expression “real English” refers to the English used both in classroom and in daily life. CA stresses on not the language points but the communicative skills. In order to avoid the situation that many students have learned English for several years but can not use English to express ideas clearly, CA encourage students to speak English in class to train the communicative ability.2.The students should be the main role in class“Learner-centredness3”is another important concept that came to us as the communicative approach spread its influence in China. J.L Roberts (1982) said “all communicative language teaching is learner-centred in the sense that it accepts the imperative of the learner‟s communicative needs.”4 CA is a method in which the students communicate with each other. The teaching aims should be the language communication in the teaching process in which the teachers change their role form leading role to guiding role. The teacher is expected to offer some situations and material which can be described by the students in English or create a situation that can be find in our real communicative environment. The teacher‟role is to try their best to guide the students to perform their communicative skills.3.Do not neglect the grammar teachingGrammar is the basic component in a language. The grammar information plays an important part in communication. The teacher should help the students to find out the grammar mistakes in their communicative process and analysis and explain the mistakes after communication. In this way the students can realize their grammar mistakes to improve their communicative skills.II. The application of using Communicative Approach in English teaching in high school1.The teacher needs techniques for establishing and developing English as themain classroom language. “If you simply …speak English all the time‟ you will quickly drive beginners, and even more advanced learners, to despair!”5 There are many situations that we can use English in the classroom. Such as: ----greetings and farewells, for example: …Good morning‟…See you tomorrow.‟----enquiries, for example: …Would you like to move over here?‟----instructions, for example: …Look at the picture.‟…Open your books.‟----feedback, for example: …You really did a good job.‟These English expressions recur naturally in class. They will become routines for the learners, just as they can learn common expressions if they live in an English-speaking country.6 The first main goal in an English course is to learn how to speak English, so the teacher and student should to establish English as the main classroom language. Keeping use English in class all the time forms the atmosphere of speaking English. Students will osmosis in the situation and be influenced to speak English.2.Train students to think in English.Train students‟ ability of thinking in English is an important method to put the CA into practice. Thinking in English means getting rid of the interference of Chinese and using English to comprehend, judge and express directly.7The high school students prefer translating the material which they have seen or heard into English. That is to say they still use Chinese to communicate and this may lead to Chinglish. For example, some English learners like to use the expression …you go first.‟, …go first, please.‟ when to let others go advanced. But the authentic expression is …after you‟. These expressions are unnatural for foreigners to understand. How to form this ability in classroom is important. The teacher can demonstrate with actions and objects. For example, close your own books as you see …close your books‟, hold up a sheet of paper as you say …take a sheet of paper, one sheet of paper‟. The teacher also can use gesture and mime to encourage students to think and say in English. For example, make the typical gesture with your hand as you say …stand up‟, …come here‟; mime writing as you say …write the answers on the paper‟The students should store these expressions into their minds when they understand after hearing them. Form these simple expressions the students will form the awareness of using English to express themselves gradually and active.anize teaching by various means.As well as working on language, the activity involves students in talking and listening to one another on a personal level.8 This may help to build good relationships within the class and help create a good working atmosphere. The CA to language teaching is thought the belief that the development of communicative language ability is the goal of classroom learning. The communicative practice must be part of the process. These practices should be put into the real situation in our life such as the English of instructions, conversations, magazines, books and the Internet. Create a real situation is the most common used method for students to acquire language skills. For example, when we need to practice how to question we can use a short dialogue like this: T: When do you usually get up in the morning, WanAg Gang?S: I usually get up at half past six.T: When did you get up this morning?S: I got up at six.T: But I didn‟t get up so early. I got up at a quarter past seven.Then the teacher can ask another student to tell what content the student just said. However, these situations should be classified into three parts. The teaching procedure should be arranged form easy to difficult.a. The first part is the primary stage. In this stage, the teacher should create an environment which is helpful for students to acquire the basic knowledge of English. The teaching content should be easy and specific and avoid abstract. The better choices are some dialogues about our daily life or some simple stories which can provide students with immersive feeling. At the same time, students will be familiar with the foreigners‟ life style and answer mode. The content can be holiday, travel, shopping, and some short conversations about the everyday language. For example, asking the directions:A: Excuse me, ma‟am. Could you please tell me where the nearest subway