《英语词汇学》知识点归纳
英语词汇学通论
英语词汇学通论一、基本概念部分。
1. 单词（Word）- 发音：[wɜːd]- 词性：名词。
- 定义：具有一定语音形式、表示一定意义、可以独立运用的最小语言单位。
例如，“book”（书）、“run”（跑）等都是单词。
2. 词素（Morpheme）- 发音：[ˈmɔːfiːm]- 词性：名词。
- 定义：是语言中最小的语义单位。
词素分为自由词素（Free Morpheme）和粘着词素（Bound Morpheme）。
自由词素可以独立成词，如“man”（男人）；粘着词素不能独立成词，如“ -ment”（表示行为、结果等的后缀，如“development”发展）。
3. 词根（Root）- 发音：[ruːt]- 词性：名词。
- 定义：是单词的核心部分，包含着单词的基本意义。
例如，在“unhappiness”中，“happy”是词根，表示“高兴”的基本意义。
二、构词法（Word - formation）1. 派生法（Derivation）- 发音：[ˌderɪˈveɪʃn]- 词性：名词。
- 解释：通过在词根上加前缀（Prefix）或后缀（Suffix）来构成新词的方法。
- 示例：- 加前缀：“un -”（表示否定） + “happy”（高兴的） = “unhappy”（不高兴的），“un -”的发音是[ʌn]。
- 加后缀：“teach”（教）+“ -er”（表示人） = “teacher”（教师），“ -er”的发音是[ə(r)]。
2. 合成法（Compounding）- 发音：[kəmˈpaʊndɪŋ]- 词性：名词。
- 解释：把两个或两个以上的词组合成一个新词的方法。
- 示例：- “black”（黑色的）+“board”（木板） = “blackboard”（黑板），“black”发音为[blæk]，“board”发音为[bɔːd]。
- “day”（天）+“break”（打破，破晓） = “daybreak”（黎明），“day”发音为[deɪ]，“break”发音为[breɪk]。
英语词汇学知识点归纳总结
英语词汇学知识点归纳总结
1.词汇分类：英语词汇可以分为实词和虚词两大类。
实词包括名词、
动词、形容词和副词，是能独立存在并具有词义的词类；虚词包括冠词、
介词、连词、代词和助词，是不能独立存在或不具有词义的词类。
2.词根与词缀：英语词汇中有很多词根和词缀，词根是词的核心部分，词缀是附加在词根上的，可以改变词的词义、词性或词形。
3.词义：英语词汇的词义可以通过定义、同义词、反义词、上下义词
等方式进行描述和解释。
词义可以有直观意义、引申意义和隐喻意义等。
4.词汇建构：英语词汇的建构可以通过合成、派生、转化、缩略等方
式进行。
合成是通过将两个或多个词根组合成一个新词，派生是通过添加
前缀或后缀来构成新词，转化是通过改变词的词类来构成新词，缩略是通
过省略部分词组或词根来构成新词。
5.词汇变化：英语词汇的变化形式包括时态、语态、人称、数和比较等。
词汇的变化形式可以通过词形变化、语法变化和语义变化等方式进行。
6.外借词：英语词汇中存在大量的外借词，这些词汇主要来自拉丁语、希腊语、法语、德语等其他语言。
外借词在英语中经过适当的拼写、读音
和意义调整后被接受和使用。
7.同源词：英语词汇中存在一些同源词，这些词源于同一词根或词源，并在语音、形态或词义上有一定的相似性。
了解同源词可以帮助理解和记
忆词汇。
8.词汇扩展：英语词汇在发展的过程中会发生扩展，即一个词从最初的特定意义扩展到更广泛的意义。
词汇扩展可以通过引申、转义、隐喻等方式进行。
这些是英语词汇学中的一些主要知识点，通过对这些知识点的学习和理解，可以更好地掌握和应用英语词汇。
词汇学知识点
词汇学知识点词汇学是语言学的一个重要分支，研究词汇的形态、构词法、含义、语法功能和使用规律等方面的知识。
词汇学知识点有助于我们更深入地了解语言的结构和规律，提高我们的语言运用能力和沟通能力。
下面将就词汇学的一些重要知识点进行详细介绍。
1. 词汇的分类根据词性的不同，词汇可以分为名词、动词、形容词、副词、代词、介词、连词和感叹词等不同种类。
名词是表示人、事、物、地点或抽象概念的词，如“学校”、“朋友”；动词是表示动作或状态的词，如“看”、“跑”；形容词是用来描述名词或代词的性质或特征的词，如“美丽”、“聪明”；副词是用来修饰动词、形容词或其他副词的词，如“很”、“非常”。
2. 词汇的构词法构词法是指词汇的构成规律和方法。
词汇可以通过加前缀、后缀、派生、复合、缩略、转化等方式形成新词。
比如，“美”+“丽”=“美丽”；“快”+“速”=“快速”；“快速”+“度”=“快速度”。
3. 词汇的含义词汇的含义是指词汇所代表的概念或事物。
词汇的含义可以根据词义的延伸、转义、比喻、象征等方式进行词义推论。
比如，“明星”原指天空中的星星，后引申为受人尊敬或崇拜的人。
4. 词汇的语法功能词汇在句子中具有不同的语法功能，如名词可以作主语、宾语、定语、表语等；动词可以表示主谓关系、宾语关系、状语关系等；形容词和副词可以修饰名词或代词等。
5. 词汇的使用规律词汇在语言运用中有一定的使用规律，比如词的搭配、语法环境、语言风格等。
正确地运用词汇有助于提高语言表达的准确性和丰富性。
通过以上对词汇学知识点的介绍，我们可以更系统地了解词汇在语言中的作用和重要性，进一步提高我们的语言水平和表达能力。
希望大家都能在学习词汇学知识点的过程中取得更好的成绩，展现自己在语言运用方面的能力。
【正文结束】。
英语词汇学总结复习资料
大家请注意：笔记中大多数是以名词解释的形式出现的，这些是绝对的基础，应该一字不漏的背下来。
其实不少简答题也就是几个定义的汇总，再加上个例子就可以拿满分了。
区分两个词的区别，主要还是指明其各自的定义。
第一章Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary1. 词的定义Word —— A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.2.声音与意义的关系There is no logical relationship between sound and meaning as the symbolic connection between them is arbitrary and conventional. E.g. “woman” means ’Frau’ in German，’Femme’ in French and ’Funv ’in Chinese. On the other hand，the same sound /rait/ can mean right，rite and write，though denoting different things，yet have the same sound.3.读音与拼写不一致的原因The difference between sound and form result from 4 major factors.（At least 80%of the English words fit consistent spelling patterns）a）. the internal reason is English alphabet does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language.b）. Pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spellingc）. Influence of the work of scribes/printing freezes the spelling of words in 1500d）. Borrowing of foreign language4. 词汇的含义Vocabulary —— Vocabulary is most commonly used to refer to the sum total of all the words of a language. It can also refer to all the words of a given dialect，a given book，a given displine and all the words possessed by an individual person as well as all the words current in a particular period of time in history.The general estimate of the present day English vocabulary is over 1 million words.5.词汇的分类的原则Classification of Words—by use frequency，by notion，by originthe English vocabulary consist of words of all kinds. they can be classified by different criteria and for different purpose . words may fall into the word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency, into content words and functional words by notion , and into native words and borrowed words by origin.基本词汇的特点1）. Basic word stock – the foundation of the vocabulary.1.all national character （most important）– natural phenomenamost common things and phenomena of the human body and relationsworld around us names of plants and animals action，size，domain，state numerals，pronouns，prep. ，conj.2. stability– they donate the commonest thing necessary to life，they are like to remain unchanged. Only relative，some are undergoing some changes. But the change is slow.e.g. arrow，bow，chariot，knight – past electricity，machine，car，plane —— now3.productivity– they are mostly root words or monosyllabic words，they can form new words with other roots and affixes.e.g. foot – football，footage，footpath，footer4.polysemy – often possess more than one meaning. Become polysemous.e.g. take to move or carry from one place to another to remove5.collocability– quite a number of set expressions，idiomatic usages，proverbial saying and others基本词汇在英语中的地位和重要性The basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language .though words of the basic word stock constitute a small percentage of the English vocabulary ,yet it is the most important part of it .e.g. heart – a change of heart， a heart of goldNon-basic vocabulary ——(例子)1. terminology – technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas as in medicinephotoscanning，hepatitis，indigestion，penicillin，algebra，trigonometry，calculus2. jargon– specialized vocabulary in certain professions.Bottom line，ballpark figures，bargaining chips，hold him back，hold him in，paranoid3. slang—— substandard words often used in informal occasionsdough and bread，grass and pot，beaver，smoky，bear，catch，holler，Roger，X-rays，Certain words are labeled slang because of their usage.4. argot – words used by sub-cultured groupscan-opener，dip，persuader cant，jargon ，argot are associated with，or most available to，specific groups of the population.5. dialectal words– only by speakers of the dialectbeauty，chook，cocky，station，auld，build，coo，hame，lough，bog6. archaisms – words no longer in common use or restricted in use. In older poems，legal document and religious writing or speech.7. neologism– newly created words with new meaning e.g. microelectronics，futurology，AIDS，internet，E-mailold meaning acquired new meaning e.g. mouse，monitor2）. Content word （notional word）– denote clear notions.Functional word （empty word，form word）– do not have notions of their own，express the relation between notions，words and sentences.a. Content words constitute the main body of the English vocabulary are numerous.Functional words are in a small number.b. Content words are growing.Functional words remain stable.c. Functional words do far more work of expression than content words.3）. Native words – are words brought to Britain in the 15 century by the German tribes. Ango-Saxon Words，50，000-60，000What is true of the basic word stock is also true of native world. More are1. neutral in style （not stylistical specific ）2. 2.frequent in use （in academic fields and science French，Latin or Greek are used）（usage 70-90%）Borrowed words （loan words，borrowing）– words taken over from foreign language. 80%本族语词在英语中的地位和重要性Native words form the mainstream of the basic word stock and stand at the core of the language .therefore , what is true of the basic word stock is also true of native words.According to the degree of assimilation and manner of borrowing，we can bring the loan words under 4 classes.1.Denizen s– words borrowed early and now are well assimilated into English language.e.g. port from portus（L）shift，change，shirt，pork cup from cuppa（L）2.Aliens– retained their original pronunciation and spellinge.g. décor（F）blitzkreeg（G）emir，intermez，rowtow，bazaar，rajar，status quo3.translation loans– formed from the existing material in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken from another language.1）. Word translated according to the meaninge.g. mother tough from lingua maternal（L）black humor from humor noir long time no see，surplus value，master piece2）. Words translated according to the sounde.g. kulak from kyrak（Russ）lama from lama（Tib）ketchup tea4. Semantic loans– their meaning are borrowed from another languagee.g. stupid old dump new sassy dream old joy and peace pioneer old explorer/person doing pioneering work new a member of the young pioneer fresh old impertinent，sassy，cheeky 第二章The Development of the English1、Indo-European language family （Europe，the Near East，India）It can be grouped into an Eastern set :Balto –Slavic 、Indo-Iranian、Armenian and Albanian; a Western set: Celtic、Italic 、Hellenic、GermanicIn the Eastern set , Armenian and Albanian are each the only modern language respectively,the Balto –Slavic comprises such modern language such as Prussian、Lithuanian、Polish、Czech、Bulgarian、Slovenian、Russian. In the Indo-Iranian we have Persian, Bengali, Hindi, Romany, the last three of which are derived from the dead language Sanskrit.In the Western set, Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic. In the Celtic,we find Scottish, Irish,Welsh, Breton. the five Romance language ,namely, Portuguese,Spanish, French, Italian, Roumanian all belong to the Italic through an intermediate language called Latin. The Germanic family consist of the four Northern European language :Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, which are generally known as Scandinavian languages. Then there is German, Dutch, Flemish and English.2、History （时间，历史事件，特征）1）Old English （450-1150）totally 50，000-60，000 wordsThe 1st people known to inhabit England were Celts，the language was Celtic.The second language was the Latin of the Roman Legions. The Germanic tribes called angles，Saxons and Jutes and their language，Anglo-Saxon dominated and blotted out the Celtic. Now people refer to Anglo-Saxon as old English. At the end of 6th century，the introduction of Christianity has a great impact on the English vocabulary. The common practice was to create new words by combining two native words. In the 9th century，many Scandinavian words came into English. At least 900 words of Scandinavian are in modern English，our daily life and speech.特点：highly inflected language///complex endings or vowel changes （full ending）2）Middle English （1150-1500）English，Latin，FrenchUntil 1066，although there were borrowings from Latin，the influence on English was mainly Germanic. But the Norman Conquest started a continual flow of French words into English.By the end of the 13th century，English gradually come back into public areas.Between 1250 and 150 about 9000 words of French origin pouered into English. 75% of them are till in use today.As many as 2500 words of Dutch origin come into English.特点：fewer inflections leveled ending3）Modern English （1500-up to now）early modern English （1500-1700）late modern English（1700-up to now）The Renaissance(the early period)，Latin and Greek were recognized as the languages of the West ern world’s great literary heritage.From the 1500’s through the 1700’s ,many writers experimented with words. Over 10000 new words entered the English language .many of these were taken from Latin and Greek .The Industrial Revolution was in the mid-17 century. With the growth of colonization，British tentacles began a stretching out of to every corner of the globe，thus enabling English to absorb words from all major languages of the world.After World War II，many new words have been created to express new ideas，inventions and scientific achievements.More words are created by means of word-formation.thousands and thousands of new words have been entered to express new ideas inventions，and scientific achievements.more words are created by means of word-formation.in modern English，word endings were mostly lost with just a few exceptions English has evolved from a synthetic language to the present analytic language.science and technology terms make up about 45% of new words. words associated with life-style constitute of 24% and social and economic terms amount to over 10% .mention should be made of an opposite process of development i.e. old words falling out if use.特点：ending are almost lost.3. Three main sources new words当代英语词汇发展的现状New words sweep in at a rate much faster than at any other historical period of time .词汇发展的主要原因1).The rapid development of modern science and technology2).Social: economic and political changes3).The influence of other cultures and languages4. Three modes of vocabulary development（英语发展的三个主要方式：创造新词、旧词新意、借用外来语词）1. Creation – the formation of new words by using the existing materials，namely roots，affixes and other elements. （This is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.）2. Semantic change - an old form which take on a new meaning to meet the new need.3. Borrowing – to take in words from other languages.（played a vital role in the development of vocabulary , particularly in earlier times）4. （Reviving archaic or obsolete）French 30%，Latin 8%，Japanese Italian 7%，Spanish 6%，German Greek 5%，Russian Yiddish 4%第三章Word Formation*1. Morpheme(词素) ——A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of a language. （The smallest functional unit in the composition of words.）*2.Morph——A morpheme must be realized by discrete units. These actual spoken minimal carriers of meaning are morphs.3.Monomorphenic words– morphemes are realized by single morphs.4.Allomorph（词素变体）——Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position. Such alternative morphs are allomorphemes. E.g. the morpheme of plurality （-s）has a number if allomorphemes in different sound context，e.g. in cats/s/，in bags/z/，in matches/iz/.5. Free morphemes or Free root —— The morphemes have complete meaning and van be used as free grammatical units in sentences，e.g. cat，walk. They are identical with root words. morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free.6.Bound Morphemes——The morphemes cannot occur as separate words. They are bound to other morphemes to form words，e.g. recollection （re+collect+ion）collect – free morpheme re-and –ion are bound morphemes. （include bound root and affix）Bound morphemes are found in derived words.7.Bound root —— A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root，it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. Take -dict- for example：it conveys the meaning of “say or speak” as a Latin root，but not as a word. With the prefix pre-（=before）we obtain the verb predict meaning “tell beforehand”。
词汇学知识点总结
词汇学知识点总结词汇学是语言学的一个重要分支，研究的是词汇的形成、结构和意义等方面的问题。
在学习英语等外语的过程中，词汇是其中一个重要的组成部分。
下面，本文将对词汇学的一些知识点进行总结与归纳。
一、词的形态学词的形态学是词汇学中必须掌握的一个重要方面，主要包括词的构词法、屈折变化和派生变化等。
词的构词法指的是如何通过组合原有的词来创造新词，包括派生法、合成法、缩略法、转化法等。
屈折变化指根据语法要求，变化词的形态以表示不同的格、时、数、性等。
派生变化则指通过在原有词基础上添加字母或词缀等来产生新的词。
掌握词的形态学是很有必要的，因为它和词汇的理解和使用密切相关。
二、词的分类在英语中，词可以根据其不同的语法特征被归为不同的类别，常见的类别包括名词、代词、动词、形容词、副词、介词、连词和感叹词等。
不同的词在句子中扮演着不同的角色，掌握各类别之间的区别以及它们在句子中的作用，可以帮助我们更好地理解和表达语言。
三、词义词义是从语言学的角度定义词的意义，包括原义和引申义。
原义指的是一个词最基本的意思，而引申义则是在原义基础上经过延伸、扩展而得到的新意义。
同一个词的不同意义和语言环境等也会导致其含义的变化，例如“bank”既可以表示银行，也可以表示河岸等。
在学习外语的过程中，掌握词义是十分重要的。
四、词汇的学习方法词汇的学习是英语学习中最基础也最重要的部分之一，因此选择适合自己的学习方法对于提高词汇量、扩大词汇面积至关重要。
常用的学习方法包括反复背诵、积累单词簿、整理词根词缀、阅读和听力等。
在学习方法上，以选择适合自己和有用的方法为主，同时注意与语言运用的联系，不断地推广和实践。
五、词汇的应用掌握了词汇学的知识和学习方法后，其实就迈出了学习英语的第一步。
在实际运用中，如何运用得当也是至关重要的环节。
为了提高语言的流利度，需要在口语和书面语两个方面加强实践，增强实际运用能力。
另外，可以较晚多在社交网络等平台上与外国人联系，使用所学的词汇，将知识应用到实际交流之中，效果更佳。
英语词汇学知识点整理
词汇期末复习（C1-C7）Chapter 1一、Word 词的定义(1) a minimal free form（最小的自由形式）(2) a sound unity(3) a semantic unity（meaning）(4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.（具有句法功能）二、Vocabulary词汇的定义All the words in a language make up what is generally known as vocabulary.一般来说，词汇指的是一种语言里所有单词的总和。
词的总和构成语言的词汇。
词与词汇之间的关系是个体与总体之间的关系。
三、Sound&Meaning发音和意义The connection between the sound (form) and meaning is arbitrary (任意的) and conventional. 二者的关系是约定俗成、随意的四、Sound & Form发音和形式(1)The written form of a natural language is the orthographical（正字的）record of the oralform.自然语言的书写形式是口语形式的书写记录。
(2)The reasons of differences occur between sound and form: 发音与形式不同的原因：①English alphabet was adopted from the Romans 英语字母表来自罗马②the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years. 发音改变快速③Differences created by professional scribes. 专业抄写员的不同④More differences brought by the continuing change of sounds and the standardization of spelling.发音不断变化，书写标准化。
《英语词汇学》知识点归纳
English Lexicology(英语词汇学)Lexicology(词汇学): is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words、The Nature and Scope of English lexicology:English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages、The subjects that English Lexicology correlated with and extent to:English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics(文体论) and lexicography(词典学)The reason for a student to study English lexicology:According to the textbook, English Lexicology will definitely be beneficial for students of English、A good knowledge of morphological structures of English words and rules ofword-formation will help learners develop their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power、The information of the historical development and the principles of classification will give them a deeper understanding of word-meaning and enable them to organize, classify and store words more effectively、The understanding and their sense relations will gradually raise their awareness of meaning and usage, and enable them use words more accurately and appropriately、A working knowledge of dictionaries will improve their skills of using reference books and raise theirproblem-solving ability and efficiency of individual study、Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabularyWord(词的定义): A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function、(1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentenceSound and meaning(声音与意义): almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”Sound and form(读音与形式):不统一的四个原因(1)the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other (2)the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years(3)some of the difference were creates by the early scribes(4)the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabularyVocabulary(词汇): all the words in a language make up its vocabulary Classification of English Words:By use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabularyBy notion:content words&functional wordsBy origin:native words&borrowed wordsThe basic word stock(基本词汇): is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language、Though it constitute a small percentage of the EV, it is the most important part of vocabulary、The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock(基本词汇的特征):1)All-National character(全民通用性most important) 2)Stability(相对稳定性)3)Productivity(多产性) 4)Polysemy(多义性) 5)Collocability(可搭配性)没有上述特征的words:(1)Terminology(术语) (2)Jargon(行话) (3)slang(俚语)(4)Argot(暗语) (5)Dialectal words(方言) (6) Archaisms(古语) (7) Neologisms(新词语):Neologisms means newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings、(email)Content words/notional words实词(cloud, run walk, never, five, frequently) and functional words/empty words虚词(on, of, and, be, but)Native Words and Borrowed WordsNative words(本族语词): known as Anglo-Saxon words (50,000-60,000), are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes、(mainstream of the basic word-stocks)、Two other features:(1)neutral in style (2)frequent in useBorrowed words/Loan words(外来语词): words taken over from foreign languages、(80% of modern EV)4 Types of loan words:1) denizens(同化词): (shirt from skyrta(ON))2) aliens(非同化词/外来词):are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling (kowtow (CH)磕头)3) translation loans(译借词):按其她语言方式组成英语long time no see (from China)4) semantic loans(借义词):they are not borrowed with reference to the form,but their meanings are borrowedChapter 2 the development of the English VocabularyThe Indo-European Language Family(印欧语系)The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages(8大印欧语群)The Eastern set:(1)The Balto-slavic Group(波罗的-斯拉夫语族):Russian,Bulgarian,Polish,Czech etc、(2)The Indo-Iranian Group(印度-伊朗语族):Hindi,Bengali,Persian etc、(3)The Armenian Group(亚美尼亚语族):Armenian、(4)The Albanian Group(阿尔巴尼亚语族):Albanian、The Western set:(5)The Hellenic Group(古希腊语族):Greek、(6)The Italian Group(意大利语族):Latin ,Romance