learner-created lexical databses using web-based source material

Learner-created lexical databases using web-based source material Gregory L.FriedmanThe use of authentic text has been argued to increase learner awareness of lexical form,function,and meaning(for example,Willis1990;Johns1994).The Web provides ready-made material and tools for both learner-centred reading and vocabulary tasks.This study reports on the results of a project in which Japanese university EFL students made use of the Web as a living corpus to investigate the specific contexts and collocative properties of ing an online database, students created a communal dictionary composed of lexis and example sentences culled from web sources,along with examples of their own devising.The language database was then used to facilitate peer teaching of lexis.Work produced indicates that learners paid attention to lexical form,function,and meaning when composing.Introduction One of the roles language instructors traditionally play in assistingvocabulary learning is that of arbiter.Teachers and textbook writerscommonly preselect lexis they have reason to believe is appropriate fora target group in terms of level,frequency of use in native texts or speech,ornecessity for a specializedfield.Instructors also generally have control overthe material that students read.Certainly,there is sound pedagogicalreasoning behind such dependence on the teacher.Learners often lackinformation on factors such as frequency,while instructors usually haveaccess to a wide range of levels and types of texts,such that they are able tofine-tune their selections to their students’needs,interests,and abilities.Yet language learners do benefit from having access to authentictexts—such as newspaper or magazine articles andfiction at native-speakerlevel—that provide the opportunity to encounter lexis in a natural,ratherthan artificial e of such material allows learners to gain anunderstanding of how lexis functions in real-world environments(Willis1993;Johns1994).As Willis notes:The use of authentic text makes it likely that not only structure andnecessary choice but also the typical behaviour of words and phrases willbe captured and...highlighted for the learner.(ibid.:92)One problem,of course,with using such texts is their inherent difficulty,marked as they are by syntactic and lexical complexity,as well as a high 126ELT Journal Volume63/2April2009;doi:10.1093/elt/ccn022ªThe Author2008.Published by Oxford University Press;all rights reserved.Advance Access publication May22,2008 at Biblioteca Scienze Tecnologiche on May 12, 2010 Downloaded fromfrequency of culture-specific references.Learners may quickly loseconfidence when presented with such texts.If,however,learners are allowed to actually choose for themselves texts that are of personal or professional relevance,they may be more willing to engage with authentic material.Student choice is one way to maximize intrinsic motivation (Skehan1991)in which both‘learners’particular interests and the extent to which they feel personally involved in learning activities’are key(Ellis1994: 76).Furthermore,when learners themselves select words to learn that are of interest to them—in particular words that will help them understand a text that they are personally interested in—motivation for vocabulary learning may be enhanced.Involvement in both text and vocabulary selection can thus effectively‘arouse and harness the learner’s curiosity’(Willis1993:92) towards the ultimate aim of increasing his or her understanding and command of L2lexis.The project Setting and participants The project reported on in this paper was carried out in a class comprising second and third year university students whose English proficiency level ranged from intermediate to high intermediate according to the placement criteria of the institution.The course,Internet English,is required for some majors.Though some students came with prior interest in and facility with using the Web,many were relative web novices.Computers and internet access were available for all students in the classroom.As part of the course,students were involved in a variety of internet-based tasks requiring the reading of web text.These included participation in English language web discussion forums of their own choosing,summarizing information found on web pages in oral presentations,finding information for both student-created and instructor-created quizzes,and discussion of favourite websites with others in the class.Engaging with challenging content Students in the class often encountered passages that they foundchallenging due to the presence of unfamiliar lexis.Reading strategies suchas the use of contextual clues to supply meaning or simply reading for gist were not always sufficient;students expressed a desire to better understand what they read.Some students tried using electronic English–Japanese dictionaries to help them through challenging passages.While perhaps effective to some degree,this tactic did not allow for any opportunity to acquire new vocabulary.Rather than simply take for granted a certain levelof frustration and the rapid meeting and forgetting of new lexis,it seemed desirable to make the presence of many new words into an opportunityrather