Contextual Effect and Continuous Intention of Mobile Services (IJMC 2013)
外研版英语初二上学期试题及解答参考(2024年)
2024年外研版英语初二上学期复习试题及解答参考一、听力部分（本大题有20小题，每小题1分，共20分）1、Listen to the conversation and choose the best answer to the question you hear. Question: What is the weather like today?A. SunnyB. RainyC. CloudyD. WindyAnswer: AExplanation: The woman says, “It’s a sunny day today,” which indicates that the weather is sunny.2、Listen to the dialogue and complete the following sentence with the missing word you hear.Question: The man is planning to___________this weekend.A. go to the beachB. stay at homeC. visit a friendD. go shoppingAnswer: CExplanation: The man says, “I’m planning to visit a friend this weekend,”which is the missing word in the sentence.3、You are listening to a conversation between two students in the library.A. The man is borrowing a book.B. The woman is returning a book.C. They are discussing a book they recently read.D. The man is asking for help finding a book.Answer: DExplanation: In the conversation, the man says, “Excuse me, could you help me find the book on ancient civi lizations?” This indicates that he is asking for help finding a book, making option D the correct answer.4、You are listening to a short dialogue at a bookstore.A. The woman is looking for a novel.B. The man is recommending a non-fiction book.C. The woman is asking for help with a school project.D. The man is suggesting a book for a gift.Answer: BExplanation: The woman says, “I need a book on environmental issues for my science class.” The man responds by recommending, “How about ‘The Green Planet’? It’s a great overview of environmental science.” This shows that the man is suggesting a non-fiction book, making option B the correct answer.5.You are listening to a conversation between a student and a teacher.Student: Hello, Miss White. How was your weekend?Teacher: Oh, it was quite busy. I went hiking with my friends. How about you? Student: I stayed at home and watched some movies. I watched a comedy and a horror movie. Which one did you like more?Teacher: I preferred the comedy because it was funny and relaxing.Question: What did the teacher prefer to do during the weekend?A) Watch moviesB) Go hikingC) Stay at homeD) Visit a friendAnswer: B) Go hikingExplanation: The teacher mentioned that she went hiking with her friends, so the correct answer is B) Go hiking.6.You are listening to a radio program about healthy eating habits.Host: Today, we’re discussing the importance of eating a balanced diet. Dr. Smith, can you explain why it’s important to include fruits and vegetables in our daily meals?Dr. Smith: Absolutely. Fruits and vegetables are rich in vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants. They help boost our immune system, improve digestion, and reduce the risk of chronic diseases like heart disease and cancer.Question: What are the main benefits of eating fruits and vegetables according to Dr. Smith?A) Boosting the immune system and improving digestionB) Losing weight and reducing stressC) Increasing energy levels and improving memoryD) Enhancing physical appearance and reducing the risk of chronic diseasesAnswer: A) Boosting the immune system and improving digestionExplanation: Dr. Smith explained that fruits and vegetables help boost the immune system and improve digestion, so the correct answer is A) Boosting the immune system and improving digestion.7、Listen to the conversation and choose the best answer to complete the sentence.A) They are discussing the weather.B) They are planning a trip.C) They are talking about a book.Question: What are the speakers mainly talking about?Answer: BExplanation: The conversation is about planning a trip, which is indicated by the phrases like “We should go there in the summer” and “It’s a great place to visit.”8、Listen to the dialogue and answer the question.Question: Why does the man suggest visiting the museum?A)He thinks it’s a waste of time.B)He believes it will be an educational experience.C)He doesn’t want to go anywhere else.Answer: BExplanation: The man suggests visiting the museum because he mentions that it will be “a good opportunity to learn something new,” indicating that it’s an educational experience.9、You are listening to a conversation between two friends, Tom and Lily. They are talking about their weekend plans.Tom: Hey Lily, do you have any plans for this weekend?Lily: Well, actually, I’m planning to go hiking with a group of friends. How about you, Tom?Tom: That sounds fun! I was thinking of visiting the city museum. What do you think?Lily: That’s a great idea! Maybe we can go together after your visit to the museum.Question: What is Lily planning to do this weekend?A. Visit the city museum.B. Go hiking with friends.C. Go shopping.D. Watch a movie.Answer: BExplanation: In the conversation, Lily says, “Well, actually, I’m planning to go hiking with a group of friends.” This means that she is planning to go hiking this weekend.10、You are listening to a news report about a new research study.News Anchor: According to a recent research study, scientists have discovered a new way to treat cancer. This new treatment has shown promisingresults in early trials.Interviewer: That’s amazing! Can you tell us more about this new treatment?Scientist: Sure, this new treatment involves using a combination of natural substances to target and destroy cancer cells. It’s a non-toxic approach that has fewer side effects compared to traditional treatments.Question: What is the main topic of the news report?A. A new way to treat cancer.B. The benefits of natural substances.C. The history of cancer research.D. The side effects of traditional treatments.Answer: AExplanation: The news report starts with the statement, “According to a recent research study, scientists have di scovered a new way to treat cancer.” This clearly indicates that the main topic of the report is about a new way to treat cancer.11.W: Hi, John! Are you ready for the English test this week?M: Yeah, I’ve been studying hard for it. I think I’m prepared.Q: What does John think about the English test?A: He thinks he is prepared for the test.B: He is worried about the test.C: He doesn’t think he’s ready for the test.Answer: AExplanation: John says, “I’ve been studying hard for it. I think I’m prepared,”which means he believes he is ready for the test.12.M: Hi, Lily! Have you heard about the school trip next month?W: Yes, I have. We’re going to the countryside. It’s going to be so much fun! Q: Where is the school trip going to be?A: It’s going to be i n the city.B: It’s going to be in the countryside.C: It’s going to be at the beach.Answer: BExplanation: Lily answers, “We’re going to the countryside,” which indicates that the school trip is planned for the countryside.13.Listen to the dialogue and answer the question.W: Hi, John. How was your vacation in Beijing?M: It was great! I visited the Forbidden City and the Summer Palace. The scenery was beautiful, and the people were friendly.Question: What did John visit in Beijing?A) The Great WallB) The Forbidden City and the Summer PalaceC) Tiananmen SquareD) The Beijing ZooAnswer: B) The Forbidden City and the Summer PalaceExplanation: The question asks about the places John visited in Beijing.According to the dialogue, John visited the Forbidden City and the Summer Palace, so the correct answer is B) The Forbidden City and the Summer Palace.14.Listen to the passage and answer the question.The moon is Earth’s only natural satellite. It is about 384,400 kilometers away from Earth. The moon is about one-quarter the size of Earth and it takes about 27 days to complete one orbit around Earth.Question: How long does it take for the moon to complete one orbit around Earth?A) 24 hoursB) 27 daysC) 1 monthD) 365 daysAnswer: B) 27 daysExplanation: The question asks about the time it takes for the moon to complete one orbit around Earth. According to the passage, the moon takes about 27 days to complete one orbit around Earth, so the correct answer is B) 27 days.15.W: Hi, John. How was your science project?M: It was quite challenging, but I learned a lot about renewable energy sources.Q: What did John learn about in his science project?A: Renewable energy sources.B: Chemistry.C: Biology.D: Physics.Answer: AExplanation: The question asks what John learned about in his science project. In the dialogue, John mentions that he learned a lot about renewable energy sources, so the correct answer is A.16.M: Have you seen the new movie “Inception”? I heard it’s really amazing. W: Yes, I saw it last weekend. The story is so intriguing that I couldn’t stop thinking about it even after the movie ended.Q: What did the woman think about the movie “Inception”?A: It was boring.B. It was a waste of time.C. It was intriguing.D. It was predictable.Answer: CExplanation: The question asks what the woman thought about the movie “Inception”. In the dialogue, the woman says the story is so intriguing that she couldn’t stop thinking about it, which means she found it interesting and captivating. Therefore, the correct answer is C.17.You hear a conversation between two students, Alex and Sarah, about their weekend plans.A. Alex is going to visit his grandparents in the country.B. Sarah is planning to go hiking in the mountains.C. Both Alex and Sarah are going to a music festival.Answer: BExplanation: The conversation indicates that Sarah is excited about her hiking trip in the mountains, making option B the correct answer. Alex mentions that he will stay in town, implying that he has other plans.18.You hear a news report about a new eco-friendly initiative in your city.A. The city is implementing a new recycling program.B. The government is offering tax incentives for electric vehicle purchases.C. Local businesses are required to use solar energy.Answer: BExplanation: The news report specifically mentions the government’s tax incentives for electric vehicle purchases, which aligns with option B. The report does not mention a recycling program or the requirement for solar energy use, making options A and C incorrect.19.You are listening to a conversation between two students in a library.Student A: Hey, have you seen the new science book we need for our project? Student B: __________.A. Yes, i t’s right over there on the shelf.B. No, I haven’t, but I saw it on the list.C. I’ve read it, but I don’t think it’s available now.D. It’s not on the list, but I can help you find it.Answer: BExplanation: Student B responds that they haven’t seen the book but saw it on the list, indicating they are aware of the book but haven’t physically seen it in the library. The correct answer is B.20.You are listening to a radio announcement about a local event.Announcer: __________.A. The city park will host a free concert this weekend starting at 6 PM.B. All libraries will be closed next Monday for a staff training day.C. The local museum is offering free entry to students this month.D. The school sports day has been postponed due to the weather.Answer: AExplanation: The radio announcement is about a free concert happening at the city park this weekend. The correct answer is A. The other options refer to different events or announcements.二、阅读理解（30分）Reading ComprehensionPassage:In the small town of Willow Creek, there was a local library that had been a cornerstone of the community for over a century. The library was known for its quaint charm and the friendly atmosphere that made every visitor feel welcome. One of the most beloved features of the library was its old, wooden reading room where people could sit and enjoy a good book in peace.One sunny afternoon, a young girl named Emily entered the library for the first time. She was immediately drawn to the reading room, where she noticed an elderly woman sitting at a table, surrounded by stacks of books. Emily approached the woman, who was named Mrs. Thompson, and struck up a conversation.“Good afternoon, Mrs.Thompson,” Emily said with a smile. “I’ve never been in this room before. It’s so peaceful here.”Mrs. Thompson smiled warmly. “Yes, it is. This room has seen many generations of people come and go. I’ve been coming here since I was a child.”Emily was curious. “Do you have a favorite book from this room?”Mrs. Thompson paused for a moment, then re plied, “Oh, yes. It’s a book called ‘The Timeless Garden.’ It’s a story about a young girl who discovers a magical garden hidden behind her house. The book has taught me so much about life and friendship.”As Emily listened, she felt a sense of wonder. She knew she had to find this book and read it herself. She promised Mrs. Thompson she would return soon to discuss the story with her.Questions:1.What is the main feature of the reading room in the library?A. It has modern technology.B. It is surrounded by books.C. It is very quiet and peaceful.D. It is filled with children’s books.2.Who is the young girl that enters the library for the first time?A. Mrs. ThompsonB. The librarianC. EmilyD. The author3.What is the title of the book that Mrs. Thompson mentioned?A. ‘The Magical Library’B. ‘The Timeless Garden’C. ‘The Library’s Secret’D. ‘Emily’s Adventure’Answers:1.C2.C3.B三、完型填空（15分）Title: A Day in the Life of a TreeLast weekend, I went on a nature walk with my friends. It was a beautiful day, and we decided to go to the nearby forest to observe the plants and animals. While we were walking, one of our friends suggested that we should spend some time observing a single tree to understand how it lives through a day.The tree we chose was a big oak, its branches reaching out like open arms welcoming us. As we sat down at the base of the tree, we noticed that the leaves were rustling softly in the wind. The sun was shining brightly, and we could see how the tree was enjoying the warmth, as if it were drinking up the sunlight with every 1.After a while, we noticed tiny insects crawling up and down the trunk of the tree. They seemed to be collecting sap, which is the tree’s way of providing food for itself and its inhabitants. We realized that the tree is not just standing still; it’s very much alive and 2.As the day progressed, clouds started to gather in the sky, and soon it began to rain lightly. The raindrops fell gently onto the leaves and trickled down to the ground, soaking into the soil. This water would be absorbed by the roots and transported to all parts of the tree, helping it grow stronger and taller. The tree appeared to be drinking the rainwater greedily, as though it were 3 after a long period of drought.By late afternoon, the rain had stopped, and the sun came out again. The leaves glistened with water droplets that sparkled like little diamonds. Birds started to sing their evening songs from the branches, and the air was filled with a sense of peace and calm. Our friend remarked that just like the tree needs water and sunlight to live, we too need nourishment and warmth to grow and thrive. The tree serves as a reminder of the 4cycle of life and the importance of being connected to nature.As we got up to leave, we felt a deep sense of gratitude towards the tree for teaching us so much about itself and life in general. We left the forest feeling more connected to the natural world than ever before. The experience made us realize that even something seemingly static and silent as a tree hasa 5 story to tell.1.__________(A. leaf B. branch C. pore D. root)2.__________(A. dormant B. thriving C. stationary D. sleeping)3.__________(A. blooming B. wilting C. thirsting D. blossoming)4.__________(A. constant B. unchanging C. continuous D. ceaseless)5.__________(A. silent B. vivid C. motionless D. tranquil)Key:1.C. pore2.B. thriving3.C. thirsting4.C. continuous5.B. vividThis exercise aims to test the student s’ vocabulary knowledge, reading comprehension skills, and their ability to deduce contextually appropriate words based on the overall meaning of the passage.四、语法填空题（本大题有10小题，每小题1分，共10分）1、The students were asked to write a short story about their summervacation,_____________they had just experienced.A. whichB. whereC. whenD. what答案：C解析：此题考查定语从句的关系词。