languages(French,Italian,Spanish, portuguese,Romanian) etc、(7)The Celtic Group(凯尔特语族):Irish,Welsh,Breton etc、(8)The Germanic Group(日耳曼语族):Flemish,German,Dutch,Scandinavian(Norweigian, Swedish,Danish,Icelandic) etc、The Three Stages of Development of the English Vocabulary:1 Old English (450-1100) (vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000):was I high inflected language、2 Middle English (1150-1500):retaines much fewer inflections3 Modern English (1500-up to now): in fact more than 25% of modern E words come almost directly from classical languages、In Modern E, words endings were mostly lost with just a few expections、English has evolved from a synthetic language(Old English) to the present analytic language、Modes of Vocabulary Development(词汇的发展模式):1)creation创造新词:the formation of new words by using the existing materials,namely toots,affixes and other elements、(最重要方式)2)semantic change旧词新义:does not increase the number of word forms but create many more new useages of the words、3) borrowing借用外来词:constitute merely 6 to 7 percent of all new wordsReviving words or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant、Chapter 3 Word Formation IMorpheme(词素):the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words Allomorph(词素变体): is a different variant form of a morpheme,differ in phonological and spelling form, but at the same in function and meaningType of Morpheme(词素的分类)(1)Free Morphemes(自由词素): have complete meaning in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences、A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself、(independent)、(2)Bound Morpheme(粘着语素): A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself、Bound Morpheme includes two types: (1) bound root(粘附词根) (2)Affix(词缀)Affixes can be put into two groups:1)Inflectional affixes (屈折词缀):affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional,thus known as inflectional morphemes、2)Derivational affixes(派生词缀): A) prefix: A prefix comes before words、B)suffix:An adjective suffix(形容词后缀) that is added to the stem, whatever class is belongs to , the result will be an adjective、Free Morpheme =free root(自由词根)Morpheme(词素)Bound root prefixbound derivationalaffix suffixinflectionalRoot and stem(词根与词干)The differences between root and stem:A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity、A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root、Chapter 4 Word-Formation II(构词法)1、Affixation词缀法(Derivation派生法):the formation of words by adding word-formaing or derivational affixes to stem、(1)Prefixation(前缀法):It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems、1)Negative prefixes(否定前缀): un-,non-,in-,dis,a- ,il-,ir-,im-,etc、disobey(not obey)2)Reversative prefixes(逆反前缀): un-,de-,dis- etc、unwrap(open)3) Pejorative prefixes: mis(贬义前缀):mis-, mal-, pseudo- etc、misconduct(bad behaviour)4) Prefixes of degree or size(程度前缀):arch-,extra-,hyper-,macro-,micro-,mini-,out-,over-,sub-,super-,sur-,ultra-,under-,ect、overweight5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude(倾向态度前缀):contra-,counter-,anti-,pro- etc、anti-nuclear6)Locative prefixes(方位前缀):extra-,fore-,inter-,intra-,tele-,trans-, etc、extraordinary(more than ordinary)7) Prefixes of time and order(时间与顺序前缀):fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc、monorail(one rail)8) Number prefixes(数字前缀):uni-,mono-, bi-,di-, tri-,multi-,poly- ,semi-,etc、bilingual(concerning two languages)9) Miscellaneous prefixes(混杂前缀):auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-、vice-chairman(deputy chairman)(2)Suffixation(后缀法): It's the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems、1)noun suffixes 2)adjective suffixes 3)Adverb suffixes 4)verb suffixes2、Compounding复合法(also called composition)Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stemsCompounds are written in three ways: solid连写(airmail),hyphenated带连字符(air-conditioning)and open分开写(air force, air raid)Formation of compounds(复合词的形式)(1)noun compounds :e、g、: air + plane = airplane,flower + pot = flower pot(2)adjective compounds : e、g、acid + head = acid-head(3)verb compounds : e、g、house + keep = housekeep3、Conversion转类法Conversion: is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class、(功能转换,又叫零派生、functional shift/zero-derivation)4、Blending拼缀法Blending : is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word、e、g: motor + hotel = motel, smoke + fog = smog, formula + translation = FORTRAN5、Clipping截短法Clipping:is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead、e、g、plane from airplane, phone from telephone、四种形式:1)、Front clippings删节前面(phone from telephone)2)、Back clippings删节后面(dorm from dormitory)3)、Front and back clippings 前后删节(flu from influenza)4)、Phrase clippings 短语删节(pop from popular music)6、Acronymy首字母缩写法Acronymy:is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms、(1)Initialism(首字母缩写词法): initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter、e、g、: BBC(for British Broadcasting corporation)(2)Acronym(首字母拼音法):Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word、E、g、:TEFL(teaching English as a foreign language)7、Back-formation(逆生法,逆构词)Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation、It’s the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes、(greed from greedy)8、Words From Proper Name(专有名词转成法):Names of people, places, book, and tradenames (e、g、: sir watt siemens(人名) -- watt(瓦特,电功率单位)Chapter 5 Word MeaningThe meanings of “Meaning”(“意义”的意义)Reference(所指):It is the relationship between language and the word、It is the arbitrary and conventional、It is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something specific、Concept(概念):which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition(认识),reflecting the objective world in the human mind、Sense(意义):It denotes the relationship inside the language、‘The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language、’Motivation(理据):It accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning、1) Onomatopoeic motivation(拟声理据):words whose sounds suggest their meaning, for these words were creates by imitating the natural sounds or noises、Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning、E、g、: bang, ping-pong, ha ha、2)Morphological motivation (形态理据):multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many are the sum total of the morphemes combines、E、g、: airmail, miniskirt 、例外:black market, ect、3)Semantic motivation(词义理据):refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word、It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word、E、g:the foot of the mountain(foot)4)Etymological motivation (词源理据):the history of the word explains the meaning of the word、E、g:pen-featherTypes of meaning(词义的类别)1、Grammatical Meaning(语法意义):indicates the grammatical concept or relationships (becomes important only in actual context)2、Lexical Meaning (词汇意义)(Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word-meaning)Lexical meaning has 2 components内容: Conceptual meaning(概念意义) and associative meaning(关联意义)1)Conceptual meaning(概念意义): also known as denotative meaning(外延意义) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning、2)Associative meaning(关联意义):is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning、[4types:（1）Connotative(内涵意义):the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning, traditionally known as connotations、(例如“母亲”经常与“爱”“关心”“温柔”联系起来)（2）Stylistic(文体意义):many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts、（3）Affective(感情意义) :indicates the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing in question、这种情感价值观分两类:褒义与贬义appreciative & pejorative（4）Collocative(搭配意义):is the part of the word-meaning suggested by the wordsbefore or after the word in discussion、]Chapter 6 --Sense relation and semantic field (语义关系与语义场)Polysemy(多义关系)Two approached to polysemy(多义关系的两种研究方法):1、diachronic approach(历时方法) :from the diachronic point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word、First meaning is the primary meaning , the later meanings are called derived meanings、2、synchronic approach (共时方法) : synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time、基本意义就是central meaning , 次要意义就是derived meaning、Two processes of development(词义的两种发展类型):1.radiation(辐射型):is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at thecentre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes、(e、g: face, neck)2.concatenation(连锁型):is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word movegradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning、(e、g:treacle)3.In radiation, each of the derived meaning is directly connected to the primarymeaning、In concatenation, each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains、Though the latest sense can be traced back to the original, there is no direct connection in between、4.They are closely related, being different stages of the development leading topolysemy、Generally, radiation precedes concatenation、In many cases, the two processes work together, complementing each other、Homonymy(同形同音异义关系):words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling、Types of homonyms(同音同形异义关系的类别)1)Perfect homonyms(完全同音同形异义词):words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning、2)Homographs(同形异义词):words identical only in spelling, but different in sound and meaning、(最多最常见)3)Homophones(同音异义词):words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning、Origins of homonyms (同形同音异义词的来源)1)change in sound and spelling :(eare-ear, lang-long, langian-long)2)borrowing (feria-fair, beallu-ball, baller-ball )3)Shortening(缩略): (ad-advertisement,)The differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemes(同音同形异义词与多义词的区别):1)The fundamental difference : Homonymy refers to different words which happen to share the same form and polysemy are the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings、2)One important criterion is to see their etymology(词源):Homonymys are from different sources、Polysemant is from the same source、3)The second principle consideration is semantic relatedness(语义关联): The various meanings of polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning、Meanings of different homonymys have nothing to do with one another、In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meaning all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries、Rhetoric features of homonyms(同形同音异义词的修辞特色):As homonyms are identical in sound or spelling, particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns for desired effect of, say, humor, sarcasm or ridicule、Synonymy (同义关系): one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning 、Types of Synonymy(同义词的类别) :(1)Absolute synonyms(完全同义词):also known as complete synonyms are words whichare identical in meaning in all aspects, i、e、both in grammatical meaning and lexicalmeaning, including conceptual and associative meanings、[ Absolute synonyms are restricted to highly specialized vocabulary in lexicology、](2)relative synonyms(相对同义词):also called near-synonyms are similar or nearly thesame in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality、(e、g: change/alter/vary, stagger/reel/totter, strange/odd/queer,idle/lazy/indolent)Sources of synonyms(同义词的来源) :1)Borrowing(借词):最重要的来源(room-chamber, foe-enemy, help-aid, leave-depart, wise-sage, buy-purchase)2)Dialects and regional English (方言与地区英语)3)Figurative and euphemistic use of words (单词的修饰与委婉用法):occupation/profession-walk of life, dreamer--star-gazer, drunk-elevated, lie-distort of fact、4)Coincidence with idiomatic expressions(与习惯表达一致):win-gain the upper hand, decide-make up one’s mind, finish-get through, hesitate-be in two minds, help-lend one a hand、Discrimination of Synonyms(1)difference in denotation外延不同、Synonyms may differ in the range and intensity ofmeaning、(rich-wealthy, work-toil, want-wish-desire)(2)difference in connotation内涵不同、By connotation we mean the stylistic and emotivecolouring of words、Some words share the same denotation but differ in their stylistic appropriateness、(借词:answer-respond, storm-tempest, wood-forest, handy-manual, unlike-dissimilar, homely-domestic, fleshy-carnal、中性词:policeman-constable-bobby-cop, ask-beg-request、古语词、诗歌:ire/anger, bliss-happiness, forlorn-distresses, dire-dreadful, list-listen, enow-enough, save-expect, mere-lake )(3)difference in application、Many words are synonymous in meaning but difference inusage in simple terms、They form different collocations and fit into difference sentence patterns、(allow sb、to do sth、- let sb、do sth、/ answer the letter-replyto the letter)Antonymy (反义关系) :it is concerned with semantic opposition、Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning、Types of Antonyms:1)contradictory terms (矛盾反义词): these antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning、特点:①The assertion of one is the denial of the other、②Such antonyms are non-gradable、They cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like “very” to qualify them 、(e、g: single/married)2)contrary terms(对立反义词): antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes、(e、g: old/young, rich/young, big/small) The two opposites are gradable and one exists in comparison with the other、3)relative terms(关系反义词): this type consists of relational opposites、(parent/child, husband/wife, employee/employer, sell/buy, receive-give)Some of the characteristics of antonyms(反义关系的特点):1)antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition(语义对立)2)a word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym3)antonyms differ in semantic inclusion(语义内涵)4)contrary terms are gradable antonyms,differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own corresponding opposite、(hot/warm: hot-cold/warm-cool)The use of antonyms(反义词的使用)1)Antonyms are helpful and valuable in defining the meaning of words、2)To express economically the opposite of a particular thought for the sake of contrast、(e、g :now or never, rain or shine, friend or foe敌友,weal and woe哀乐)3)To form antithesis(对比法) to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting idea together、(proverbs and sayings: easy come , easy go、/ more haste, less speed、)Hyponymy(上下义关系): Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion、The meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word、For example, a cat is hyponym of animalSuperordinate and Subordinate (上义词与下义词):use subordinates which are concrete and precise ,presenting a vivid verbal picture before the reader、Superordinates which convey only a general and vague idea、Semantic Field(语义场)Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of field theory、e、g、(apple, pear, peach, date, mango, orange, lemon, etc、make up the semantic field of ‘fruits’)The semantic field of the same concept may not have the same members in different language、e、g、(aunt in English, ma y means “父亲的姐姐, 妈妈的姐姐,父亲哥哥的妻子” in Chinese、(122)Chapter 7 Changes in Word Meaning词义的演变Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes both in form and content、Comparatively the content is even more unstable than the form、Types of Changes (词义变化的种类)1、Extension /generalization(词义的扩大): is the name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo、It is a process by which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized、(e、g: manuscript, fabulous, picture, mill, journal, bonfire, butcher, companion)2、Narrowing/ specialization(词义的缩小):is the opposite of widening meaning、It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense、In other words, a word which used to have a more general sense becomes restricted in its application and conveys a special meaning in present-day English、(e、g: deer, corn, garage, liquor, meat, disease, poison, wife, accident, girl)、[ when a common word is turned into a proper noun, the meaning is narrowed accordingly、]3、Elevation /amelioration(词义的升华):refers to the process by which words rise from humble(粗陋的) beginnings to positions of importance、[nice, marshal, constable, angel, knight, earl, governor, fond, minister, chamberlain ]4、Degradation / pejoration(词义的降格):A process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to used in derogatory(贬损的) sense、[boor, churl, wench, hussy, villain, silly, knave, lewd, criticize, lust ]5、Transfer(词义的转移): Words which were used to designate指明one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer、Causes of Semantic Change(词义变化的原因)1、Extra-linguistic factors(词义演变的语言外部因素):1) Historical reason(历史原因):Increased scientific knowledge and discovery, objects, institutions, ideas change in the course of time、E、g: pen, car, computer、2 )Class reason(阶级原因):The attitude of classes have also made inroads into lexical meaning in the case of elevation or degradation、3) Psychological reason(心理原因):the associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words are often due to psychological factors、Such slow, humble and despised occupations take more appealing names is all due to psychological reasons、2、Linguistic factors(语言内部原因):the change of meaning may be caused by internal factors with in the language system、1)shorting缩略:gold-gold medal, gas-coal gas, bulb-light bulb, private-private soldier2)borrowing借用:deer-animal-beast3)analogy类推:Chapter 8 Meaning and Context 词义与语境Context in its traditional sense refers to the lexical items that precede or follow a given word、Modern linguists have broadened its scope to include both linguistic andextra-linguistic contexts、Two types of context(语境的种类)1、Extra-linguistic context/ Non-linguistic situation(非语言语境):In a broad sense, context includes the physical situation as well, which embraces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background、(look out, weekend, landlord )2、Linguistic context/ grammatical context(语言语境):In a narrow sense, it refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears、It may cover a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book、分为两类:1) Lexical context(词汇语境):It refers to the word that occurs together with the word in question、(e、g: paper, do)2) Grammatical context(语法语境):It refers the situation when the meaning of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs、(e、g: become)The role of context(语境的作用)1、Elimination of ambiguity(消除歧义)1)Ambiguity due to polysemy or homonymy、2)Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity如何消除歧义？——①extend the original sentence ②alter the context a little2、Indication of referents(限定所指)如何限定所指？——①with clear context ②with adequate verbal context3、Provision of clues for inferring word-meaning (提供线索以猜测词义)1)definition2)explanation3)example4)synonymy5)antonymy6)hyponymy(上下义关系)7)relevant details8)word structureChapter 9 English Idioms 英语习语Idioms(习语的定义): are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meaning of individual elements、In a broad sense, idiom may include colloquialisms(俗语), Catchphrases(标语),slang expressions (俚语),proverbs(谚语),etc、They form an important part of the English vocabulary、Characteristics of Idioms(英语习语的特点)1、Semantic unity (语意的整体性): words in the idiom they have lost their individual identity、Their meanings are not often recognizable in the meaning of the whole idiom、The semantic unity of idioms is also reflected in the illogical relationship between the literal meaning of each of the idiom、2、Structural stability(结构的稳定性):the structure of an idiom is to a large extent un changeable、1) the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced2) the word order cannot be inverted or changed3) the constituents of idioms cannot be deleted or added to, not even an article、4) many idioms are grammatically unchangeableThe fixity of idiom depends on the idiomaticity、习语性表达习惯Classification of Idioms(英语习语的分类)1、idioms nominal in nature 名词性习语(white elephant累赘物)2 、idioms adjectival in nature形容词性习语(as poor as a church mouse)3 、idioms verbal in nature 动词性习语(look into)4 、idioms adverbial in nature副词性习语(tooth and nail 拼命)5 、sentence idioms 句式习语(never do things by halves)Use of idioms(习语的使用)1、Stylistic features(文体色彩):1）colloquialisms(俗语)2）slang (俚语)3）literary expressions(书面表达)The same idiom may show stylistic differences when it is assigned(指派)different meanings、2、Rhetorical features(修辞色彩)1) phonetic manipulation (语音处理):(1)alliteration头韵法(2)rhyme尾韵法2)lexical manipulation(词法处理)(1)reiteration(duplication of synonyms)同义词并举[scream and shout](2)repetition 重复[out and out](3)juxtaposition (of antonyms) 反义词并置[here and there]3、figures of speech(修辞格)(1)simile明喻(2)metaphor暗喻(3)metonymy换喻/以名词代动作:live by one’s pen(4)synecdoche提喻/以部分代整体:earn one’s bre ad(5)Personification拟人法(6)Euphemism委婉语:kick the bucket(die)(7)hyperbole 夸张:a world of troubleVariations of idioms(习语的变异形式):1、addition增加2、deletion删除3、replacement替换4、position-shifting位置转移5、dismembering分解Chapter 10 English Dictionaries 英语字典Dictionary: presents in alphabetical order the words of English, with information as to their spelling ,pronunciation, meaning, usage , rules and grammar, and in some, their etymology(语源)、Types of dictionaries(词典的种类):1、Monolingual & bilingual dictionaries(单语词典与双语词典):最早的词典都就是双语的(1)、Monolingual dictionary: is written in one language (LDCE, CCELD)、The headword or entries are defined and illustrated in the same language、(2)、Bilingual dictionary: involve two languages (A New English-Chinese D, AChinese-English D)2、Linguistic and Encyclopedic dictionaries(语文词典与百科词典)(1)Linguistic dictionary: aim at defining words and explaining their usages in the language (spelling, pronunciation, meaning, grammatical, function, usage and etymology etc、)可以就是单语或就是双语的(2)Encyclopedic dictionary:1)encyclopedia (百科全书):is not concerned with the language per se(本身)but provides encyclopedic information、Concerning each headword (not pronunciation, meanings, or usages) but only information、2)Encyclopedic Dictionaries: have the characteristics of both linguistic D and encyclopedia (<Chamber’s Encyclopedic English Dictionary>)3、Unabridged, desk and pocket dictionaries(大型词典、案头词典、袖珍词典)(1)Unabridged D: basic information about a word——its origin, meaning, pronunciation, cognates(同词源的),usage, grammatical, function, spelling, hyphenation, capitalization, derived forms, synonyms and homonyms(同音异意) <Webster’s Third New International Dictionary>(2)Desk D: medium-sized [50,000-150,000](3)Pocket D: 只有拼写、发音与最重要的意义,很少或者几乎不举例。