than an annoyance.In response,an ongoing Class Dictionary projectwas begun,with the students in control of the lexis to be included and responsible for correctly pinpointing definitions,finding collocations,and writing example sentences.It should be acknowledged at the outset that not a few voices in the literature have argued against a reductive,word-hunting approach to L2reading methodology(for example,Johns and Davies1983;Johns1997;Feathers 2004).They rightfully point out that the primary purpose of text is toprovide information or imaginative experience,not lexis.Balanced against this,however,is the real need and oft-expressed desire of most students to Learner-created lexical databases127at Biblioteca Scienze Tecnologiche on May 12, 2010Downloaded fromincrease their vocabulary.Taking into account both sides of this issue,Ithought it best to have my students engage with web pagesfirst ininformation-gathering tasks before they began to use the Web to seek newlexical knowledge as well.Gleaning lexis was presented as an endeavourundertaken only to serve the primary purpose of web text,the gathering ofknowledge.The presence of the Web as an integral part of the course offered a way forstudents to deepen their understanding of lexical items by seeking otherexamples,much as professional linguists do in using corpora to pinpointnuances of native speaker usage,such as topical association and collocation.Robb(2003),in a study of variation in collocation among different webdomains,notes some drawbacks to the use of the Web as a corpus—forexample,the inability to search for categories of words or to obtain reliablefrequency counts.He posits against these,however,the Web’s size,accessibility,and the presence of much language that often conforms tonorms of spoken usage(such as that found in forums and blogs)as aspectsthat recommend it to second language study.Process The project comprises six interrelated tasks:1Use of web page texts as sources for lexis.2Use of an online learner dictionary to select proper definitions.3Exploiting the Web as a searchable corpus tofind multiple,in-contextexamples of lexical items.4Population of a lexical database featuring learner-chosen lexis andlearner-created example sentences.5Email communication between students and teacher in order to check,correct,and give feedback on database submissions.6An extension story-writing task,to give learners the opportunity to putnew lexis to use.Each of these will be described,with special attention paid both to thescaffolding steps used to acclimate students to choosing definitions and tothe use of the Web to broaden the range of example sentences available.Scaffolding and dictionary orientation Though many Japanese EFL students own learner dictionaries,their actual facility with using them is often rather limited.To assist the students in becoming familiar with the process of using learner dictionaries,some sample lexical items and web page text were chosen in advance.Links to these pages were provided in an online worksheet(Appendix1).These web pages were chosen for their potential general interest to the students in the class,and short sections assigned that the students could read quickly. Words were chosen from the text on those pages that the students were not likely to have encountered before.Figure1shows the text of a selection from Wikipedia’s Spiderman3page,which formed the basis of the worksheet.figure1Text from Wikipedia(Spiderman3)128Gregory L.Friedman at Biblioteca Scienze Tecnologiche on May 12, 2010 Downloaded fromA given lexical entry in a dictionary is likely to present learners with the challenge of choosing from a list of several different,nuanced definitions. Thus,a controlled-entry approach was used for selecting the words the students would be given to tackle.Thefirst two items,‘bask in’and‘seek’, have single definitions;the second item,‘convict’,features noun and verb forms with a single definition each;and the third,‘bond’,has noun and verb forms with several definitions for each.In this way,the students progressively tackle increasing levels of definitional ambiguity in order to prepare them for the challenges they will be likely to encounter later.1 The text selection was read aloud while the students read on their computers,then the students read it again on their own.Students’attention was drawn to thefirst item,‘bask in’.The class was asked to work in pairs, using contextual clues to decide what part of speech the item represented and to arrive at a guess of its meaning.Students were allowed to use their first language when guessing definitions,with about half choosing to do so. For thefirst few items in the text selection,the instructor coached the class in using the online dictionary.2Key features of the dictionary were pointed out, such as the initial separation of items by part of speech,keyword listing of some definitions,pronunciation,and example sentences.The instructor went through the definitions with the students,asking them to consider which one made the most sense in the given context.For items with multiple parts of speech and/or definitions,the challenge for the students was naturally somewhat greater.Hints and information regarding context, affixes,morphology,or collocation