阅书心自明的英语作文
Reading is a journey that enlightens the mind and enriches the soul.It is an activity that transcends time and space,allowing us to explore the depths of human experience and knowledge.The saying Reading a book is like having a conversation with the wise encapsulates the essence of this profound connection between the reader and the written word.When we immerse ourselves in a book,we are not merely passively consuming information we are actively engaging with the ideas and perspectives of the author.This interaction stimulates our intellect and broadens our horizons.The more we read,the more we learn about the world,ourselves,and the myriad of cultures and societies that exist.Reading also serves as a catalyst for personal growth and selfimprovement.It challenges our preconceived notions and encourages us to question and reevaluate our beliefs. Through the stories and experiences of others,we gain insights into different ways of thinking and living,which can inspire us to make positive changes in our own lives.Moreover,reading is a source of comfort and solace.It provides an escape from the stresses and pressures of daily life,offering a sanctuary where we can lose ourselves in the beauty of language and the power of storytelling.Whether its a gripping novel,an enlightening nonfiction work,or a collection of poetry,books have the ability to transport us to different worlds and realities,allowing us to experience a range of emotions and perspectives.In addition to intellectual and emotional benefits,reading also enhances our cognitive abilities.It improves our vocabulary,comprehension,and critical thinking skills,making us more effective communicators and problem solvers.Furthermore,it fosters creativity and imagination,as we visualize the scenes and characters described in the text,and engage with the narrative on a deeper level.Despite the digital age and the rise of electronic devices,the value of traditional reading remains undiminished.The tactile experience of holding a book,turning its pages,and immersing oneself in the narrative is a unique and irreplaceable experience.The physical act of reading,coupled with the intellectual and emotional engagement,creates a holistic experience that enriches our lives in ways that digital media cannot replicate.In conclusion,reading is a transformative and enriching activity that offers numerous benefits,both tangible and intangible.It is a means of selfdiscovery,intellectual growth, and emotional fulfillment.By opening ourselves to the world of books,we embark on a journey of enlightenment and selfimprovement that can profoundly impact our lives.So,let us cherish the power of reading and continue to explore the vast universe of knowledge and experience that lies within the pages of the books we hold dear.。
从关联理论角度分析英汉广告双关语
2. Advertising:
● Definition of Advertising： Advertising is the non-personal communication of information usually paid for and usually persuasive in nature about products, services or ideas by identified sponsors through various media. ● Functions of Advertising： ① informing ② persuading
a.明说意义：我们认为我们可以每天送给你一位‚新‛太太。
b.语境含义：我们每天送你一瓶太太口服液。
语境假设：‚新‛指的是很多方面改变得比以前更好。
c.语境含义：您的太太每天服用一瓶太太口服液，就会让您感到
您的太太有很大的改变，包括皮肤，气色，心情等各个方面， 成为你眼中的‚太口服液’能使您的太太 的皮肤，气色，心情变得比以前更好。
On Puns in Chinese and English Advertisements
---From the perspective of Relevance Theory
王学芳
1. Relevance Theory
About Relevance Theory: Communication---ostensive-inferential process (Sperber & Wilson, 1986;1995) Example: 甲：看电影去吗？ 乙： 我头痛的厉害。 informative intention：我头痛的厉害。 communicative intention：使乙放弃邀请。
英汉翻译：心理学术语
感觉记忆(SM)—sensory memory短期记忆(STM)—short-term M。
长期记忆(LTM)—long-term memory复诵——rehearsal预示(激发)——priming童年失忆症——childhood amnesia视觉编码(表征)——visual code(representation)听觉编码—acoustic code运作记忆——working memory语意性知识—semantic knowledge记忆扫瞄程序—memory scanning procedure竭尽式扫瞄程序-exhaustive S.P。
自我终止式扫瞄—self-terminated S。
程序性知识—procedural knowledge命题(陈述)性知识——propositional(declarative)knowledge 情节(轶事)性知识—episodic K。
讯息处理深度—depth of processing精致化处理—elaboration登录特殊性—coding specificity记忆术—mnemonic位置记忆法—method of loci字钩法—peg word(线)探索(测)(激发)字—prime关键词——key word命题思考——propositional thought心像思考——imaginal thought行动思考——motoric thought概念——concept原型——prototype属性——property特征——feature范例策略——exemplar strategy语言相对性(假说)—linguistic relativity th。
音素——phoneme词素——morpheme(字词的)外延与内涵意义—denotative & connotative meaning (句子的)表层与深层结构—surface & deep structure语意分析法——semantic differential全句语言—holophrastic speech过度延伸——over-extension电报式语言—telegraphic speech关键期——critical period差异减缩法——difference reduction方法目的分析——means-ends analysis倒推——working backward动机——motive自由意志——free will决定论——determinism本能——instinct种属特有行为——species specific驱力——drive诱因——incentive驱力减低说——drive reduction th。
(完整版)语用学级期末复习思考题
I。
Put the following English terms into Chinese. (1'×10＝10’)所指对象referent所指论Referential theory专有名词 proper name普通名词 common nouns固定的指称记号 rigid designators指称词语deixical items确定性描述语definite descriptions编码时间 coding—time变异性variability表示反复的词语 iterative表述句 constative补救策略redressive strategies不可分离性 non—detachability不确定性indeterminacy不使用补救策略，赤裸裸地公开施行面子威胁行bald on record without redressive actions 阐述类言语行为 representatives承诺类言语行为 commissives指令类言语行为directives表达类言语行为expressives，宣告类言语行为declarations诚意条件 sincerity condition次要言外行为 secondary illocutionary act等级含义 scalar implicature等级划分法 rating scales副语言特征 paralinguistic features非公开施行面子威胁行为 off record非规约性non—conventionality非规约性意义 non-conventional implicature非论证性的 non—demonstrative非自然意义non—natural meaning (meaning—nn)否定测试法negation test符号学 semiotics构成性规则 constitutive rules古典格莱斯会话含义理论 Classical Gricean theory of conversational implicature关联论Relevance Theory关联原则Principle of Relevance归属性用法 attributive use规约性含义conventional implicature人际修辞 interpersonal rhetoric篇章修辞textual rhetoric含蓄动词 implicative verbs合适条件 felicity conditions呼语 vocatives互相显映 mutually manifest会话含义 conversational implicature话语层次策略 utterance-level strategy积极面子positive face间接言语行为 indirect speech acts间接指令 indirect directives结语 upshots交际意图communicative intention可撤销性 cancellability可废弃性 defeasibility可推导性 calculability跨文化语用失误cross—cultural pragmatic failure跨文化语用学cross—cultural pragmatics命题内容条件 propositional content condition面子保全论 Face-saving Theory面子论 Face Theory面子威胁行为 Face Threatening Acts （FTAs）蔑视 flouting明示 ostensive明示－推理模式ostensive—inferential model摹状词理论Descriptions粘合程度 scale of cohesion篇章指示 discourse deixis前提 presupposition前提语 presupposition trigger强加的绝对级别absolute ranking of imposition确定谈话目的 establishing the purpose of the interaction确定言语事件的性质 establishing the nature of the speech event 确定性描述语 definite descriptions认知语用学 cognitive pragmatics上下文 co—text社会语用迁移sociopragmatic transfer社交语用失误 sociopragmatic failure施为句 performative省力原则 the principle of least effort实情动词 factive verbs适从向 direction of fit手势型用法 gestural usage首要言外行为 primary illocutionary act双重或数重语义模糊 pragmatic bivalence/ plurivalence顺应的动态性 dynamics of adaptability顺应性adaptability语境关系的顺应(contextual correlates of adaptability)、语言结构的顺应(structural objects of adaptability)、顺应的动态性（dynamics of adaptability)和顺应过程的意识程度（salience of the adaptation processes）。
英译汉
英译汉Passage 11.Contemporary technological reporting is full of notions of electronic communities in which people interact across regions or entire continents.翻译：当代科技报道充满了电子社区的概念，在电子社区中，人们在不同的地区或者整个洲之间相互作用。
地区之间或者大陆之间，人们通过电子技术进行交流而构成一些电子社会，这种概念在现代技术报道中比比皆是。
2．For example, electronic communication filters out and alters mush of the subtlety, warmth, contextuality, and so no that seem important to fully human, morally engaged interaction.翻译：比如，对于完全人性化的、涉及精神和心理方面的交流似乎很重要的一些因素包括思维或感情上的细微差异、情绪的热烈程度、不同的场景或环境等，在电子社会中大都被过滤或改变了。
3、Even hypothetical new media(e.g. advanced “virtual realities”),conveying a dimensionally richer sensory display, are unlikely to prove fully satisfactory substitutes for face-to-face interaction.翻译：即使假设有最先进的媒介（比如说高级的虚拟现实），能够传输生动形象的图象，它也不可能是面对面交流的完美替代品。
甚至我们设想的能从更多层面反映更丰富的人类感受的新型媒体（如：技术先进的“虚拟现实”），也不可能完全尽如人意地替代面对面的交流。
Context knowledge representation and reasoning
Context Knowledge Representation and Reasoningin the Context Interchange SystemStephane Bressan1, Cheng Goh, Natalia Levina, Stuart Madnick, Ahmed Shah, Michael Siegel Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139September 9, 1999 – MS revisionsAbstractThe Context Interchange Project presents a unique approach to the problem of semantic conflictresolution among multiple heterogeneous data sources. The system presents a semanticallymeaningful view of the data to the receivers (e.g. user applications) for all the available datasources. The semantic conflicts are automatically detected and reconciled by a Context Mediatorusing the context knowledge associated with both the data sources and the data receivers. Theresults are collated a nd presented in the receiver context. The current implementation of thesystem provides access to flat files, classical relational databases, on-line databases, and webservices. An example application, using actual financial information sources, is described alongwith a detailed description of the operation of the system for an example query.Keywords: context, semantic heterogeneity, integration, mediation, web wrapping1. IntroductionIn recent years the amount of information available has grown exponentially. While the availability of so much information has helped people become self-sufficient and get access to all the information handily, this has created another dilemma. All these data sources and the technologies that are employed by the data source providers do not provide sufficient logical connectivity (the ability to exchange data meaningfully). Logical connectivity is crucial because users of these sources expect each system to understand requests stated in their own terms, using their own concepts of how the world is defined and structured. As a result, any data integration effort must be capable of reconciling semantic conflicts among sources and receivers. This problem is generally referred to as the need for semantic interoperability among distributed data sources.The Context Interchange Project at MIT [1,2] is studying the semantic integration of disparate information sources. Like other information integration projects (the SIMS project at ISI [3], the TSIMMIS project at Stanford [4], the DISCO project at Bull-INRIA [5], the Information Manifold project at AT&T [6], the Garlic project at IBM [7], the Infomaster project at Stanford [8]), we have adopted a Mediation architecture as outlined in Wiederhold's seminal paper [9].In section 2, we present a motivational scenario of a user trying to access information from various actual data sources and the problems faced. Section 3 describes the current implementation of the Context mediation system. Section 4 presents a detailed discussion of the various subsystems, highlighting the context knowledge representation and reasoning, using the scenario outlined in section 2. Section 5 concludes our discussion.2. Why Context Mediation ? – An Example ScenarioConsider an example of a financial analyst doing research on Daimler Benz. She needs to find out the net income, net sales, and total assets of Daimler Benz Corporation for the year ending 1993. In addition to that, she needs to know the closing stock price of Daimler Benz. She normally uses the financial data stored in the Worldscope2 database. She recalls Jill, her co-worker telling her about two other databases, Datastream3 and Disclosure4 and how they contained much of the information that Jill needed. She starts off with Worldscope database. She knows that Worldscope has total assets for all the companies. She brings up a query tool and issues a query:1 Now at the National University of Signapore.2 The Worldscope database is an extract from the Worldscope financial data source3 The Datastream database is an extract from the Datastream financial data source.select company_name, total_assets from worldscopewhere company_name = “DAIMLER-BENZ AG”;She immediately gets back the result:DAIMLER-BENZ AG 5659478Satisfied, she moves on and figures out after looking at the data information for the new databases that she can get the data on net income from Disclosure and net sales from Datastream . For net income, she issues the query: select company_name, net_income from disclosurewhere company_name = “DAIMLER-BENZ AG”;The query does not return any records. Puzzled, she checks for typos and tries again. She knows that the information exists. She tries one more time, this time entering a partial name for DAIMLER BENZ. select company_name, net_income from disclosurewhere company_name like “DAIMLER%”;She gets the record back:DAIMLER BENZ CORP 615000000She now realizes that the data sources do not conform to the same standards, as it becomes obvious from the names. Cautious, she presses on and issues the third query: select name, total_sales from datastreamwhere name like “DAIMLER%”;She gets the result:DAIMLER-BENZ 9773092As she is putting the results together, she realizes that there are a number of things unusual about the