英语词汇学知识点归纳
英语词汇学知识点归纳英语词汇学是研究词汇的学科，主要研究词汇的形成、发展、构造和使用规律。
以下是一些英语词汇学的主要知识点。
1. 词汇分类：英语词汇可以分为原生词汇和派生词汇。
原生词汇是指直接来源于英语语言的词汇，而派生词汇则是通过加前缀、后缀或改变词性形成的新词。
2. 词根、前缀和后缀：许多英语单词都有共同的词根，通过添加前缀和后缀，可以构成各种派生词。
例如，'un-'是一个常见的前缀，表示否定，如'unhappy'（不快乐）。
3. 同义词和反义词：同义词具有相似的意思，可以在不同的上下文中互换使用，例如'big'和'large'。
反义词则是意思相反的词汇，如'hot'和'cold'。
4. 合成词：合成词是由两个或多个独立的词组合而成的词汇。
例如，'sunflower'（向日葵）由'sun'（太阳）和'flower'（花）组成。
5. 词源学：词源学研究词汇的起源和演变过程。
许多英语单词来自其他语言，如拉丁语、法语和希腊语。
了解词源可以帮助我们理解词汇的含义和用法。
6. 词义的变化：词汇的意义会随时间和语境的变化而变化。
一些词汇可能会产生新的意义或失去原有的意义。
例如，'mouse'（老鼠）最初是指一种小动物，现在也可以指计算机的输入设备。
7. 词汇的语法功能：词汇在句子中扮演不同的语法角色，如名词、动词、形容词等。
了解词汇的语法功能可以帮助我们正确使用它们。
8. 语义关系：词汇之间存在各种语义关系，如同义关系、反义关系、上下位关系等。
了解这些关系可以帮助我们扩展词汇量，提高语言表达能力。
9. 词汇的习得和记忆：习得和记忆词汇是学习英语的重要一部分。
采用合适的记忆方法，如使用词汇卡片、词汇表等，可以帮助我们更好地掌握词汇。
以上是英语词汇学的一些主要知识点。
英语词汇学知识点归纳
英语词汇学知识点归纳Download tips: This document is carefully compiled by this editor. I hope that after you download it, it can help you solve practical problems. The document can be customized and modified after downloading, please adjust and use it according to actual needs, thank you! In addition, this shop provides you with various types of practical materials, such as educational essays, diary appreciation, sentence excerpts, ancient poems, classic articles, topic composition, work summary, word parsing, copy excerpts, other materials and so on, want to know different data formats and writing methods, please pay attention!1. 词汇分类：动词、名词、形容词、副词、连词、代词、介词、数词等。
2. 词性转换：同一单词的不同词性有不同的用法和含义，如：think（动词）和thought（名词），slowly（副词）和slow（形容词）。
3. 词义辨析：同一单词有不同的含义，如：bank可以指银行，也可以指河岸。
4. 词源研究：研究单词的来源和变化过程，了解其背后的文化、历史和社会等方面的知识。
英语词汇学笔记整理..
英语词汇学笔录整理Part 1前缀(Prefixes)1.Negative prefixesa-;an- 缺乏、缺乏amoral( 缺德 ) asexual( 雌雄同体的 ) asymmetry(不平均的)anarchy( 无政府的 )dis- 否、不dishonestnon- 非、否non-black(非黑人区的)non-science non-smoker nonresistant(非抵挡)in- ； i- ； im- ； ir-complete——incomplete correct —— incorrect小结：清辅音 [k],[f],[t]前的前缀加in-; 唇音从前加im-; “ l”前加 il-; “ r ”前加 ir- 。
因此加什么样的前缀由单词的首字母决定。
un- 不unhappy unfriendly infamous2. Pejorative prefixes表贬义mal- 不好的，坏的maltreat(凌虐)malformed(畸形的)malnutrition(营养不良的)malfunction( 功能杂乱 )mis- 错误的misdial( 拨错号 ) misleading(误导)misbehaved(行为不规范) misconception(错误的认知)pseudo-错，假的pseudoscience( 伪科学 ) pseudo teaching(实习)3. Reversative prefixes表逆转的前缀de-defrost(除霜)deplane(下飞机)deindustrialization(非工业化的)decode(解码)dis-表示动作的逆转disconnect( 切断 ) dishearten(灰心)disown( 扔掉 )4.Prefixes of degree or sizearch- means“ most” ” supreme”常带有贬义archenemy archbishop(红衣大主教)arch monetarist(拜金主义者) co-“ joint” or“equally”coexistence( 共存的 ) combine colleague correspondence(通讯联系)小结： co- 这个前缀依据所跟单词的首字母而发生变化在元音前加co- ； -b\-p从前用com-;-l从前用col-;-f\-c\-g前用con-;-r从前用cor- hyper-means“extreme”hyperactive( 过于活跃的 ) hyper cautious(过分当心的)mini-means“ little”minibus miniskirt ministered minimalmaxi-means“ big”maxi coat maxi skirtout-means“ surpassing” ,程度多，超出outclass( 优良的 ) outlive(长寿的)outgrowover-means“excessive” 相当的，带贬义overeat overweight overestimate(高估)overwork overjoyed(惊喜若狂的 ) overflow( 溢出 )sub-亚，次的subculture( 亚文化 ) subtext(潜台词)subconscious(潜意识)subsonic(低音速)super-超级supernatural( 超自然的 ) supermansur- means“over and above” 超surcharge(额外收费)surtax( 附带税 ) surreal( 超现实 )ultra-相当，特别ultramodern ultraconservative(特别守旧的)ultrasonic(超音速)ultraviolet( 紫外线 )under-低于undercharged underestimate(低估)5.Prefixes of orientation and attitudeanti- means“ against” 反anticlockwise( 逆时针 ) anti-aging(抗衰老的)antibacterial(抗菌的) antineutron(反中子)contra- means“opposite” ,“ contrasting”contradiction conrafactualcounter- means“ against” ,“ in opposition to”counterattack counterexample countercurrent(逆电流) pro-支持，站在一方pro-European pro-student6. Locative prefixes表示方向的前缀fore-前部forearm foreground forehead forewordinter- means“ between” ,“ among” 在之间international intermarry(近亲成婚)internetsub- means“under”submarine(潜水艇)subway sublet( 转租 )super- means“ above”superstructure( 上层建筑物 )trans- means“ across”transform( 变形 ) transplant transcontinental(跨州的) 7. Prefixes of time and order表示时间温次序的前缀ex- means“ former” 从前的ex-husband ex-presidentfore-表时间foresee( 预示 ) foretell(预知)post- means“after”postmodernism(后现代的 ) postwar(战后)posttretment(复建)pre-在从前preschooler( 学龄前少儿 ) prehistory(史前史)pre-liberation(解放前)8. Number prefixesbi-;di- means“two” 双bimonthly( 双月的 ) bicycle( 自行车 ) bilingual(双语的)bigamy(重婚) dioxide( 二氧化物 ) disyllable( 双音节 )multi-;poly- means“ many” 多，几个multi-national polygamy(一夫多妻制)polyandry(一妻多夫制) semi-;demi-;hemi- means“ half” 半semiliterate( 半文盲 ) demigod(半人半神)hemisphere(半球)semivowel(半元音 )tri-三triangle(三角形)tricycle( 三轮车 ) trinity(三维一体)trilingual(三语的) uni-; mono- means“ one” 单调的uniform monogamy(一夫一妻制)monologue(单独)9. Neo- Classical prefixes与科技相关的auto- means“self”autobiography(自传 ) autosuggestion(自荐)autocrat(专制)extra-超的extraordinary( 特别的 )extraterrestrial(外星的)neo- means“ new” 新的neo-Nazi(新纳粹党)neo-impressionism(新映像派)pan- means“ all” ,“ world-wide”pan-Americanism泛美主义proto- means“ first” ,” original” 原始的，最先的protohistory( 史古人类学 ) prototype(原型，典型)tele- means“ distant” 远程的telescope telegram televisionPart 2 Suffixation后缀1. Noun suffixes[1] noun + noun suffixes, abstract由此类词缀组成的名词表示抽象的观点-age means“ measure of” or“ collection of”Baggage luggage percentage(会合名词，百分比，不可以和数字直接连用) mileage(里程)-dom means“ the state of being”kingdom officialdom(官僚)stardom(明星地位)-ery, -ryslavery nunnery(尼姑庵)nursery refinery( 精华 )-ful means“ the amount contained”handful mouthful spoonful-hood means“ the state” or“ time of being something”childhood boyhood brotherhood neighborhood widowhood-ing means“ material of” or“ activity connected with”carpeting matting tubing blackerring-ism means“doctrine of”Impressionism( 映像派 ) optimism pessism idealism materialism -ocracy means“ government by”democracy( 民主 )-shiprelationship friendship dictatorship(专制主义)[2] noun + noun suffixes, concrete由此类词缀组成的名词表示详细的观点-eer means“ skilled in”auctioneer( 拍卖师 ) engineer mountaineer-er means“ having doininant characteristics”teenager villager Londoner cooker roaster-ess means“ a female”actress hostess lioness tigress在 masculine( 阳性 )名词后加 - essauthor : authoress女作家heir : heiress女性继承人host : hostess女主人lion : lioness雌狮例外：actor : actress女演员hunter : huntress女猎人tiger : tigress母老虎negro : negress女黑人master : mistress女主人/情妇（concubine二奶）prince : princess公主murderer : murderess女杀手masculine(阳性)与feminine完整不一样bachelor 只身一人汉—— maid少女bull 公牛—— cow母牛cock公鸡——hen母鸡dog 狗—— bitch母狗gentleman男士—— lady女士horse 马—— mare母马king 国王—— queen王后monk 和尚—— nun尼姑nephew 外甥—— niece外甥女在名词前后加上性又名词man-servant——maid-servantcock-sparrow——hen-sparrowhe-goat——she-goattom-cat——she-catpeacock —— peahen-let means“ small” 小booklet piglet starlet-ling means“minor” or“ off spring of”小，后辈duckling princeling-ster means“involved in”gamester(means a person who plays a game for money)gangster(黑帮)[3] verb + noun suffix加在动词后的名词后缀-ant means“a person or thing”informant consultant(顾问)inhabitant lubricant(润滑剂)-ee means“ one who is object of the verb”interviewee nominee(被提名者)trainee-er, -or means“a person or thing”Driver teacher silencer( 消音器 ) computer-al means“ the action on result of”arrival refusal revival-ation means“ the process or state of”classification( 分类 ) interpretation(剖析)explanation globalization(全世界化)explorationPart 3转类法——词形不变，词性改变Assigning the base to a different word class with no change of form.eg: 1. He designed to be a scientist.1.He had a desire to be a scientist.Zero derivation零派生eg: smoke——He smokes a pipe. (verb.)——Let ’The smoke from the chimney. (noun.)s have a smoke. (noun.)英语词类的转变一般是简单词增补： breakfast的来历在阿拉伯， fasting为斋月，从breakfast的构造看来，意为“打破斋戒”的意思，在晚饭和早饭之间的时间较长，而吃早饭就像打破了一个小型的斋戒。
英语词汇学汪榕培知识点
英语词汇学汪榕培知识点汪榕培是一位著名的英语词汇学家，他在英语词汇学领域有着丰富的知识和研究成果。
以下是一些关于英语词汇学的知识点，涵盖了汪榕培的研究内容：1. 词汇的定义，汪榕培认为，词汇是语言的基本单位，是由音、形、义三个方面组成的。
他强调了词汇在语言中的重要性，指出词汇是语言的核心和基础。
2. 词汇的分类，汪榕培将英语词汇分为实词和虚词两大类。
实词包括名词、动词、形容词和副词，用来表示具体的事物、行为和属性。
虚词包括介词、连词、冠词和代词，用来连接、修饰和限定实词的意义。
3. 词汇的构成，汪榕培研究了英语词汇的构成方式，包括派生、合成、转化和缩略等。
他指出，通过这些构词方式，可以创造出大量的新词汇，并丰富语言的表达能力。
4. 词义的演变，汪榕培关注了英语词汇的词义演变问题。
他研究了词义的扩展、缩小、转义等现象，揭示了词义变化的原因和规律。
他认为，词义的演变是语言发展的重要方面。
5. 词汇的语法功能，汪榕培探讨了词汇在句子中的语法功能。
他研究了词汇的句法位置、词序、语法关系等问题，揭示了词汇与句子结构的关系，对句子的理解和构建具有重要意义。
6. 词汇的语用功能，汪榕培关注了词汇在交际中的语用功能。
他研究了词汇的语用意义、语用规约和语用推理等问题，揭示了词汇在语言交际中的作用和影响。
7. 词汇的教学应用，汪榕培的研究成果对英语词汇教学具有指导意义。
他提出了一些教学方法和策略，帮助学习者更好地掌握和运用词汇，提高语言表达能力。
以上是关于英语词汇学的一些知识点，涵盖了汪榕培的研究内容。
英语词汇学是一个广阔而有趣的领域，通过深入学习和研究，我们可以更好地理解和运用英语词汇。
英语词汇学知识点
English Lexicology: A CoursebookChapter 1 Lexicology and WordsKnowledge Points:1. Lexicology is the study of the vocabulary or lexicon of a given language.2. Morphology is the study of the forms of words and their components.3. The major purpose of study in morphology is to look at morphemes and their arrangements in word formation.4. Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language. Morphemes may constitute words or parts of words.5. Semantics is defined as the study of meaning.6. Generally speaking, semantics focuses on:1) the meaning of words;2) the meaning of utterances in context;3) the meaning of sentences;4) meaning relations between sentences;5) meaning relations that are internal to the vocabulary of a language.7. Etymology is the study of the whole history of words.8. Word is used traditionally to refer to a sequence of letters bounded by spaces.9. The term word is also used to refer to an intermediate structure smaller than a whole phrase and yet generally larger than a single sound segment.10. Major features of Words1) A word is a sound or combination of sounds which we make voluntarily with our vocal equipment.2) A word is symbolic and is used to stand for something else.3) The word is an uninterruptible unit.4) A word has to do with its social function.5) A word may consist of one or more morphemes.6) Words are part of the large communication system we call language.7) A word occurs typically in the structure of phrases.11. In traditional grammar, eight parts of speech are distinguished in English: noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, and interjection.12. Words can also be classified into lexical words and grammatical words.13. Generally speaking, lexical words are nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.14. The lexical words can be used (functions):1) to represent our experience of the word;2) to refer to persons, places, things and concepts (e.g. the nouns Smith, London, pineapple, unity);3) to describe qualities and properties (e.g. the adjectives excellent, kind, high);4) to represent actions, processes or states (e.g. the verbs jump, bite, stay);5) to describe circumstances like manner (e.g. the adverbs kindly, slowly, cheerfully).Furthermore, lexical words have their own content meanings and may be meaningful when used alone. E.g. book and house have their own content meanings.15. Grammatical words are words like pronouns, prepositions, demonstrative, determiners, conjunctions, auxiliary verbs, and son on.16. Semantic or lexical field: A semantic field contains words that belong to defined area of meaning. Crystal (1995) defines a semantic field as a ‘named area of meaning in which lexemes interrelated and define each other in specific ways’.Chapter 2 Some Basic Concepts and Word MeaningsKnowledge Points:1. Morphemes are the ultimate grammatical constituents, the smallest meaningful units of language.2. Features of morpheme:1) A morpheme may be a complete word. E.g. the, fierce, desk, eat, boot, at, fee, mosquito cannot be dividedup into smaller units that are meaningful themselves.2) A morpheme may also be a word form such as an affix. e.g. –able, in-, -hood.3) A morpheme may be a combining form. e.g. bio-, geo, pre-.3. Phonemes are the smallest working units of sound per se, and they build up into morphemes.4. Lexeme: Lexeme or lexical item is regarded as a unit of lexical meaning, which exists regardless of any inflectional endings it may have or the number of words it may contain.Lexeme is considered an abstract linguistic unit with different variants (e.g. sing as against sang, sung).5. Morph: Any concrete realization of a morpheme in a given utterance is called a morph. It is a physical form representing some morphemes in a language.6. Allomorphs: Morphs which are different representations of the same morpheme are referred to as allomorphs of that morpheme.7. Morphemes can be classified into bound morphemes and free morphemes.8. Bound morphemes must be joined to other morphemes. e.g. the suffix –dom, is a bound morpheme.9. Free morphemes need not be attached to other morphemes and can occur by themselves as individual words.e.g. cat, chair, farm, and bug are free morpheme.10. Morphemes may also be classified into derivational morphemes and inflectional morphemes.11. Denotation: Denotation of a lexeme is the relationship that holds between that lexeme and persons, things, places, properties, processes and activities external to the language system.12. Reference: The relationship of reference holds between an expression and what that expression stands for on particular occasions of its utterance.13. Sense: Sense is a relationship between the words or expressions of a single language, independently of the relationship, if any, which holds between those words or expressions and their referents.14. Leech (1981) distinguishes seven types of meaning in language: conceptual meaning, connotative meaning, social meaning, affective meaning, reflected meaning, collocative meaning, and thematic meaning.15. Conceptual meaning, which is sometimes called denotative or cognitive meaning, refers to meanings as presented in a dictionary.16. Connotative meaning is the communicative value of an expression by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content.17. Social meaning refers to the kind of meaning a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use.18. Affective meaning can be used to cover the attitudinal and emotional factors expressed in a word.19. Reflected meaning is the meaning which arises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense.20. Collocative meaning consists of the associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment.21. Thematic meaning is what communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organizes the massage, in terms of ordering, focus, and emphasis.22. Stem: The word to which affixes are added and which carries the basic meaning of the resulting complex word is known as the stem.23. Root: A stem consisting of a single morpheme is labeled as root. For, example, walk is a root and it appears in the set of word-forms that instantiate the lexeme walk such as walk, walks, walking and walked.24. Free morpheme: Roots which are capable of standing independently are called free morphemes. Single words like man, book, tea, sweet, cook are the smallest free morphemes capable of occurring independently.25. Bound morpheme: some roots are incapable of occurring independently. They always occur with some other word-building element attached to them. Such roots are called bound morphemes, like –mit in permit, remit, commit, admit, and ceive in perceive, receive, conceive.26. Base: A base is a lexical item to which affixes of any kind can be added.The affixes attached to a base. In other words, all roots are bases.27. Affix: A root or stem can be attached with an affix. Affixes are morphemes which only occur when attached to other morphemes. By definition affixes are bound morphemes.28. Three types of affixes: prefix, suffix and infix.1) prefix: A prefix is an affix attached before a root (or stem or base) like re-, un- and in-, as in re-make, un-kind, in-decent.2) suffix: A suffix is an affix attached after a root (or stem or base) like-ly, -er, -ist,and -ed, as in kind-ly, wait-er, interest-ing, interest-ed.3) infix: An infix is an affix inserted into the root itself. According to Katamba (1993), infixes are very common in semitic language like Arabic and Hebrew.29. Other types of affixes: inflectional affixes and derivational affixes.1) Inflectional affixes are used for syntactic reasons to indicate number, tense, case, and so on.2) derivational affixes can alter the meaning or grammatical category of the base.30. Polysemy: Polysemy refers to the situation in which a word has two or more different meanings.For instance, the noun bank is said to be polysemous because it may mean:(1) a financial institution that people or businesses can keep their money in or borrow money from;(2) a raised area of land along the side of a river;(3) a large number of things in a row, especially pieces of equipment.31. Features of polysemy:1) The concept of polysemy is complex and involves a certain number of problems. As mentioned by Jackson and Amvela (2000), we cannot determine exactly how many meanings a polysemous word has, as a word may have both a literal meaning and one or more transferred meanings.2) The is no clear criterion for either difference or sameness of meaning.3) It difficult to distinguish between polysemy (i.e. one word with several meanings) and homonymy (i. e. several words with the same shape—spelling and/or pronunciation).4) Polysemy is an essential condition for its efficiency.32. Homonymy: Homonymy refers to a situation in which there are two or more words with the same shape.33. Tow types of homonyms (Jackson and Amvela, 2000): homograph and homophone1) homograph: Homograph refers to a word which is spelt the same as another word but has a different meaning and sometimes a different pronunciation. For example, lead (metal) and lead (dog’s lead) are spelt the same but pronounced differently.2) homophone: Homophone refers to a word that sounds the same as another word but ahs its own spelling, meaning and origin. For example, right, rite and write are spelt differently but pronounced the same.34. Features of homonymy:1) There are cases in which two homonyms with totally different meanings may both make sense in the same utterance.2) Spelling will often help to differentiate between words with are identical in sound.3) Writing conventions can help remove homonymy, as English writing is more intelligible than speech.Chapter 3 The Origins of English WordsKnowledge Points:1. The Development of English:Indo-European FamilyItalic Germanic Europe the Near East North India …the North Germanic the East Germanic the West Germanicbranch branch branchEnglishEnglish belongs to the Indo-European family, which includes most of the languages of Europe, the Near east,and North India. One branch of the Indo-European family is called Italic, from which Latin and later the Romance languages developed. Another is called Germanic, which is subdivided into the North Germanic branch, the Ease Germanic branch and the West Germanic branch. English is one of the