Context 英语语用学 ppt课件
语用学(英语ppt)
• 1. Existential presupposition: 2. Factive presupposition: 3. Non-factive presupposition 4. Lexical presupposition 5. Structural presupposition 6. Counterfactual presupposition
c. John is not married. c b
2.a. John managed to stop the car. a b & c
b. John stopped the stop the car.
d. John did not manage to stop the car. d c
• A person called Mary exists.
• She has a brother.
• Mary has only one brother.
All are the speaker’s and
• He has a lot of money.
All can be wrong.
The sentence has entailment: • Mary’s brother bought something. • He bought three animals. • He bought two horses. • He bought one horse. • many other logical consequences.
语用学课件
• In an effort to the distortion, pragmatists have tended to focus on examples,where the explicit import is fairly precise,and to ignore equally ordinary cases of implicit vagueness.
• What is communicated? • The generally accepted answer is that what is communicated is meaning. What is a meaning? • All the answers to the what is a meanging question share the view that meaning is what is explicitly expressed by a linguistic utterance
Treating linguistic communication as a model of communication in general has led to theoretical distortions and misperceptions of the data
• The distortions and misperceptions introduced by explicit communication model are not only found in the study of non-verbal communication, but also in the study of verbal communication.
Pragmatists tend to take for granted that a meaning is a proposition combined with a propositional attitude, through they may diverge considerably in the way they present and develop this view.
语用学(英语ppt)
• (2) Mary has a dog. (=q)
• (3) p >> q
• When we produce the opposite of the sentence in (1) by negating it (=NOT p), as in (3), we find that the relationship of presupposition doesn’t change. That is, the same proposition q, repeated as (4), continues to be presupposed by NOT p, as shown in (5).
Entailment-----is sth that logically follows from what is asserted in the utterance. -----Sentences, not speakers, have entailments.
• How to distinguish them?
b is the entailment of a. c is the presupposition of a.---- a >> c
• Mary’s brother bought three horses.
The speaker has the following presuppositions:
• a entails b on two conditions: If a is true, b is true. If a is false, b is true, or b is false.
• a presupposes b on two conditions: If a is true, b is true. If a is false, b is still true.
英语词汇学 第八章课件详细版.ppt
8.2 The Role of Context: 语境的作用
❖ 1.Elimination of Ambiguity. Ambiguity often arises due to polysemy and homonymy. 消除歧义。由于词的多义词和 同音同形异义性，歧义现象经常出现。
❖ Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity. 语法结构也会引起歧义。
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❖ 4) Synonymy.同义词关系 ❖ Synonyms or synonymous expressions
are frequently employed by authors to explain new words. 作家们频繁地使用同义词或同义词组来解释 新词 。
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❖ 5) Antonymy.反义关系 ❖ Contrasting words or statements are also
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8.2.2 Indication of Referents.限定所指
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8.2.3 Provision of Clues for Inferring Word-meaning 提供推断词义的线索
❖ In many cases, when a new word (thought to be) appears for the first time, the author generally manages to give hints which might help the readers to grasp the concept or understand the idea. 在很多情形中，当一个新词（所谓的）第一 次出现时，作者一般会想方设法提供一些可 能帮助读者抓住概念或理解观点的暗示。
语用学中的Meaning and context
Meaning & ContextMeaning•Philosophically-oriented study of meaning: truth-condition•Linguisitically-oriented study of meaning: proposition•Pragmatic studities of meaningTruth-condition•In semantics, truth conditions are what obtain precisely when a sentence is true.• E.g. "It is snowing in Nebraska" is true precisely when it is snowing in Nebraska. Proposition• A proposition is that part of the meaning of a clause or sentence that is constant, despite changes in such things as the voice or illocutionary force of the clause.•Example: The tall, stately building fell is said to express propositions corresponding to the following:"The building is tall.""The building is stately.""The building fell."Pragmatic studies of meaning• 1. Leech's distinction of the verb "mean":Bivalent: X means Y.Trivalent: Speaker means Y by X.•Donkey: 1) ass2)"Janet! Donkeys!"• 2. Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning.• A sentence is a grammatical concept. It is grammatical unit of language. Its constitution should be in agreement with the grammatical rules. For example, a sentence is composed of a subject and an object.•An utterance is a unit of communication. It is the smallest unit which has certain communicative functions,such as a sequencee of sentences, or a single phrase, or even a single word.sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning•Sentence meaning is abstract, isolated from the context, while utterance meaning is specific and related to the context under which a communication is carried out.