data set shown in Figure 1. First of all, the Total Sales are twice as much as the total assets of the company, which is highly unlikely for a company like Daimler Benz. What is even more disturbing is that net income is more than 60 times as much as total sales. She immediately realizes something is wrong and grudgingly opens up the documents that came with the databases. Upon studying the documentation, she finds out some interesting facts about the data that she was using so gaily. She finds out that Datastream has a scale factor of 1000 for all the financial amounts, while Disclosure uses a scale factor of 1. In addition, both Disclosure and Datastream use the country of incorporation to identify the currency, which, in the case of Daimler-Benz, would be German Deutschmarks. She knew that Worldscope used a scale factor of 1000 but at least everything was in U.S Dollars. Now she has to reconcile all the information by finding a data source (possibly on the web) that contains the historical currency exchange rates (i.e. as of end of the year 1993). In addition she still has to somehow find another data source to get the latest stock price for Daimler 4 The Disclosure database, once again, is an extract from the original Disclosure financial data source. Bycoincidence, although all three sources were originally provided by independent companies, they are all currently owned by a single company, Primark.Figure 1Benz. For that, she knows she will first have to find out the ticker for Daimler Benz and then look up the price using one of the many stock quote servers on the web.The Context Mediation system can be used to automatically detect and resolve all the semantic conflicts between all the data sources being used and can present the results to the user in the format that she is familiar with. In the above example, if the analyst were using the Context Mediation system instead, all she would have to do would be to formulate and ask a single query without having to worry about the underlying differences between the data. Both her request and the result would be formulated in her preferred context (e.g. Worldscope). The multi-source query, Query1, could be stated as follows:select worldscope.total_assets, datastream.total_sales,_income, stfrom worldscope, datastream, disclosure, quotes wherepany_name = "DAIMLER-BENZ AG" anddatastream.as_of_date = "01/05/94" andpany_name = andpany_name = pany_name andpany_name = ame ;The system would then detect and reconcile the conflicts encountered by the analyst.3. Overview of the COIN ProjectThe COntext INterchange (COIN) strategy seeks to address the problem of semantic interoperability by consolidating distributed data sources and providing a unified view. COIN technology presents all data sources as SQL relational databases by providing generic wrappers for them. The underlying integration strategy, called the COIN model, defines a novel approach for mediated [9] data access in which semantic conflicts among heterogeneous systems are automatically detected and reconciled by the Context Mediator.3.1 The COIN FrameworkThe COIN framework is composed of both a data model and a logical language, COINL [11], derived from the family of F-Logic [10]. The data model and language are used to define the domain model of the receiver and data source and the context [12] associated with them. The data model contains the definitions for the “types” of information units (called semantic types) that constitute a common vocabulary for capturing the semantics of data in disparate systems. Contexts, associated with both information sources and receivers, are collections of statements defining how data should be interpreted and how potential conflicts (differences in the interpretation) should be resolved. Concepts such as s emantic-objects, attributes, modifiers, and conversion functions define the semantics of data inside and across contexts. Together with the deductive and object-oriented features inherited from F-Logic, the COIN data model and COINL constitute an appropriate and expressive framework for representing semantic knowledge and reasoning about semantic heterogeneity.3.2 Context MediatorThe Context Mediator is the heart of the COIN project. Mediation is the process of rewriting queries posed in the receiver's context into a set of mediated queries where all actual conflicts are explicitly resolved and the result is reformulated in the receiver context. This process is based in an abduction [13] procedure that determines what information is needed to answer the query and how conflicts should be resolved by using the axioms in the different contexts involved. Answers generated by the mediation unit can be both extensional and intentional. Extensional answers correspond to the actual data retrieved from the various sources involved. Intentional answers, on the other hand, provide only a characterization of the extensional answer without actually retrieving data from the data sources. In addition, the mediation process supports queries on the semantics of data that are implicit in the different systems. There are referred to as knowledge-level queries as opposed to d ata-level queries that are enquires on the factual data present in the data sources. Finally, integrity knowledge on one source or across sources can be naturally involved in the mediation process to improve the quality and information content of the mediated queries and ultimately aid in the optimization of the data access.3.3 System PerspectiveFrom a system perspective, the COIN strategy combines the best features of the loose- and tight-couplingapproaches to semantic interoperability [14] among autonomous and heterogeneous systems. Its modular design and implementation, depicted in Figure 2, funnels the complexity of the system into manageable chunks, enables sources and receivers to remain loosely-coupled to one another, and sustains an infrastructure for data integration.This modularity, both in the components and the protocol, also keeps our infrastructure scalable, extensible, and accessible [2]. By scalability , we mean that the complexity of creating and administering the mediation services does not increase exponentially with the number of sources and receivers that participate. Extensibility refers to theability to incorporate changes into the system in a graceful manner; in particular, local changes do not have adverse effects on other parts of the system. Finally, accessibility refers to how a user, in terms of its ease-of-use, perceives the system and flexibility in supporting a variety of queries.3.4 Application DomainsThe COIN technology can be applied to a variety of scenarios where information needs to be shared amongstheterogeneous sources and receivers. The need for this novel technology in the integration of disparate data sources can be readily seen in many examples.We have already seen one application of context mediation technology in the financial domain in the previous section. There are many information providers that provide historical data and other research both to institutions (investment banks, brokerages) as well as individual investors. Most of the time this information is presented in different formats and must be interpreted with different rules. Obvious examples are scale-factors and currency of monetary figures. Much more subtle mismatches of assumptions across sources or even inside one source can be critical in the process of financial decision making. Many such examples have been discovered as part of this research effort.In the domain of manufacturing inventory control, the ability to access design, engineering, manufacturing and inventory data pertaining to all parts, components, and assemblies vital to any large manufacturing process.Typically, thousands of contractors play roles and each contractor tends to set up its data in its own individualistic manner. Managers may need to reconcile inputs received from various contractors in order to optimize inventory levels and ensure overall productivity and effectiveness. As another example, the modern health care enterprise lies at the nexus of several different industries and institutions. Within a single hospital, different departments (e.g. internal medicine, medical records, pharmacy, admitting, and billing) maintain separate information systems yet must share data in order to ensure high levels of care. Medical centers and local clinics not only collaborate with one another but with State and Federal regulators, insurance companies, and other payer institutions. This sharing requires reconciling differences such as those of procedure codes, medical supplies, classification schemes, and patient records. Similar situations have been found in almost every industry. Other industries studied in this research effort include government and military organizations.4. The COIN ArchitectureThe feasibility and features of this proposed strategy have been demonstrated in a working system that provides mediated access to both on-line structured databases and semi-structured data sources such as web sites. Theinfrastructure leverages on the World Wide Web in a number of ways. First, COIN relies on the hypertext transferprotocol for the physical connectivity among sources and receivers and the different mediation components and Figure 2: Context MediatorInterfaceRelational Databases Web pagesservices. Second, COIN employs the hypertext markup Language and Java for the development of portable user interfaces. Figure 3 shows the architecture of the COIN system. It consists of three distinct groups of processes.??Client Processes provide the interaction with receivers and route all database requests to the Context Mediator.An example of a client process is the multi-database browser [15], which provides a point-and-click interface for formulating queries to multiple sources and for displaying the answers obtained. Specifically, anyapplication program that issues queries to one or more sources can be considered a client process.??Server Processes refer to database gateways and wrappers. Database gateways provide physical connectivity to a database on a network. The goal is to insulate the Mediator Process from the idiosyncrasies of different database management systems by providing a uniform protocol for database access as well as canonical query language (and data model) for formulating the queries. Wrappers provide richer functionality by allowing semi-structured documents on the World Wide Web to be queried as if they were relational databases. This is accomplished by defining an export schema for each of these web sites and describing how attribute-values can be extracted from a web site using a finite automaton with pattern matching [16].??Mediator Processes refer to the system components that collectively provide the mediation services. These include SQL-to-datalog compiler, context mediator, and query planner/optimizer and multi-databaseexecutioner. SQL-to-Datalog compiler translates a SQL query into its corresponding datalog format. The Context Mediator rewrites the user-provided query into a mediated query with all the conflicts resolved. The planner/optimizer produces a query evaluation plan based on the mediated query. The multi-databaseexecutioner processes the query plan generated by the planner. It dispatches sub-queries to the server processes, collates the intermediary results, converts the result into the client context, and returns the reformulated answer to the client processes.Of these three distinct groups of processes, the most relevant to our discussion of context knowledge and reasoning are the mediator processes. We will start by explaining the domain model and then discuss the prototype system.Figure 3: COIN System Overview4.1 Domain Model and Context definitionThe first thing that we need to do is specify the domain model for the domain that we are working in. A domain model specifies the semantics of the “types'” of information units, which constitutes a common vocabulary used in capturing the semantics of data in disparate sources. In other words it defines the ontology which will be used. The various semantic types, the type hierarchy, and the type signatures (for attributes and modifiers) are all defined in the domain model. Types in the generalized hierarchy are rooted to system types, i.e. types native to the underlying system such as integers, strings, real numbers etc.Figure 4 depicts part of the domain model that is used in our example. In the domain model described, there are three kinds of relationships expressed.??Inheritance: This is the classic type inheritance relationship. All semantic types inherit from basic system types. In the domain model, type companyFinancials inherits from basic type string. ??Attributes: In COIN [17], objects have two forms of properties, those which are structural properties of the underlying data source and those that encapsulate the underlying assumptions about a particular piece of data. Attributes access structural properties of the semantic object in question. For instance, the semantic type companyfinancials has two attributes, company and fyEnding . Intuitively, these attributes define a relationship between objects of the corresponding semantic types. Here, the relationship formed by the company attribute states that for any company financial in question, there must be corresponding company to which that company financial belongs. Similarly, the fyEnding attribute states that every company financial object has a date when it was recorded. ??Modifiers: These define a relationship between semantic objects of the corresponding semantic types. The difference though is that the values of the semantic objects defined by the modifiers have varying interpretations depending on the context. Looking once again at the domain model, the semantic type companyFinancials defines two modifiers, scaleFactor and currency . The value of the object returned by the modifier scaleFactor depends on a given context. Once we have defined the domain model, we need to define the contexts for all the sources. In our case, we have several data sources with the assumptions about their data in figure 5. A simplified view of what the context might be for the Worldscope data source is:modifier(companyFinancials, O, scaleFactor, c_ws, M):-cste(basic, M, c_ws, 1000).modifier(companyFinancials, O, currency, c_ws, M):-cste(currencyType, M, c_ws, "USD").modifier(date, O, dateFmt, c_ws, M):-cste(basic, M, c_ws, "American