is? B: surely, it is my pleasure, go round the corner in the left and keep going on or two blocks.A: thanks so much.B: you are welcome.The design of these situations should include basic sentence patterns and idioms, the students should memory these words to blurt out in English.b. The second part is the intermediate stage. The aim of this stage is to train students to speak fluently. In this communicative activity in class is to get learners to use the language they are learning to interact in fluent and meaningful ways, usually involving exchange of information. For example, the teacher gives the students a picture and asks them to describe it in English or encourage students to have a brief introduction about some characters. Asking students to listen to a dialogue and set the task which needs them to change the dialogue into a complete passage and retell their passages. Asking them to give instructions so that someone can use a new machine. This stage demands a higher communicative skill to the students.c. The third part is advanced stage. According to the primary stage and intermediate stage, the students already master the basic communicative skills and can speak English fluently to some degree. The teaching content in this stagecan be expanded to discuss different kinds of social problems, such as, the thought of young generation, the social status of women, the generation gap and so on. Various teaching methods can be used in this stage, such as, debating in class about the housing problem, giving a prepared speech of his dream, brainstorming the attitude towards money, playing a drama show in classroom. These kinds of communication can provide students an opportunity to express themselves in English very well and promote their communicative ability. All these methods should happened with facial expression, body language and even some gestures which can help the students to have a better understanding about the actual use of English.III. Pay attention to some problems1.The culture difference between foreign country and ChinaThe English learners are easy to use their mother tongue to communicate with foreigners. For example, the Chinese like to say …Have you eaten yet?‟…Where are you going?‟…How much do you earn each mouth?‟People form English-speaking country does not think these questions are polite for them to answer. Because of the obstruction of mother tongue, English learners can not speak the pure English. Since this situation, when we use CA to teach the students how to express their ideas clearly we also should pass on culture in English-speaking country planned and step by step. In the communication, they should have the knowledge about how and when to say some certain words, where and who to use what kind of expressions.2.Rational use of the teaching materials and situations.Communicative classroom involves the teacher in a wider range of roles besides providing and presenting new language.9 Questions, activities, and pair or group work should be carefully planned to enable learners to participate. A good real of time will be spent on managing learning: setting up activities, organizing material resources, guiding students in group work. A good arrangement about the materials should base on the level of the different students. The activities should not be too difficult for most students to take part in. The same materials can b presented by various activities. Some basic activities such as a dialogue is suitable to the middle level students and the high level students should try some complex activities like retell and report. The creation of the situation should revolve the real life and real communicative environment. All the expressions should be related with daily life.3.Learner participationNot all the students accept the CA in English learning. Some high school students are hard to control or direct, or passive and difficult to inspire. When use the CA , first of all, it is best to use simple activities and then move on the more complexones. Frequent activities in pairs and groups are good for building confidence especially for shy learner. And pay attention never to say “No! Wrong!”every time they make a mistake.The acquisition of language based on the personal experience of communication. The English learning is a process in which the learners should acquire the language ability through listening and speaking personally. For Chinese students, they are lack of the environment which used to communicate in English so the English class is the most available place for high school students to speak English. During the usage of CA in high school English teaching, the teacher can not only use the textbook to teach some language points. The purpose of learning English requires the teacher use different situations to encourage students to use English. Not only the professional knowledge is necessary, but also the teaching atmosphere should be infectious and active. These aspects will be good at carrying out the CA in English learning.References:1.Davies, Paul and Eric Pearse. Success in English Teaching. Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2002.2.Hedge, Tricia. Teaching and Learning in the Language Classroom. Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2002.3.Sun Li. “The Communicative Approach: Our Debt and Obligation to It.”ELT in China Papers Presented at the International Symposium o Teaching English in the Chinese Context Guangzhou, China, 1985. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 1990.4.Scrivener, Jim. Learning Teaching: A Guidebook for English LanguageTeachers. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2002.5.王才仁. 英语教学交际论. 广西教育出版社，1996.6.贾铁群，胡哲. “浅谈交际法在外语教学中的应用.”Read and Write Periodical.6. 12 (2009): 35.7.林媛媛. “浅谈中学交际英语教学法.”Science and Technology Information.14 (2008): 566-7.8.宋波.“交际教学法中英语教师角色的转变.”Science and TechnologyInformation. 29 (2009): 605.。

large language model (llm) talk