•In many situations, the utterance meaning is based on the sentence meaning, however it contains more than the sentence meaning, because the utterance meaning is the result of the combination of the sentence meaning and the context.•Eg. He had a chicken.Pragmatic studies of meaning•Thomas'analysis of meaning:•1) Abstract meaning (meaning potentials; semantics)•2) Speaker meaning:a. contextual meaning (utterance meaning)b. force (illocutionary force)• E.g. "It's very beautiful."The garden/ fountain is very beautiful.This place is very beautiful.I like this place.Context•Hymes's SPEAKING•Lyons, J: six variables of context•Downes: kinds of contextual information•The dynamic nature of contextHymes's SPEAKING•Setting & scene•Participants•Ends (goals, outcome)•Act sequence•Key (manner)•Instrumentality (channels & forms)•Norms of behaviors•Genre (category)•Setting and Scene•"Setting refers to the time and place of a speech act and, in general, to the physical circumstances".• E.g.The living room in the grandparents' home might be a setting for a family story.•Scene is the "psychological setting" or "cultural definition" of a scene, including characteristics such as range of formality and sense of play or seriousness.• E.g. The family story may be told at a reunion celebrating the grandparents' anniversary.At times, the family would be festive and playful; at other times, serious and commemorative.•Participants•Speaker and audience.•Linguists will make distinctions within these categories; for example, the audience can be distinguished as addressees and other hearers.• E.g. At the family reunion, an aunt might tell a story to the young female relatives, but males, although not addressed, might also hear the narrative•EndsPurposes, goals, and outcomes.E.g. The aunt may tell a story about the grandmother to entertain the audience, teach the young women, and honor the grandmother.•Act SequenceForm and order of the event.E.g. The aunt's story might begin as a response to a toast to the grandmother. The story's plot and development would have a sequence structured by the aunt. Possibly there would be a collaborative interruption during the telling. Finally, the group might applaud the tale and move onto another subject or activity•KeyClues that establish the "tone, manner, or spirit" of the speech act.E.g. The aunt might imitate the grandmother's voice and gestures in a playful way, or she might address the group in a serious voice emphasizing the sincerity and respect of the praise the story expresses.•InstrumentalitiesForms and styles of speech.E.g.The aunt might speak in a casual register with many dialect features or might use a more formal register and careful grammatically "standard" forms.•NormsSocial rules governing the event and the participants' actions and reaction.E.g. In a playful story by the aunt, the norms might allow many audience interruptions and collaboration, or possibly those interruptions might be limited to participation by older females. A serious, formal story by the aunt might call for attention to her and no interruptions as norms.•Genre The kind of speech act or event.E.g.The aunt might tell a character anecdote about the grandmother for entertainment, or an exemplum as moral instruction. Different disciplines develop terms for kinds of speech acts, and speech communities sometimes have their own terms for types.Lyons, J: six variables of context•(1) Each of the participants must know his role and status.•(2) The participants must know where they are in space and time.•(3) The participants must be able to categorize the situation in terms of its degree of formality.•(4) The participants must know what medium is appropriate to the situation.•(5) The participants must know how to make their utterances appropriate to the subject-matter and the importance of subject-matter as a determinant in the selection of one dialect or one language rather than another.•(6) The participants must know how to make their utterance appropriate to the province or domain to which the situation belongs.Downes: kinds of contextual information• 1. background knowledge:1) Knowledge of the language2) Meta-conversational rules, norms, conventions3) Participants' biographies4) Metasocial rules, norms, conventions5) The encyclopedia• 2. Mutual knowledge•Each participant's knowledge that the other knows that P, inferred on some basis.• 3. Context of utterance1) previous utterances in same conversation2) immediate setting of speech3) previous conversation of participants何兆熊--语境知识，1989The dynamic nature of context• 1. Context is a dynamic and changing notion instead of static and prefixed.