were given when necessary.Of these,thelatter may be the most important in engendering in learners an ecologicalview of lexis:words do not exist in a vacuum,but tend to live next to or nearcertain other items or types of items.Web as corpus To deepen this ecological appreciation of lexis,Google search was used inorder to gather multiple in-context examples.The collocative and associativenature of items was taken advantage of to inform keyword choice whencarrying out searches.For example,the word‘installment’was found on anearlier version of Wikipedia’s Spiderman3page.Students noticed the use ofthe preposition‘of’following the word in both the web page sentence andthe example sentence in the online dictionary.A Google search using‘installment of’netted‘fourth installment of the Indiana Jones Adventures’and‘you’re reading the100th installment of Geek to Live’,among others.The verb‘suspect’was noted to be followed by[+human]items:a name onthe original web page example and a third person pronoun in the dictionaryexample.The search keywords‘suspected’and‘him’netted many instances.(Using the simple past form of verbs may tend to give more useable websearch results;this point will be discussed further below.)Topical associations are also valuable for keyword searches.The noun‘cast’was noticed by many students on movie-themed sites.After clarifying whichdefinition was being used,students searched using‘movie’and‘cast’,finding‘a list of the Harry Potter cast’.Students also noted the word‘crew’often used with‘cast’,leading to an understanding of the differentiationbetween these two movie set occupations.A subsequent search using‘arm’and‘cast’yielded examples for one of the other definitions of the noun.Learner-created lexical databases129 at Biblioteca Scienze Tecnologiche on May 12, 2010 Downloaded fromBeyond content words,functional lexis is of particular value for learners,particularly those enrolled in EAP courses.In this case,as well,the Web provides invaluable opportunities for students to become aware of how such lexis is used.In a Wikipedia article on the book Uncle Tom ’s Cabin ,the phrase ‘many of which’was found:The book also helped create a number of common stereotypes about Blacks,many of which endure to this day.It was not immediately apparent to most students what the meaning or function of this phrase was.A review was given regarding the use of ‘which’as a relative pronoun referring to the head noun of the preceding noun phrase,yet this could only partially satisfy the class’understanding.A web search provided several examples to clarify how the phrase is used:India Blocks Several Web Sites,Many of Which Are Blog Homes.Scene for scene,Paprika is overflowing with dazzling images,many of which walk that thin line between beautiful and terrifying.The class was asked to try to determine which countable noun was being referenced in each case.After engaging with such examples,students were able to create their own example sentences using the phrase.The noodle shop has so many comic books,many of which are boring.My teacher teaches lessons,many of which I forget soon.Careful choice of search terms was found to be key in providing useful results for students.For phrases and collocative items,more useable samples were found by using quotes and by including all particles,determiners,etc.For verbs,using the past tense form in the search terms tended to yield better results (possibly due to the relative contextual clarity present in news stories or personal recountings,both of which often use past tense).The following search results (Figures 2–6)demonstrate the varying degree of contextual support obtained using various search term combinations,in this case for the phrase ‘face a challenge’.figure 2Search term:face challengefigure 4Search term:‘facea challenge ’figure 3Search term:‘facechallenge ’130Gregory L.Friedman at Biblioteca Scienze Tecnologiche on May 12, 2010 Downloaded fromThe results in Figure2show the typical ambiguity found when quotes are not used and the article left out.The next two searches,using quotes (Figure3)and then the insertion of the indefinite article(Figure4)netted slightly better results,though still with enough contextual ambiguity to potentially confuse learners.This evidently stems largely from the common use of the present tense in headlines,which by themselves offer little context.With the addition of past tense morphology(Figures5and6), the results show clearer contexts within which the phrase can be understood.Populating the database Once the meaning and collocative properties of a few words had been established,and further online examples found,the next step for the students was to create their own example sentences.This personalization step is at the heart of the database project.From the point of view of an instructor,it represents a measure of the students’grasp of form,function, and meaning.For learners,it is a key step towards internalization of new lexis.Thefirst time it was carried out,the students were given the task of writing an example for the same item:‘bask in’.After comparing and critiquing one another’s example sentences in small groups,each group chose a sentence to share with the class.Finally,the class selected two sentences:He regretted that he bask in his small success.He basked in his glory of the past.These sentences were used to help populate thefirst entries in the database, giving the class an opportunity to learn how to enter the necessary information.For thisfirst time,selected students read out each part required for the database:word,definition,web page sentence(s),and example sentence.Another student entered each part as read,while the class viewed the process on their centre monitors(Figure7).Note that the student’s original sentence was not edited to match probable NS norms,i.e.