languages in the West Germanic branch.Celts are believed to be the first people who, inhabited the land that was later to become England. They came to the island around the middle of the fifth millennium BC. Their languages were yet another branch of the Indo-European language family. Most of the island of Britain was occupied by the Romans from about 43 AD until 410 AD.Two stages:First Stage (Beginning of English): After the withdrawal of the Romans, the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes moved into England in about 450 AD and began to take it over. It is at this time when the English language began.Second Stage: By the 10th century, the West Saxon dialect became the official language of Britain. Written Old English is mainly known from this period. It was written in an alphabet called Runic (北欧古文字).2. The four historical periods of English:1) The language from 450 to 1066 is known as Old English.2) From 1066 to 1500 the language is known as Middle English.3) The language from 1500 to 1800 is considered the Early Modern English period.4) The language since 1800 is called Modern English.3. Old English Period (450-1066). There are many differences between the way vocabulary was used in Old English and the way it is used today.1) the Anglo-Saxon preference for expressions that are synonymous, far exceeds that found in Modern English, as does their ingenuity in the construction of compounds.2) the absence of a wide-ranging vocabulary of loanwords also forces them to rely more on word-formation processes based on native elements.3) the latter period of Old English was characterized by the introduction of a number of ‘loan translations’.4) grammatical relationships in Old English were expressed mainly by the use of inflectional endings.5) Old English is believed to contain about 24,000 different lexical items.4. The Middle English Period (1066-1500). The Middle English period was marked by extensive changes. In 1066 the Normans conquered Britain.5. Features of this period:1) The changes of this period affected English both in its grammar and its vocabulary.2) Inflections were greatly reduced in Middle English.3) The inflectional endings was due partly to phonetic changes and partly to the operation of analogy.4) Middle English is particularly characterized by intensive and extensive borrowing from other languages.6. Early Modern English Period (1500-1800). This period is the transitional period from Middle English to Modern English.1) The printing press helped to standardize the spelling of English in its modern stages.2) Throughout the modern period, written English has been quite uniform.3) In the sixteenth century, scholars began seriously to talk about their language, making observations on grammar vocabulary, the writing system and style.4) Adjectives lost all endings except for in the comparative and superlative forms.7. The Modern English Period (1800-present). Features of this period:1) Modern English is as the unprecedented growth of scientific vocabulary.2) The assertion of American English is as a dominant variety of the language.3) The emergence of other varieties known as ‘New Englishes’.8. ‘New Englishes’refers to new varieties of the language that have become localized not only through the influence of the other languages of the regions where they are used, but also through being adapted to the life and culture of their speakers.9. The differences between American English and British English:1) The differences of vocabulary are the most striking;2) American spelling and British are also a bit different;3) The differences between American and British pronunciation are perhaps the most pervasive of all.10. Native English vocabulary is made up of Anglo-Saxon words. This category comprises words that were used by the Germanic tribes and are still used in Modern English.11. The Celtic language did not have any serious impact on English.1) In the Old English period, only a number of Celtic words were borrowed, and just a few have survived into modern English, sometimes in regional dialect use.2) In the seventeenth century, a few more Celtic words were introduced into English from Irish Gaelic.12. Major influences on English:1) The Scandinavian Influence2) The Norman Conquest3) The Latin Influence13. Borrowing is the process of imitating a word from foreign language and, at least partly, adapting in sound or grammar to the native language.14. Latin is not only the first major contributor of loanwords to English, but also one of the most important sources for the coinage of new English words.15. Greek borrowings have been continuous from the fifth century to the present. Borrowing from French started long before 1066.16. New English words can be created by root creation, onomatopoeic words, ejaculations and word formation (Jackson and Amvela 2000).Chapter 4 Word Formation in EnglishKnowledge Points:1. There are basically three ways of extending the word stock:1) borrowing words that already exist in other languages;2) creating entirely new words;3) forming new words from existing resources within the word stock.2. Word formation refers to the different devices used in English to build new words from existing ones.3. The basic distinction between inflection and derivation is mainly morphological. Inflection results in the formation of alternative grammatical forms of the same word, while derivation creates new vocabulary items.4. Inflection refers to a general grammatical process which combines words and affixes to produce alternative grammatical forms of words.5. Inflections in English are all suffixes that occur at the very end of a word.6. Functions of InflectionInflection creates variant forms of a word to conform to different functional roles in a sentence or in discourse.1) Inflections modify the form of a word so that they can fit into a particular syntactic slot.2) Sometimes inflectional morphemes serve merely to integrate a word into its sentence.3) inflections attach grammatical information to the stem, but do not change its grammatical category.7. Affixation is the process whereby an affix is attached to a base.8. Derivation refers to the creation of a new word by means of the addition of an affix to a stem.9. Functions of DerivationsDerivational affixes serve functions very different from those of inflectional morphemes.1) A derivational affix can change the part of speech of a word;2) Derivation affixes are so called because they are used to derive new words and meanings.3) Derivational affixes can change the word class of the item they are added to and establish words as members of the various word classes.4) Derivational affixes do not always cause a change in grammatical class.10. Derivational affixes can be divided into two types: class-changing and class-maintaining.11. Class-changing derivational affixes change the word class of the word to which they are added.12. Class-maintaining derivational affixes change the meaning of the derivative.13. Class-changing derivational affixes determine the word class of the stem.14. The largest group of class-changing derivatives in English is nominalizers which make nouns out of adjectives or verbs.15. Verbalizers are used to form verbs from other stems.16. Adjectivalizers are used to form adjectives when added to a given stem.17. Adverbializers form adverbs when added to a given stem.18. Class-maintaining derivations do not change the word class of the stem but its meaning. Most derivatives that are prefixes in English affect only the meaning of the root, not its syntactic class.19. Compounding refers to the method and device of language to form new words by combining or putting together old words.20. Compounds are stems consisting of more than one root.21. The orthographic treatment of compounds is by no means consistent.22. Characteristics of Compounds1) Phonologically, there is always a single primary stress in English words, so that compounds are often recognized by stress pattern and lack of juncture.The criterion of stress applies only to nominal compounds, and the distinction between compound and idiom becomes fuzzy for verbs and other nominal categories.2) Syntactically, compounds are single lexical units and have specific features.The grammatical relations between the constituents of the compound are sometimes obscure.3) Semantically, compounds tend to have special meanings.The meanings of the words interrelate in such a way that the new meaning may be different from the meanings of the words in isolation.23. A common semantic classification yields four types of compounds: endocentric, exocentric, copulative and appositional.24. An endocentric compound consists of a head and its modifier.25. An exocentric compound does not have a head, and its meaning cannot be literally guessed from its constituent parts.26. A copulative compound has two semantic heads.27. An appositional compound has two attributes which classify the compound.28. A compound is a lexical item in which two roots combine to make one unit.29 According to constituent elements, compounds can be divided into four major types.1) Noun compounds: A noun compound can be formed by ‘N+N’, ‘N+V-ing’, ‘V-ing+N’, ‘V+N’, ‘Adj+N’, ‘V+Adv’, ‘Adv+V’, ‘Prep+N’, ‘Adj+V-ing’ and other combinations.2) Verb compounds: A verb compound can be formed by ‘N+V’, ‘Adv+V’, ‘Adj+V’, ‘V+V’, ‘Adv+N’ and other combinations3) Adjective compounds: An adjective compound can be formed by ‘Adj+Adj’, ‘Adj+N’, ‘Adj+N-ed’, ‘N+Adj’, ‘Adj+V-ing’, ‘Adj+V-ed’, ‘N+V-ing’, ‘N+V-ed’, ‘Adv+V-ed’, ‘Adv+Adj’, ‘Prep+N’and other combinations.4) Pronoun compounds: A pronoun compound can be formed mostly by the combination of some/any/no with thing/body/one and my/your/her/him/our/them/it + self/selves.30. Conversion: A change in word class without the addition of an affix is known as conversion. In other words, conversion is a process by which a word belonging to one word class is transferred to another word class without any change in form.31. There are four major kinds of conversion: from noun to verb, from verb to noun, from adjective to noun and from adjective to verb.Noun →verb: to air, to arm, to bottom, to cup, to fish, to mouth, to tooth.Verb →noun: a call, a command, a count, a go, a guess, a book, a walk.Adjective →verb: to better, to blind, to bold, to brave, to dirty, to empty.Adjective →noun: best, poor, rich, blind, convertible, daily, double.32. Auxiliary verbs, adverbs, modal verbs, prepositions, conjunctions, interjections and even affixes can all act as bases for conversion.33. Blending refers to the process of combining parts of two words to form a third word which contains some of the meaning of each part. Blends are compounds that are less than compounds.34. Structurally, ELL (2006) divides blends into four common types.1) The first type of blends is a full word followed by a splinter. Blends can also begin with a splinter, followed by a full word.2) The second type of blends consists of two splinters. There are two subtypes.A) In some cases, the beginning of one word is followed by the end of another.B) In other cases, both splinters are the beginning of words.3) The third type of blends consists of complete overlap, in which a part of the blend belongs to both words.4) The fourth type of blends involves the embedding of one word in another.35. Blending often results in the creation of new morphemes or in the addition of new meanings to old ones.36. Shortenings include clipping and initialisms.37. Clipping is the process by which a word of usually three or more syllables is shortened without a change in meaning or function.38. Features of clipping:1) Clipped words tend to be casual but very useful.2) Clipping often ignores morphemic boundaries.There are three major types of clippings: fore clipping, hind clipping, and midclipping.3) On some rare occasions, clipping may affect both ends of the source with the middle part retained.There are three types of phonetic clippings: phonetic fore clipping, phonetic midclipping, and phonetic hind clipping.39. Initialisms are the results of putting together the initial letters, or occasionally the first two letters, of the orthographic words in a phrase and using them as words.40. Alphabetisms: When initialisms are pronounced with the names of the letters in them, they are called alphabetisms.41. Acronyms: When two words are pronounced like individual words, they are acronyms.42. Backformation is the making of a new word from an older word which is mistakenly assumed to be its derivative.43. Communization of proper names: The English vocabulary is also characterized by the number of words that derive from the names of people, place, books or brands. This process is called the communization of proper names.44. Metanalysis refers to an analysis of a word into parts, in the course of which the original structure of the word is altered.Chapter 5 Sense RelationsKnowledge Points:1. Sense is an internal meaning relation. Sense relations are relations between word meanings and hold between words within the vocabulary.2. Characteristic of Sense Relations(1) The meaning of one item can be related to the meaning of others.(2) Synonyms are items that mean the same, or nearly the same.(3) Antonyms are items that mean the opposite.3. According to Jackson and Amvela (2000), synonymy is of two types: strict synonymy and loose synonymy.4. Strict synonymy refers to the situation in which two synonymous words can be interchangeable in all their possible contexts of use.5. Actually, many words have similar senses and denotation without having exactly the same meaning.6. Loose synonyms may be substitutable in particular contexts, but are not substitutable across a range of contexts.7. In synonymy, we can find not only a significant overlap in meaning between two words, but also some contextswhere they cannot substitute for each other.8. Difference among synonyms:1) Synonym pairs may differ in different geographical varieties of English.2) Synonym pairs may differ in the style or formality of the context in which a word may be used.3) Synonym pairs may differ in connotations. Two words may refer to the same entity, but they may have different associative or emotive meanings.4) Synonym pairs may differ in the use of registers.5) Synonym pairs may differ in etymology.6) Synonym pairs may differ in collocation. They occur in different environments.9. Antonymy refers to the relationship of oppositeness of meaning between words.1) Antonymy is typically found among adjectives but it can be extended to other word class.2) Antonymy covers a number of different types of oppositeness of meaning.10. There may be no true synonyms, but there are several kinds of antonyms. Three types are commonly identified: gradable antonyms, contradictory or complementary antonyms, and converses.11. Gradable antonyms represent a more/less relation and can be viewed as terms at the end-points of a continuum.12. Complementary antonyms, also called contradictory antonyms or non-gradable antonyms, are in an either/or relation of oppositeness.13. Converse antonyms represent two-way contrasts that are interdependent. They are also called reciprocal antonyms or relational opposition, in which one member presupposes the other.14. Hyponymy refers to the notion of inclusion whereby we can say that ‘an X is a kind of Y’. It is the class-inclusion relation.15. A hyponym includes the meaning of a more general word and serves as specific examples of a general concept. The more general term is called the superordinate or hypernym.16. Hyponymy is one of several relationship types with which language users organize the lexicon.17. Meronymy is the part-whole relation in any pair of items. This is an important hierarchical relationship that is found in pairs of words.18. According to Cruse (2000), the notion of meronymy is relational rather than absolute.19. Meronymic relationships are not a property of pairs of words.20. Collocation is concerned with meaning arising from co-occurrence, more specifically to meaning arising from predictable co-occurrence of two or more than two words.21. Collocation is the meaning relations that a word contracts with other words occurring in the same sentence or text.22. Collocator: A word with a certain meaning which occurs in a collocation along with a given word is called a collocator of that word.23. Collocations differ from free combinations. In collocations, the components are not freely interchangeable.24. Collocations are of several types. Those relating to syntax are grammatical collocations, and those relating to expression are lexical collocations.25. Grammatical collocation refers to any kind of syntactic element that must accompany a particular word (usually verb, noun or adjective in English).26. Lexical collocations consist of groups of words with a certain meaning that often occur together.27. The lexical collocations usually consist of words that are in a relation of mutual expectancy of habitual association.28. Other features of collocation1) Collocation often occurs between words in structures;2) Collocations can also cut across part-of-speech or sentence boundaries.3) Collocation is as a cohesive device, because collocation is one of the factors on which we build our expectation of what is to come next in text.29. A metaphor is an extension of the use of a word beyond its primary meaning to describe referents that bear similarities to the word’s primary referent. It refers to cases where a word appears to have both a literal and a。
《英语词汇学》知识点归纳
《英语词汇学》知识点归纳
1.单词的构成：单词由不同的字母组合而成，可以包括前缀、词根、
后缀等。
2.词根和词义：词根是单词中带有基本词义的部分，在单词形态变化
时不会改变。
词根可以是一个字母、一个词或一个词组。
词根可以通过前
缀和后缀的添加，以及音变等形式进行变化。
3.前缀和后缀：前缀是加在词根前面的一种字母或几个字母，可以改
变单词的意义或词类。
后缀是加在词根后面的一种字母或几个字母，可以
改变单词的意义、词类或语法功能。
4.同义词和反义词：同义词是意义相近或相同的词，可以在表达时相
互替换。
反义词则是意义相反的词，通常用来表达对立或对比的关系。
5.词义的变化：词义可以根据语境和用法的不同而发生变化，有时一
个词也可以具有多个意义。
6.词义的分类：词义可以分为字面意义（词义的最基本的意义）、引
申义（从原来的字面意义发展而来的新的意义）和隐喻义（使用一个词来
暗示或比喻另一个概念）。
7.词义的搭配：词义可以和其他词搭配使用，形成固定的词组或短语，这些搭配可以帮助我们更好地理解和运用单词。
8.词法关系：词汇学研究不同词之间的关系，如近义词、反义词、属
于关系等。
9.词源学：词源学研究词语的起源和发展，并追溯词汇的历史和语言
渊源。
10.词汇扩充：词汇学研究如何通过学习和运用词汇扩充词汇量，如学习词根、前缀和后缀的意义和用法，以及拆解和分析复杂单词的方法。
词汇学第二章知识点总结
词汇学第二章知识点总结第一节语言单位1. 语言单位：词、词组、句子和语法结构词：语言的最小单位词组：由几个词构成的语言单位句子：由词或词组构成的具有完整意义的语言单位语法结构：句子的组织形式，包括层次结构、句子成分、语法关系等2. 词的构成词素：构成词的最小语音和语义单位，可以独立存在或在词中进行构词词根：词的核心，在构词中起着基本作用词缀：附着在词根上，用于构成新词或改变词的词类、意义等词素内部结构：构成词素的内部组合形式3. 词的分类词的词类：名词、动词、形容词、副词、代词、数词、量词和介词词的形式：词的屈折、派生、合成等形式第二节词的意义和词的结构1. 词的意义词义：词语所标示的概念、概括和概念内的发展词语义变化：词义的泛化、特指和引申等变化词的义位：构成词义的回路和成分词的词义关系：近义词、异义词和词义关系2. 词的结构词汇结构：构成词的词素和语音等结构形式词的成分结构：构成复词的内部词结构词语构词法：构成词的词缀、合成等构词手段第三节词义关系和词义演变1. 词义关系上下位关系：词义之间的概括和被概括关系同类词关系：在特定范畴或范围内词义之间的同类关系词语义联系：在使用中词义之间的联系和联系表达2. 词义演变词义的演变：在历史发展和使用中词义的变化和扩展词义变化类型：词义的泛化、转移、借代、内涵、外延等变化类型词义变化因素：历史、社会、文化、语言接触等诸多因素第四节词在句法中的功能和语意1. 词的句法功能词的句法功能：在句中词所承担的成分和功能句法结构：构成句子的各种句法成分的组织形式2. 词的语义特征词的语义特征：词的语义属性和特别意义词的意义转换：词义在句法中的隐喻、比喻、借代和辞让等转换方式词义在句法中的表现：词义在句中所呈现的语义特征和语义表达第五节词汇的心理基础1. 词汇的心理组织词的心理存储：词的存储方式和内部心理结构词汇记忆：词的认知和记忆方式及其规律词的心理连接：词之间在心理中的联结和联系2. 词汇的心理活动词的心理组织：词的认知、思维、理解、表达等心理活动词的心理过程：词的产生、使用、决策、回忆、判断等心理过程第六节词汇习得和使用1. 词汇的习得语言习得：语言学习者获取和掌握词汇的过程词汇习得理论：第一语言习得和第二语言习得的理论及其实践词汇习得策略：词汇习得过程中的学习策略和方法2. 词汇的使用词汇的应用范畴：词汇在语言和交际中的各种应用范畴和方式词汇的使用规律：词汇在使用中的频率、变化、地域差异等规律词汇的使用技巧：词汇使用中的技巧、技能、风格等第七节词汇学的理论和研究方法1. 词汇学的理论词汇研究理论：词汇研究的主流理论和方法词汇学派别：各种词汇学派别对词汇研究的探索和发展词汇发展趋势：未来词汇研究的方向、趋势、发展和应用2. 词汇学的研究方法词汇的研究方法：词汇的描述、分析、解释的研究方法和手段词汇的实证研究：词汇在使用中的实证研究方法和技术词汇的应用研究：词汇在语言学、教育学、心理学等领域的应用研究以上是词汇学第二章的知识点总结。
英语词汇学知识点归纳详细
英语词汇学知识点归纳详细英语词汇学是研究英语词汇的起源、发展、结构和功能的学科。
它关注词汇的形成、分布和使用规律，旨在帮助人们更好地理解和运用英语词汇，我将详细讨论英语词汇学的一些重要知识点。
第一部分：英语词汇的起源和发展1.1 词汇的起源英语词汇的起源可以追溯到原始语言，人类追求沟通的需要催生了词汇的出现。
最初，人们通过模仿自然声音或物体特性来命名事物，逐渐形成了最早的词汇系统。
1.2 词汇的发展随着社会的进步和交流的增加，语言发生了演变和变异。
英语词汇的发展经历了几个阶段，包括古英语、中古英语、现代英语等，每个阶段都有其独特的特点和词汇形态。
第二部分：英语词汇的结构2.1 词根词根是词汇的核心部分，它通常具有基本含义，并可以通过前缀和后缀来构成新的词汇。
例如，"write"是一个词根，可以通过添加前缀"re-"构成"rewrite"，通过添加后缀"-er"构成"writer"。
2.2 前缀前缀位于词根之前，用于改变词的意义或形态。
常见的前缀包括"un-"（表示否定）、"re-"（表示再次）等。
例如，"happy"变为"unhappy"表示不快乐，"do"变为"redo"表示重新做。
2.3 后缀后缀位于词根之后，用于改变词的类别或形态。
常见的后缀包括"-er"（表示职业或性别）、"-able"（表示能力或性质）等。
例如，"act"变为"actor"表示演员，"comfort"变为"comfortable"表示舒适的。
第三部分：英语词汇的分类3.1 按词性分类英语词汇可以根据其功能和词法特征分为不同的词性，包括名词、动词、形容词、副词、介词、连词和感叹词等。
英语词汇学知识点