• 2. Context can be manipulable or negotiable.An illustration of the interactive function of context•Brenda:I'm pregnant... and it's your fault.•Brenda: I told you to be careful...•Arthur: How do you know?•Brenda: I'm twelve days late.•Arthur: How do you know it's mine?•Brenda: I ain't done owt like that with Jack for a couple of months or more.•Arthur: Well, have yer tried owt? Took owt I mean?•Brenda: Yes, took pills but they didn't work.From "Language and Society" (Downes, w. 1984)Functions of Context•Have you eaten? (吃过了吗？)•Context 1: meet on the way--greeting.•Context 2: with cakes at hand -- inviting.•Context 3: S visits L for the shopping arrangement at 10 am -- urging.The same utterance in different contexts can mean differently and have different forces.Functions of Context-- from the speaker's perspective• 1. determine the content according to the communicative goals. (ends)• 2. determine the mode of speaking according to the communicative setting. How detailed? How polite? How formal?How loud?• 3. determine the communicative channel according to the conditions.Oral or written? Prepared or improvised?• 1. determine the reference assignment.Do you like this?Have you finished the book?• 2. disambiguationFlying planes can be dangerous.Can you speak English?• 3. semantic enrichment.•It will take some time to repair your watch.。
英语词汇学课件chapter 8 Meaning and Context
(1) They saw her duck. (2) The ball was attractive.
Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity, e.g.
Chapter 8
Meaning and Context
Context refers to the words around a word, phrase etc., often used for helping to explain the meaning of the word, phrase, etc.
behavior.
(2) become + pron. /n (used as object), meaning ‘suit, befit’, e.g. 1) This sort of behavior hardly becomes a person in your position. 2) Sarcasm doesn’t become you.
Context is of great importance for the understanding of word-meaning because the meaning is influenced immediately by the whole speech situation as well. Meaning lives in context and the context throws light on meaning. This chapter will discuss the relationship between meaning and context and the ways in which context affects the meaning of words.
英语语言学概论context
Phonological Context Lexical Context Grammatical context
Situational Context Social Context Cultural Context
Phonological context
Phonological context refers to intonation, stress, pause which is used to determine different meanings.
B: In a broad sense
It includes the physical situation as well,which embraces the people, time, pla ce, and even the whole cultural background. It is called extra-linguistic or non-linguistic context
context
made by: 顾佳婧
吴海燕 冯华波 孙露 李宁 陆凯
Content
1 Definition 2 Origin 3 Classification
Definition
A: In a narrow sense
It refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears. This is known as liguistic context or co-text which may cover a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book.
Classification
张维友词汇学chaptermeaningandcontext-ppt课件
Explanation
❖ If the concept is complicated and must involve technical terms in its definition, the author might explain the idea in simple words. That is, he might make a restatement in known words.
“I' m lonely.” Adam told God in the Garden of Eden. “I need to have someone around for company.” “Okay.”replied God. I' m going to give you the perfect woman, beautiful, intelligent, and gracious一she'll cook and clean for you and never say a cross word.” “Sounds good,” Adam said, “But what' s she going to cost?“ " An arm and a leg.” “That' s pretty steep,” countered Adam. “What can I get for just a rib?"
Linguistic context
❖ Linguistic context can be further divided into Lexical context Grammatical context
❖ Lexical context: the lexemes that co-occur with the word in SENTENCE. The meaning of the word is affected or determined by the neighboring lexemes.
语用学
Language is conventional
(there is no immediate, natural connection between a word and what it expresses.） So, if we had to rely on the “natural signs”, our communication would be extremely restricted and difficult.------------paradox of language!
Sum up
What is the context?
Context is about understanding what things are for; what gives our utterances their true pragmatic meaning and allows them to be counted as true pragmatic acts.
Analysis
Cleary, Mark takes Andy’s utterance not as a “real” question. He thought this as the request for asking him the direction. So Mark give Andy directions. But on the other hand, Andy assumed that Mark was not familiar with the campus, so he wanted to give Mark a ride. This is why both of them are confused. The conversation is a dynamic development, that gives us the clue to understanding. But it cannot be predicted. Because the individuals and their individual choices changed at every moment.