‘He basked in the glory of his past’.Unless highly ungrammatical or demonstrating a lack of understanding of the lexical item,student sentences were left unedited.figure5Search term:‘faceda challenge’figure6Search term(Google News):‘faced a challenge’Learner-created lexical databases131 at Biblioteca Scienze Tecnologiche on May 12, 2010 Downloaded fromAfter the first stage,in which the class worked together on a single piece ofweb text and a set of preselected items,the students had free rein to choose words when and where they wished,with only a general goal of at least one database entry per week.Since the class were working on various web-basedtasks on an ongoing basis (for example,reading pages to find information for peer-made quizzes,reading and participating in forums and blogs,preparing presentations based on web research),they had many opportunities to engage in lexical sleuthing in the context of personal-interest,meaning-focused inquiry.Figure 8,extracted from the database,shows samples of student-selected lexis and the example sentences they created.Email communicationEarly on,a few entries in the database indicated that students sometimes had trouble selecting the appropriate definition for their chosen item (or perhaps simply did not invest enough effort in choosing among the multiple definitions)or were unable to write a sentence that clearly captured the basic sense of the item.To remedy this,the class were instructed to send their entries by email so that the instructor could give feedback (Figure 9).After having two entries approved,a student was given approval to work independently.Extension taskIn the final weeks of the course,the students were given a story-writing task to encourage them to make further use of the lexis that they had gathered as a group.To maximize the peer teaching opportunity inherent in the class dictionary,they were asked to utilize two of their own database entries while using three contributed by others.Before submitting their stories,students had to check the sentences they wrote using other students’items with the original contributors,who either gave approval or advice.To help the students get their stories underway,a set of links to story-starter idea web pages was posted on the class homepage.Once the students embarked upon a story idea that caught their fancy,they seemed to have little trouble finding ways to use new lexis within them.Fiction writing allowed imagination to come into play as they built their stories around words or phrases that gave them inspiration (Appendix 2).Finally,the students uploaded their story documents to our class homepage,where they could be read by all.Some students opted to post them on their personal homepages.After reading their classmates’stories,theysent figure 7Database entry 132Gregory L.Friedman at Biblioteca Scienze Tecnologiche on May 12, 2010 Downloaded fromfigure8Sample database entriesLearner-created lexical databases133 at Biblioteca Scienze Tecnologiche on May 12, 2010 Downloaded fromemails with comments to the authors or directly posted comments on their personal homepages.Conclusion Rather than teachers presenting students with texts and vocabulary lists asa fait accompli,learners can be empowered to choose source material that is of personal interest to them and to choose words and phrases that they find interesting or which help them understand what they want to know.The abundance and inexhaustible variety of web text let learners act as lexical sleuths and budding corpus builders,while online tools let them compile their findings for ready reference and peer teaching.Though the method outlined above involved six different online tasks,it is not necessary that the project be carried out in exactly this way.Instructors might choose to use any one or all of these tasks,depending on the type of class,the extent to which computer resources may be available,and the instructor’s own philosophy of reading and vocabulary learning.For example,it is not necessary that the lexical material come from the Web itself;the items might come from other assigned reading material.Learners could also be presented with a specified set of lexis to find on the Web,for example,items from the academic word list.Furthermore,the tasks need not be done during class time.If no computer resources are available in the classroom,students can carry them out on their own and share their findings with one another inclass.figure 9Email communication134Gregory L.Friedman at Biblioteca Scienze Tecnologiche on May 12, 2010 Downloaded fromThis study presented student work produced through tasks that featured specific attributes,such as learner autonomy in choosing