Chap24 Entropy and the second law of thermodynamics
物化词汇
一些物理化学专业英语词汇电泳electrophoresis 丁达尔效应Dyndall effect定容摩尔热容molar heat capacity under constant volume定容温度计Constant voIume thermometer定压摩尔热容molar heat capacity under constant pressure定压温度计constant pressure thermometer定域子系统localized particle system 动力学方程kinetic equations 动力学控制kinetics control 独立子系统independent particle system 对比摩尔体积reduced mole volume 对比体积reduced volume对比温度reduced temperature 对比压力reduced pressure对称数symmetry number 对行反应reversible reactions对应状态原理principle of corresponding state多方过程polytropic process多分子层吸附理论adsorption theory of multi-molecular layers二级反应second order reaction二级相变second order phase change 法拉第常数faraday constant 法拉第定律Faraday’s law 反电动势back E.M.F.反渗透reverse osmosis 反应分子数molecularity反应级数reaction orders 反应进度extent of reaction反应热heat of reaction 反应速率rate of reaction反应速率常数constant of reaction rate范德华常数van der Waals constant范德华方程van der Waals equation范德华力van der Waals force 范德华气体van der Waals gases范特霍夫方程van’t Hoff equation 范特霍夫规则van’t Hoff rule 范特霍夫渗透压公式van’t Hoff equation of osmotic pressure非基元反应non-elementary reactions 非体积功non-volume work 非依时计量学反应time independent stoichiometric reactions菲克扩散第一定律Fick’s first law of diffusion沸点boiling point 沸点升高elevation of boiling point费米－狄拉克统计Fermi-Dirac statistics分布distribution 分布数distribution numbers分解电压decomposition voltage 分配定律distribution law分散系统disperse system 分散相dispersion phase分体积partial volume 分体积定律partial volume law分压partial pressure 分压定律partial pressure law分子反应力学mechanics of molecular reactions分子间力intermolecular force 分子蒸馏molecular distillation封闭系统closed system 附加压力excess pressure弗罗因德利希吸附经验式Freundlich empirical formula of adsorption 负极negative pole负吸附negative adsorption 复合反应composite reaction盖·吕萨克定律Gay-Lussac law 盖斯定律Hess law甘汞电极calomel electrode 感胶离子序lyotropic series杠杆规则lever rule 高分子溶液macromolecular solution高会溶点upper consolute point 隔离法the isolation method格罗塞斯－德雷珀定律Grotthus-Draoer’s law隔离系统isolated system 根均方速率root-mean-square speed功work 功函work content共轭溶液conjugate solution 共沸温度azeotropic temperature构型熵configurational entropy 孤立系统isolated system固溶胶solid sol 固态混合物solid solution固相线solid phase line 光反应photoreaction光化学第二定律the second law of actinochemistry光化学第一定律the first law of actinochemistry光敏反应photosensitized reactions 光谱熵spectrum entropy 广度性质extensive property 广延量extensive quantity广延性质extensive property 规定熵stipulated entropy过饱和溶液oversaturated solution 过饱和蒸气oversaturated vapor 过程process 过渡状态理论transition state theory过冷水super-cooled water 过冷液体overcooled liquid过热液体overheated liquid 亥姆霍兹函数Helmholtz function亥姆霍兹函数判据Helmholtz function criterion亥姆霍兹自由能Helmholtz free energy 亥氏函数Helmholtz function 焓enthalpy 亨利常数Henry constant亨利定律Henry law 恒沸混合物constant boiling mixture恒容摩尔热容molar heat capacity at constant volume恒容热heat at constant volume 恒外压constant external pressure 恒压摩尔热容molar heat capacity at constant pressure恒压热heat at constant pressure 化学动力学chemical kinetics化学反应计量式stoichiometric equation of chemical reaction化学反应计量系数stoichiometric coefficient of chemical reaction化学反应进度extent of chemical reaction化学亲合势chemical affinity 化学热力学chemical thermodynamics 化学势chemical potential 化学势判据chemical potential criterion 化学吸附chemisorptions 环境environment环境熵变entropy change in environment挥发度volatility 混合熵entropy of mixing混合物mixture 活度activity活化控activation control 活化络合物理论activated complex theory 活化能activation energy 霍根-华森图Hougen-Watson Chart基态能级energy level at ground state基希霍夫公式Kirchhoff formula 基元反应elementary reactions积分溶解热integration heat of dissolution吉布斯－杜亥姆方程Gibbs-Duhem equation吉布斯－亥姆霍兹方程Gibbs-Helmhotz