large language model (llm) talkLarge Language Models (LLMs) are artificial intelligence models that are capable of generating human-like text. They are trained on large amounts of text data and use deep learning techniques to generate responses.One of the most well-known LLM is GPT-3, which was developed by OpenAI. GPT-3 is capable of generating text in a variety of styles and formats, including articles, stories, and conversations.LLMs have a wide range of applications, including natural language processing, machine translation, and content generation. They can be used to generate text for a variety of purposes, such as writing articles, creating marketing copy, and generating code.However, there are also some concerns about the use of LLMs. For example, some people worry that they could be used to generate fake news or misinformation. Additionally, there are concerns about the potential impact of LLMs on jobs, as they could potentially replace human writers and editors.Overall, LLMs are a powerful tool that have the potential to revolutionize the way we generate and consume text. However, it is important to consider the potential risks and ethical implications of their use.。

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The Application of Communicative Language Teaching Method to Teaching English Grammar作者：姜媛来源：《速读·上旬》2018年第10期Abstract：Cultivating the students’ communicative competence is laid on the final goal of foreign language teaching （FLT）.So the Communicative Language Teaching （CLT） becomes popular in many countries in the world.However，there are rare researches about applying CLT to the grammar teaching.This paper is to discuss the Application of CLT to teaching Englishgrammar.Firstly，make a introduction on CLT，then talk about the development of CLT，last，propose practical suggestions in grammar teaching.Key words：Communicative；Language Teaching method；Grammar teaching；Teaching suggestions1 Introduction1.1 Background of the ResearchIn 1970s，the Communicative Language Teaching （CLT） was introduced to China，and gradually adopted by teachers in grammar teaching.It is important to learn grammar well in order to use English to communicate with others successfully.That is to say，it is very necessary to probe into how to teach English for teachers.1.2 Definition of CLTThe definition of CLT were described from different aspects.Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics （1995） describes；“CLT，which is also named as CA，is a method to foreign or second language.And it regarded the communicative ability as the main purpose of language teaching.1.3 Principles of CLT如下：①Communication principle：Students should be provided much real-life communication to acquire communicative competence in real and contextual communication；②Task principle：Tasks can be better to “provide task-based practice，arising motivation，encouraging learning in a context which benefits learning”；③Meaningfulness principle：involves the language which is very meaningful to English language learner and supports the basic learning process；④Learner-centered Principle：Students are in the center in learning.2 Development2.1 The Related Researches on CLT AbroadChomsky’s （1965） theory was considered as the basis of modern linguistics.He described the differences between competence and performance.Hymes（1972） is the first one to introduce the opinion of Communicative Competence.Canale and Swain’s（1980） contribution is that they made and established seminal work and conceptual schemeon defining communicative competence.Cook （1996） suggested that language expression is a process that people use language to convey different means in different context.Freeman（2005） believed that the application of the grammar in different context can express different meanings.2.2 The Related Researches on CLT in ChinaLate 70s—Mid 80s：There are many experts and scholars starting to write related articles and books that demonstrated and introduced the CLT，including Communicative Approach in British Friends’ Eyes（Qin Xiaomeng，1979） and Communicative English for Chinese Learners （Li Xiaoju，1985）.Mid 80s—Late 80s：CLT is beginning to develop rapidly in China and be applied to English classroom.There are many famous articles and books，such as English （Huang Cidong，1987）and New English Course （Li Guanyi，1989）.Early 90s—Mid 00s：CLT is beginning to be prosperous.More and more schools lay emphasis on adoption of CLT in language teaching：Talk about the Grammar Teaching of High School in Communicative Language Teaching （Liu lina，2010）；Probe into Application of Communicative Language Teaching in High School （Gao guogang，2016）.3 Suggestions for Application CLT to Grammar Teaching3.1 Changing Teachers and Students’ IdeologyThe criteria of new course is to cultivate students’ independent learning ability and cooperative learning ability in task-based teaching，which in turns helps cultivate students’ i nnovative consciousness.Teachers should change their roles from knowledge passers into teaching organizers，and students should change their roles from passive listeners into active participants.3.2 Combining Real Contexts with the Unreal ContextsReal contexts can be used as instruments to help students acquire potential language knowledge in learning process.Unreal contexts are effective to emphasize on language rules，and real contextsfocus on communicative competence.Only teacher combine unreal with real contexts，can students learn language knowledge better.3.3 Combining Learning with PracticeIt is necessary that teachers should give students more chances to practice in real contexts.Only when teachers design many real intercultural communicative activity，provide more chances to speak out for students，and lay students on the dominant place in learning process，can students communicate with people fluently.References[1]Freeman，D.L.Teaching Language：From Grammar to Grammaring[M].Beijing：Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press，2005.[2]Johnson，munication in the Classroom：Application and Methods for a Communicative Approach[M].London：Longman，1981：63.[3]刘丽娜.交际教学法在中学英语教学中的应用[J].当代教育论坛（教学研究），2010：73-74.作者简介姜媛（1994.02—），女，汉族，内蒙古包头人，学历：硕士；职称：无；学习单位：西北师范大学外国语学院；学科教学英语方向。