Style /").Inheritance Attribute ModifierFigure 4:Financial Domain ModelFigure 5: Context TableEach statement refers to a potential conflict that needs to be resolved by the system. Yet another way to look at it is that each statement corresponds to a modifier relation in the actual domain model. From the domain model shown in Figure 4, we notice that the object CompanyFinancials has two modifiers, scaleFactor and currency. Correspondingly, the first two statements define these two modifiers. Looking at the context table in Figure 5, we notice that the value of the scaleFactor in the W orldscope context is 1000. The first statement represents that fact. It states that the modifier scaleFactor for the object O of type companyFinancials in the context c_ws is the object M where (the second line) the object M is a constant (cste) of type basic and has a value of 1000 in the context c_ws. In the case of the Worldscope data source, all the financial amounts have a scale factor of 1000. That means that in order to get the actual amount of total assets, we will have to multiply the amount returned from the data source by 1000. The next clause determines the currency to be in USD (i.e., US dollars). The last clause tells the system that the format of the date string in the Worldscope is of type American Style with “/” as the delimiting character (mm/dd/yy).One last thing that needs to be provided as part of a context is the set of conversion functions between different contexts. An example is the conversion between scale factors in different contexts. Following is the conversion routine that is used when scale factors are not equal. The function states that in order to perform conversion of the modifier scaleFactor for the object _O of semantic type c ompanyFinancials in the context C txt where the modifier value in the source is Mvs and the object _O’s value in the source context is Vs and the modifier value in the target context is Mvt and the object _O’s value in the target context is Vt, we first find out the Ratio between the modifier value in the source context and the modifier value in the target context. We then determine the object's value in the target context by multiplying its value in the source context with the Ratio. Vt now contains the appropriately scaled value for the object _O in the target context.Note that these conversion rules are defined independent of any specific source or receiver context, the Context Mediator determines if or when such a conversion is needed.cvt(companyFinancials, _O, scaleFactor, Ctxt,Mvs, Vs, Mvt, Vt) :-Ratio is Mvs / Mvt,Vt is Vs * Ratio.4.2 Elevation AxiomsThe mapping of data and data-relationships from the sources to the domain model is accomplished via the elevation axioms. There are three distinct operations that define the elevation axioms:??Define a virtual semantic relation corresponding to each extensional relation.??Assign to each semantic object defined its value in the context of the source.??Map the semantic objects in the semantic relation to semantic types defined in the domain model and make explicit any implicit links (attribute initialization) represented by the semantic relation.We will use the example of the relation Worldscope to show how the relation is elevated. The Worldscope relation is a table in an Oracle database and has the following columns:Name TypeCOMPANY_NAME VARCHAR2(80)LATEST_ANNUAL_FINANCIAL_DATE VARCHAR2(10)CURRENT_OUTSTANDING_SHARES NUMBERNET_INCOME NUMBERSALES NUMBERCOUNTRY_OF_INCORP VARCHAR2(40)TOTAL_ASSETS NUMBERAnd here is what part of the elevated relation looks like:'WorldcAF_p'(skolem(companyName, Name, c_ws, 1, 'WorldcAF'( Name, FYEnd, Shares, Income, Sales, Assets, Incorp)),skolem(date, FYEnd, c_ws, 2, 'WorldcAF'( Name, FYEnd, Shares, Income, Sales, Assets, Incorp)),skolem(basic, Shares, c_ws, 3, 'WorldcAF'( Name, FYEnd, Shares, Income, Sales, Assets, Incorp)),skolem(companyFinancials, Income, c_ws, 4, 'WorldcAF'( Name, FYEnd, Shares, Income, Sales, Assets, Incorp)),skolem(companyFinancials, Sales, c_ws, 5, 'WorldcAF'( Name, FYEnd, Shares, Income, Sales, Assets, Incorp)),skolem(companyFinancials, Assets, c_ws, 6, 'WorldcAF'( Name, FYEnd, Shares, Income, Sales, Assets, Incorp)),skolem(countryName, Incorp, c_ws, 7, 'WorldcAF'( Name, FYEnd, Shares, Income, Sales, Assets, Incorp))) :- 'WorldcAF'(Name, FYEnd, Shares, Income, Sales, Assets, Incorp).We first define a semantic relation for Worldscope. A semantic relation is then defined on the semantic objects in the corresponding relation attributes. The data elements derived from the extensional relation are mapped to semantic objects. These semantic objects define a unique object-id for each data element. In the example above each skolem term defines a unique semantic object corresponding to each attribute of the extensional relation. In addition to mapping each physical relation to a corresponding semantic object, we also define and initialize other relations defined in the domain model. The relations that come under this category are attribute and modifiers.4.3 Mediation SystemIn the following sections, we will describe each subsystem. We will use the application scenario of the financial analyst trying to gather information about Daimler Benz Corporation. We will use Query1, as presented in Section 2.1, as an example multi-source query. We then describe the application as it is programmed, explaining the domain and how the context information for various sources is specified. Then we will follow the query as it passes through each subsystem.Query1 is intended to gather financial data for the Daimler Benz Corporation for the year 1993. We get net assets from the Worldscope data source, net sales from the Datastream data source, net income from the Disclosure data source and the latest quotes from Quote data source, which happens to be the CNN web quote server. We will be asking the query in the Worldscope context (i.e., the result of the query will be returned in the Worldscope context.)4.3.1 SQL to Datalog Query CompilerThe first step is to parse the SQL into its corresponding datalog form and using the elevation axioms it elevates the data sources into its corresponding elevated data objects. The corresponding datalog for the SQL query above is: answer(total_assets, total_sales, net_income, last) :-WorldcAF_p(V27, V26, V25, V24, V23, V22, V21),DiscAF_p(V20, V19, V18, V17, V16, V15, V14),DStreamAF_p(V13, V12, V11, V10, V9, V8),quotes_p(V7, q_last),Value(V27, c_ws, V5),V5 = "DAIMLER-BENZ AG",Value(V13, c_ws, V4),V4 = "01/05/94",Value(V12, c_ws, V3),V5 = V3,Value(V20, c_ws, V2),V5 = V2,Value(V7, c_ws, V1),V5 = V1,Value(V22, c_ws, total_assets),Value(V17, c_ws, total_sales),Value(V11, c_ws, net_income),Value(q_last, c_ws, last).As can be seen, the query now contains elevated data sources along with a set of predicates that map each attribute to its value in the corresponding context. Since the user asked the query in the Worldscope context (denoted byc_ws), the last four predicates in the translated query ascertain that the actual values returned as the solution of the query need to be in the Worldscope context. The resulting unmediated datalog query is then fed to the mediation engine.4.3.2 Mediation EngineThe mediation engine is the part of the system that detects and resolves possible semantic conflicts. In essence, the mediation is a query rewriting process. The actual mechanism of mediation is based on an Abduction Engine [13]. The engine takes a datalog query and a set of domain model axioms and computes a set of abducted queries such that the abducted queries have all the differences resolved. The system does that by incrementally testing for potential semantic conflicts and introducing conversion functions for the resolution of those conflicts. The mediation engine as its output produces a set of queries that take into account all the possible cases given the various conflicts. Using the above example and with the domain model and contexts stated above, we would get the set of abducted queries shown below:answer(V108, V107, V106, V105) :-datexform(V104, "European Style -", "01/05/94", "American Style /"),Name_map_Dt_Ws(V103, "DAIMLER-BENZ AG"),Name_map_Ds_Ws(V102, "DAIMLER-BENZ AG"),Ticker_Lookup2("DAIMLER-BENZ AG", V101, V100),WorldcAF("DAIMLER-BENZ AG", V99, V98, V97, V96, V108, V95),DiscAF(V102, V94, V93, V92, V91, V90, V89),V107 is V92 * 0.001,Currencytypes(V89, USD),DStreamAF(V104, V103, V106, V88, V87, V86),Currency_map(USD, V86),quotes(V101, V105).answer(V85, V84, V83, V82) :-datexform(V81, "European Style -", "01/05/94", "American Style /"),Name_map_Dt_Ws(V80, "DAIMLER-BENZ AG"),Name_map_Ds_Ws(V79, "DAIMLER-BENZ AG"),Ticker_Lookup2("DAIMLER-BENZ AG", V78, V77),WorldcAF("DAIMLER-BENZ AG", V76, V75, V74, V73, V85, V72),DiscAF(V79, V71, V70, V69, V68, V67, V66),V84 is V69 * 0.001,Currencytypes(V66, USD),DStreamAF(V81, V80, V65, V64, V63, V62),Currency_map(V61, V62),<>(V61, USD),datexform(V60, "European Style /", "01/05/94", "American Style /"),olsen(V61, USD, V59, V60),V83 is V65 * V59,quotes(V78, V82).answer(V58, V57, V56, V55) :-datexform(V54, "European Style -", "01/05/94", "American Style /"),Name_map_Dt_Ws(V53, "DAIMLER-BENZ AG"),Name_map_Ds_Ws(V52, "DAIMLER-BENZ AG"),Ticker_Lookup2("DAIMLER-BENZ AG", V51, V50),WorldcAF("DAIMLER-BENZ AG", V49, V48, V47, V46, V58, V45),。
2022年考研考博-考博英语-湖南师范大学考试全真模拟易错、难点剖析AB卷(带答案)试题号：78
2022年考研考博-考博英语-湖南师范大学考试全真模拟易错、难点剖析AB卷（带答案）一.综合题(共15题)1.单选题A magician’s talk creates a（）of attention so that people do not see how he does his tricks. 问题1选项A.vacuumB.concentrationC.divisionD.diversion【答案】D【解析】vacuum真空；concentration集中；division区分；diversion转移，分散注意力。
句意：魔术师的谈话转移了人们的注意力，使人们看不见他是如何表演魔术的。
选项D符合句意。
2.单选题Originally designed as work clothes for miners, jeans are now worm by all segments of society, their appeal ______ by their comfort and affordability.问题1选项A.overwhelmedB.corrodedplicatedD.broadened 【答案】D【解析】考查动词辨析。
A选项overwhelmed“（感情或感觉）充溢，难以禁受；击败，征服”；B选项corroded“腐蚀，侵蚀”；C选项complicated“使复杂”；D选项broadened“扩宽，扩大”。
句意：牛仔裤最初是为矿工设计的工作服，现在受到社会各阶层的追捧，它的吸引力因为舒适和实惠的特点而______。
这里要填的是牛仔裤的吸引力因为舒适和实惠的特点而怎么样，D选项broadened“扩宽，扩大”符合题意，也对应前面牛仔裤受欢迎的特点。
因此D选项正确。
3.单选题The elegant decorations （）the gym into a starlit ballroom.问题1选项A.transplantedB.transferredC.transcendedD.transformed【答案】D【解析】transplant移植, 迁移；transfer转让, 移交；transcend胜过, 超越；transform改变, 转换。
顺应论语言语境的英文
顺应论语言语境的英文In recent years, there has been a growing emphasis on the importance of language context in effective communication. Context plays a crucial role in understanding the meaning behind words and sentences. The concept of context is particularly relevant in the study of linguistics and language learning. In this article, we will explore the significance of context in adhering to the principles of the Analects of Confucius, one of the most influential texts in Chinese philosophy.The Analects, also known as the Lunyu, is a collection of teachings and conversations of Confucius and his disciples. It covers a wide range of topics, including ethics, morality, education, and social relationships. The text is written in Classical Chinese, which poses challenges for modern readers in comprehending its profound meaning. However, by considering the language context, we can gain a deeper understanding of the Analects and apply its principles in our daily lives.To begin with, the context of the Analects helps us interpret the meanings of certain words and phrases. Chinese characters often have multiple meanings, and the intended meaning can vary depending on the context. For example, the word "仁" (ren) is commonly translated as "benevolence" or "humanity." However, in the Analects, the context of the word suggests a broader concept of virtuous behavior and the cultivation of moral character. By understanding the context, we can avoid misinterpretation and grasp the true essence of Confucian teachings.Furthermore, the context of the Analects enables us to appreciate the cultural and historical background of Confucius and his disciples. Confucius lived during the Spring and Autumn Period in ancient China, a time of political and social turmoil. The Analects reflect the Confucian values and principles that were developed in response to the chaotic social conditions of the time. By understanding the historical context, we can better appreciate the relevance of the Analects in addressing contemporary issues and challenges.Moreover, the language context of the Analects provides insights into the interpersonal relationships and social hierarchy prevalent in ancient China. Confucius emphasized the importance of filial piety, respect for elders, and hierarchical order in society. By examining the language and interactions in the Analects, we can gain a deeper understanding of the Confucian social and moral codes. This understanding can guide us in building harmonious relationships and promoting social harmony in our own lives.In addition, the language context of the Analects helps us understand the rhetorical devices and stylistic features employed by Confucius. Confucius was known for his concise and thought-provoking statements, often using rhetorical questions and metaphors. By analyzing the language context, we can unravel the layers of meaning and appreciate the artistry of Confucius's teachings. This understanding can enhance our own communication skills and enable us to convey our thoughts effectively.In conclusion, the language context of the Analects plays a crucial role in understanding and applying its teachings. By considering the context, we can interpret the meanings of words and phrases, appreciate the cultural and historical background, understand the social and moral codes, and appreciate the rhetorical devices employed by Confucius. The Analects serves as a guide for ethical behavior, personal development, and social harmony. By applying the principles of the Analects in our daily lives, we can foster a more virtuous and harmonious society.。
(7)关联理论
Dan Sperber(1942-)
With its first formal presentation in the book, it aims to lay a foundation for a unified theory of cognitive science and together with an attempt to shift the whole center of gravity of pragmatics to a general theory of cognition. As pragmatic interpretation is substantially seen as a psychological matter governed by the cognitive principle and communicative principle, RT has been considered the fundamentals of cognitive pragmatics because of its explanatory potential and promise for the future.