equation吉布斯函数Gibbs function 吉布斯函数判据Gibbs function criterion 吉布斯吸附公式Gibbs adsorption formula吉布斯自由能Gibbs free energy 吉氏函数Gibbs function极化电极电势polarization potential of electrode极化曲线polarization curves 极化作用polarization极限摩尔电导率limiting molar conductivity几率因子steric factor 计量式stoichiometric equation计量系数stoichiometric coefficient 价数规则rule of valence简并度degeneracy 键焓bond enthalpy胶冻broth jelly 胶核colloidal nucleus胶凝作用demulsification 胶束micelle 胶体colloid胶体分散系统dispersion system of colloid胶体化学collochemistry胶体粒子colloidal particles 胶团micelle 焦耳Joule焦耳-汤姆生实验Joule-Thomson experiment焦耳-汤姆生系数Joule-Thomson coefficient焦耳-汤姆生效应Joule-Thomson effect 焦耳定律Joule`s law接触电势contact potential 接触角contact angle节流过程throttling process 节流膨胀throttling expansion节流膨胀系数coefficient of throttling expansion结线tie line 结晶热heat of crystallization解离化学吸附dissociation chemical adsorption界面interfaces 界面张力surface tension浸湿immersion wetting 浸湿功immersion wetting work精馏rectify 聚（合）电解质polyelectrolyteBET公式BET formula DLVO理论DLVO theoryHLB法hydrophile-lipophile balance methodpVT性质pVT property ζ电势zeta potential阿伏加德罗常数Avogadro’number 阿伏加德罗定律Avogadro law阿累尼乌斯电离理论Arrhenius ionization theory阿累尼乌斯方程Arrhenius equation阿累尼乌斯活化能Arrhenius activation energy阿马格定律Amagat law 艾林方程Erying equation爱因斯坦光化当量定律Einstein’s law of photochemical equivalence 爱因斯坦－斯托克斯方程Einstein-Stokes equation安托万常数Antoine constant 安托万方程Antoine equation盎萨格电导理论Onsager’s theory of conductance半电池half cell 半衰期half time period饱和液体saturated liquids饱和蒸气压saturated vapor pressure饱和蒸气saturated vapor 饱和吸附量saturated extent of adsorption 爆炸界限explosion limits 比表面功specific surface work比表面吉布斯函数specific surface Gibbs function比浓粘度reduced viscosity 标准电动势standard electromotive force标准电极电势standard electrode potential标准摩尔反应焓standard molar reaction enthalpy标准摩尔反应吉布斯函数standard Gibbs function of molar reaction标准摩尔反应熵standard molar reaction entropy标准摩尔焓函数standard molar enthalpy function标准摩尔吉布斯自由能函数standard molar Gibbs free energy function 标准摩尔燃烧焓standard molar combustion enthalpy标准摩尔熵standard molar entropy标准摩尔生成焓standard molar formation enthalpy标准摩尔生成吉布斯函数standard molar formation Gibbs function标准平衡常数standard equilibrium constant标准氢电极standard hydrogen electrode 标准态standard state标准熵standard entropy 标准压力standard pressure标准状况standard condition 表观活化能apparent activation energy表观摩尔质量apparent molecular weight表观迁移数apparent transference number表面surfaces 表面过程控制surface process control表面活性剂surfactants 表面吸附量surface excess表面张力surface tension 表面质量作用定律surface mass action law 波义尔定律Boyle law 波义尔温度Boyle temperature波义尔点Boyle point 玻尔兹曼常数Boltzmann constant玻尔兹曼分布Boltzmann distribution 玻尔兹曼公式Boltzmann formula玻尔兹曼熵定理Boltzmann entropy theorem玻色－爱因斯坦统计Bose-Einstein statistics泊Poise 不可逆过程irreversible process不可逆过程热力学thermodynamics of irreversible processes不可逆相变化irreversible phase change布朗运动brownian movement 查理定律Charle’s law产率yield 敞开系统open system超电势over potential 沉降sedimentation沉降电势sedimentation potential 沉降平衡sedimentation equilibrium 粗分散系统thick disperse system 催化剂catalyst单分子层吸附理论mono molecule layer adsorption单分子反应unimolecular reaction触变thixotropy单链反应straight chain reactions 弹式量热计bomb calorimeter道尔顿定律Dalton law 道尔顿分压定律Dalton partial pressure law 德拜和法尔肯哈根效应Debye and Falkenhagen effect德拜立方公式Debye cubic formula等焓过程isenthalpic process德拜－休克尔极限公式Debye-Huckel’s limiting equation等焓线isenthalpic line 等几率定理theorem of equal probability等温等容位Helmholtz free energy 等温等压位Gibbs free energy等温方程equation at constant temperature 低共熔点eutectic point低共熔混合物eutectic mixture 低会溶点lower consolute point低熔冰盐合晶cryohydric第三定律熵third-law entropy第二类永动机perpetual machine of the