English Lexicology: A CoursebookChapter 1 Lexicology and WordsKnowledge Points:1. Lexicology is the study of the vocabulary or lexicon of a given language.2. Morphology is the study of the forms of words and their components.3. The major purpose of study in morphology is to look at morphemes and their arrangements in word formation.4. Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language. Morphemes may constitute words or parts of words.5. Semantics is defined as the study of meaning.6. Generally speaking, semantics focuses on:1) the meaning of words;2) the meaning of utterances in context;3) the meaning of sentences;4) meaning relations between sentences;5) meaning relations that are internal to the vocabulary of a language.7. Etymology is the study of the whole history of words.8. Word is used traditionally to refer to a sequence of letters bounded by spaces.9. The term word is also used to refer to an intermediate structure smaller than a whole phrase and yet generally larger than a single sound segment.10. Major features of Words1) A word is a sound or combination of sounds which we make voluntarily with our vocal equipment.2) A word is symbolic and is used to stand for something else.3) The word is an uninterruptible unit.4) A word has to do with its social function.5) A word may consist of one or more morphemes.6) Words are part of the large communication system we call language.7) A word occurs typically in the structure of phrases.11. In traditional grammar, eight parts of speech are distinguished in English: noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, and interjection.12. Words can also be classified into lexical words and grammatical words.13. Generally speaking, lexical words are nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.14. The lexical words can be used (functions):1) to represent our experience of the word;2) to refer to persons, places, things and concepts (e.g. the nouns Smith, London, pineapple, unity);3) to describe qualities and properties (e.g. the adjectives excellent, kind, high);4) to represent actions, processes or states (e.g. the verbs jump, bite, stay);5) to describe circumstances like manner (e.g. the adverbs kindly, slowly, cheerfully).Furthermore, lexical words have their own content meanings and may be meaningful when used alone. E.g. book and house have their own content meanings.15. Grammatical words are words like pronouns, prepositions, demonstrative, determiners, conjunctions, auxiliary verbs, and son on.16. Semantic or lexical field: A semantic field contains words that belong to defined area of meaning. Crystal (1995) defines a semantic field as a ‘named area of meaning in which lexemes interrelated and define each other in specific ways’.Chapter 2 Some Basic Concepts and Word MeaningsKnowledge Points:1. Morphemes are the ultimate grammatical constituents, the smallest meaningful units of language.2. Features of morpheme:1) A morpheme may be a complete word. E.g. the, fierce, desk, eat, boot, at, fee, mosquito cannot be dividedup into smaller units that are meaningful themselves.2) A morpheme may also be a word form such as an affix. e.g. –able, in-, -hood.3) A morpheme may be a combining form. e.g. bio-, geo, pre-.3. Phonemes are the smallest working units of sound per se, and they build up into morphemes.4. Lexeme: Lexeme or lexical item is regarded as a unit of lexical meaning, which exists regardless of any inflectional endings it may have or the number of words it may contain.Lexeme is considered an abstract linguistic unit with different variants (e.g. sing as against sang, sung).5. Morph: Any concrete realization of a morpheme in a given utterance is called a morph. It is a physical form representing some morphemes in a language.6. Allomorphs: Morphs which are different representations of the same morpheme are referred to as allomorphs of that morpheme.7. Morphemes can be classified into bound morphemes and free morphemes.8. Bound morphemes must be joined to other morphemes. e.g. the suffix –dom, is a bound morpheme.9. Free morphemes need not be attached to other morphemes and can occur by themselves as individual words.e.g. cat, chair, farm, and bug are free morpheme.10. Morphemes may also be classified into derivational morphemes and inflectional morphemes.11. Denotation: Denotation of a lexeme is the relationship that holds between that lexeme and persons, things, places, properties, processes and activities external to the language system.12. Reference: The relationship of reference holds between an expression and what that expression stands for on particular occasions of its utterance.13. Sense: Sense is a relationship between the words or expressions of a single language, independently of the relationship, if any, which holds between those words or expressions and their referents.14. Leech (1981) distinguishes seven types of meaning in language: conceptual meaning, connotative meaning, social meaning, affective meaning, reflected meaning, collocative meaning, and thematic meaning.15. Conceptual meaning, which is sometimes called denotative or cognitive meaning, refers to meanings as presented in a dictionary.16. Connotative meaning is the communicative value of an expression by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content.17. Social meaning refers to the kind of meaning a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use.18. Affective meaning can be used to cover the attitudinal and emotional factors expressed in a word.19. Reflected meaning is the meaning which arises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense.20. Collocative meaning consists of the associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment.21. Thematic meaning is what communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organizes the massage, in terms of ordering, focus, and emphasis.22. Stem: The word to which affixes are added and which carries the basic meaning of the resulting complex word is known as the stem.23. Root: A stem consisting of a single morpheme is labeled as root. For, example, walk is a root and it appears in the set of word-forms that instantiate the lexeme walk such as walk, walks, walking and walked.24. Free morpheme: Roots which are capable of standing independently are called free morphemes. Single words like man, book, tea, sweet, cook are the smallest free morphemes capable of occurring independently.25. Bound morpheme: some roots are incapable of occurring independently. They always occur with some other word-building element attached to them. Such roots are called bound morphemes, like –mit in permit, remit, commit, admit, and ceive in perceive, receive, conceive.26. Base: A base is a lexical item to which affixes of any kind can be added.The affixes attached to a base. In other words, all roots are bases.27. Affix: A root or stem can be attached with an affix. Affixes are morphemes which only occur when attached to other morphemes. By definition affixes are bound morphemes.28. Three types of affixes: prefix, suffix and infix.1) prefix: A prefix is an affix attached before a root (or stem or base) like re-, un- and in-, as in re-make, un-kind, in-decent.2) suffix: A suffix is an affix attached after a root (or stem or base) like-ly, -er, -ist,and -ed, as in kind-ly, wait-er, interest-ing, interest-ed.3) infix: An infix is an affix inserted into the root itself. According to Katamba (1993), infixes are very common in semitic language like Arabic and Hebrew.29. Other types of affixes: inflectional affixes and derivational affixes.1) Inflectional affixes are used for syntactic reasons to indicate number, tense, case, and so on.2) derivational affixes can alter the meaning or grammatical category of the base.30. Polysemy: Polysemy refers to the situation in which a word has two or more different meanings.For instance, the noun bank is said to be polysemous because it may mean:(1) a financial institution that people or businesses can keep their money in or borrow money from;(2) a raised area of land along the side of a river;(3) a large number of things in a row, especially pieces of equipment.31. Features of polysemy:1) The concept of polysemy is complex and involves a certain number of problems. As mentioned by Jackson and Amvela (2000), we cannot determine exactly how many meanings a polysemous word has, as a word may have both a literal meaning and one or more transferred meanings.2) The is no clear criterion for either difference or sameness of meaning.3) It difficult to distinguish between polysemy (i.e. one word with several meanings) and homonymy (i. e. several words with the same shape—spelling and/or pronunciation).4) Polysemy is an essential condition for its efficiency.32. Homonymy: Homonymy refers to a situation in which there are two or more words with the same shape.33. Tow types of homonyms (Jackson and Amvela, 2000): homograph and homophone1) homograph: Homograph refers to a word which is spelt the same as another word but has a different meaning and sometimes a different pronunciation. For example, lead (metal) and lead (dog’s lead) are spelt the same but pronounced differently.2) homophone: Homophone refers to a word that sounds the same as another word but ahs its own spelling, meaning and origin. For example, right, rite and write are spelt differently but pronounced the same.34. Features of homonymy:1) There are cases in which two homonyms with totally different meanings may both make sense in the same utterance.2) Spelling will often help to differentiate between words with are identical in sound.3) Writing conventions can help remove homonymy, as English writing is more intelligible than speech.Chapter 3 The Origins of English WordsKnowledge Points:1. The Development of English:Indo-European FamilyItalic Germanic Europe the Near East North India …the North Germanic the East Germanic the West Germanicbranch branch branchEnglishEnglish belongs to the Indo-European family, which includes most of the languages of Europe, the Near east,and North India. One branch of the Indo-European family is called Italic, from which Latin and later the Romance languages developed. Another is called Germanic, which is subdivided into the North Germanic branch, the Ease Germanic branch and the West Germanic branch. English is one of the languages in the West Germanic branch.Celts are believed to be the first people who, inhabited the land that was later to become England. They came to the island around the middle of the fifth millennium BC. Their languages were yet another branch of the Indo-European language family. Most of the island of Britain was occupied by the Romans from about 43 AD until 410 AD.Two stages:First Stage (Beginning of English): After the withdrawal of the Romans, the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes moved into England in about 450 AD and began to take it over. It is at this time when the English language began.Second Stage: By the 10th century, the West Saxon dialect became the official language of Britain. Written Old English is mainly known from this period. It was written in an alphabet called Runic (北欧古文字).2. The four historical periods of English:1) The language from 450 to 1066 is known as Old English.2) From 1066 to 1500 the language is known as Middle English.3) The language from 1500 to 1800 is considered the Early Modern English period.4) The language since 1800 is called Modern English.3. Old English Period (450-1066). There are many differences between the way vocabulary was used in Old English and the way it is used today.1) the Anglo-Saxon preference for expressions that are synonymous, far exceeds that found in Modern English, as does their ingenuity in the construction of compounds.2) the absence of a wide-ranging vocabulary of loanwords also forces them to rely more on word-formation processes based on native elements.3) the latter period of Old English was characterized by the introduction of a number of ‘loan translations’.4) grammatical relationships in Old English were expressed mainly by the use of inflectional endings.5) Old English is believed to contain about 24,000 different lexical items.4. The Middle English Period (1066-1500). The Middle English period was marked by extensive changes. In 1066 the Normans conquered Britain.5. Features of this period:1) The changes of this period affected English both in its grammar and its vocabulary.2) Inflections were greatly reduced in Middle English.3) The inflectional endings was due partly to phonetic changes and partly to the operation of analogy.4) Middle English is particularly characterized by intensive and extensive borrowing from other languages.6. Early Modern English Period (1500-1800). This period is the transitional period from Middle English to Modern English.1) The printing press helped to standardize the spelling of English in its modern stages.2) Throughout the modern period, written English has been quite uniform.3) In the sixteenth century, scholars began seriously to talk about their language, making observations on grammar vocabulary, the writing system and style.4) Adjectives lost all endings except for in the comparative and superlative forms.7. The Modern English Period (1800-present). Features of this period:1) Modern English is as the unprecedented growth of scientific vocabulary.2) The assertion of American English is as a dominant variety of the language.3) The emergence of other varieties known as ‘New Englishes’.8. ‘New Englishes’refers to new varieties of the language that have become localized not only through the influence of the other languages of the regions where they are used, but also through being adapted to the life and culture of their speakers.9. The differences between American English and British English:1) The differences of vocabulary are the most striking;2) American spelling and British are also a bit different;3) The differences between American and British pronunciation are perhaps the most pervasive of all.10. Native English vocabulary is made up of Anglo-Saxon words. This category comprises words that were used by the Germanic tribes and are still used in Modern English.11. The Celtic language did not have any serious impact on English.1) In the Old English period, only a number of Celtic words were borrowed, and just a few have survived into modern English, sometimes in regional dialect use.2) In the seventeenth century, a few more Celtic words were introduced into English from Irish Gaelic.12. Major influences on English:1) The Scandinavian Influence2) The Norman Conquest3) The Latin Influence13. Borrowing is the process of imitating a word from foreign language and, at least partly, adapting in sound or grammar to the native language.14. Latin is not only the first major contributor of loanwords to English, but also one of the most important sources for the coinage of new English words.15. Greek borrowings have been continuous from the fifth century to the present. Borrowing from French started long before 1066.16. New English words can be created by root creation, onomatopoeic words, ejaculations and word formation (Jackson and Amvela 2000).Chapter 4 Word Formation in EnglishKnowledge Points:1. There are basically three ways of extending the word stock:1) borrowing words that already exist in other languages;2) creating entirely new words;3) forming new words from existing resources within the word stock.2. Word formation refers to the different devices used in English to build new words from existing ones.3. The basic distinction between inflection and derivation is mainly morphological. Inflection results in the formation of alternative grammatical forms of the same word, while derivation creates new vocabulary items.4. Inflection refers to a general grammatical process which combines words and affixes to produce alternative grammatical forms of words.5. Inflections in English are all suffixes that occur at the very end of a word.6. Functions of InflectionInflection creates variant forms of a word to conform to different functional roles in a sentence or in discourse.1) Inflections modify the form of a word so that they can fit into a particular syntactic slot.2) Sometimes inflectional morphemes serve merely to integrate a word into its sentence.3) inflections attach grammatical information to the stem, but do not change its grammatical category.7. Affixation is the process whereby an affix is attached to a base.8. Derivation refers to the creation of a new word by means of the addition of an affix to a stem.9. Functions of DerivationsDerivational affixes serve functions very different from those of inflectional morphemes.1) A derivational affix can change the part of speech of a word;2) Derivation affixes are so called because they are used to derive new words and meanings.3) Derivational affixes can change the word class of the item they are added to and establish words as members of the various word classes.4) Derivational affixes do not always cause a change in grammatical class.10. Derivational affixes can be divided into two types: class-changing and class-maintaining.11. Class-changing derivational affixes change the word class of the word to which they are added.12. Class-maintaining derivational affixes change the meaning of the derivative.13. Class-changing derivational affixes determine the word class of the stem.14. The largest group of class-changing derivatives in English is nominalizers which make nouns out of adjectives or verbs.15. Verbalizers are used to form verbs from other stems.16. Adjectivalizers are used to form adjectives when added to a given stem.17. Adverbializers form adverbs when added to a given stem.18. Class-maintaining derivations do not change the word class of the stem but its meaning. Most derivatives that are prefixes in English affect only the meaning of the root, not its syntactic class.19. Compounding refers to the method and device of language to form new words by combining or putting together old words.20. Compounds are stems consisting of more than one root.21. The orthographic treatment of compounds is by no means consistent.22. Characteristics of Compounds1) Phonologically, there is always a single primary stress in English words, so that compounds are often recognized by stress pattern and lack of juncture.The criterion of stress applies only to nominal compounds, and the distinction between compound and idiom becomes fuzzy for verbs and other nominal categories.2) Syntactically, compounds are single lexical units and have specific features.The grammatical relations between the constituents of the compound are sometimes obscure.3) Semantically, compounds tend to have special meanings.The meanings of the words interrelate in such a way that the new meaning may be different from the meanings of the words in isolation.23. A common semantic classification yields four types of compounds: endocentric, exocentric, copulative and appositional.24. An endocentric compound consists of a head and its modifier.25. An exocentric compound does not have a head, and its meaning cannot be literally guessed from its constituent parts.26. A copulative compound has two semantic heads.27. An appositional compound has two attributes which classify the compound.28. A compound is a lexical item in which two roots combine to make one unit.29 According to constituent elements, compounds can be divided into four major types.1) Noun compounds: A noun compound can be formed by ‘N+N’, ‘N+V-ing’, ‘V-ing+N’, ‘V+N’, ‘Adj+N’, ‘V+Adv’, ‘Adv+V’, ‘Prep+N’, ‘Adj+V-ing’ and other combinations.2) Verb compounds: A verb compound can be formed by ‘N+V’, ‘Adv+V’, ‘Adj+V’, ‘V+V’, ‘Adv+N’ and other combinations3) Adjective compounds: An adjective compound can be formed by ‘Adj+Adj’, ‘Adj+N’, ‘Adj+N-ed’, ‘N+Adj’, ‘Adj+V-ing’, ‘Adj+V-ed’, ‘N+V-ing’, ‘N+V-ed’, ‘Adv+V-ed’, ‘Adv+Adj’, ‘Prep+N’and other combinations.4) Pronoun compounds: A pronoun compound can be formed mostly by the combination of some/any/no with thing/body/one and my/your/her/him/our/them/it + self/selves.30. Conversion: A change in word class without the addition of an affix is known as conversion. In other words, conversion is a process by which a word belonging to one word class is transferred to another word class without any change in form.31. There