语言学教程语用学 PPT
shared knowledge have been identified, e、g、
knowledge of the language they use, knowledge of what
has been said before, knowledge about the world in
afford to investigate the use of language and extralinguistic factors were not to be considered、
[ 《普通语言学教程》的尾句:The only true object of
study in linguistics is the language, considered in
establishment in the 1960s and 1970s resulted from the
expansion of the study of linguistics, especially that of
semantics、
[《新编简明英语语言学教程》P84]
Pragmatics vs Semantics
consideration, semantics spilled over into pragmatics、
③What essentially distinguishes semantics and
pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the
context of language use is considered、 ④If it is not
Context 英语语用学 ppt课件
physical:
the conversation occurs in a library • epistemic: • libraries are quiet places • linguistic: • sarcastic tone of voice (intonation cues are linguistic) • social context: • you have the right to ask someone to be quiet in a
place where people are supposed to be quiet, especially if their rule-breaking is injurious to the needs of others, which overrides the social norm of not giving orders to total strangers.
d. Visiting aunts can be boring. aunts who are visiting / paying a visit to aunts
e. Mr. Webster, the amiable priest, is going to marry Jane at the church. take Jane as his wife / preside over Jane’s wedding
• Here are four sub-areas involved in fleshing out (完 善）what we mean by context.
• physical context
Epistemic（关于认知的）
context
语用学课件整理稿（英文）
语用学课件整理稿（英文）What is pragmatics?Pragmatics is a systematic way of explaining language use in context [Context is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge [knowledge of the language they use, knowledge of what has been said before, knowledge about the world in general, knowledge about the specific situation in which linguistic communication is taking place, and knowledge about each other) shared by the speaker and the hearer.]It seeks to explain aspects of meaning which cannot be found in the plain sense of words or structures, as explained by semantics. As a field of language study, pragmatics is fairly new. Its origins lie in philosophy of language and the American philosophical school of pragmatism. As a discipline within language science, its roots lie in the work of (Herbert) Paul Grice on conversational implicature and the cooperative principle, and on the work of Stephen Levinson, Penelope Brown and Geoff Leech on politeness. Pragmatics is a subdiscipline of linguistics developed from different linguistics, philosophical and sociological traditions that studies the relationship between natural language expressions and their uses in specific situations. The term pragmatics comes from Morris? (1938) general theory of signs: in this semiotic model (semioti cs), pragmatics refers to the relationship of the sign to the sign user. The distinction between pragmatics and semantics, both of which investigate different aspects of linguistic meaning, is even less clear-cut. While semantics is concerned with the literal and contextually non-variable meaning of linguistic expressions or with the contextually non-variable side of the truth conditions of propositions or sentences, pragmatics dealswith the function of linguistic utterances and the propositions that are expressed by them, depending upon their use in specific situations (pragmatics concentrates on those aspects of meaning that cannot be predicated by linguistic knowledge alone and takes into account knowledge about the physical and social world).Distinction between pragmatics and semantics1. same:linguistic studies of meaning2. differenceSemantics is concerned with the literal and contextually non-variable meaning of linguistic expressions or with the contextually non-variable side of the truth conditions of propositions or sentencespragmatics deals with the function of linguistic utterances and the propositions that are expressed by them, depending upon their use in specific situations.Sentence meaning v. utterance meaningIf we take it as a grammatical unit and consider it as a self-contained unit in isolation, then we treat it as a sentence. Sentence means a unit of speech constructed according to language-dependent rules, which is relatively complete and independent in respect to content, grammatical structure, and intonation.If we take it as something a speaker utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then we are treating it as an utterance. Utterance means a string of sounds or written symbols produced by a speaker between two pauses. An utterance can consist of a single word or several sentences.Meaning of a sentence is abstract, and de-contextualized.Meaning of an utterance is concrete, and contextualized.Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.Summary●Language meaning can be analyzed at several levels.●Semantics concentrates o n the meaning that comes from linguistic knowledge, whilepragmatics concentrates on those aspects of meaning that cannot be predicted by linguistic knowledge alone and takes into account our knowledge about the physical and social world.●The focus of pragmatics analysis is on the meaning of speakers? utterances rather thanon the meaning of words or sentences.Utterances need not consist of complete sentences. Each utterance is a unique physical event created at a particular point in time for a particular communicative purpose.What does pragmatics mainly include?The lack of a clear consensus appears in the way that no two published accounts list the same categories of pragmatics in quite the same order. But among the things you should know about are:DeixisSpeech actsPresupposition and entailmentCooperation and implicatureRelevancePoliteness principleDeixisDeixis:The way in which the reference of certain elements ina sentence is determined in relation to a specific speaker and addressee and a specific time and place of utterance.Deictic expressions（指示结构）include such lexemes as:Personal or possessive pronouns （所有格代名词）(I/you/mine/yours),Demonstrative pronouns (this/that),(Spatial/temporal) adverbs (here/there/now),Other pro-forms（替代词）(so/do),Personal or possessive adjectives (my/your),Demonstrative adjectives（指示形容词）(this/that) ,Articles (the).Pro-forms:（替代词）forms which can serve as replacements for different elements in a sentence.A: I hope you can come.B: I hope so.A: Mary is in London.B: John is there too.We invited Mary and John to eat with us because we liked them.A: I like coffee.B: We do too.Two kinds of usages of deixisGestural usage（手势型的用法）: with the help of gestures, with some physical indication of the referent (e.g. direction of gaze), completely context-dependent.He is not the president. He is. He?s the secretary.Symbolic usage（象征型的用法）: with the help of contexts (Gestures are not necessary.We should know the time, space, participants, etc. The communicators are not necessarily present.)This city is highly congested.Non-deictic usages of deixisEndophoric reference（文内照应）: the entity（实体）the deixis refers to exists in the sentence/ passage, the purpose of the use of deixis is for cohesion（粘连）. Mostly third person (single, plural) is used for endophoric reference.e.g.: Peter studies Japanese. He wishes to go to Japan some day.We were led into a big room. Here, it was said, Ford produced his first car.Exophoric reference（文外照应）: the entity the deixis refers to does not exist, and the referential meaning can be judged from the context. Mostly first and second person (single, plural) is used for exophoric reference.e.g.: He?s not the president. He is. He?s the secretary.You can come with me if you like.Some deixis belongs neither to endophoric reference nor to exophoric reference, it doesn?t exist in a context or discourse（文篇）, for example “we”, “you” which do not refer to specific persons; “here”, “there” used in some set expressions, e.g. “Here we are”,”There wego”.gestural usageexophoric referenceDeixis symbolic usageendophoric reference: cohensionCategories of Deixis2.3.1 Person DeixisDeixis depending on the identity of speakers, addressees, and others.1） The basic grammatical distinctions are the categories of first, second and third person ——speaker inclusion, addressee inclusion, speaker and addressee inclusion. [Some pronominal systems exhibit as many as fifteen basic pronouns (ignoring honorific alternates) by superimposing distinctions based on plurality, gender and so on.]2） The first and second person pronouns are usually used in exophoric reference; the third person pronouns (single and plural) are usually used in endophoric reference.e.g. You can come with me if you like.You can never tell what sex some teenagers are nowadays.John came in and he lit a fire.3） Third is quite unlike first and second person, in that it does not correspond to any specific participant-role in the speech