second kind第一类永动机perpetual machine of the first kind缔合化学吸附association chemical adsorption 电池常数cell constant 电池电动势electromotive force of cells 电池反应cell reaction电导conductance 电导率conductivity电动势的温度系数temperature coefficient of electromotive force电动电势zeta potential 电功electric work电化学electrochemistry 电化学极化electrochemical polarization电极电势electrode potential 电极反应reactions on the electrode电极种类type of electrodes 电解池electrolytic cell电量计coulometer 电流效率current efficiency电迁移electro migration 电迁移率electromobility电渗electroosmosis 电渗析electrodialysis·聚沉coagulation 聚沉值coagulation value绝对反应速率理论absolute reaction rate theory绝对熵absolute entropy 绝对温标absolute temperature scale绝热过程adiabatic process 绝热量热计adiabatic calorimeter绝热指数adiabatic index 卡诺定理Carnot theorem卡诺循环Carnot cycle 开尔文公式Kelvin formula柯诺瓦洛夫－吉布斯定律Konovalov-Gibbs law科尔劳施离子独立运动定律Kohlrausch’s Law of Independent Migration of Ions可能的电解质potential electrolyte 可逆电池reversible cell可逆过程reversible process 可逆过程方程reversible process equation可逆体积功reversible volume work 可逆相变reversible phase change 控制步骤control step 库仑计coulometer扩散控制diffusion controlled雷利公式Rayleigh equation拉普拉斯方程Laplace’s equation 拉乌尔定律Raoult law兰格缪尔－欣谢尔伍德机理Langmuir-Hinshelwood mechanism兰格缪尔吸附等温式Langmuir adsorption isotherm formula冷冻系数coefficient of refrigeration 冷却曲线cooling curve离解热heat of dissociation 离解压力dissociation pressure离域子系统non-localized particle systems离子的标准摩尔生成焓standard molar formation of ion离子的电迁移率mobility of ions 离子的迁移数transport number of ions离子独立运动定律law of the independent migration of ions离子氛ionic atmosphere 离子强度ionic strength理想混合物perfect mixture 理想气体ideal gas接触电势contact potential 接触角contact angle节流过程throttling process 节流膨胀throttling expansion节流膨胀系数coefficient of throttling expansion结线tie line 结晶热heat of crystallization解离化学吸附dissociation chemical adsorption界面interfaces 界面张力surface tension浸湿immersion wetting 浸湿功immersion wetting work精馏rectify 聚（合）电解质polyelectrolyte聚沉coagulation 聚沉值coagulation value绝对反应速率理论absolute reaction rate theory绝对熵absolute entropy 绝对温标absolute temperature scale绝热过程adiabatic process 绝热量热计adiabatic calorimeter绝热指数adiabatic index 卡诺定理Carnot theorem卡诺循环Carnot cycle 开尔文公式Kelvin formula柯诺瓦洛夫－吉布斯定律Konovalov-Gibbs law科尔劳施离子独立运动定律Kohlrausch’s Law of Independent Migration of Ions可能的电解质potential electroly可逆电池reversible cell可逆过程reversible process 可逆过程方程reversible process equation 可逆体积功reversible volume work 可逆相变reversible phase change 克拉佩龙方程Clapeyron equation 克劳修斯不等式Clausius inequality 克劳修斯－克拉佩龙方程Clausius-Clapeyron equation控制步骤control step 库仑计coulometer扩散控制diffusion controlled 拉普拉斯方程Laplace’s equation 拉乌尔定律Raoult law雷利公式Rayleigh equation兰格缪尔－欣谢尔伍德机理Langmuir-Hinshelwood mechanism兰格缪尔吸附等温式Langmuir adsorption isotherm formula冷冻系数coefficient of refrigeration 冷却曲线cooling curve离解热heat of dissociation 离解压力dissociation pressure离域子系non-localized particle systems离子的电迁移率mobility of ions 离子的标准摩尔生成焓standard molar formation of ion离子的迁移数transport number of ions离子氛ionic atmosphere离子独立运动定律law of the independent migration of ions离子强度ionic strength 理想混合物perfect mixture理想气体ideal gas 理想气体的绝热指数adiabatic index of ideal gases 理想气体的微观模型micro-model of ideal gas理想气体反应的等温方程isothermal equation of ideal gaseous reactions理想气体绝热可逆过程方程adiabatic reversible process equation of ideal gases理想气体状态方程state equation of ideal gas 理想稀ideal dilute solution 理想液态混合物perfect liquid mixture 粒子particles粒子的配分函数partition function of particles连串反应consecutive reactions 链的传递物chain carrier链反应chain reactions 量热熵calorimetric entropy量子统计quantum statistics临界常数critical constant量子效率quantum yield 临界参数critical parameter临界点critical point 临界胶束浓度critical