It has also provided a brand-new perspective and approach to study communicative and pragmatic problems.
2. The main ideas
(1) Ostensive-inferential communication
(3) Mutual cognitive environment Any shared cognitive environment in which it is manifest which people share it is what we will call a mutual cognitive environment.
专八语言学知识点
第一节语言的本质一、语言的普遍特征（Design Features）1.任意性 Arbitrariness：shu 和Tree都能表示“树”这一概念；同样的声音，各国不同的表达方式2.双层结构Duality：语言由声音结构和意义结构组成（the structure of sounds andmeaning）3.多产性productive:语言可以理解并创造无限数量的新句子，是由双层结构造成的结果（Understand and create unlimited number with sentences）4.移位性 Displacement：可以表达许多不在场的东西，如过去的经历、将来可能发生的事情，或者表达根本不存在的东西等5.文化传播性 Cultural Transmission：语言需要后天在特定文化环境中掌握二、语言的功能（Functions of Language）1. 1. 传达信息功能 Informative：最主要功能The main function2. 2. 人际功能 Interpersonal：人类在社会中建立并维持各自地位的功能establish and maintain their identity3. 3. 行事功能 performative：现实应用——判刑、咒语、为船命名等Judge，naming，and curses4. 4. 表情功能 Emotive：表达强烈情感的语言，如感叹词/句exclamatoryexpressions5. 5. 寒暄功能 Phatic：应酬话phatic language，比如“吃了没？”“天儿真好啊！”等等6. 6. 元语言功能 Metalingual：用语言来谈论、改变语言本身，如book可以指现实中的书也可以用“book这个词来表达作为语言单位的“书”三、语言学的分支1. 核心语言学 Core linguisticl 语音学 Phonetics：关注语音的产生、传播和接受过程，着重考察人类语言中的单音。
语言学专业词汇中英文对照版
语言学术语（英-汉对照）表Aabbreviation 缩写词，略语ablative 夺格，离格accent 重音（符）accusative 宾格achievement test 成绩测试acoustic phonetics 声学语音学acquisition 习得acronym 缩略语action process 动作过程actor 动作者address form 称呼形式addressee 受话人addresser 发话人adjective 形容词adjunct 修饰成分附加语adverb 副词affix 词缀affixation词缀附加法affricate 塞擦音agreement 一致关系airstream 气流alliteration 头韵allomorph 词/语素变体allophone 音位变体allophonic variation 音位变体allophony音位变体现象alveolar ridge 齿龈alveolar 齿龈音ambiguity 歧义analogical creation 类推造字anapest 抑抑扬格anaphor 前指替代anaphoric reference 前指照应animate 有生命的annotation 注解antecedent 先行词前在词anthropologicallinguistics 人类语言学anticipatorycoarticulation 逆化协同发音antonomasia 换称代类名antonym 反义词antonymy 反义(关系）appellative 称谓性applied linguistics 应用语言学applied sociolinguistics应用社会语言学appropriacy 适宜性appropriateness 适宜性得体性approximant 无摩擦延续音aptitude test 素质测试Arabic 阿拉伯语arbitrariness 任意性argument 中项中词主目article 冠词articulation 发音articulator 发音器官articulatory phonetics 发音语音学artificial speech 人工言语aspect 体aspirated 吐气送气assimilation 同化associative 联想associative meaning 联想意义assonance 准压韵半谐音attributive 属性修饰语定语auditory phonetics 听觉语音学authentic input 真实投入authorial style 权威风格authoring program 编程autonomy 自主性auxiliary 助词auxiliary verb 助动词Bbabbling stage 婴儿语阶段back—formation 逆构词法base component 基础部分behavioural process 行为过程behaviourism 行为主义bilabial 双唇音bilabial nasal 双唇鼻音bilateral opposition 双边对立bilingualism 双语现象binary division 二分法binary feature 二分特征binary taxonomy 二分分类学binding 制约binding theory 制约论blade 舌叶舌面前部blank verse 无韵诗blending 混成法borrowing 借用借词bound morpheme 粘着语素bounding theory 管辖论bracketing 括号法brevity maxim 简洁准则bridging 架接broad transcription 宽式音标broadening 词义扩大Brown corpus 布朗语料库Ccalculability 可计算性calque 仿造仿造词语cancellability 可删除cardinal numeral 基数cardinal vowel 基本元音case 格case grammar格语法case theory格理论category 范畴categorical component 范畴成分causative 使役的使投动词center 中心词central determiner 中心限定词chain relation 链状关系chain system 链状系统choice 选择choice system 选择系统circumstance 环境因子class 词类class shift 词性变换clause 小句从句click 吸气音咂音clipping 截断法closed class 封闭类closed syllable 闭音节cluster 音丛coarticulation 协同发音coda 结尾音节符尾code 语码信码cognitive psychology 认知心理学cognitive system 认知系统coherence 相关关联cohension 衔接co—hyponym 同下义词colligation 类连结collocative meaning 搭配意义color word 色彩词color word system 色彩词系统command 指令common core 共核common noun 普通名词communication 交际communicative competence 交际能力communicative dynamism， CD 交际性动力communicative language teaching， CLT 交际语言教学法communicative Sentence Pattern， CSP 交际性句子模式communicative syllabus 交际教学大纲communicative test 交际性测试communicative—grammatical approach 交际-语法教学法compact disk 激光盘comparative degree 比较级competence 能力complement 补语complementary antonym 互补反义词complementary antonymy 互补反义关系complementary distribution互补分布complex predicate 复合谓语component 成分componential analysis 成分分析composite proposition 复合命题compositionality 复合性compound 复合词复合句comprehension 理解computation 计算computational linguistics 计算语言学computational system 计算系统computer—assisted learning，CAL 计算机辅助学习computer corpus 计算机语料库computer hardware 计算机硬件computer literacy 计算机操作能力computer networks 计算机网络computer system 计算机系统computer—assistedinstruction， CAI 计算机辅助教学computer-assistedlearning,CALL 计算机辅助语言学习conative 意动的concept 概念conceptual meaning 概念意义concord 一致（关系）concordance 共现关系concrete noun 具体名词concurrent 同时发生的conjugation 词形变化conjunct 连接副词conjunction 连接词conjunction buttressing 连接词支撑connotation 内涵consequent 跟随成分consonance 辅音韵consonant辅音constant opposition 不变对立constative 表述的constituent command 成分指令constituent proposition 成分命题constituent structure analysis 成分结构分析constituent 成分construct 编制construct validity 编制效度construction 构建constructivism 构建主义content analysis 内容分析content validity 内容效度content word 实义词context dependent 语境依赖的context of situation 情景语境context 语境contextual analyses 语境分析contextual meaning 语境意义contrastive analysis 对比分析control theory 控制理论controlled language 有控制的语言convention 常规规约conventional meaning 常规意义规约意义conventionality 常规性规约性conversational implicature会话含义conversational maxim 会话准则converse antonymy 相反反义现象conversion 变换cooperative principle， CP 合作原则coordinate construction 并列结构coordination 并列coreferential 互参的coronal 舌面前音corpus data 语料库语料corpus （pl corpora）语料素材corpus linguistics 语料库语言学context 上下文countable 可数（名词）counterfactual proposition反事实命题couplet 对句对联creativity 创造性原创性Creole 克里澳尔语混和语cross-cultural communication跨文化交际cross-linguistic 跨语言的culturally-specific 文化特异的curriculum 教学大纲customizing 定制的Ddactyl 扬抑抑格Dani language 达尼语data retrieval， DR 资料检索database 数据库dative (case) 与格dative movement 与格移动declarative 陈述句decoding 解码deductive 演绎的deep structure 深层结构defeasibility 消除可行性definite 有定的degenerate data 无用的语料deixis 指称delicacy 精密阶denotation 外延指称dental 齿音dentalization 齿音化derivation 衍生derivational affix 衍生词汇derivational morphology 派生形态学descriptive adequacy 描写充分性descriptive linguistics 描写语言学design feature 结构特征determiner 限定词developing grammar 发展语法deviant 变体deviation 偏离变异devoicing 清音化diachronic linguistics 历时语言学diachronic 历时的diacritic 附加符号变音符diagnostic test 诊断性测试dialect 方言dialectology 方言学digitized sound 数字化语音dimetre 二音步诗行diphthong 二合元音双元音direct object 直接宾语direct speech, DS 直接言语direct thought, DT 直接思想directionality 方向性discourse 语篇话语discourse analysis 语篇分析话语分析discourse interpretation 语篇理解discrete 分离的离散的discrete—point grammar 离散语法discrete point test 分立性测试disjunction 分离关系displacement 移位dissimilation 异化（作用)distinctive feature 区别性特征distinguisher 辩义成分do-insertion rule do 添加规则domain 范围领域dorsal 舌背音舌中音dorsum 舌背（音)double comparative 双重比较drill—and—practicesoftware 操练软件D-structure D结构dual 双数dualistic view 二分观点duality 二重性Eearly Modern English 早期现代英语economy 经济性简洁性ejective 爆发音electronic mail 电子邮件Elizabethan English 伊利莎白时期英语ellipsis 省略（法）elliptical sentencestructure 省略句子结构embedded element 嵌入成分emic 位学的emotive 感情的empirical 经验主义的empirical data 经验主义的语料empirical validity 经验效度empiricism 经验主义empty category, EC 空范畴enabling skills 使成技能化encoding 编码end rhyme 末端韵endocentric construction 内向结构entailment 蕴涵entry condition 入列条件epenthesis 插音增音equipollent opposition 均等对立equivalence 相等equivalence reliability 相等信度error analysis 错误分析EST 科技英语ethnicity identity 民族认同ethnography of communication 交际民族学etic 非位的素的event process 事件过程example-based machine translation 基于例句的机器翻译exchange error 交换错误exchange sequence 交际序列exchange structure 交际结构exhaustive 穷尽的彻底的existent 存在物existential 存在句existential process 存在过程existential quantifier 存在数量词exocentric 外向的exocentric construction 外向结构experiential 经验的experiential function 经验功能experimentalpsycholinguistics 实验心理语言学explanatory adequacy 解释充分性explicit grammar instruction,EGI 明显的语法教学法expression minimization 表达最底程度expressive 表达的extended standard theory，EST 扩展标准理论extensive 引申的扩展的extent-condition format 程度条件格式external evaluation 外部评估external qualifier 外部修饰语extrinsic sources of error 外在的错误来源eye movement 眼部移动Fface validity 卷面效度facilitation 便利促进Fasoldfeasibility 可行性feature 特征feedback 反馈felicity condition 适宜性条件恰当条件feminine 阴性fiction 小说figurative language 比喻性语言象征性语言figures of speech 修辞手段修辞格finite element 有定成分finite 有定的有限的finite state grammar 有限状态语法first—person narrator 第一人称叙述者Firthian phonology 弗斯音系学flap 闪音flexibility 灵活性变通性floppy disk 软盘focus 焦点中心folk etymology 俗词源学民间词源foregrounded features 突出特征foregrounding 突出前景话foreign language teaching 外语教学form 形式formal difference 形式差异formalization 形式化formation 形成formative 构形成分构词成分free form 自由形式free indirect speech， FIS 自由间接言语free indirect thought, FIT 自由间接思想free morpheme 自由语素free root morpheme 自由词根语素free variant 自由变体free verse 自由韵文French 法语frequency effect 频率效应fricative （摩）擦音friction 摩擦front 舌面前舌前的fully automatic high qualitytranslation, FAHQT 全自动高质量翻译function word 功能词function 功能functional grammar 功能语法functional linguistics 功能语言学functional sentenceperspective, FSP 功能句子观functions of language 语言功能fusion 溶合fuzzy 模糊的Ggender difference 性别差异general linguistics 普通语言学generalisation 概括generative grammar 生成语法generative semantics 生成语言学genitive 属格所有格genre 体裁语类German 德语given (information) 已给信息global task 整体任务glottal 喉音glottal stop 喉塞音goal 目标government theory 支配理论government 支配grammatical analysis 语法分析grammaticalfunction ; ;grammatical structure 语法结构gradable antonymy 分等级的反义关系gradual opposition 渐次对立grammatical category 语法范畴grammatical concept 语法概念grammatical description 语法描写grammatical form 语法形式grammatical marker 语法标记grammatical meaning 语法意义grammaticalorganization 语法组成grammatical pattern 语法类型grammatical process 语法过程grammatical rule 语法规则grammatical sentence pattern,GSP 语法句形grammatical structure 语法结构grammatical subject 语法主语grammatical system 语法系统grammatical word 语法词graphitic form 文字形式Gricean maxim Grice准则group 词组guttural 腭音Hhalf-rhyme 半韵hard palate 硬腭head 中心词中心成分headed construction 中心结构heptameter 七音步诗行hierarchical structure 等级结构hierarchical system 等级系统hierarchy 等级体系high 高（元音）historical linguistics 历史语言学holophrastic stage 单词句阶段homonym 同音/形异议词Hopi Hopi语horizontal relation 链状关系Horn scale 霍恩阶human cognitive system 人类认知系统human language 人类语言human speech 人类言语human translation 人译hypercorrection 矫枉过正hyponym 下义词hyponymy 下义关系hypothesis 假设hypothesis—deduction 假设—演绎Iiamb 抑扬格iambic pentameter 抑扬格五音步诗行IC analysis 直接成分分析法ICALL (intelligent CALL) 智能计算机辅助语言学习ideational （function）概念功能identifying 认同的idiom 成语习语idiomatically-governed 习语支配的ill—formed sentences 不合适的句子illocutionary act 话中行为施为性行为illocutionary force 言外作用施为作用imaginative (function) 想象功能immediacy assumption 即时假定immediate constituent analysis 直接成分分析法imperative rule 祈使规则imperative 祈使语气命令的implicate 意含implication 蕴涵含义implication connective 蕴涵连接implicature 含义言外之意implied meaning 蕴涵意义implosive 内破裂音内爆音inanimate 无生命的inclusiveness relation 内包意义indefinite 不定的，无定的indicative 陈述式陈述语气indirect object 间接宾语indirct speech, IS 间接言语indirect thought, IT 间接思想Indo-European languages 印欧语言inference 推论推理inference drawing 推论inferential communication 推论交际infinitive不定式infix 中缀inflection 屈折(变化）inflectional affix 屈折词缀inflectional morphology 屈折形态学inflective endings 屈折结尾information retrieval 信息检索information structure 信息结构informative （function）信息功能innateness 先天性innateness hypothesis （语法）天赋假设input 输入input hypothesis 语言输入说instrumental (function) 工具功能integrative test 综合性测试intensifier 强调成分intensive 强调的增强的interactional （function）交互功能interdental 齿间音interface 界面interference 干扰interjection 感叹词interlanguage 中介语interlingua 国际语interlingual approach 语际法interlocutor 会话者internal evaluation 内部评估internal structure 内部结构international phoneticalphabet， IPA 国际音标internet 互联网interpersonal 人际的interpersonal function 人际功能interpretation 解释interrogative sentence 疑问句intonation 语调intra-linguistic relation 语言内关系intransitive 不及物的intrinsic sources of error 错误的内源invariable word 不变词invention 新创词语inversion 倒置，倒装IPA chart 国际音标图IPS symbol 国际音标符号irony 讽刺反话isolated opposition 孤立对立Italian 意大利语JJapanese 日语jargon 黑话行语Jesperson，OttoJohnson & JohnsonJohnsonJones,DanielKkernel sentence 核心句keyword关键词knowledge 知识known information 已知信息KrashenKruszewski, MikolajKuno, SusumoLlabel 标示标记labial 唇音labiodental 唇齿音language 语言language acquisition device，LAD 语言习得机制language attitude 语言态度language choice 语言选择language comprehension 语言理解language data 语言素材language learning 语言学习language maintenance 语言维护language processing 语言处理language structure 语言结构language system 语言系统language teaching 语言教学language universal 语言普遍性language use 语言使用langue 语言（系统）larynx 喉头lateral 边音旁流音Latin 拉丁语Latin grammar 拉丁语法lax vowel 松元音length 长度音长letter 字母level 层，级，平面Levinson， Stephenlexeme 词位词素lexical ambiguity 词汇歧义lexical change 词汇变化lexical level 词汇层lexical meaning 词汇意义lexical morphology 词汇形态学lexical studies 词汇研究lexical word 词汇词lexicogrammar 词汇语法lexicon 词汇词典lexis 词liaison 连音连续limerick 打油诗line 诗行linear phonology 线性音系学linear structure 线形结构linguistic university 语言普遍性linguistic behaviour 语言行为linguistic behaviourpotential 语言行为潜势linguistic competence 语言能力linguistic context 语言语境上下文linguistic data 语言素材linguistic description 语言描写linguistic determinism 语言决定论linguistic facts 语言事实linguistic relativity 语言相对性linguistic sexism 语言性别歧视linguistic structure 语言结构linguistic theory 语言理论linguistic unit 语言单位linguistic universal 语言普遍性linguistic variation 语言变异linguistics 语言学lip rounding 圆唇化literal language 本义语言literary stylistics 文学文体学loan translation 翻译借词loanblend 混合借词loanshift 转移借词loanword 借词local area networks， LAN 局域网locutionary act 发话行为，表述性言语行为logical component 逻辑成分logical connective 逻辑连词logical form component 逻辑式成分logical form representation逻辑式表达logical formula 逻辑公式logical function 逻辑功能logical semantics 逻辑语义学logical structure 逻辑结构logical subject 逻辑主语logophoricity 词照应London School 伦敦学派long vowed 长元音loss of sound 语音脱落loudness 响度Mmachine translation 机器翻译macrolinguistics 宏观语言学macroproposition 宏观命题macrostructure 宏观结构main clause 主句Malinowski，Bronislawman-machine symbiosis 人机共生manner maxim 方式准则manner of articulation 发音方式marked 标记的masculine 阳性matalinguistic 元语言学的material （process) 物质过程mathematical principles 数学原理maxim 准则maximal onset principle 最大节首辅音原则meaning potential 意义潜势meaning shift 转移meaning 意义mental （processs）思维过程心理过程mentalism 心灵主义message 信息metafunction 元功能metalinguistic 元语言的metaphor 隐喻metathesis 换位(作用）metonymy 换喻转喻metre 韵律metrical patterning 韵律格式microcomputer 微机microprocessor 微处理器mid 中(元音)mind 思维minimal attachment theory 最少接触理论minimal pair 最小对立体minimalist programminimum free form 最小自由形式mirror maxim 镜像准则mistake 错误modal subject 语气主语modal verb 情态动词modality 情态modern French 现代法语modification 修饰modifier 修饰语monomorphemic 单语素的monophonemic 单音位的monophthong 单元音monosyllabic 单音节的Motague grammar 蒙太古语法mood 语气morph 形素词素形式morpheme 语素词素形素morpheme—exchange error 词素交错误morphemic shape 词素形状morphemic structure 词素结构morphemic transcription 词素标音morphological change 形态变化morphological rule 形态规则morphology 形态学morpho—phonemic component 形态音位成分morphophonemics 