event.4）Vocatives（呼语）can be divided into calls, or summonses（呼唤语）and addresses （称呼语）. The distinction is precisely that between gestural and symbolic usages.Summonses are naturally untterance-initial, addresses are parenthetical and can occur in the sorts of locations that parentheticals can occupy.E.g Hey you, you just scratched my car with your Frisbee. (calls)The truth is, Madam, nothing is as good as nowadays. (addresses)4) It is common in many languages for mother to say to father, in the presence of little Billiesomething like “Can Billie have an ice-cream, Daddy?” taking the view, for the purpose of vocative selection, of the audience. These distinctions make it important that we do notconfuse the categories of addressee and hearer.5) In many languages, there are two first person “plural” pronouns corresponding to“we-inclusive-of addressee” （包括谈话对方）and “we-exclusive-of addressee”. （不包括谈话对方）E.g. Let us know the time of your arrival. (exclude the addressee)Let?s go to the cinema. (include the addre ssee)您安心养病吧！我们过几天再来看您。
语用学演示文稿·修改版
三原则运用的顺序
• 列文森指明：量原则、信息原则、方式原 则这三个原则的运用是有顺序的，总的来 说是： •
量原则>方式原则>信息原则
预设
• 德国哲学家弗雷格（Gottlob Frege） • 1892年《意义和所指》（On Sense and Reference） • Voraussetzung(德文，指“预设”) • 1905年 罗素（Bertrand Russell） • 1950年 斯特劳森（P.F.Strawson）
会话含义
• 1.格赖斯的会话含义理论 • 格赖斯在20世纪60年代提出，它完成了从 意义（meaning）到含义(implicature)的过 渡。发展了一种新的推理形式，即语用推 理。
• 2.新格赖斯会话含义理论
新格赖斯会话含义理论
• • • • • • • 列文森三原则： 1.量原则（Q—原则） 说话人不少、受话人不多 2.信息原则（I—原则） 说话人不多、受话人不少 3.方式原则（M—原则） 常规、非常规
• 蕴涵（entailment） • 预设（presupposition） • 列文森：我们需要的是一种由语言词语的 语义详尽说明来预测预设的理论。这样的 一种理论在本质上是混合型的：预设将不 自成一类，而是语义学和语用学之间复杂 的互相作用的一种结果。 (levison,S.C.1983:Pragmatics,Cambridge University Press.)
言语行为
• 1955年奥斯汀（J.L.Austin）(1911--1960) 英国哲学家。 • 言语行为理论（theroy of speech act） • 施为句（performative sentence or performative utterance,简称performative）
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e. Mr. Webster, the amiable priest, is going to marry Jane at the church. take Jane as his wife / preside over Jane’s wedding
Physical context: we can think of this in terms of where the conversation is taking place, what objects are present, what actions are occurring, and so forth.
b. There stood a big stone house at the foot of the hill. a stone house which is big / a house built of big stones
Context 英语语用学
c. I have lost Betty’s picture. a picture possessed by Betty / a photograph of Betty
3. Theories of context 4. The role of context
5. Conclusion
Context 英语语用学
Part 1: Warming up
Can you explain the meaning of the words in italics in each of the sentences below? Explain why and then make some alterations in the context so as to pin down the meaning. a. The police were ordered to stop drinking about midnight. stop people drinking / stop drinking by themselves
Context 英语语用学
When we think about meaning, it is also important to take into account the contribution of context. In simple terms, then, we can think about pragmatics as the study of the contribution of context to meaning.
Context 英语语用学
• Foreign Studies College • Hunan Normal University • 36 Lushan Road, • Changsha City, Hunan 410081 • The People’s Republic of China(CHINA) • Cellphone: • E-mail:
• Here are four sub-areas involved in fleshing out (完 善）what we mean by context.
ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ
• physical context
Epistemic（关于认知的）
context
linguistic context social context
Linguistic context: the linguistic context refers to what has been said already in the utterance. For example, if I begin a discussion by referring to Jane Smith and in the next sentence refer to "her" as being a top notch athlete, the linguistic context lets me know that the antecedent of "her" (the person "her" refers to) is Jane Smith.
Social context: the social context refers to the social relationship among speakers and hearers.
Example:
Think about the discussion of the library scene in Language Files. Two people come into a library and they are talking really loud. They sit at your table and continue their babbling. So, you look up at them and say:
Epistemic context: the epistemic context refers to what speakers know about the world. For example, what background knowledge shared by the speakers is crucially part of our epistemic knowledge when we have a conversation with someone else.
• An Introduction to
Pragmatics
• A Course for B.A. Students
• Instructor:
Prof. Tang Yanling 唐燕玲
Context 英语语 用学
Context 英语语用学
1. Warming up
2. A general description of Context