micelle concentration临界摩尔体积critical molar volume 临界温度critical temperature临界压力critical pressure 临界状态critical state零级反应zero order reaction 流动电势streaming potential流动功flow work 笼罩效应cage effect路易斯－兰德尔逸度规则Lewis-Randall rule of fugacity 露点dew point 露点线dew point line 麦克斯韦关系式Maxwell relations麦克斯韦速率分布Maxwell distribution of speeds麦克斯韦能量分布MaxwelIdistribution of energy毛细管凝结condensation in capillary毛细现象capillary phenomena 米凯利斯常数Michaelis constant 摩尔电导率molar conductivity 摩尔反应焓molar reaction enthalpy 摩尔混合熵mole entropy of mixing摩尔气体常数molar gas constant 摩尔热容molar heat capacity摩尔溶解焓mole dissolution enthalpy摩尔稀释焓mole dilution enthalpy内扩散控制internal diffusions control内能internal energy 内压力internal pressure能级energy levels 能级分布energy level distribution能量均分原理principle of the equipartition of energy能斯特方程Nernst equation 能斯特热定理Nernst heat theorem凝固点freezing point 凝固点降低lowering of freezing point凝固点曲线freezing point curve凝胶gelatin 凝聚态condensed state凝聚相condensed phase 浓差超电势concentration over-potential 浓差极化concentration polarization 浓差电池concentration cells 帕斯卡pascal 泡点bubble point泡点线bubble point line 配分函数partition function配分函数的析因子性质property that partition function to be expressed as a product of the separate partition functions for each kind of state 碰撞截面collision cross section碰撞数the number of collisions 偏摩尔量partial mole quantities平衡常数（理想气体反应）equilibrium constants for reactions of ideal gases平动配分函数partition function of translation平衡分布equilibrium distribution 平衡态equilibrium state平衡态近似法equilibrium state approximation平衡状态图equilibrium state diagram平均活度mean activity 平均活度系统mean activity coefficient平均摩尔热容mean molar heat capacity平均质量摩尔浓度mean mass molarity平均自由程mean free path 平行反应parallel reactionsLiveBandit破乳demulsification 铺展spreading普遍化范德华方程universal van der Waals equation其它功the other work 气化热heat of vaporization气溶胶aerosol 气体常数gas constant气体分子运动论kinetic theory of gases气体分子运动论的基本方程foundamental equation of kinetic theory of gases 气溶胶aerosol气相线vapor line 迁移数transport number潜热latent heat 强度量intensive quantity强度性质intensive property 亲液溶胶hydrophilic sol氢电极hydrogen electrodes 区域熔化zone melting热heat 热爆炸heat explosion热泵heat pump 热功当量mechanical equivalent of heat热函heat content 热化学thermochemistry热化学方程thermochemical equation 热机heat engine热机效率efficiency of heat engine 热力学thermodynamics热力学第二定律the second law of thermodynamics热力学第三定律the third law of thermodynamics热力学第一定律the first law of thermodynamics热力学基本方程fundamental equation of thermodynamics热力学几率thermodynamic probability热力学能thermodynamic energy热力学特性函数characteristic thermodynamic function热力学温标thermodynamic scale of temperature热力学温度thermodynamic temperature热熵thermal entropy 热效应heat effect熔点曲线melting point curve 熔化热heat of fusion溶胶colloidal sol 溶解焓dissolution enthalpy溶液solution 溶胀swelling乳化剂emulsifier 乳状液emulsion润湿wetting 润湿角wetting angle萨克尔－泰特洛德方程Sackur-Tetrode equation 三相点triple point 三相平衡线triple-phase line 熵entropy熵判据entropy criterion 熵增原理principle of entropy increase 渗透压osmotic pressure 渗析法dialytic process生成反应formation reaction 升华热heat of sublimation实际气体real gas 舒尔采－哈迪规则Schulze-Hardy rule松驰力relaxation force 松驰时间time of relaxation速度常数reaction rate constant 速率方程rate equations速率控制步骤rate determining step 塔费尔公式Tafel equation态－态反应state-state reactions 唐南平衡Donnan equilibrium淌度mobility 特鲁顿规则Trouton rule特性粘度intrinsic viscosity 体积功volume work统计权重statistical weight 统计热力学statistic thermodynamics 统计熵statistic entropy 途径path途径函数path function 外扩散控制external diffusion control完美晶体perfect crystalline 完全气体perfect gas微观状态microstate 微态microstate韦斯顿标准电池Weston standard battery 维恩效应Wien effect维里方程virial equation 