are four major kinds of conversion: from noun to verb, from verb to noun, from adjective to noun and from adjective to verb.Noun →verb: to air, to arm, to bottom, to cup, to fish, to mouth, to tooth.Verb →noun: a call, a command, a count, a go, a guess, a book, a walk.Adjective →verb: to better, to blind, to bold, to brave, to dirty, to empty.Adjective →noun: best, poor, rich, blind, convertible, daily, double.32. Auxiliary verbs, adverbs, modal verbs, prepositions, conjunctions, interjections and even affixes can all act as bases for conversion.33. Blending refers to the process of combining parts of two words to form a third word which contains some of the meaning of each part. Blends are compounds that are less than compounds.34. Structurally, ELL (2006) divides blends into four common types.1) The first type of blends is a full word followed by a splinter. Blends can also begin with a splinter, followed by a full word.2) The second type of blends consists of two splinters. There are two subtypes.A) In some cases, the beginning of one word is followed by the end of another.B) In other cases, both splinters are the beginning of words.3) The third type of blends consists of complete overlap, in which a part of the blend belongs to both words.4) The fourth type of blends involves the embedding of one word in another.35. Blending often results in the creation of new morphemes or in the addition of new meanings to old ones.36. Shortenings include clipping and initialisms.37. Clipping is the process by which a word of usually three or more syllables is shortened without a change in meaning or function.38. Features of clipping:1) Clipped words tend to be casual but very useful.2) Clipping often ignores morphemic boundaries.There are three major types of clippings: fore clipping, hind clipping, and midclipping.3) On some rare occasions, clipping may affect both ends of the source with the middle part retained.There are three types of phonetic clippings: phonetic fore clipping, phonetic midclipping, and phonetic hind clipping.39. Initialisms are the results of putting together the initial letters, or occasionally the first two letters, of the orthographic words in a phrase and using them as words.40. Alphabetisms: When initialisms are pronounced with the names of the letters in them, they are called alphabetisms.41. Acronyms: When two words are pronounced like individual words, they are acronyms.42. Backformation is the making of a new word from an older word which is mistakenly assumed to be its derivative.43. Communization of proper names: The English vocabulary is also characterized by the number of words that derive from the names of people, place, books or brands. This process is called the communization of proper names.44. Metanalysis refers to an analysis of a word into parts, in the course of which the original structure of the word is altered.Chapter 5 Sense RelationsKnowledge Points:1. Sense is an internal meaning relation. Sense relations are relations between word meanings and hold between words within the vocabulary.2. Characteristic of Sense Relations(1) The meaning of one item can be related to the meaning of others.(2) Synonyms are items that mean the same, or nearly the same.(3) Antonyms are items that mean the opposite.3. According to Jackson and Amvela (2000), synonymy is of two types: strict synonymy and loose synonymy.4. Strict synonymy refers to the situation in which two synonymous words can be interchangeable in all their possible contexts of use.5. Actually, many words have similar senses and denotation without having exactly the same meaning.6. Loose synonyms may be substitutable in particular contexts, but are not substitutable across a range of contexts.7. In synonymy, we can find not only a significant overlap in meaning between two words, but also some contextswhere they cannot substitute for each other.8. Difference among synonyms:1) Synonym pairs may differ in different geographical varieties of English.2) Synonym pairs may differ in the style or formality of the context in which a word may be used.3) Synonym pairs may differ in connotations. Two words may refer to the same entity, but they may have different associative or emotive meanings.4) Synonym pairs may differ in the use of registers.5) Synonym pairs may differ in etymology.6) Synonym pairs may differ in collocation. They occur in different environments.9. Antonymy refers to the relationship of oppositeness of meaning between words.1) Antonymy is typically found among adjectives but it can be extended to other word class.2) Antonymy covers a number of different types of oppositeness of meaning.10. There may be no true synonyms, but there are several kinds of antonyms. Three types are commonly identified: gradable antonyms, contradictory or complementary antonyms, and converses.11. Gradable antonyms represent a more/less relation and can be viewed as terms at the end-points of a continuum.12. Complementary antonyms, also called contradictory antonyms or non-gradable antonyms, are in an either/or relation of oppositeness.13. Converse antonyms represent two-way contrasts that are interdependent. They are also called reciprocal antonyms or relational opposition, in which one member presupposes the other.14. Hyponymy refers to the notion of inclusion whereby we can say that ‘an X is a kind of Y’. It is the class-inclusion relation.15. A hyponym includes the meaning of a more general word and serves as specific examples of a general concept. The more general term is called the superordinate or hypernym.16. Hyponymy is one of several relationship types with which language users organize the lexicon.17. Meronymy is the part-whole relation in any pair of items. This is an important hierarchical relationship that is found in pairs of words.18. According to Cruse (2000), the notion of meronymy is relational rather than absolute.19. Meronymic relationships are not a property of pairs of words.20. Collocation is concerned with meaning arising from co-occurrence, more specifically to meaning arising from predictable co-occurrence of two or more than two words.21. Collocation is the meaning relations that a word contracts with other words occurring in the same sentence or text.22. Collocator: A word with a certain meaning which occurs in a collocation along with a given word is called a collocator of that word.23. Collocations differ from free combinations. In collocations, the components are not freely interchangeable.24. Collocations are of several types. Those relating to syntax are grammatical collocations, and those relating to expression are lexical collocations.25. Grammatical collocation refers to any kind of syntactic element that must accompany a particular word (usually verb, noun or adjective in English).26. Lexical collocations consist of groups of words with a certain meaning that often occur together.27. The lexical collocations usually consist of words that are in a relation of mutual expectancy of habitual association.28. Other features of collocation1) Collocation often occurs between words in structures;2) Collocations can also cut across part-of-speech or sentence boundaries.3) Collocation is as a cohesive device, because collocation is one of the factors on which we build our expectation of what is to come next in text.29. A metaphor is an extension of the use of a word beyond its primary meaning to describe referents that bear similarities to the word’s primary referent. It refers to cases where a word appears to have both a literal and a。
英语词汇学知识点概括总结
英语词汇学知识点概括总结
一、英语词汇学概述
英语词汇学是语言学的一个重要分支，研究的是词汇的形成、构成、分类和运用规律等。
对于学习英语的人来说，词汇是基础，因此了解英语词汇学知识点对于提高语言水平很有
帮助。
二、英语词汇的分类
英语词汇根据不同的分类标准可以分为不同的类型，按照词性分类，英语词汇可以分为名词、动词、形容词、副词、代词、介词、连词和感叹词等。
此外，英语词汇还可以按照构
词法、语义分类和语法功能等不同标准进行分类。
三、英语词汇的构成
英语词汇的构成主要包括词根、前缀、后缀和词干等部分。
通过不同的组合方式，可以构
成不同的词汇，使得英语词汇系统更加丰富多样。
四、词汇记忆与运用
词汇是语言运用的基础，因此词汇的记忆和运用是英语学习中的重要内容。
学习者可以通
过生词本、词根词缀、语境记忆等方式进行词汇的记忆，同时要注重词汇的运用，积累语感，灵活运用词汇。
五、词汇拓展与应用
在学习英语词汇的过程中，不仅要记忆掌握基础词汇，还需要不断拓展词汇量，了解词汇
在不同语境下的应用，丰富自己的词汇库，使得语言表达更加流畅。
六、英语词汇学研究的意义
英语词汇学的研究对于语言学的发展具有重要的意义，可以帮助我们了解语言规律，促进
语言教学和翻译工作的发展，同时还可以为语言教学提供理论基础和实践指导。
总之，英语词汇学是语言学的重要分支之一，研究词汇的构成、分类和应用等方面，对于
提高语言水平和推动语言学科的发展都具有重要意义。
因此，我们可以在学习中加强对英
语词汇学知识的学习，从不同角度掌握词汇的规律和应用，提高语言表达能力和运用能力。
英语词汇学知识点整理
词汇期末复习（C1-C7）Chapter 1一、Word 词的定义(1) a minimal free form（最小的自由形式）(2) a sound unity(3) a semantic unity（meaning）(4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.（具有句法功能）二、Vocabulary词汇的定义All the words in a language make up what is generally known as vocabulary.一般来说，词汇指的是一种语言里所有单词的总和。
词的总和构成语言的词汇。
词与词汇之间的关系是个体与总体之间的关系。
三、Sound&Meaning发音和意义The connection between the sound (form) and meaning is arbitrary (任意的) and conventional. 二者的关系是约定俗成、随意的四、Sound & Form发音和形式(1)The written form of a natural language is the orthographical（正字的）record of the oralform.自然语言的书写形式是口语形式的书写记录。
(2)The reasons of differences occur between sound and form: 发音与形式不同的原因：①English alphabet was adopted from the Romans 英语字母表来自罗马②the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years. 发音改变快速③Differences created by professional scribes. 专业抄写员的不同④More differences brought by the continuing change of sounds and the standardization of spelling.发音不断变化，书写标准化。
《英语词汇学》-知识点归纳
English Lexicology(英语词汇学)Lexicology（词汇学）: is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words.The Nature and Scope of English lexicology：English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.The subjects that English Lexicology correlated with and extent to：English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics（文体论）and lexicography(词典学) The reason for a student to study English lexicology：According to the textbook, English Lexicology will definitely be beneficial for students of English.A good knowledge of morphological structures of English words and rules ofword-formation will help learners develop their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power. The information of the historical development and the principles of classification will give them a deeper understanding of word-meaning and enable them to organize, classify and store words more effectively. The understanding and their sense relations will gradually raise their awareness of meaning and usage, and enable them use words more accurately and appropriately. A working knowledge of dictionaries will improve their skills of using reference books and raise their problem-solving ability and efficiency of individual study.Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabularyWord（词的定义）: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentenceSound and meaning（声音与意义）: almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”Sound and form（读音和形式）:不统一的四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other （2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years（3）some of the difference were creates by the early scribes（4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabularyVocabulary（词汇）: all the words in a language make up its vocabularyClassification of English Words：By use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabularyBy notion:content words&functional wordsBy origin:native words&borrowed wordsThe basic word stock（基本词汇）: is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though it constitute a small percentage of the EV, it is the most important part of vocabulary.The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock(基本词汇的特征):1)All-National character（全民通用性most important）2)Stability（相对稳定性）3)Productivity（多产性）4)Polysemy（多义性）5)Collocability（可搭配性）没有上述特征的words:(1)Terminology(术语) (2)Jargon（行话）(3)slang（俚语）(4)Argot（暗语）（5）Dialectal words(方言) (6) Archaisms（古语）(7) Neologisms（新词语）:Neologisms means newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.(email)Content words/notional words实词(cloud, run walk, never, five, frequently) and functional words/empty words虚词(on, of, and, be, but)Native Words and Borrowed WordsNative words（本族语词）: known as Anglo-Saxon words (50,000-60,000), are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes. (mainstream of the basic word-stocks).Two other features:(1)neutral in style (2)frequent in useBorrowed words/Loan words（外来语词）: words taken over from foreign languages.(80% of modern EV)4 Types of loan words:1) denizens(同化词): (shirt from skyrta(ON))2) aliens（非同化词/外来词）:are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling (kowtow (CH)磕头)3) translation loans(译借词):按其他语言方式组成英语long time no see (from China)4) semantic loans（借义词）：they are not borrowed with reference to the form,but their meanings are borrowedChapter 2 the development of the English VocabularyThe Indo-European Language Family(印欧语系)The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages（8大印欧语群）The Eastern set:（1）The Balto-slavic Group（波罗的-斯拉夫语族）：Russian,Bulgarian,Polish,Czech etc. （2）The Indo-Iranian Group（印度-伊朗语族）：Hindi,Bengali,Persian etc.(3)The Armenian Group（亚美尼亚语族）：Armenian.(4)The Albanian Group（阿尔巴尼亚语族）：Albanian.The Western set:(5)The Hellenic Group（古希腊语族）：Greek.(6)The Italian Group（意大利语族）：Latin ,Romance languages(French,Italian,Spanish, portuguese,Romanian) etc.(7)The Celtic Group（凯尔特语族）：Irish,Welsh,Breton etc.(8)The Germanic Group（日耳曼语族）：Flemish,German,Dutch,Scandinavian(Norweigian, Swedish,Danish,Icelandic) etc.The Three Stages of Development of the English Vocabulary:1 Old English (450-1100) (vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000):was I high inflected language.2 Middle English (1150-1500):retaines much fewer inflections3 Modern English (1500-up to now): in fact more than 25% of modern E words come almost directly from classical languages. In Modern E, words endings were mostly lost with just a few expections.English has evolved from a synthetic language(Old English) to the present analytic language.Modes of Vocabulary Development(词汇的发展模式):1)creation创造新词：the formation of new words by using the existing materials,namely toots,affixes and other elements.(最重要方式)2)semantic change旧词新义:does not increase the number of word forms but create many more new useages of the words.3) borrowing借用外来词:constitute merely 6 to 7 percent of all new wordsReviving words or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant.Chapter 3 Word Formation IMorpheme(词素):the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words Allomorph(词素变体): is a different variant form of a morpheme，differ in phonological and spelling form, but at the same in function and meaningType of Morpheme(词素的分类)（1）Free Morphemes（自由词素）: have complete meaning in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. (independent).（2）Bound Morpheme(粘着语素): A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself. Bound Morpheme includes two types: (1) bound root(粘附词根) (2)Affix(词缀)Affixes can be put into two groups:1)Inflectional affixes (屈折词缀):affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional,thus known as inflectional morphemes.2)Derivational affixes(派生词缀): A) prefix: A prefix comes before words. B)suffix:An adjective suffix（形容词后缀）that is added to the stem, whatever class is belongs to , the result will be an adjective.Free Morpheme =free root（自由词根）Morpheme(词素)Bound root prefixbound derivationalaffix suffixinflectionalRoot and stem（词根和词干）The differences between root and stem:A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.Chapter 4 Word-Formation II(构词法)1.Affixation词缀法（Derivation派生法）：the formation of words by adding word-formaing or derivational affixes to stem.（1）Prefixation(前缀法)：It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems.1)Negative prefixes(否定前缀): un-,non-,in-,dis,a- ,il-,ir-,im-,etc.disobey(not obey)2)Reversative prefixes（逆反前缀）: un-,de-，dis- etc. unwrap(open)3) Pejorative prefixes: mis（贬义前缀）：mis-，mal-, pseudo- etc.misconduct(bad behaviour)4) Prefixes of degree or size(程度前缀)：arch-,extra-,hyper-,macro-,micro-,mini-,out-,over-,sub-,super-,sur-,ultra-,under-,ect. overweight5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude（倾向态度前缀）:contra-,counter-,anti-,pro- etc.anti-nuclear6)Locative prefixes（方位前缀）:extra-,fore-,inter-,intra-,tele-,trans-, etc. extraordinary(more than ordinary)7) Prefixes of time and order（时间和顺序前缀）:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc. monorail(one rail)8) Number prefixes（数字前缀）:uni-，mono-, bi-，di-, tri-,multi-，poly- ，semi-，etc.bilingual(concerning two languages)9) Miscellaneous prefixes（混杂前缀）：auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-.vice-chairman(deputy chairman)(2)Suffixation（后缀法）: It's the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems.1)noun suffixes 2)adjective suffixes 3)Adverb suffixes 4)verb suffixespounding复合法（also called composition）Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stemsCompounds are written in three ways: solid连写(airmail)，hyphenated带连字符(air-conditioning)and open分开写(air force, air raid)Formation of compounds（复合词的形式）（1）noun compounds ：e.g. : air + plane = airplane,flower + pot = flower pot（2）adjective compounds ：e.g. acid + head = acid-head（3）verb compounds ：e.g. house + keep = housekeep3.Conversion转类法Conversion: is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.（功能转换，又叫零派生.functional shift/zero-derivation）4.Blending拼缀法Blending : is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. e.g: motor + hotel = motel, smoke + fog = smog, formula + translation = FORTRAN5.Clipping截短法Clipping:is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead.e.g. plane from airplane, phone from telephone. 四种形式：1).Front clippings删节前面(phone from telephone)2).Back clippings删节后面(dorm from dormitory)3).Front and back clippings 前后删节(flu from influenza)4).Phrase clippings 短语删节(pop from popular music)6.Acronymy首字母缩写法Acronymy:is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.（1）Initialism（首字母缩写词法）: initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter. e.g.: BBC(for British Broadcasting corporation)（2）Acronym（首字母拼音法）:Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word. E.g.:TEFL(teaching English as a foreign language)7.Back-formation（逆生法，逆构词）Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. It’s the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes. (greed from greedy)8.Words From Proper Name(专有名词转成法):Names of people, places, book, and tradenames (e.g.: sir watt siemens(人名) -- watt（瓦特，电功率单位）Chapter 5 Word MeaningThe meanings of “Meaning”(“意义”的意义)Reference(所指):It is the relationship between language and the word. It is the arbitrary and conventional. It is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something specific.Concept（概念）:which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition(认识),reflecting the objective world in the human mind.Sense（意义）:It denotes the relationship inside the language. ‘The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relat ionships with other expressions in the language.’Motivation(理据)：It accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.1) Onomatopoeic motivation（拟声理据）:words whose sounds suggest their meaning, for these words were creates by imitating the natural sounds or noises. Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning. E.g.: bang, ping-pong, ha ha.2)Morphological motivation （形态理据）:multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many are the sum total of the morphemes combines. E.g.: airmail, miniskirt .例外：black market, ect.3)Semantic motivation（词义理据）：refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word. E.g:the foot of the mountain(foot)4)Etymological motivation （词源理据）:the history of the word explains the meaning of the word. E.g:pen-featherTypes of meaning(词义的类别)1.Grammatical Meaning（语法意义）:indicates the grammatical concept or relationships (becomes important only in actual context)2.Lexical Meaning （词汇意义）(Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word-meaning)Lexical meaning has 2 components内容: Conceptual meaning(概念意义) and associative meaning(关联意义)1）Conceptual meaning(概念意义): also known as denotative meaning(外延意义) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.2）Associative meaning(关联意义):is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning.[4types:（1）Connotative（内涵意义）：the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning, traditionally known as connotations.(例如“母亲”经常与“爱”“关心”“温柔”联系起来)（2）Stylistic（文体意义）：many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts.（3）Affective（感情意义）：indicates the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing in question.这种情感价值观分两类：褒义和贬义appreciative & pejorative（4）Collocative（搭配意义）：is the part of the word-meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion.]Chapter 6 --Sense relation and semantic field（语义关系和语义场）Polysemy（多义关系）Two approached to polysemy（多义关系的两种研究方法）:1.diachronic approach(历时方法) ：from the diachronic point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word. First meaning is the primary meaning , the later meanings are called derived meanings.2. synchronic approach (共时方法) : synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time.基本意义是central meaning , 次要意义是derived meaning.Two processes of development（词义的两种发展类型）:1.radiation（辐射型）：is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at thecentre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes. (e.g: face, neck)2.concatenation（连锁型）:is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word movegradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning.(e.g:treacle)3.In radiation, each of the derived meaning is directly connected to the primary meaning.In concatenation, each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains. Though the latest sense can be traced back to the original, there is no direct connection in between.4.They are closely related, being different stages of the development leading topolysemy. Generally, radiation precedes concatenation. In many cases, the two processes work together, complementing each other.Homonymy（同形同音异义关系）:words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.Types of homonyms(同音同形异义关系的类别)1）Perfect homonyms（完全同音同形异义词）：words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning.2)Homographs（同形异义词）:words identical only in spelling, but different in sound and meaning.(最多最常见)3）Homophones（同音异义词）：words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning.Origins of homonyms (同形同音异义词的来源)1）change in sound and spelling ：(eare-ear, lang-long, langian-long)2）borrowing (feria-fair, beallu-ball, baller-ball )3）Shortening(缩略): (ad-advertisement,)The differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemes（同音同形异义词和多义词的区别)：1)The fundamental difference : Homonymy refers to different words which happen to share the same form and polysemy are the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings.2)One important criterion is to see their etymology(词源)：Homonymys are from different sources. Polysemant is from the same source.3)The second principle consideration is semantic relatedness(语义关联): The various meanings of polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning. Meanings of different homonymys have nothing to do with one another. In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meaning all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries.Rhetoric features of homonyms(同形同音异义词的修辞特色)：As homonyms are identical in sound or spelling, particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns for desired effect of, say, humor, sarcasm or ridicule.Synonymy (同义关系): one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning .Types of Synonymy(同义词的类别) :(1)Absolute synonyms（完全同义词）：also known as complete synonyms are words whichare identical in meaning in all aspects, i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, including conceptual and associative meanings.[ Absolute synonyms are restricted to highly specialized vocabulary in lexicology. ](2)relative synonyms（相对同义词）:also called near-synonyms are similar or nearly thesame in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality.(e.g: change/alter/vary, stagger/reel/totter, strange/odd/queer, idle/lazy/indolent)Sources of synonyms(同义词的来源) :1)Borrowing（借词）：最重要的来源(room-chamber, foe-enemy, help-aid, leave-depart, wise-sage, buy-purchase)2)Dialects and regional English （方言和地区英语）3)Figurative and euphemistic use of words （单词的修饰和委婉用法）:occupation/profession-walk of life, dreamer--star-gazer, drunk-elevated, lie-distort of fact.4)Coincidence with idiomatic expressions（与习惯表达一致）:win-gain the upper hand, decide-make up one’s mind, finish-get through, hesitate-be in two minds, help-lend one a hand.Discrimination of Synonyms(1)difference in denotation外延不同. Synonyms may differ in the range and intensity ofmeaning.(rich-wealthy, work-toil, want-wish-desire)(2)difference in connotation内涵不同. By connotation we mean the stylistic and emotivecolouring of words. Some words share the same denotation but differ in their stylistic appropriateness. (借词：answer-respond, storm-tempest, wood-forest, handy-manual, unlike-dissimilar, homely-domestic, fleshy-carnal.中性词：policeman-constable-bobby-cop, ask-beg-request. 古语词、诗歌：ire/anger, bliss-happiness, forlorn-distresses, dire-dreadful, list-listen, enow-enough, save-expect, mere-lake )(3)difference in application. Many words are synonymous in meaning but difference inusage in simple terms. They form different collocations and fit into difference sentence patterns. (allow sb. to do sth.- let sb. do sth. / answer the letter-reply to the letter) Antonymy (反义关系) :it is concerned with semantic opposition. Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning.Types of Antonyms:1)contradictory terms (矛盾反义词): these antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning. 特点：①The assertion of one is the denial of the other. ②Such antonyms are non-gradable. They cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs ofintensity like “very” to qualify them . (e.g: single/married)2)contrary terms（对立反义词）: antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes.(e.g: old/young, rich/young, big/small) The two opposites are gradable and one exists in comparison with the other.3)relative terms（关系反义词）：this type consists of relational opposites.（parent/child, husband/wife, employee/employer, sell/buy, receive-give）Some of the characteristics of antonyms(反义关系的特点):1)antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition(语义对立)2)a word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym3)antonyms differ in semantic inclusion（语义内涵）4)contrary terms are gradable antonyms，differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own corresponding opposite.(hot/warm: hot-cold/warm-cool)The use of antonyms（反义词的使用）1）Antonyms are helpful and valuable in defining the meaning of words.2)To express economically the opposite of a particular thought for the sake of contrast.(e.g :now or never, rain or shine, friend or foe敌友，weal and woe哀乐)3）To form antithesis(对比法) to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting idea together. (proverbs and sayings: easy come , easy go./ more haste, less speed.)Hyponymy(上下义关系): Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. The meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. For example, a cat is hyponym of animalSuperordinate and Subordinate (上义词和下义词)：use subordinates which are concrete and precise ,presenting a vivid verbal picture before the reader. Superordinates which convey only a general and vague idea.Semantic Field(语义场)Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of field theory.e.g.(apple, pear, peach, date, mango, orange, lemon, etc. make up the semantic field of ‘fruits’)The semantic field of the same concept may not have the same members in different language.e.g.(aunt in English, may means “父亲的姐姐，妈妈的姐姐，父亲哥哥的妻子” in Chinese.(122)Chapter 7 Changes in Word Meaning词义的演变Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes both in form and content. Comparatively the content is even more unstable than the form.Types of Changes (词义变化的种类)1.Extension /generalization(词义的扩大): is the name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo. It is a process by which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized.(e.g: manuscript, fabulous, picture, mill, journal, bonfire, butcher, companion)2.Narrowing/ specialization(词义的缩小)：is the opposite of widening meaning. It isa process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense. Inother words, a word which used to have a more general sense becomes restricted in its application and conveys a special meaning in present-day English.(e.g: deer, corn, garage, liquor, meat, disease, poison, wife, accident, girl). [ when a common word is turned into a proper noun, the meaning is narrowed accordingly. ]3.Elevation /amelioration(词义的升华):refers to the process by which words rise from humble（粗陋的）beginnings to positions of importance. [nice, marshal, constable, angel, knight, earl, governor, fond, minister, chamberlain ]4.Degradation / pejoration(词义的降格):A process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to used in derogatory（贬损的）sense.[boor, churl, wench, hussy, villain, silly, knave, lewd, criticize, lust ]5.Transfer(词义的转移): Words which were used to designate指明one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer.Causes of Semantic Change(词义变化的原因)1.Extra-linguistic factors(词义演变的语言外部因素):1) Historical reason(历史原因)：Increased scientific knowledge and discovery, objects, institutions, ideas change in the course of time. E.g: pen, car, computer.2 )Class reason(阶级原因)：The attitude of classes have also made inroads into lexical meaning in the case of elevation or degradation.3) Psychological reason(心理原因)：the associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words are often due to psychological factors. Such slow, humble and despised occupations take more appealing names is all due to psychological reasons.2.Linguistic factors（语言内部原因）：the change of meaning may be caused by internal factors with in the language system.1)shorting缩略:gold-gold medal, gas-coal gas, bulb-light bulb, private-private soldier2)borrowing借用:deer-animal-beast3)analogy类推:Chapter 8 Meaning and Context 词义和语境Context in its traditional sense refers to the lexical items that precede or follow a given word. Modern linguists have broadened its scope to include both linguistic andextra-linguistic contexts.Two types of context（语境的种类）1. Extra-linguistic context/ Non-linguistic situation（非语言语境）：In a broad sense, context includes the physical situation as well, which embraces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background. (look out, weekend, landlord )2.Linguistic context/ grammatical context(语言语境)：In a narrow sense, it refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears. It may cover a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book.分为两类：1) Lexical context（词汇语境）：It refers to the word that occurs together with the word in question. (e.g: paper, do)2) Grammatical context（语法语境）：It refers the situation when the meaning of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs. (e.g: become)The role of context(语境的作用)1.Elimination of ambiguity(消除歧义)1）Ambiguity due to polysemy or homonymy.2）Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity如何消除歧义？——①extend the original sentence ②alter the context a little2.Indication of referents(限定所指)如何限定所指？——①with clear context ②with adequate verbal context3.Provision of clues for inferring word-meaning (提供线索以猜测词义)1)definition2)explanation3)example4)synonymy5)antonymy6)hyponymy（上下义关系）7)relevant details8)word structureChapter 9 English Idioms 英语习语Idioms（习语的定义）: are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meaning of individual elements. In a broad sense, idiom may include colloquialisms （俗语）, Catchphrases（标语）,slang expressions （俚语）,proverbs（谚语）,etc. They form an important part of the English vocabulary.Characteristics of Idioms（英语习语的特点）1.Semantic unity （语意的整体性）：words in the idiom they have lost their individual identity. Their meanings are not often recognizable in the meaning of the whole idiom. The semantic unity of idioms is also reflected in the illogical relationship between the literalmeaning of each of the idiom.2.Structural stability(结构的稳定性):the structure of an idiom is to a large extent un changeable.1) the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced2) the word order cannot be inverted or changed3) the constituents of idioms cannot be deleted or added to, not even an article.4) many idioms are grammatically unchangeableThe fixity of idiom depends on the idiomaticity.习语性表达习惯Classification of Idioms（英语习语的分类）1. idioms nominal in nature 名词性习语(white elephant累赘物)2 .idioms adjectival in nature形容词性习语（as poor as a church mouse）3 .idioms verbal in nature 动词性习语（look into）4 .idioms adverbial in nature副词性习语（tooth and nail 拼命）5 .sentence idioms 句式习语（never do things by halves）Use of idioms（习语的使用）1.Stylistic features（文体色彩）：1）colloquialisms（俗语）2）slang （俚语）3）literary expressions（书面表达）The same idiom may show stylistic differences when it is assigned（指派）different meanings.2.Rhetorical features(修辞色彩)1) phonetic manipulation （语音处理）：（1）alliteration头韵法（2）rhyme尾韵法2）lexical manipulation（词法处理）（1）reiteration（duplication of synonyms）同义词并举[scream and shout] （2）repetition 重复[out and out]（3）juxtaposition (of antonyms) 反义词并置[here and there]3.figures of speech（修辞格）（1）simile明喻（2）metaphor暗喻（3）metonymy换喻/以名词代动作：live by one’s pen（4）synecdoche提喻/以部分代整体：earn one’s bread（5）Personification拟人法（6）Euphemism委婉语：kick the bucket(die)（7）hyperbole 夸张：a world of troubleVariations of idioms(习语的变异形式)：1.addition增加2.deletion删除3.replacement替换4.position-shifting位置转移5.dismembering分解Chapter 10 English Dictionaries 英语字典Dictionary: presents in alphabetical order the words of English, with information as to their spelling ,pronunciation, meaning, usage , rules and grammar, and in some, their etymology（语源）.Types of dictionaries(词典的种类):1.Monolingual & bilingual dictionaries（单语词典和双语词典）：最早的词典都是双语的(1).Monolingual dictionary: is written in one language (LDCE, CCELD). The headword or entries are defined and illustrated in the same language.(2).Bilingual dictionary: involve two languages (A New English-Chinese D, AChinese-English D)2.Linguistic and Encyclopedic dictionaries（语文词典与百科词典）（1）Linguistic dictionary: aim at defining words and explaining their usages in the language (spelling, pronunciation, meaning, grammatical, function, usage and etymology etc.)可以是单语或是双语的（2）Encyclopedic dictionary:1）encyclopedia (百科全书):is not concerned with the language per se（本身）but provides encyclopedic information. Concerning each headword (not pronunciation, meanings, or usages) but only information.2）Encyclopedic Dictionaries: have the characteristics of both linguistic D and encyclopedia (<Chamber’s Encyclopedic English Dictionary>)3.Unabridged, desk and pocket dictionaries(大型词典、案头词典、袖珍词典) （1）Unabridged D: basic information about a word——its origin, meaning, pronunciation, cognates(同词源的),usage, grammatical, function, spelling, hyphenation, capitalization,。
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English Lexicology(英语词汇学)Lexicology(词汇学): is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words.The Nature and Scope of English lexicology：English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.The subjects that English Lexicology correlated with and extent to：English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology( 形态学), semantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics (文体论) and lexicography(词典学) The reason for a student to study English lexicology：According to the textbook, English Lexicology will definitely be beneficial for students of English.A good knowledge of morphological structures of English words and rules ofword-formation will help learners develop their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power. The information of the historical development and the principles of classification will give them a deeper understanding of word-meaning and enable them to organize, classify and store words more effectively. The understanding and their sense relations will gradually raise their awareness of meaning and usage, and enable them use words more accurately and appropriately. A working knowledge of dictionaries will improve their skills of using reference books and raise their problem-solving ability and efficiency of individual study.Chapter1--Basic concepts of words and vocabularyWord(词的定义):A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentenceSound and meaning(声音与意义): almost arbitrary,“no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”Sound and form(读音和形式):不统一的四个原因( 1 )the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other ( 2 ) the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years ( 3 ) some of the difference were creates by the early scribes (4) the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabularyVocabulary(词汇): all the words in a language make up its vocabularyClassification of English Words：By use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabularyBy notion:content words&functional wordsBy origin:native words&borrowed wordsThebasic word stock(基本词汇): is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though it constitute a small percentage of the EV, it is the most important part of vocabulary.The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock(基本词汇的特征):1)All-National character (全民通用性 most important ) 2)Stability (相对稳定性)3)Productivity (多产性) 4)Polysemy (多义性) 5)Collocability (可搭配性)没有上述特征的words:(1)Terminology(术语) (2)Jargon (行话) (3)slang (俚语) (4)Argot (暗语) ( 5 ) Dialectal words( 方言) (6) Archaisms (古语) (7) Neologisms (新词语) :Neologisms means newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.(email)Content words/notional words实词(cloud, run walk, never, five, frequently )and functional words/empty words虚词(on, of, and, be, but )Native Words and Borrowed WordsNative words(本族语词): known as Anglo-Saxon words (50,000-60,000), are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes. (mainstream of the basic word-stocks).Two other features:(1)neutral in style (2)frequent in useBorrowed words/Loan words(外来语词): words taken over from foreign languages.(80% of modern EV)4Types of loan words:1) denizens(同化词): (shirt from skyrta(ON))2) aliens (非同化词/外来词 ) :are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling (kowtow (CH) 磕头)3) translation loans(译借词):按其他语言方式组成英语 long time no see (from China)4) semantic loans (借义词)： they are not borrowed with reference to the form,but their meanings are borrowedChapter2the development of the English VocabularyThe Indo-European Language Family(印欧语系)The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages (8 大印欧语群)The Eastern set:( 1 ) The Balto-slavic Group (波罗的-斯拉夫语族)： Russian,Bulgarian,Polish,Czech etc. ( 2 ) The Indo-Iranian Group (印度-伊朗语族)： Hindi,Bengali,Persian etc.(3)The Armenian Group (亚美尼亚语族)： Armenian.(4)The Albanian Group (阿尔巴尼亚语族)： Albanian.The Western set:(5)The Hellenic Group (古希腊语族)： Greek.(6)The Italian Group (意大利语族)： Latin ,Romance languages(French,Italian,Spanish, portuguese,Romanian) etc.(7)The Celtic Group (凯尔特语族)： Irish,Welsh,Breton etc.(8)The Germanic Group (日耳曼语族)：Flemish,German,Dutch,Scandinavian(Norweigian, Swedish,Danish,Icelandic) etc.The Three Stages of Development of the English Vocabulary:1 Old English (450-1100) (vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000):was I high inflected language.2 Middle English (1150-1500):retaines much fewer inflections3 Modern English (1500-up to now): in fact more than 25% of modern E words come almost directly from classical languages. In Modern E, words endings were mostly lost with just a few expections.English has evolved from a synthetic language(Old English) to the present analytic language.Modes of Vocabulary Development(词汇的发展模式):1)creation 创造新词： the formation of new words by using the existing materials,namely toots,affixes and other elements.( 最重要方式)2)semantic change 旧词新义 :does not increase the number of word forms but create many more new useages of the words.3) borrowing 借用外来词 :constitute merely 6 to 7 percent of all new words Reviving words or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant.Chapter 3 Word Formation IMorpheme(词素):the smallest functioning unit in the composition of wordsAllomorph(词素变体): is a different variant form of a morpheme ，differ in phonological and spelling form, but at the same in function and meaningType of Morpheme( 词素的分类)( 1 )Free Morphemes(自由词素) : have complete meaning in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. (independent).