形态音位学morphophonology 形态音系学morpho—syntactical change 形态句法变化mother tongue 母语本族语motivation 动因动机move （移动）MT 机器翻译MT quality 机译质量multilateral opposition 多边对立multi—level phonology 多层次音系学multilingualism 多语制多语现象N narratee 被叙述者narrator 叙述者narrator’s representationof speech acts， NRSA 言语行为的叙述者表达narrator’s representationof speech, NRS 言语的叙述者表达narrator’s representationof thought acts, NRTA 思维行为的叙述者表达narrator’s representationof thought， NRT 思维的叙述者表达narrow transcription 窄式音标narrowing 狭窄化nasal 鼻音nasal cavity 鼻腔nasal sound 鼻音nasal stop 鼻塞音nasal tract 鼻道nasality 鼻音性nasalization 鼻音化Nash， Walternative speaker 操本族语者natural language 自然语言naturalistic data 自然语料near—adult grammar 近成人语法negation 否定否定结构negative 否定的negative interference 负面干扰negative marker 否定标记negative transfer 负转移neogrammarian 新语法学家network 网络network computer 网络计算机neutralizable opposition 可中立对立new information 新信息new stylistics 新文体学node 节nominal group 名词词组nominalization 名词化nominative 主格non—authentic input 非真实语料的输入non-contrastive analysis 非对比性分析non-conventionality 非规约性non-detachability非可分离性non—linear phonology 非线性音系学non—linguistic entity 非语言实体non—pulmonic sound 非肺闭塞音non-reciprocal discourse 非交替性语篇non-reflexive pronoun 非反身代词nonsense word stage 无意义词语阶段nonverbal cues 非言语提示norm 规范notation system 标写系统notion 意念notional-functional syllabus意念功能教学大纲noun phrase 名词短语noun 名词number system 数字系统number 数字Oobject 宾语object—deletion 宾语省略objective case 宾格objectivity 客观性obligatory 强制性observational adequacy 观察充分性abstruction 阻塞OCR scanner 光学字符阅读器扫描仪octametre 八音步诗行Old English 古英语one-place predicate 一位谓语on—line translation 在线翻译onomatopoeia 拟声词onset 节首辅音open class 开放类open syllable 开音节operational system 操作系统operative 可操作性operator 操作词oppositeness relation 对立关系opposition 对立optimal relevance 最适宜关联option 选择optional 可选择的oral cavity 口腔oral stop 口阻塞音ordinal numeral 序数词origin of language 语言起源orthography 正字法ostensive communication 直示交际output 产出overgeneralization 过分法则化Ppalatal 腭音舌面中音palatal-alveolar 腭齿龈音palatalization (硬)腭化paradigm 聚合体paradigmatic relation 聚合关系paraphrase 释义意译parole 言语part of speech 词类participant 参与者particle 小品词语助词particular grammar 特定语的语法partitive 部分的部分格passive transformation 被动转换passive （voice）被动语态pattern drill technique 句型操练法pattern 模式patterning 制定模式pause 停顿peak （节）峰perceptual span 感知时距perfectionism 完善主义perfective 完成体performance test 语言运用测试performance 语言运用performative (verb) 行事性动词perlocutionary act 话后行为perseverative coarticulation重复性协同发音person 人称personal （function) 自指性功能pharyngeal 咽头音喉音pharynx 喉头phatic （communion) 寒暄交谈交感性谈话phone 音素音子phonematic unit 音声单位phoneme 音位phonetic alphabet 音标phonetic form component 语音形式部分phonetic similarity 语音相似性phonetic symbol 语音符号phonetic transcription 标音（法)phonetics 语音学phonological analysis 音位分析phonological component 音位部分phonological level 音系层phonological process 音位过程phonological representation 音位表达phonological rule 音位规则phonological structure 音位结构phonological system 音位系统phonological variant 音位变体phonology 音系学phrasal verb 短语动词phrase 短语phrase structure 短语结构phrase structure grammar 短语结构语法phrase structure rule, PSrule 短语结构规则pidgin 皮软语洋泾滨语不纯正外语Pitch 音高声调高低place of articulation 发音部位play 剧本plosion 爆破plosive 爆破音爆发音plural 复数pluralism 多元主义plurality 复数形式poetic (function) 诗学功能poetry 诗歌polymorphemic （word) 多语素词polysyllabic 多音节（词)polysystemic analysis 多系统分析Portugese 葡萄牙语positive transfer 正移转possessive 所有的属有的possible grammar 可能语言的语法postalveolar 后齿龈音post-Bloomfieldianlinguistics 后布龙菲尔德语言学postdeterminer 后限定词post—structuralist view 后结构主义观点pragmatic inference 语用推论pragmatic roles 语用角色pragmatics 语用学Prague School 布拉格学派predeterminer 前限定词predicate calculus 谓语演算predicate logic 谓语逻辑predicate 谓语predicator 谓语（动）词predictive validity 预测效度pre-editing 预先编辑译前加工prefix 前缀pre—modified input 预修正的输入premodifier 前修饰语preposition 介词prepositional calculus 介词演算prepositional logic 介词逻辑prepositional opposition 介词对立prepositional phrase 介词短语prescriptive 规定式presupposition 前提预设primary cardinal vowel 主要基本元音primary stress 主重音第一重音principle of informativeness信息性原则principle of least effort 最省力原则principle of quantity 数量原则privative opposition 表非对立表缺对立process 过程production error 产生性错误productivity 多产性proficiency test 水平测试pro—form 代词形式替代形式programming language 编程语言progressive 进行体progressive assimilation 顺同化projection rule 投射规则pronominal 代词pronoun 代词pronunciation 发音pronunciation dictionary 发音词典pronunciation 发音proportional opposition 部分对立proposition 命题prose style 散文风格prosodic analysis 节律分析超音质分析psycholinguistics 心理语言学psycholinguistic-sociolinguistic approach 心理-社会语言学方法psychological reality 心理现实psychological subject 心理主语psychology of language 语言心理学psychometric—structuralistapproach 心理测定-结构主义法pulmonic sound 肺闭塞音Putonghua 普通话QQ-based implicature 基于质量的含义Q-principle 质量原则quality 质量quality maxim 质量准则quantifier 数量词quantitative analysis 定量分析quantitative paradigm 数量变化表quantity maxim 数量准则quatrain 四行诗Rrange 范围rank 级rationalism 理性主义raw data 原始素材R—based implicature 基于关联的涵义reader 读者reading comprehension 阅读理解realisation 体现recall 回忆received pronunciation, RP标准发音receiver 受话者信息接受者recency effect 近期效应recognition 识别recursion 可溯recursive 可溯的还原的recursiveness 递归性reference 所指参照referential meaning 所指意义referential theory 所指理论referential 所指的reflected meaning 反映意义reflexive (form) 反身形式regional dialect 地域方言register 语域regressive assimilation 逆同化regulatory （function) 控制性语言功能relation maxim 关系准则relational opposite 关系对立relational process 关系过程relative clause 关系分句关系从句relative pronoun 关系代词relative uninterruptibility相对的非间断性relevance theory 关联理论reliability 信度repetition 重复representational system 表达系统representational 表达实体residue 剩余成分restricted language 限制性语言retrieval process 检索过程retrieval system 检索系统retroflex sound 卷舌音reverse rhyme 反陨revised extended standard theory, REST 修正扩展标准理论rewriting rules 重写规则rheme 述位rhetorical skill 修辞技能rhyme 韵韵角压韵rhythm 韵律节奏Roman alphabet letter 罗马字母root 词根root morpheme 词根语素round vowel 圆元音R-principle 关联原则rule system 规则系统rule—based approaches 基于规则的方法rules of language 语言规则Ssameness relation 相同关系Sanskrit 梵文Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis 萨丕尔-沃夫假设Saussure 索绪尔scale of delicacy 精密阶schema 图式scheme-oriented language 面向图式的语言second language acquisition第二语言习得secondary cardinal vowel 次要基本元音secondary stress 次重音segment 音段selection restriction 选择限制selectional rules 选择规则self-reflexive 自反身semantic association network语义关联网络semantic change 语义变化semantic component 语义部分semantic feature 特征semantic interpretation 语义解释semantic interpretativerules 语义解释规则semantic process 语义过程semantic representation 语义表达semantic sentence pattern,SSP 语义句型semantic triangle 语义三角semantics 语义学semi-consonant 半辅音semiotic system 符号系统semiotics 符号学semi—vowel 半元音sense relation 意义关系sense 意义sentence 句子sentence fragments 句子成分sentence meaning 句义sentence memory 句子记忆sentence stress 句重音sentence structure 句子结构sentential calculus 句子演算setting 场景sibilant 咝擦音sign 符号signified 所指受指signifier 能指施指simile 明喻simultaneity 同时性singular 单数situational context 情景语境situational level 情景层situational syllabus 情景教学大纲situational variation 情景变异slot 空缺social role 社会角色social semiotic 社会符号学socio-cultural role 社会文化角色sociolinguistic study of language 语言的社会语言学研究sociolinguistic study ofsociety 社会的社会语言学研究sociolinguistics 社会语言学sociological approach 社会学方法soft palate 软腭solidarity 团结sonnet 十四行诗sonorant 响音sonority scale 响音阶sound 语音sound image 语音图像sound pattern 语音模式sound segment 音段sound system 语音系统sound wave 音波speaker's meaning 说话者意义speech 言语speech act theory 言语行为理论speech community 言语社团speech comprehension 言语理解speech event 言语事件speech function 言语功能speech mode 言语方式speech organ 言语器官speech perception 言语感知speech presentation言语表达speech production ；言语产生speech research言语研究speech role言语角色speech sound 语音speech synthesis 言语合成spelling 拼写，拼法split infinitives 分裂的不定式spoken corpus 口语语料库spoken language translation口语翻译spondee 扬扬格spoonerism 首音互换斯本内现象spread 展元音S—structure 表层结构stability 稳定性stability reliability 稳定性效度Standard English 标准英语standard theory 标准理论standardization 标准化statistical analysis 统计分析status 地位stem 词干stimulus 刺激stimulus—response 刺激反应stop 闭塞音stored knowledge 储存知识strategic knowledge 学习策略知识stratification 层stream of consciousness 意识流stress pattern 重音模式stress 重音structural analysis 结构分析structural (structuralist) grammar 结构语法structural syllabus 结构教学大纲structural test 结构测试structuralism 结构主义structuralist linguistics 结构主义语言学structuralist view 结构主义观点style 文体风格stylistic analysis 文体分析stylistics 文体学subcategorize 次范畴subject 主语subject-deletion 主语省略subjective test 主观性测试subjectivity 主观性subjunctive mood 虚拟语气subordinate construction 从属结构subordination 从属substitutability 替代性substitution 替换suffix 后缀superlative degree 最高级superordinate 上坐标词suprasegmental feature超语段特征surface form 表层形式surface representation 表层表达surface structure 表层结构syllabic structure 音节结构syllabification 音节划节syllable 音节syllabus design 教学大纲设计syllabus 教学大纲syllogism 三段论法symbol 符号synchronic （linguistics）共时（语言学）synonym 同义词synonymous 同义的synonymy 同义现象syntactic component 句法部分syntactic features 句法特征syntactic function 句法功能syntactic marker 句法标记syntactic process 句法过程syntactic restriction 句法限制syntactic structure 句法结构syntactical change 变化syntagmatic relation 组合关系syntax 句法system network 系统网络system of signs 符号系统。
Relevance Theory
2. Relevance
Contextual effect: To understand an utterance is to work out the consequences of adding an assumption to the already existing assumptions in the mind. An item of information or assumption is relevant if it can bring about changes in the cognitive context
(14) A: Is Jane coming to the party. B: Her exams start tomorrow. (15) (a) Jane gets very nervous about exams. (b) If Jane is nervous about her exams, she will not be going to any parties. (16) (a) Jane gets very nervous about exams. (b) When Jane gets nervous she always bites her fingernails. (c) Jane will be biting her fingernails. (17) (a) When Jane bites her fingernails she wears gloves when she goes out. (b) Jane will be wearing gloves when she goes out.
Context is a psychological construct; a set of assumptions in the mind of the hearer: {C1…Cn}; cognitive environment; a set of assumptions mutually manifest to both communicator and audience
语篇中显性连贯与隐性连贯在翻译教学中的应用
一 一
科
语篇中显性连贯与隐性连贯在翻译教学中的应用
曹秀平 孙 志楠 李 继 光
（ 尔滨 医科大 学外语部 ， 哈 黑龙江 哈 尔滨 １０ ８ ） ５０ ６
摘 要： 翻译理论研究不断汲取 其他 学科的 营养来不断发展 完善 自己， 随着篇章语 言学的兴起 ， 多翻译 家便 开始将研 究的重心转移到语篇 翻 许
译 。语篇显性连贯与隐性连贯是语篇 的重要特征 ， 在语篇翻译 中起 着重要 的作 用。探 索了显性连贯与隐性连贯在语篇 中的表现形式 ． 从而提 出了如 何 主 动 建 构 语 篇 意 义 并 对 翻译 教 学提 出几 点 建 议 。
关键词 ： 接 ； 衔 连贯 ； 境 ； 用 ； 篇 翻 译 语 语 语
二 大类 即复现 （ｅｔ ａｉｎ 和词汇搭 配 （ｏｌ ａ 或解释 ， ｒｉ ｒｔ ） ｅ ｏ ｃｌ — ｃ ｅ 读者就不会理解原文 的含义 ， 这是 由于 连贯 （ｏｅｅ ｃ） ｃｈｒｎｅ 是语篇 的基本 特征之 一 ， ｔ ｎ 。 ｉ ）复现具体到词汇项 目上可以是同一 个项 目 不同的文化背景而引起理解偏离。 ｏ — 是区分语篇与非语篇的标志 。 语篇 的连贯可以分 的重复（ｅｅｉｏ ） 同义词 ， ｒｐｔｉｎ ， ｔ 反义词 ， 上下义关系 ２３ 用 ．语 为显性连贯（ｘｌ ｉ ｃ ｈｒｎｅ 和隐性连贯（ｍ 词 （ｙｏ ｙ ）而词汇搭配表示通常出现在同一 ｅｐｉ ｔ ｏｅｅ ｃ） ｃ ｉ— ｈｐ ｎｍｙ 。 为了理解语篇 的整体 意义 ， 语用使用者还要 ｐｉ ｔｃｈｒｎ ｅ ｏ作为语篇表层 结构的衔接关 个语义场 的项 目同现的现象。 １ ｉ ｏｅｅｃ ｅ 积 累一定的语用知识。 说话人能在语句的表层意 系， 如词汇 ， 替代 ， 照应等被看作是“ 贯标记” 连 构 例 ２
环境影响人英语作文
The environment plays a crucial role in shaping an individuals language skills, particularly in the context of learning English.Here are some key points to consider when discussing the impact of the environment on English language acquisition:nguage Exposure:Being surrounded by native English speakers or immersing oneself in an Englishspeaking environment significantly enhances language acquisition. This exposure allows for constant practice and natural learning through everyday interactions.2.Cultural Immersion:Understanding the culture associated with the English language is as important as learning the language itself.Cultural nuances and idiomatic expressions are better grasped when one is immersed in the environment where the language is natively used.cational Institutions:Schools and universities that offer English as a medium of instruction provide a structured environment for learning.They offer a curriculum designed to improve language proficiency systematically.4.Technology and Media:Access to Englishlanguage media such as films,television shows,music,and online resources can greatly influence ones English skills.These platforms provide informal learning opportunities and help in developing listening and speaking skills.nguage Partners and Communities:Engaging with language exchange partners or joining Englishspeaking communities can provide practical experience in conversation and understanding different accents and dialects.6.Work Environment:Working in an environment where English is the primary language of communication can fasttrack language learning.Professional settings often require clear and effective communication,which can improve ones language abilities.7.Travel and Experiences:Traveling to Englishspeaking countries can be an enriching experience.It not only exposes one to the language but also to the lifestyle and societal norms that influence language use.8.Motivation and Attitude:A positive attitude towards learning and embracing the English language is influenced by the environment.Supportive and encouraging surroundings can boost ones motivation to learn.9.Environmental Challenges:Sometimes,the environment can present challenges suchas language barriers or cultural differences that can initially hinder language learning. However,overcoming these challenges can lead to a deeper understanding and mastery of the language.10.Longterm Residence:Living in an Englishspeaking country for an extended period can lead to a more natural and fluent command of the language.The constant need to communicate in English for daily tasks and social interactions compels one to improve their skills.In conclusion,the environment is a critical factor in learning English.It provides the necessary tools,resources,and experiences that facilitate language acquisition and proficiency.Whether its through formal education,cultural immersion,or daily interactions,the environment shapes ones ability to understand,speak,read,and write in English.。
英语四级段落翻译
Conveying cultural connotations: When translating paragraphs, it is important to convey the cultural connotations of the original text as much as possible. This requires translators to deeply understand the cultural background of the original text and find corresponding equivalent expressions in the target language to ensure accurate transmission of cultural information.
Maintain the original flavor: During the translation process, it is important to maintain the original text's characteristics and style as much as possible, including the choice of vocabulary. Using vocabulary that matches the original text can ensure the authenticity of the translation.
Common errors and corrections in paragraph translation
CATALOGUE
05
Summary: Vocabulary selection errors are common translation problems, which can lead to semantic inaccuracy or ambiguity.