无热溶液athermal solution维里系数virial coefficient 稳流过程steady flow process稳态近似法stationary state approximation无限稀溶液solutions in the limit of extreme dilution物理化学Physical Chemistry 物理吸附physisorptions吸附adsorption 吸附等量线adsorption isostere吸附等温线adsorption isotherm 吸附等压线adsorption isobar吸附剂adsorbent 吸附量extent of adsorption吸附热heat of adsorption 吸附质adsorbate析出电势evolution or deposition potential析因子性质property that partition function to be expressed as a product of the separate partition functions for each kind of state稀溶液的依数性colligative properties of dilute solutions稀释焓dilution enthalpy系统system 系统点system point系统的环境environment of system 相phase相变phase change 相变焓enthalpy of phase change相变化phase change 相变热heat of phase change相点phase point 相对挥发度relative volatility相对粘度relative viscosity 相律phase rule相平衡热容heat capacity in phase equilibrium 相图phase diagram相倚子系统system of dependent particles悬浮液suspension压缩因子compressibility factor循环过程cyclic process 压力商pressure quotient压缩因子图diagram of compressibility factor阳极anode亚稳状态metastable state 盐桥salt bridge盐析salting out杨氏方程Young’s equation 液体接界电势liquid junction potential 液相线liquid phase lines 一级反应first order reaction一级相变first order phase change逸度fugacity依时计量学反应time dependent stoichiometric reactions逸度系数coefficient of fugacity 阴极cathode荧光fluorescence 永动机perpetual motion machine永久气体Permanent gas 有效能available energy原电池primary cell 原盐效应salt effect增比粘度specific viscosity 憎液溶胶lyophobic sol沾湿adhesional wetting 沾湿功the work of adhesional wetting真溶液true solution 真实电解质real electrolyte真实气体real gas 真实迁移数true transference number振动配分函数partition function of vibration振动特征温度characteristic temperature of vibration蒸气压下降depression of vapor pressure 正常沸点normal point正吸附positive adsorption 支链反应branched chain reactions直链反应straight chain reactions 指前因子pre-exponential factor质量作用定律mass action law 制冷系数coefficient of refrigeration 中和热heat of neutralization 轴功shaft workLiveBandit转动配分函数partition function of rotation转动特征温度characteristic temperature of vibration转化率convert ratio 转化温度conversion temperature状态state 状态方程state equation状态分布state distribution 状态函数state function准静态过程quasi-static process 准一级反应pseudo first order reaction 自动催化作用auto-catalysis 自由度degree of freedom自由度数number of degree of freedom 自由焓free enthalpy自由能free energy 自由膨胀free expansion组分数component number 最低恒沸点lower azeotropic point最高恒沸点upper azeotropic point 最佳反应温optimal reaction temperature 最可几分布most probable distribution 最可几速率mostadikanghackneyed 陈腐的caustic 腐蚀性的erosion 腐蚀erode使腐蚀stale 陈腐的rot 腐烂rotten 腐烂的decay 腐败corrode 腐蚀decomposition 分解，腐烂rust 铁锈silica 硅土lime stone石灰石crystal 水晶gasoline 汽油methane 甲烷，沼气hydrocarbon 碳氢化合物petroleum 石油plastic 塑胶intermediary 媒介物catalysis 催化作用catalyst 催化剂adhesive 黏合剂scorch 使退色bleach 漂白，去色,漂白剂tint 染色，上色dye 染料chemistry 化学biochemistry 生物化学hydronic 液体循环加热的alchemy 炼金术，魔力artificial 人造的，假的，非原产地的ion 离子molecule 分子，些微solubility 溶度solution 解答溶液solvent 溶剂dissolve 溶解，解散element 元素impurity 杂质blend 混合compound 混合物substance 物质，实质particle 颗粒，微粒explosive 爆炸的，炸药blast 爆炸burning 燃烧的kindle 燃起sear 烧灼，烧焦ignite 使燃烧action 作用combination 化合，组合neutralize 中和polymerization 聚合functional 起作用的synthetic 综合的，合成的carbon 碳copper 铜lead 铅Mercury 水星nickel 镍platina 白金silver 银sodium 钠tin 锡，马口铁zinc 锌calcium 钙helium 氦silicon 硅ammonia 氨sulfur 硫磺iodine 碘nitrogen 氮oxygen 氧1.reagent 反应力反应物 4. molecule 分子摩尔5. electron 电子6. isotope 同位素核素7. polymer 聚合体 8. alloy 合金10. metalloid 非金属 11. derivative 衍生物12. alkali 碱金属 13. hydrate 水合物14. action 作用Catalysis are sometimes used to accelerate chemical action.15. adhesive 粘合剂胶粘的18. bleach 去色漂白Please soak shirts in bleach to remove the