( 2 ) Bound Morpheme(粘着语素): A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself. Bound Morpheme includes two types: (1) bound root( 粘附词根) (2)Affix(词缀) Affixes can be put into two groups:1)Inflectional affixes ( 屈折词缀):affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional,thus known as inflectional morphemes.2)Derivational affixes( 派生词缀): A) prefix: A prefix comes before words. B)suffix:An adjective suffix (形容词后缀) that is added to the stem, whatever class is belongs to , the result will be an adjective.Free Morpheme =free root (自由词根)Morpheme(词素)Bound rootbound derivationalaffixinflectionalRoot and stem (词根和词干)The differences between root and stem:A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.prefixsuffixChapter4Word-Formation II(构词法)1.Affixation词缀法( Derivation 派生法)：the formation of words by adding word-formaing or derivational affixes to stem.( 1 ) Prefixation(前缀法)：It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems.1)Negative prefixes(否定前缀): un-,non-,in-,dis,a- ,il-,ir-,im-,etc.disobey(not obey)2)Reversative prefixes (逆反前缀) : un-,de- ，dis- etc. unwrap(open)3) Pejorative prefixes: mis (贬义前缀)： mis-， mal-, pseudo- etc.misconduct(bad behaviour)4) Prefixes of degree or size( 程度前缀)：arch-,extra-,hyper-,macro-,micro-,mini-,out-,over-,sub-,super-,sur-,ultra-,under-,ect. overweight5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude (倾向态度前缀) :contra-,counter-,anti-,pro- etc.anti-nuclear6)Locative prefixes (方位前缀) :extra-,fore-,inter-,intra-,tele-,trans-, etc. extraordinary(more than ordinary)7) Prefixes of time and order(时间和顺序前缀) :fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc. monorail(one rail)8) Number prefixes (数字前缀) :uni- ，mono-, bi- ，di-, tri-,multi- ，poly- ，semi-，etc.bilingual(concerning two languages)9) Miscellaneous prefixes (混杂前缀)： auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-.vice-chairman(deputy chairman)(2)Suffixation (后缀法) : It's the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems. 1)noun suffixes 2)adjective suffixes 3)Adverb suffixes 4)verb suffixespounding复合法(also called composition)Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stemsCompounds are written in three ways: solid 连写(airmail) ，hyphenated 带连字符(air-conditioning)and open 分开写(air force, air raid) Formation of compounds (复合词的形式)( 1 ) noun compounds ：e.g. : air + plane = airplane,flower + pot = flower pot( 2 ) adjective compounds ： e.g. acid + head = acid-head( 3 ) verb compounds ： e.g. house + keep = housekeep3.Conversion转类法Conversion: is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. (功能转换，又叫零派生 .functional shift/zero-derivation )4.Blending拼缀法Blending : is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. e.g: motor + hotel = motel, smoke + fog = smog, formula + translation = FORTRAN5.Clipping截短法Clipping:is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead.e.g. plane from airplane, phone from telephone. 四种形式：1).Front clippings 删节前面 (phone from telephone)2).Back clippings 删节后面 (dorm from dormitory)3).Front and back clippings 前后删节(flu from influenza)4).Phrase clippings 短语删节(pop from popular music)6.Acronymy首字母缩写法Acronymy:is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.( 1 ) Initialism (首字母缩写词法) : initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter. e.g.: BBC(for British Broadcasting corporation)( 2 ) Acronym (首字母拼音法) :Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word. E.g. :TEFL(teaching English as a foreign language)7.Back-formation(逆生法，逆构词)Back-formation is considered to be the opposi te process of suffixation. It’s the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes. (greed from greedy)8.Words From Proper Name(专有名词转成法):Names of people, places, book, and tradenames (e.g. : sir watt siemens( 人名) -- watt (瓦特，电功率单位)Chapter5Word MeaningThe meanings of“Meaning”(“意义”的意义)Reference(所指):It is the relationship between language and the word. It is the arbitrary and conventional. It is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something specific.Concept(概念) :which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition( 认识),reflecting the objective world in the human mind.Sense(意义) :It denotes the relationship inside the language.‘The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationshi ps with other expressions in the language.’Motivation(理据)：It accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.1) Onomatopoeic motivation (拟声理据) :words whose sounds suggest their meaning, for these words were creates by imitating the natural sounds or noises. Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning. E.g. : bang, ping-pong, ha ha.2)Morphological motivation (形态理据):multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many are the sum total of the morphemes combines. E.g.: airmail, miniskirt .例外： black market, ect.3)Semantic motivation (词义理据)： refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word. E.g:the foot of the mountain(foot)4)Etymological motivation (词源理据):the history of the word explains the meaning of the word. E.g:pen-featherTypes of meaning(词义的类别)1.Grammatical Meaning (语法意义) :indicates the grammatical concept or relationships (becomes important only in actual context)2.Lexical Meaning (词汇意义)(Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word-meaning)Lexical meaning has 2 components 内容: Conceptual meaning( 概念意义) and associative meaning(关联意义)1 ) Conceptual meaning( 概念意义): also known as denotative meaning( 外延意义) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.2 ) Associative meaning( 关联意义):is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning.[4types:( 1 ) Connotative ( 内涵意义 ) ： the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning, traditionally known as connotations.( 例如“母亲”经常与“爱”“关心”“温柔”联系起来)( 2 ) Stylistic ( 文体意义 ) ： many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts.( 3 ) Affective(感情意义) ：indicates the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing in question.这种情感价值观分两类：褒义和贬义 appreciative & pejorative( 4 ) Collocative (搭配意义)： is the part of the word-meaning suggested by the wordsbefore or after the word in discussion.]Chapter6--Sense relation and semantic field(语义关系和语义场)Polysemy(多义关系)Two approached to polysemy (多义关系的两种研究方法) :1.diachronic approach( 历时方法) ：from the diachronic point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word. First meaning is the primary meaning , the later meanings are called derived meanings.2. synchronic approach (共时方法) : synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time. 基本意义是central meaning , 次要意义是 derived meaning.Two processes of development (词义的两种发展类型) :1. radiation (辐射型) ：is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at thecentre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes. (e.g: face, neck)2. concatenation (连锁型) :is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word movegradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning.(e.g:treacle)3. In radiation, each of the derived meaning is directly connected to the primary meaning.In concatenation, each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains. Though the latest sense can be traced back to the original, there is no direct connection in between.4. They are closely related, being different stages of the development leading topolysemy. Generally, radiation precedes concatenation. In many cases, the two processes work together, complementing each other.Homonymy(同形同音异义关系) :words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.Types of homonyms(同音同形异义关系的类别)1 )Perfect homonyms(完全同音同形异义词) ：words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning.2)Homographs (同形异义词) :words identical only in spelling, but different in sound and meaning.(最多最常见)3 ) Homophones (同音异义词) ：words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning.Origins of homonyms(同形同音异义词的来源)1 ) change in sound and spelling ：(eare-ear, lang-long, langian-long)2 ) borrowing (feria-fair, beallu-ball, baller-ball )3 ) Shortening(缩略): (ad-advertisement,)The differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemes (同音同形异义词和多义词的区别 )：1)The fundamental difference : Homonymy refers to different words which happen to share the same form and polysemy are the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings.2)One important criterion is to see their etymology( 词源)：Homonymys are from different sources. Polysemant is from the same source.3)The second principle consideration is semantic relatedness( 语义关联): The various meanings of polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning. Meanings of different homonymys have nothing to do with one another. In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meaning all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries.Rhetoric features of homonyms( 同形同音异义词的修辞特色)：As homonyms are identical in sound or spelling, particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns for desired effect of, say, humor, sarcasm or ridicule.Synonymy(同义关系): one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning .Types of Synonymy(同义词的类别) :(1) Absolute synonyms(完全同义词) ：also known as complete synonyms are words whichare identical in meaning in all aspects, i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, including conceptual and associative meanings.[ Absolute synonyms are restricted to highly specialized vocabulary in lexicology. ](2) relative synonyms (相对同义词) :also called near-synonyms are similar or nearly thesame in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality.(e.g: change/alter/vary, stagger/reel/totter, strange/odd/queer, idle/lazy/indolent)Sources of synonyms(同义词的来源) :1)Borrowing (借词)：最重要的来源(room-chamber, foe-enemy, help-aid, leave-depart, wise-sage, buy-purchase)2)Dialects and regional English (方言和地区英语)3)Figurative and euphemistic use of words (单词的修饰和委婉用法) :occupation/profession-walk of life, dreamer--star-gazer, drunk-elevated, lie-distort of fact.4)Coincidence with idiomatic expressions (与习惯表达一致) :win-gain the upper hand, decide-make up one’s mind, finish -get through, hesitate-be in two minds, help-lend one a hand.Discrimination of Synonyms(1) difference in denotation 外延不同. Synonyms may differ in the range and intensity ofmeaning.(rich-wealthy, work-toil, want-wish-desire)(2) difference in connotation 内涵不同. By connotation we mean the stylistic and emotivecolouring of words. Some words share the same denotation but differ in their stylistic appropriateness. ( 借词：answer-respond, storm-tempest, wood-forest, handy-manual, unlike-dissimilar, homely-domestic, fleshy-carnal. 中性词：policeman-constable-bobby-cop, ask-beg-request. 古语词、诗歌：ire/anger,bliss-happiness, forlorn-distresses, dire-dreadful, list-listen, enow-enough, save-expect, mere-lake )(3) difference in application. Many words are synonymous in meaning but difference inusage in simple terms. They form different collocations and fit into difference sentence patterns. (allow sb. to do sth.- let sb. do sth. / answer the letter-reply to the letter)Antonymy(反义关系) :it is concerned with semantic opposition. Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning.Types of Antonyms:1)contradictory terms ( 矛盾反义词): these antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning. 特点：①The assertion of one is the denial of the other. ②Such antonyms are non-gradable. They cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like “very” to qualify them . (e.g: single/married)2)contrary terms (对立反义词) : antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes.(e.g: old/young, rich/young, big/small) The two opposites are gradable and one exists in comparison with the other.3)relative terms (关系反义词)：this type consists of relational opposites. ( parent/child, husband/wife, employee/employer, sell/buy, receive-give )Some of the characteristics of antonyms(反义关系的特点):1)antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition( 语义对立)2)a word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym3)antonyms differ in semantic inclusion (语义内涵 )4)contrary terms are gradable antonyms ，differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own corresponding opposite.(hot/warm: hot-cold/warm-cool)The use of antonyms(反义词的使用)1 ) Antonyms are helpful and valuable in defining the meaning of words.2)To express economically the opposite of a particular thought for the sake of contrast.(e.g :now or never, rain or shine, friend or foe 敌友，weal and woe 哀乐)3 ) To form antithesis(对比法) to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting idea together. (proverbs and sayings: easy come , easy go./ more haste, less speed.)Hyponymy(上下义关系): Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. The meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. For example, a cat is hyponym of animalSuperordinate and Subordinate(上义词和下义词)：use subordinates which are concrete and precise ,presenting a vivid verbal picture before the reader. Superordinates which convey only a general and vague idea.Semantic Field(语义场)Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of field theory.e.g.(apple, pear, peach, date, mango, orange, lemon, etc. make up the semantic field of ‘fruits’)The semantic field of the same concept may not have the same members in different language.e.g.(aunt in English, may means “父亲的姐姐，妈妈的姐姐，父亲哥哥的妻子” in Chinese.(122)Chapter7Changes in Word Meaning词义的演变Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes both in form and content. Comparatively the content is even more unstable than the form.Types of Changes(词义变化的种类)1.Extension/generalization(词义的扩大): is the name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo. It is a process by which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized.(e.g: manuscript, fabulous, picture, mill, journal, bonfire, butcher, companion)2.Narrowing/specialization(词义的缩小)：is the opposite of widening meaning. It isa process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense. Inother words, a word which used to have a more general sense becomes restricted in its application and conveys a special meaning in present-day English.(e.g: deer, corn, garage, liquor, meat, disease, poison, wife, accident, girl). [ when a common word is turned into a proper noun, the meaning is narrowed accordingly. ]3.Elevation/amelioration(词义的升华):refers to the process by which words rise from humble(粗陋的) beginnings to positions of importance. [nice, marshal, constable, angel, knight, earl, governor, fond, minister, chamberlain ]4.Degradation/pejoration(词义的降格):A process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to used in derogatory(贬损的) sense.[boor, churl, wench, hussy, villain, silly, knave, lewd, criticize, lust ]5.Transfer(词义的转移): Words which were used to designate 指明one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer.Causes of Semantic Change(词义变化的原因)1.Extra-linguistic factors(词义演变的语言外部因素):1) Historical reason( 历史原因)：Increased scientific knowledge and discovery, objects, institutions, ideas change in the course of time. E.g: pen, car, computer.2 )Class reason(阶级原因)：The attitude of classes have also made inroads into lexical meaning in the case of elevation or degradation.3) Psychological reason( 心理原因)：the associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words are often due to psychological factors. Such slow, humble and despised occupations take more appealing names is all due to psychological reasons.2.Linguistic factors(语言内部原因) ：the change of meaning may be caused by internal factors with in the language system.1)shorting 缩略:gold-gold medal, gas-coal gas, bulb-light bulb, private-private soldier2)borrowing 借用:deer-animal-beast3)analogy 类推:Chapter8Meaning and Context词义和语境Context in its traditional sense refers to the lexical items that precede or follow a given word. Modern linguists have broadened its scope to include both linguistic andextra-linguistic contexts.Two types of context(语境的种类)1.Extra-linguistic context/Non-linguistic situation(非语言语境)：In a broad sense, context includes the physical situation as well, which embraces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background. (look out, weekend, landlord )2.Linguistic context/grammatical context(语言语境)：In a narrow sense, it refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears. It may cover a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book. 分为两类：1) Lexical context(词汇语境) ：It refers to the word that occurs together with the word in question. (e.g: paper, do)2) Grammatical context (语法语境)：It refers the situation when the meaning of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs. (e.g: become)The role of context(语境的作用)1.Elimination of ambiguity(消除歧义)1 ) Ambiguity due to polysemy or homonymy.2 ) Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity如何消除歧义？——①extend the original sentence ②alter the context a little2.Indication of referents(限定所指)如何限定所指？——①with clear context ②with adequate verbal context3.Provision of clues for inferring word-meaning(提供线索以猜测词义)1)definition2)explanation3)example4)synonymy5)antonymy6)hyponymy (上下义关系)7)relevant details8)word structureChapter9English Idioms英语习语Idioms(习语的定义) : are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meaning of individual elements. In a broad sense, idiom may include colloquialisms (俗语) , Catchphrases (标语) ,slang expressions (俚语) ,proverbs (谚语) ,etc. They form an important part of the English vocabulary.Characteristics of Idioms(英语习语的特点)1.Semantic unity(语意的整体性)：words in the idiom they have lost their individual identity. Their meanings are not often recognizable in the meaning of the whole idiom.The semantic unity of idioms is also reflected in the illogical relationship between the literal meaning of each of the idiom.2.Structural stability(结构的稳定性):thestructureof an idiom is to a largeextentun changeable.1) the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced2) the word order cannot be inverted or changed3) the constituents of idioms cannot be deleted or added to, not even an article.4) many idioms are grammatically unchangeableThe fixity of idiom depends on the idiomaticity. 习语性表达习惯Classification of Idioms(英语习语的分类)1. idioms nominal in nature 名词性习语(white elephant 累赘物)2 .idioms adjectival in nature 形容词性习语 ( as poor as a church mouse )3 .idioms verbal in nature 动词性习语 ( look into )4 .idioms adverbial in nature 副词性习语 ( tooth and nail 拼命)5 .sentence idioms 句式习语 ( never do things by halves )Use of idioms(习语的使用)1.Stylistic features(文体色彩) ：1 ) colloquialisms (俗语)2 ) slang (俚语)3 ) literary expressions (书面表达)The same idiom may show stylistic differences when it is assigned (指派) different meanings.2.Rhetorical features(修辞色彩)1) phonetic manipulation (语音处理)：( 1 ) alliteration 头韵法( 2 ) rhyme 尾韵法2 ) lexical manipulation (词法处理)( 1 ) reiteration ( duplication of synonyms ) 同义词并举 [scream and shout]( 2 ) repetition 重复[out and out]( 3 )juxtaposition (of antonyms) 反义词并置 [here and there]3.figures of speech(修辞格)( 1 ) simile 明喻( 2 ) metaphor 暗喻( 3 ) metonymy 换喻/以名词代动作：live by one’s pen( 4 ) synecdoche 提喻/以部分代整体：earn one’s bread( 5 ) Personification 拟人法( 6 ) Euphemism 委婉语：kick the bucket(die)( 7 ) hyperbole 夸张： a world of troubleVariations of idioms(习语的变异形式)：1.addition 增加2.deletion 删除3.replacement 替换4.position-shifting 位置转移5.dismembering 分解Chapter10English Dictionaries英语字典Dictionary: presents in alphabetical order the words of English, with information as to their spelling ,pronunciation, meaning, usage , rules and grammar, and in some, their etymology (语源) .Types of dictionaries(词典的种类):1.Monolingual&bilingual dictionaries(单语词典和双语词典)：最早的词典都是双语的(1).Monolingual dictionary: is written in one language (LDCE, CCELD). The headword or entries are defined and illustrated in the same language.(2).Bilingual dictionary: involve two languages (A New English-Chinese D, AChinese-English D)2.Linguistic and Encyclopedic dictionaries(语文词典与百科词典)( 1 ) Linguistic dictionary: aim at defining words and explaining their usages in the language (spelling, pronunciation, meaning, grammatical, function, usage and etymology etc.)可以是单语或是双语的( 2 ) Encyclopedic dictionary:1 )encyclopedia (百科全书):is not concerned with the language per se(本身)but provides encyclopedic information. Concerning each headword (not pronunciation, meanings, or usages) but only information.2 ) Encyclopedic Dictionaries: have the characteristics of both linguistic D and encyclopedia (<Chamber’s Encyclopedic English Dictionary>)3.Unabridged,desk and pocket dictionaries(大型词典、案头词典、袖珍词典)( 1 ) Unabridged D: basic information about a word—— its origin, meaning, pronunciation, cognates(同词源的),usage, grammatical, function, spelling, hyphenation, capitalization,。