lexis to be learnt, collective learning through a database,and creative expression.The study does not show whether these aspects can result in long-term retention either of the vocabulary studied or of the study skills used during the tasks(for example,searching for multiple in-context examples in order to understand vocabulary).However,the work demonstrates that students were often able to understand and correctly apply the form,function,and meaning of the lexical items they chose.Final revised version received November2007Notesonline dictionary have resulted in severaldefinitions being added to the entries for both‘bask’and‘seek’.2This study made use of the online version of the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English.CD versions of this dictionary also contain a pop-up dictionary window that will appear when any word on web page text is clicked.This was used by some students.ReferencesAcquisition.Oxford:Oxford University Press. Feathers,text:Reading and Learning (Second Edition).Toronto:Pippin Publishing,Ltd. Johns,A.1997.Text,Role and Context:Developing Academic Literacies.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.Johns,T.and F.Davies.1983.‘Text as a vehicle for information:the classroom use of written texts in teaching reading in a foreign language’.Reading in a Foreign Language1/1:1–19.Johns,T.F.1994.‘From printout to handout: grammar and vocabulary teaching in the context of data-driven learning’in T.Odlin(ed.).Perspectives on Pedagogical Grammar.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.Robb,T.2003.‘Google as a quick‘n dirty corpus tool’. TESL-EJ7/2.Available at /ej26/ int.html.Skehan,P.1991.‘Individual differences in second language learning’.Studies in Second Language Acquisition3/2:275–98.Willis,J.D.1990.The Lexical Syllabus.London: Collins Cobuild.Willis,J.D.1993.‘Grammar and lexis:some pedagogical implications’in J.Sinclair,G.Fox,and M.Hoey(eds.).Techniques of Description.London: Routledge.The authorGregory Friedman currently teaches in the Global Japanese Studies programme at Meiji University in Tokyo.He holds a Master’s degree in Applied Linguistics from San Diego State University.His research interests include task effects onfluency, complexity,and accuracy of learner output,in particular the effect of scenario drama interaction on output modification.Email:gregapan@Appendix1 Worksheet(excerpt)Read the second paragraph of the Wikipedia article about the movie Spiderman3.n Notice the word basking.1What kind of word do you think it is?(For example,noun,verb,adjective...)_________________2What preposition comes after basking?_____3What do you think basking in his success means?__________________________________________________________ Learner-created lexical databases135at Biblioteca Scienze Tecnologiche on May 12, 2010Downloaded from4Now look up the phrase in the online dictionary,or use your pop-up.What is the definition?__________________________________________________________ 5Now,write your own sentence using this phrase.__________________________________________________________ n Notice the word seeks.1What kind of word do you think it is?(For example,noun,verb,adjective,preposition...)_________________2What do you think seeks means?__________________________________________________________ 3Now look up the word in the online dictionary,or use your pop-up.What is the definition?__________________________________________________________ 4What is the past tense form of this verb?_________________Web search!1Open a new browser window.Go to Google.First,search with just seek.What kind of examples do you see?What are these websites about?What do many people seek on the Web?They seek___________.2What is another thing people might seek on the Web?Think of some ideas with your partner.Write three ideas here:_____________________________________________ Now,search using your ideas.In the search window,put seek[your idea].Write a sentence that youfind:__________________________________________________________ Appendix2Story samples(vocabulary items in bold)1I heard a scary noise in the closet when I was in bed.The noise came out frequently.I was thinking I should leave my room oropen the closet,and I opted to open it.I was really scared,because when Isaw my face reflected in the transparent window,it looked like a ghost!Ishouted because of the surprise.Then I thought that I saw something turned up on thefloor.So I brandishedmy bat.Then it hit my room lamp,and I saw the scattered piece of brokenlamp on thefloor.I couldn’t move like afishbowl idol and shaked with fear.I decided to leavethis room after a short time.I was completely forget about broken glass,so Iinjured my foot.2One day of in the life of George BushYesterday,I slept for a long time and I had a very long dream.I was a famousperson.I turned into,say,George Bush.I did the inaugural address.I writesignature for warring thereafter.I declared thatfighting terrorist,but I wasskeptical about my idea.I said to myself that is the war really for peace?Myacting was reminiscent of the Vietnam War.The war involved many peoples.I was ashamed of own act,when I woke.It was a really creepy dream. 136Gregory L.Friedman at Biblioteca Scienze Tecnologiche on May 12, 2010 Downloaded from。