stains.19. blast 爆破 [例] The village was blast by enemy bombs.23. caustic 腐蚀性的 [例] Some chemicals are caustic by nature.24. combination 化合组合 [例] The safe combination of the two chemicals required a complicated chemical process./ This is a combination of two powerful ingredients.25. corrode 腐蚀 [例] The metal has corroded because of rust.26. crystal 结晶状的27. decay 腐败 [例] Sugar decays our teeth.29. erode 腐蚀 [例] The sea has eroded the cliff face over the years.30. explode 使爆炸 [例] The red balloon exploded when I popped it with a pin.31. explosive 爆炸的炸药 [例] Dynamite is highly explosive. / Politics can be explosive issue.33. ignite 使燃着 [例] A smoldering cigarette ignited the newspapers.37. neutralize 中和 [例] Alkalis neutralize acids. 38. nickel 镍41. polymerization 聚合42. scorch 使褪色 [例] Do not leave the iron on the delicate fabric or the heat will scorch it.52. rotten 腐烂的 [例] The rotten fruit smelled horrible.Bunsen burner 本生灯 product 反应产物flask 烧瓶 apparatus 设备 matrass 卵形瓶 litmus 石蕊PH indicator PH值指示剂，氢离子（浓度的）负指数指示剂litmus paper 石蕊试纸 graduate, graduated flask 量筒，量杯reagent 试剂 test tube 试管 burette 滴定管 retort 曲颈甑still 蒸馏釜 cupel 烤钵 crucible pot, melting pot 坩埚pipette 吸液管 filter滤管 stirring rod 搅拌棒。
热力学三大定律英文表述
热力学三大定律英文表述Thermodynamics: The Three Fundamental LawsThe field of thermodynamics is a fundamental branch of physics that governs the behavior of energy and its transformation. At the core of thermodynamics lie three fundamental laws that describe the intricate relationships between heat, work, and temperature. These laws provide a comprehensive framework for understanding the principles that govern the universe and the physical world around us.The first law of thermodynamics, also known as the law of conservation of energy, states that energy can be transformed from one form to another, but it cannot be created or destroyed. This principle underpins the idea that the total energy of an isolated system remains constant; it may change forms, but the overall quantity of energy is conserved. This law is essential in understanding the efficiency of various energy conversion processes, such as the operation of engines, power plants, and even the human body.The second law of thermodynamics, on the other hand, deals with the concept of entropy. Entropy is a measure of the disorder orrandomness within a system, and the second law states that the entropy of an isolated system not in equilibrium will tend to increase over time, approaching a maximum value at equilibrium. This law explains the natural tendency of things to become more disorganized and the irreversibility of certain processes, such as the heat transfer from a hot object to a cold object. The second law also introduces the concept of the arrow of time, which suggests that time has a preferred direction, moving from the past to the future.The third law of thermodynamics, also known as Nernst's theorem or the law of thermodynamic stability, states that the entropy of a perfect crystal at absolute zero is zero. This law implies that it is impossible to reach a temperature of absolute zero, as this would require an infinite amount of work to remove all thermal energy from a system. The third law also provides a fundamental limit to the efficiency of heat engines and refrigeration systems, as it sets a lower bound on the temperature that can be achieved.These three laws of thermodynamics, when considered together, provide a comprehensive understanding of the behavior of energy and the physical world. The first law ensures that energy is conserved, the