我要写周记作文英语
我要写周记作文英语标题: Writing a Weekly Journal in English。
Introduction:Keeping a weekly journal is an excellent habit that helps in self-reflection, goal-setting, and personal growth. In this essay, we will explore the importance of writing a weekly journal in English, its benefits, and provide a detailed guide on how to get started.Why Write a Weekly Journal in English?1. Language Improvement: Writing in English regularly enhances language skills, including vocabulary, grammar,and sentence structure.2. Cultural Understanding: Expressing thoughts and experiences in English fosters a deeper understanding of English-speaking cultures.3. Self-Reflection: Journaling allows individuals to reflect on their thoughts, emotions, and experiences, promoting self-awareness and emotional intelligence.4. Goal Setting: Writing down goals and tracking progress weekly helps in staying focused and motivated towards personal and academic objectives.5. Memory Enhancement: Keeping a journal aids memory retention by documenting significant events and reflections.Benefits of Writing a Weekly Journal in English:1. Improves Language Proficiency: Consistent writing practice enhances English language skills, making communication more effective and precise.2. Enhances Critical Thinking: Reflecting onexperiences and articulating thoughts in English stimulates critical thinking and analytical skills.3. Organizes Thoughts: Journaling helps in organizing ideas coherently, leading to clearer communication and better writing.4. Reduces Stress: Writing about emotions and challenges can act as a form of therapy, reducing stress and promoting mental well-being.5. Tracks Progress: Monitoring weekly accomplishments and setbacks provides insights into personal growth and areas for improvement.How to Write a Weekly Journal in English:1. Choose a Format: Decide whether to write in a traditional notebook, digital document, or online platform.2. Set a Schedule: Allocate a specific time each week for journaling to establish consistency.3. Select Topics: Reflect on personal experiences, goals, challenges, achievements, and emotions from the pastweek.4. Start Writing: Begin by summarizing the week's events and expressing thoughts and feelings in English.5. Include Reflections: Analyze experiences, lessons learned, and areas for improvement, using English to articulate thoughts clearly.6. Set Goals: Write down short-term and long-term goals in English, along with actionable steps to achieve them.7. Review and Revise: Periodically review previous entries, revise language usage, and track progress towards goals.8. Seek Feedback: Share journal entries with English-speaking peers or teachers for feedback and suggestions for improvement.Sample Weekly Journal Entry:Date: Sunday, April 14, 2024。
Meaning in Motion
Meaning in Motion∗Jeroen Groenendijk&Martin StokhofILLC/Department of PhilosophyFaculty of HumanitiesUniversity of AmsterdamAbstractThe paper sketches the place of dynamic semantics within a broader picture of developments in philosophical and linguistic theories of mean-ing.Some basic concepts of dynamic semantics are illustrated bymeans of a detailed analysis of anaphoric definite and indefinite descrip-tions,which are treated as contextually dependent quantificational ex-pressions.It is shown how a dynamic view sheds new light on thecontextual nature of interpretation,on the difference between mono-logue and dialogue,and on the interplay between direct and indirectinformation.1The development of formal semanticsThefirst impetus towards a formal semantics in the modern sense of the word was given in the works of Frege,Russell,and Wittgenstein.There is a clear link between in particular the works of Frege and modern intensional (‘possible worlds’)semantics,a link which was forged in thefifties and sixties by Carnap,Church,Hintikka,Kripke,and others.Thefirst systematic ap-plications of intensional semantics in the analysis of natural language appear in the works of Kaplan,Lewis,and in particular Montague,at the beginning of the seventies.A newfield of research emerged which stillflourishes today, albeit no longer in the form of‘orthodox’Montague grammar.Parallel to this development,but for a long time independent of it,quite different advances were made in the philosophy of language,which now are beginning to penetrate into formal semantics.Dynamic semantics can be ∗A Dutch version of this paper appeared in:Algemeen Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Wijsbegeerte,90-1,1998,26–53.1viewed as an attempt to come to grips with some of these,and to integrate them in a more encompassing notion of meaning.The emergence of formal semantics at the beginning of the twentieth century can be understood as an attempt to develop a comprehensive no-tion of meaning which solves a number of problems.First among these is the problem of intentionality,which was put back on the philosophical agenda by Brentano.From an anti-psychologistic point of view it is of paramount importance to give an account of the intentional structure of meaning with-out making an appeal to mental states.1Frege’s insistence on the objectivity of his notion of sense(‘Sinn’),which is also informed by his rejection of psy-chologism in the philosophy of mathematics,can be viewed as an attempt to give such an account.Sense must be conceived of as‘directed’towards an external,extra-linguistic realm.The circumscription of sense as‘the way in which the reference is given’(‘die Art des Gegebenseins der Bedeutung’) reveals this:the function of sense is to determine something(the reference) in reality.And the use of an expression with a particular sense inherits this directedness.However,and Frege never tires of stressing this,sense can not be analyzed in terms of individual mental contents or acts.Although any concrete use of an expression(both actively,in uttering,and passively,in understanding)constitutes a mental act of grasping its sense,that which is grasped in such an act is essentially independent of it:senses are objective.The distinction between objective sense and reference in reality also serves a different purpose:it essentially makes meaning a cognitive notion. Grasping the sense of a sentence is grasping an objective thought,and a judgment,according to Frege,is‘the progression from a thought to a truth value’.In other words,knowledge is twofold:it consists in grasping a specific content,which is independent of what the world is like,and in the apprehen-sion of the actual truth or falsity of this content.Thus,by separating sense from factual reality,yet linking the two in this specific way,Frege makes it possible to give an account of the informative content of judgments,i.e., of the fact that a sentence of which we know the sense can still provide us with new information.It also enables an analysis of conditional judgments: since sense is independent of factual reality,we can use sentences to describe non-factual situations.But note that this does require that sense determine reference in a specific way,i.e.,via non-contingent features of the latter.So,sense is a notion which plays several roles.Semantically,it deter-1This common root of two divergent traditions,those of analytical philosophy and phenomenology,are currently within the center of attention.See[6]for an accessible introduction.2mines the reference of expressions;cognitively,it accounts for the informa-tive content of judgments;and metaphysically,it characterizes the nature of reference.2Together these three roles turn sense into something that gives an objective,cognitively relevant determination of a possible state of the world,and which thus can serve as the meaning of sentences which repre-sent judgments about factual and non-factual reality.There is yet another aspect of this Fregean notion of sense that deserves to be mentioned here,viz.,its‘individualistic’character.Sense is conceived of in such a way that it can provide an account of the semantic competence of individual language users:sense is something that competent language users have at their disposal.Another feature of formal semantics in the days of Frege,Russell,and Wittgenstein,is the distinction between logical form and grammatical form. In his Begriffsschrift Frege gave a successful analysis of relational judgments by assuming that,although grammatically such judgments have a subject–predicate form,in which subject and direct object are assigned a different status,from a logical perspective both arguments in a relational judgment are on equal footing.Russell’s theory of descriptions also rests on this distinction:in the Tractatus Wittgenstein states that‘it was Russell who performed the service of showing that the apparent logical form of a propo-sition need not be its real one’(4.0031).This separation of grammar and logic created a gap between philosophical and linguistic approaches to lan-guage,and it was only in the works of people like Davidson and Montague in the early seventies that attempts were made to bridge this gap.In this connection yet another issue should be mentioned that for a long time has shaped our conception of the relation between meaning and (grammatical)form,viz.,the principle of compositionality,which states that the sense and the reference of a sentence are determined by the senses and the references,respectively,of its constituent parts.This gives rise to a distinctly atomistic view on meaning,according to which words are the primary carriers of meaning and the meanings of sentences are determined by those of their constituent parts.As we indicated above,intensional semantics as it was developed in the fifties and sixties can be regarded as the heir to these early analyses of mean-ing.Although it proved to be of considerable philosophical and linguistic value,problems remained which have led to significant modifications and to alternative approaches.In what follows we will touch upon some of these briefly,and next we will consider in what sense dynamic semantics can be 2See[35,chapter1]for extensive discussion.3regarded as an attempt to solve some of these problems.One of the more prominent aspects of natural language meaning that can not be completely accounted for within a Fregean semantics,is the contextuality of utterances and their interpretation.In line with a long philosophical tradition and with his initial focus of interest,viz.,the analysis of mathematical judgments,Frege’s approach is tailored to what Quine was to call later‘eternal sentences’:judgments which have a content,and parallel to that a truth value,which is independent of the circumstances in which it is made.Frege’s platonic view on the nature and status of mathematical objects is reflected in a similar vision on sense:the thought expressed by a sentence is eternal and its truth isfixed.Of course,Frege was well aware of the fact that this picture of sense does not model some parts of natural language very adequately,and he addresses the issue in his‘Der Gedanke’. His solution is to bypass indexicality by assuming that different utterances of an indexical sentence express different judgments.In this way Frege conforms to one of the features of sense that we noted above:separated from actual reality,sense can be related to non-actual situations.However,Frege’s solution is not really satisfactory.This appears from two shortcomings.First of all,his solution does not account for the fact that although different utterances of an indexical sentence like‘I am hun-gry’,may have different contents,all the same it does have afixed meaning. Different utterances of such a sentence express different thoughts when ut-tered by different speakers,yet,intuitively,it has a meaning which remains constant throughout these different utterances.Apparently,the meaning of such sentences can not be equated with their cognitive content.Kaplan gave an account of this phenomenon within the confines of intensional semantics, using his celebrated distinction between‘character’and‘content’.A second flaw of Frege’s analysis was brought to light in the work on direct reference by Putnam,Kripke,and others.According to these authors,some expres-sions,such as natural kind terms and proper names,do not refer indirectly, i.e.,via their sense,but rather relate immediately to their reference.The reference of such expressions is not mediated through a cognitive content, but is determined causally,through mechanisms in the realm of reference.These considerations affect one of the roots of classical intensional se-mantics:sense is not a notion that accounts both for the cognitive content of expressions as well as for their referential function.These two roles become distributed,and meaning,as an overall concept,is no longer unified.As noted above,one of the tasks Fregean semantics undertook was to give an adequate account of the intentionality of meaning.There are intimate links between Frege’s notion of sense and Husserl’s analysis of(linguistic)4meaning.3Some aspects of Husserl’s views can be given a formal explication in the framework of Hintikka’s epistemic logic,which is founded on Fregean principles.4Yet,this analysis is restricted in scope:for example,what is not covered are the communicative intentions which according to some are intrinsically related to linguistic meaning.Grice’s attempt to completely define linguistic meaning in terms of communicative intentions eventually falters,but it does show the intrinsic limitations of the traditional notion of meaning.Once again,meaning proves not to be a notion with a uniform structure,but a many-faceted one:both intention and convention play a role. This insight forms the basis of modern speech act theories.5An even more radical critique of the classical paradigm is instantiated by the later work of Wittgenstein.However,since his views on meaning do not lend themselves easily to systematic formalization,their implications for the structure and content of a semantic theory have hardly been taken into account within formal semantics.Another perception equally shared by Frege,Russell and the early Wittgen-stein,viz.,the distinction between grammatical and logical form,has proved to be an obstacle for the application of their insights within linguistic se-mantics as such,at least,for quite some time.As was noted above,it took until the early seventies before,inspired by developments in formal syntax, people began to develop models of grammar in which formal semantics and formal syntax were related in a systematic fashion.That another of Frege’s insights,viz.,the principle of compositionality,turns out to play a decisive role here,is one of those ironies in which history seems fond to indulge.All in all,the picture that arises from these,admittedly sketchy,obser-vations is the following.Classical semantics views meaning primarily as a cognitive notion,independent of actual reality,based on convention,and separated from functional characteristics,such as its role in communication. It is atomistic,the primary carriers of meaning being words which stand in a referential relation to extra-linguistic reality.And it is individualistic, in so far as a grasp of meaning is what characterizes individual semantic competence.Of course,there is no denying that the classical approach has many,and great,merits.Yet,both from a philosophical perspective as well as within the context of its application in linguistic theory,its limitations have become apparent as well.In the light of this,dynamic semantics can be viewed as 3See[8,30].Cf.,also the aforementioned[6].4See[31].5See[36],in which intentional states and speech act are analyzed along parallel lines.5one,modest,attempt to overcome some of its shortcomings.That should not only lead to a notion of meaning that is theoretically more founded,but also to a theory that is empirically more adequate.2Dynamic interpretation and dynamic semantics 2.1Context and interpretationWithin the Fregean tradition,the meaning of a sentence is(often)equated with its truth conditions:to know what a sentence means is to know in which circumstances it is true or false.6In more up-to-date approaches,7 however,the meaning of a sentence is identified with its context change potential:to know the meaning of a sentence is to know how it changes a context.The difference with Fregean,intensional semantics does not lie primarily in the fact that the context dependent nature of interpretation is taken into account.As we saw above,despite the fact that Frege’s original views do not deal with indexicality in a very natural manner,modifications of his approach have been proposed in which contextual factors are systematically ually,truth conditions are stated relative to both a model of the world,and certain other parameters which provide contextual informa-tion,such as the time and place of the utterance,its source and addressee, and possibly other features of the utterance situation.8What is new,is the focus on context change:interpretation not only depends on the context,but also creates context.This is why the more fashionable approaches are often advertised as‘dynamic’.In taking both context dependency and context change into account,dynamic approaches to interpretation confront the hermeneutic circle.Of course,it is not the observation of the interdependency of context and interpretation that is 6Formulated in terms of truth conditions,this picture seems inherently restricted to indicative sentences.However,the framework of intensional semantics as such can be given a broader application.It can also be used to characterize the meaning of other types of sentences.For example,in an analogous fashion,the meaning of an interrogative sentence can be equated with its answerhood conditions:to know what an interrogative sentence means is to know what under which circumstances counts as a true answer.(See [13]for argumentation and an overview.)7Such as game theoretical semantics([21,22]),discourse representation theory([24, 26]),file change semantics([19,20]),update semantics([37]),dynamic semantics([12,3]).8Within the formal semantics tradition,this development is associated with the pio-neering work of Montague,Kaplan,Lewis,Cresswell.([34]presents an extensive overview of this tradition.)6original,but rather its incorporation within a formal framework.9 An analysis of the way in which context is(de)constructed and used is particularly relevant if we are concerned with the analysis of discourse, in a broad sense of the term,i.e.,including text,dialogue,etc.This is a second point at which the dynamic approach breaks with the Fregean tradition.In the latter the point of departure is the interpretation of single sentences.Dynamic semantics,on the other hand,starts from larger units. The observation that the interpretation of a sequence of sentences,more often than not,cannot simply be equated with the interpretation of the logical conjunction of its components,again,is far from original.However, no longer do we dump such matters in the pragmatic wastebasket,and consider them to be derivatives of general pragmatic principles which do not form part of semantics.Rather,they are taken as characteristics of the core notion of semantics,viz.,meaning.That might be called an innovation.2.2Context and informationIf one restricts oneself to purely informative discourse,one can look upon context change as information change.In this restricted sense interpretation of a discourse becomes an incremental process of updating information.A context can be identified with an information state,and the meaning of a sentence can be characterized as an update function on information states.10 Information is usually partial,and need not be correct:we do not know everything there is to know,and part of what we believe we know is not true. One way to model information is to look upon an information state as a set of possibilities,viz.,those possibilities which are still open according to the information.If information concerns‘the world’,an information state can be identified with a set of possible worlds,viz.,those which are compatible with our(partial)information.Each of these worlds represents a different way the actual world could be as far as the information goes.On this view, extending information about the world amounts to the elimination of certain possibilities.If an information state is updated with a sentence,those worlds are eliminated in which the sentence is false,leaving only worlds in which the sentence is true.119The present paper,being of an informal nature,does not bear witness to this.But some formal background for the concepts introduced here in an informal way,can be found in[15,16].Cf.,also[32]for a recent overview of theoretical logical aspects.10This view is taken,e.g.,in dynamic semantics and update semantics,and in some versions offile change semantics.As will become clear shortly,discourse representation theory embodies a different perspective.11This so-called‘eliminative’approach to the modeling of information and information7Note that dynamic interpretation is defined here in terms of truth con-ditions:if this would be the complete and correct picture,there would be no reason to replace the traditional notion of meaning as truth conditional content by the dynamic notion of information change potential.The latter notion could simply be defined on top of the former.12However,there are several ways to argue that truthconditional content is not the basic notion that oils the wheels of the interpretation engine.One such way is the following.13Consider the contrast between the following minimal pair(due to Barbara Partee):(1)I dropped ten marbles and found all of them,except for one.It isprobably under the sofa.