second law describes the inevitable increase in disorder, and the third law sets the fundamental limits on temperature and energy transformation.The applications of these laws are far-reaching and can be found in various fields, from engineering and physics to biology and chemistry. They govern the functioning of engines, the behavior of gases, the efficiency of power plants, and even the evolution of the universe itself. Understanding these fundamental laws is crucial for making sense of the world around us and for developing technologies that harness energy in the most efficient and sustainable manner.。
英美法系重视程序的名言
英美法系重视程序的名言every law has no atom of stregth, as far as no public opinion supports it. (wendell phillips, american leader against slavery)若是没有公众舆论的支持，法律是丝毫没有力量的。
(美国废奴运动领袖菲力普斯 w)good order is the foundation of all things. (e.burke, btritish statesman)良好的秩序是一切的基础。
(英国政治家伯克 e)guilt always hurries towards its complement, punishment; only there doesits satisfaction lie. (lawence durrell, british writer)犯罪总是以惩罚相补偿;只有处罚才能使犯罪得到偿还。
(英国作家达雷尔 l)i disapprove of what you say, but i will defend to the death your right to say it. (voltaire, frech writer)我不同意你说的话，但是我愿意誓死捍卫你说话的权利。
(法国作家伏尔泰)if there were no bad people, there would be no good lawyers. (charles dickens, british novelist)倘若世上没有坏人，也就不会有好的律师。
(英国小说家狄更斯 c)if we only had some god in the countrys laws, instead of beng in such a sweat to get him into the constitution, it would be better all around. (mark twain, american writer)如果我们国家的法律中只有某种神灵，而不是殚精竭虑将神灵揉进宪法，总体上来说，法律就会更好。
热力学第一定律TheFirstLawofThermodynamics 共66页
热力学第一定律 （The First Law of Thermodynamics)
能量守恒与转换定律 能量之间数量的关系
A process must satisfy the first law of Thermodynamics to occur. (一个过程必须满足热力学第一定律才能发生)
能不能找出共同的规律性? 能不能找到一个判据?
热力学第二定律
研究过程的方向性和补偿限
§5.2 Statement and Essence of the Second Law of Thermodynamics （热力学第二定律的表述和实质）
热二律的表述有 60-70 种
传热
热功转换
1850年 克劳修斯表述
是否满足能量守恒与转换定律的过程一定都能自动发生?
Satisfying the first law alone does not ensure that the process will actually take place.
(但是，满足热力学第一定律的过程未必都能发生）
Chapter 5.The Second Law of Thermodynamics
This is thus in violation of the Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law.
Now suppose we have a heat engine which can convert heat into work without rejecting heat anywhere else.
空调,制冷
(Air-Conditioning, Refrigerating)
化工热力学导论英文课件5热力学第二定律the second law of thermodynamics
Difficulties Entropy, mathematical statement of the second law
பைடு நூலகம்
Thermodynamics is concerned with transformations of energy, and the laws of thermodynamics describe the bounds within which these transformations are observed to occur. The first law reflects the observation that energy is conserved, but it imposes no restriction on the process direction. Yet, all experience indicates the existence of such a restriction, the concise statement of which
5.1statements of the second law
The observations just described suggest a general restriction on processes beyond that imposed by the first law. The second law is equally well expressed in two statements that described this restriction:
5.7 entropy balance for open systems 5.8 calculation of ideal work 5.9 lost work 5.10 the third law of thermodynamics 5.11 entropy from the microscopic viewpoint
热力学第二定律与熵
dQ Sb S a a可逆 T
b
(dQ)可逆 TdS (dQ)可逆 或dS T
代入热力学第一定律表 达式： TdS dU pdV
这是综合了热力学第一、第二定律的热力学基本关系式。
熵的单位是：J.K-1
23
熵的定义：
若系统的状态经历一可逆微小变化，它与恒温 热源 T 交换的热量为 dQ ，则系统的熵改变了
2
功热转换:
功能自发且完全地转化为热, 但热不能自发且完全地转 化为功; 刹车摩擦生热。
热
气体自由膨胀:
气体体积能自发地由体积V1自由膨胀到体积V1＋V2；但不 能自发地由体积V1＋V2收缩为体积V1;
气体的混合:
气体A和B能自发地混合成混合气体AB，但不能自发地 分离成气体A和B.