(2)I dropped ten marbles and found only nine of them.??It is probablyunder the sofa.Thefirst sentences in(1)and(2)are truthconditionally equivalent:they provide the same information about the world.Hence,if meaning is iden-tified with truthconditional content,they have the same meaning.At the same time,however,one may observe that whereas the continuation with the second sentence in(1)is completely unproblematic,the same continua-tion in(2)is not equally felicitous.14The conclusion must be that the two opening sentence differ in meaning,and that hence truthconditional content and meaning can not be equated.From the point of view of dynamic semantics the two sentences in ques-tion differ in the way in which they change information.However,what is at stake here is not information about the world as such,since their truth-conditional contents are the same,but another kind of information which is conveyed by the discourse.Apparently,information states not only concern the world as it is described by the discourse,but also the discourse itself. change also has a venerable ancestry,being present already in Hintikka’s early work on modalities and epistemic logic.12This is,basically,the line pursued in early work on context change and presupposition, such as that of Stalnaker,and,somewhat later,of Gazdar.13Other arguments,not involving anaphoric relations,concern presupposition,modality, conditionals and counterfactuals,defaults,tense and aspect,plurality,questions and an-swers.For discussion and a wealth of references,see[32].A textbook which concentrates on the impact of dynamic semantics on empirical linguistics is[3].14Note that if there is a pause between the two utterances,then the sequence in(2) becomes just as acceptable as that in(1).The‘pragmatic effect’of the two opening sentences is in all likelihood exactly the same:we go down on our knees and help to search for the missing marble.What is remarkable,is that wefirst have to start this physical exercise in order for the second sentence in(2)to become felicitous,whereas in the case of(1)it is so already before we start doing our gymnastics.8Hence meaning is not only directed towards an extra-linguistic reality,but also encompasses elements which in a certain sense are‘self referential’.Not only what is being described,but also the way in which this is done,belongs to the meaning and plays a role in the process of interpretation.2.3Information and representationA general characteristic of dynamic theories of interpretation is that meaning is viewed as context change potential.If we restrict ourselves to informative language use,we can equate context with information.And the marbles-example was adduced to indicate that information encompasses more than just information about the world.The general idea of dynamic interpretation also allows for another view on context which we will sketch now.We will refer to it as as the‘repre-sentational view’.It localizes the dynamics of the process of interpretation in the incremental(stepwise)build-up of the representation of the semantic contents of a discourse.Such a representation forms the context for the in-terpretation of the next sentence.The contribution of the sentence consists in adding‘discourse referents’and constraints on their interpretation.15 To clarify the difference with dynamic semantics in the strict sense,we will indicate how one looks upon the examples(1)and(2)from the rep-resentational point of view.The interpretation of the pronoun‘it’in the second sentence of both examples requires that there be a suitable discourse referent in the contextual structure to which it can be linked.16The opening sentence in(1)provides one.It introduces a discourse referent for the group of ten marbles which were dropped,and another discourse referent for the one among them that was not found.In the case of(2),a discourse referent 15This characterization of the representational view is drawn from[26].In this textbook the discourse representations are presented as belonging to a‘language of thought’,where it is stressed that in order to play their role as components of a theory of meaning,they are in need of(model-theoretic)semantic interpretation.Somewhat confusingly,they are sometimes referred to as information structures,a characterization which is also used for the models in terms of which they are interpreted.Likewise,they are sometimes said to represent sentences,or larger pieces of discourse,and they are also characterized as representing the semantic content of discourse.The latter is taken here as the most appropriate description of their ontological status.16Discourse referents can best be compared with syntactic variables.They are expres-sions of the representation language.They are not themselves referents of expressions. And they(usually)do not refer to a particular object.As is generally the case with variables,their meaning resides in the variety of possible objects that can be assigned to them.For a thorough logical investigation of these matters,see[38].Historically, discourse referents go back to early work of Karttunen.9for the group of ten marbles is introduced,and another one for the nine of them that were found.In case of the latter,it can of course be inferred that one marble is still missing,but the sentence as such does not introduce a referent for it.Therefore,unlike in(1),in(2)the pronoun‘it’in the second sentence has nothing to cohere to,whence it cannot be interpreted.The discourse representation structures themselves are not information, but representations of information.They are linguistic,not semantic ob-jects.Sentences and discourses are interpreted indirectly via their represen-tations.The interpretation of discourse representation structures takes the form of a standard(static)definition of truth conditions.Hence,meaning as such is not a dynamic notion:the meaning of a representation,and hence of the(piece of)discourse that it represents,is identified with the set of models(possible worlds)in which the representation is true.The dynamics of the interpretation process resides solely in the incre-mental build-up of the representations,and not in the interpretation of the representations themselves.This is also apparent from the way in which (1)and(2)are analyzed:the representations of the two opening sentences are different,but their semantic interpretation is the same.So,there is no difference in meaning,but only in representational form.In a sense,the old distinction between grammatical and logical form can still be traced.This conclusion can be avoided if one is prepared to look upon the representations themselves as being(parts of)the meaning.If this be the case,the assump-tion of a language of thought as an intermediary between language and interpretation is an essential ingredient of discourse representation theory: it counts as a mentalistic theory of meaning,inheriting the philosophical problems that come with such a view.This marks the difference between a representational dynamic view and a dynamic semantics.In a dynamic semantics,contexts are not representa-tions of information,but information as such,i.e.,not linguistic,but seman-tic objects.Thereby the dynamics is an intrinsic feature of the meanings of expressions,and not of the process by which the representations are con-structed.Consequently,in a dynamic semantics a level of representation is in principle superfluous,which means that possible mentalistic implications can be avoided.17However,besides such abstract philosophical and method-ological questions,there is also the empirical issue of descriptive adequacy: are representational and non-representational approaches equally successful in explaining the linguistic data?And,to be sure,that issue can be settled 17For a more extensive discussion of the issue of representationalism,and the related question of compositionality of interpretation,see[12,11,25].Cf.,also[23].10only by detailed investigations of concrete phenomena.3Application:anaphoric descriptions and context 3.1IntroductionBy way of illustration,we will sketch in this section how the idea of dynamic semantics can be applied in an analysis of anaphoric descriptions.Anaphoric relations belong to the veryfirstfield of application of the dynamic view, although it has been fruitfully applied to many other types of phenomena. The discussion that follows remains at an informal level,but it takes place against the background of the more formal presentations in[12,15,16].We focus on singular anaphoric definite descriptions,treating them as quantifiers,where quantification is dynamic and contextually restricted.The analysis is in line with the philosophy of[33]and[29],who defend a uniform Russellian,i.e.,a quantificational analysis of the semantics of definites and indefinites.The contribution to this stock of ideas is twofold:quantification is dynamic,which accounts for binding relations across the ordinary syntac-tic scope;and contextually restricted,which makes it possible to account for uniqueness preconditions in a satisfactory way.The idea that(anaphoric) definite descriptions involve context dependent quantification is not new. However,the mechanisms building up contextual domains have remained largely unexplicated.Dynamic semantics seems to provide a suitable frame-work for analyzing these mechanisms.We will also pay some attention to differences in anaphoric behavior of definite descriptions in various kinds of discourse.Besides monological texts,dialogues provide another kind of context in which they may occur, with slightly different conditions on the appropriateness of their use.One of the relevant factors is the nature of the information that speech participants have at their disposal,and may or may not share.By taking a closer look at these issues,a more subtle notion of information,and information change can be obtained.3.2Two kinds of informationFrom the discussion of the examples in(1)and(2),we concluded that in-formation states should contain(at least)two kinds of information:infor-mation about the world,and information about the discourse.In the end, in informative language use,it is information about the world that counts, but in acquiring such information through discourse,one also has to store11。
语境对翻译的影响英语作文
Context plays a crucial role in translation, influencing the accuracy, fluency, and appropriateness of the translated text. Here are some key points to consider:1. Understanding the Source Text: The context helps translators comprehend the meaning of the source text, including its cultural, historical, and situational nuances. Without proper context, a literal translation may not convey the intended message.2. Cultural Sensitivity: Different cultures have unique expressions, idioms, and references.A translator must be aware of these cultural contexts to avoid misinterpretation or offense in the target language.3. Idiomatic Expressions: Idioms often do not have direct translations between languages. Understanding the context allows translators to find equivalent expressions in the target language that carry the same connotation.4. Technical Terminology: In specialized fields, such as medicine, law, or technology, the context of the subject matter is essential for accurate translation. Misinterpretation of technical terms can lead to serious errors.5. Register and Style: The context helps determine the appropriate register formal, informal, etc. and style literary, technical, conversational, etc. of the translation. This ensures that the translated text matches the tone and formality of the original.6. Audience Consideration: The intended audience of the translation also forms part of the context. A text translated for a scholarly audience will differ in style and terminology from one intended for a general audience.7. Historical Context: For texts with historical significance, understanding the historical context is vital. This helps in preserving the integrity of the original message and its cultural significance.8. Cohesion and Coherence: The context helps maintain the cohesion and coherence of the translated text. It ensures that the translated text flows logically and is consistent with the original texts narrative or argument.9. Legal and Ethical Implications: In legal translations, the context is critical to ensure that the translation adheres to legal standards and ethical considerations, avoiding any misrepresentation of the original text.10. Adaptation and Localization: Sometimes, the context requires the translator to adaptor localize the text to suit the target audience better. This may involve changing cultural references, adjusting humor, or modifying the text to fit local norms.In conclusion, context is not just a backdrop but an integral part of the translation process. It guides the translator in making informed decisions that lead to a translation that is accurate, culturally sensitive, and appropriate for the intended audience.。
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Yu-Ling Ling
Inotera Memories, Inc., 667, Fu Hsing 3rd Rd., Kueishan, Taoyuan, Taiwan E-mail: eline0210@
Abstract: Mobile applications that allow users to perform activities on their mobile devices have attracted a substantial amount of attention in mobile commerce. The use of these application services (called mobile services) may be affected by contextual factors. In this paper, we investigate how contextual factors such as time pressure, location and other concurrent task may affect the intention to use a mobile service. A theoretical framework that combines Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) and Task-Technology Fit (TTF) and an empirical study was conducted. The results show that: 1) a higher degree of TTF resulted in a more positive attitude towards using a mobile service; 2) perceived behavioural control had a positive effect on user’s intention to use communication, entertainment and data application services; 3) social norms affected the intention to use only in transaction-related applications; 4) contextual factors had moderating effects on the intention to use.
See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https:///publication/262391489
Contextual factors and continuance intention of mobile services
Yi-Hsuan Yeh
Institute for Information Industry, Hsin Yi Road, Section 3, No. 41, 5F-1, Taipei, Taiwan E-mail: celeste@
Binshan Lin*
Business School, Louisiana State University in Shreveport, Shreveport, LA 71115, USA E-mail: Binshan.Lin@ *Corresponding author
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Binshan Lin Louisiana State University in Shreveport
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ARTICLE in INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MOBILE COMMUNICATIONS · AUGUST 2013
DOI: 10.1504/IJMC.2013.055746
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Keywords: mobile service; use context; TTF; task-technology fit; TPB; theory of planned behaviour; mobile commerce. Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Liang, T.P., Ling, Y.L., Yeh, Y.H. and Lin, B. (2013) ‘Contextual factors and continuance intention of mobile services’, Int. J. Mobile Communications, Vol. 11, No. 4, pp.313–329. Biographical notes: Ting-Peng Liang is a National Chair Professor at National Chengchi University (on leave from National Sun Yat-Sen University) in Taiwan. He received his PhD from the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania. He is an AIS fellow and has published extensively in electronic commerce, knowledge management, decision-support systems and other related topics. His papers have appeared in MIS Quarterly, Management Science, Journal of MIS, and many other high-quality journals. Yu-Ling Ling is a Quality Engineer at Inotera Memories, Inc. She received her MS in Information Systems from National Sun Yat-Sen University in Kaohsiung, Taiwan. Yi-Hsuan Yeh is a Senior Researcher at the Institute for Information Industry. She received her PhD from the National Sun Yat-Sen University in Kaohsiung, Taiwan. Her primary research interests include mobile commerce and organisational adoption of information technologies. Binshan Lin is the BellSouth Corporation Professor at Louisiana State University in Shreveport. He received his PhD from the Louisiana State University. He is a nine-time recipient of the Outstanding Faculty Award at LSUS. He has published over 260 papers in refereed journals.
Available from: Ting-Peng Liang Retrieved on: 29 February 2016
Int. J. Mobile Communications, Vol. 11, No. 4, 2013
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Contextual factors and continuance intention of mobile services Ting-Peng Liang
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Introduction
Mobile commerce that allows users to conduct commercial activities over their mobile devices has enjoyed a significant growth in the past decade. An increasing amount of applications have been developed and research on the use of these applications is increasing dramatically. Although many prior studies have examined factors that may affect the intention to use mobile applications (e.g., Wang and Cheung, 2004; Ojiako, 2012; Mallat et al., 2008; Liu et al., 2011; Hsu et al., 2011), the contextual factor that has been found to be influential in mobile usage is under-investigated (e.g., Liang and Yeh, 2011). Consumer decisions are frequently affected by contextual factors, such as time pressure, task characteristics and particular occasions (Jaeger and Rose, 2008). Consumers encountering some situations usually change their habits to buy/do other things. Researchers have already demonstrated the impact of contexts. For example, time pressure was negatively related to both estimated goal fulfilment and job satisfaction (Nordqvist et al., 2004). Task complexity was found to be the main determinant of user confidence (Topi et al., 2005). Store environment and time pressure have great influence on the consumers’ shopping behaviour in the retail stores (Park et al., 1989). It is reasonable to assume that the value of mobile application services may change in different situations and hence a consumer’s intention to adopt mobile services is affected