热力学第二定律就是阐明热力学过程进行的方向。它决定 实际过程能否发生以及沿什么方向进行，也是自然界的一 条基本规律。 3
1
• 冰淇淋融化 • 冰冻的罐头变热
热传导（heat conduction）: Heat flows spontaneously from a substance at a higher temperature to a substance at a lower temperature and does not flow spontaneously in the reverse direction.
a
当联合机进行一次联合循环时，虽然外界没有
从 对它作功，而联合热机却把热量 Q2 Q2 Q1 Q1 低温热源传到高温热源，违反了克劳修斯的表述。
假定的
a可
b任
是错误的。
16
FIRST AND SECOND LAW 歌词 翻译
FIRST AND SECOND LAW热力学第一和第二定律Flanders & Swann法兰德斯&斯旺The first law of thermodynamics热力学第一定律，Heat is work and work is heat (x 2)（就是）热可以转化为功，功可以转化为热。
Very good很好！The second law of thermodynamics热力学第二定律，Heat cannot of itself pass from one body to a hotter body (x 2) （就是）热本身不能自发转移到更高温物体，Heat won't pass from a cooler to a hotter (x 2)（即）热不能主动由低温物体转移到高温物体。
You can try it if you like but you far better notter (x 2)如果喜欢你可以试试，但我奉劝你一百万句还是算了，'Cause the cold in the cooler will be hotter as a ruler (x 2)定律决定（这样做）只会造成低温的物体更热，Because the hotter body's heat will pass through the cooler因为高温物体的热量会自动转移到低温物体。
Heat is work and work is heat热可以转化为功，功可以转化为热，And work is heat and heat is work功可以转化为热，热也可以转化为功。
Heat will pass by conduction (x 2)热可以通过传导转移，And heat will pass by convection (x 2)热也可以通过对流转移，And heat will pass by radiation (x 2)热还可以通过辐射转移，And that's a physical law这是物理定律。
常用物理英语词汇(全)
常用物理英语词汇(全)力学（Mechanics）1. Force（力）2. Acceleration（加速度）3. Momentum（动量）4. Kinetic Energy（动能）5. Potential Energy（势能）6. Gravity（重力）7. Friction（摩擦力）8. Torque（扭矩）9. Angular Momentum（角动量）10. Work（功）热学（Thermodynamics）11. Temperature（温度）12. Heat（热量）13. Internal Energy（内能）14. Entropy（熵）15. Boyle's Law（波义耳定律）16. Charles's Law（查理定律）17. GayLussac's Law（盖吕萨克定律）18. Ideal Gas Law（理想气体定律）19. First Law of Thermodynamics（热力学第一定律）20. Second Law of Thermodynamics（热力学第二定律）电磁学（Electromagnetism）21. Electric Charge（电荷）22. Electric Field（电场）23. Magnetic Field（磁场）24. Current（电流）25. Voltage（电压）26. Resistance（电阻）27. Capacitance（电容）28. Inductance（电感）29. Ohm's Law（欧姆定律）30. Ampère's Law（安培定律）光学（Optics）31. Light（光）32. Refraction（折射）33. Reflection（反射）34. Diffraction（衍射）35. Interference（干涉）36. Polarization（偏振）37. Lens（透镜）38. Prism（棱镜）39. Spectrum（光谱）40. Wave Optics（波动光学）现代物理（Modern Physics）41. Quantum Mechanics（量子力学）42. Relativity（相对论）43. Photon（光子）44. Electron（电子）45. Proton（质子）46. Neutron（中子）47. Quark（夸克）48. Black Hole（黑洞）49. Higgs Boson（希格斯玻色子）50. String Theory（弦理论）这些词汇仅为物理学中常用术语的一小部分。
the procedure and the rule of law
N EW Y ORK U NIVERSITY S CHOOL OF L AWPUBLIC LAW & LEGAL THEORY RESEARCH PAPER SERIESWORKING PAPER NO. 10-73The Rule of Law and the Importance of ProcedureJeremy WaldronOctober 2010The Rule of Law and the Importance of ProcedureJeremy Waldron1. Getting to the Rule of LawThe Rule of Law is one star in a constellation of ideals that dominate our political morality: the others are democracy, human rights, and economic freedom. We want societies to be democratic; we want them to respect human rights; we want them to organize their economies around free markets and private property to the extent that this can be done without seriously compromising social justice, and we want them to be governed in accordance with the Rule of Law. We want the Rule of Law for new societies—for newly emerging democracies, for example—and old societies alike; for national political communities and regional and international governance; and we want it to extend into all aspects of governments’ dealings with those subject to them—not just in day-to-day criminal law, or commercial law or administrative law, but also in law administered at the margins, in anti-terrorism law and in the exercise of power over those who are marginalized, those who can safely be dismissed as outsiders, and those we are tempted just to destroy as (in John Locke’s words) “wild Savage Beasts, with whom men can have no Society or Security.”1 Getting to the Rule of Law does not just mean paying lip service to the ideal in the ordinary security of a prosperous modern democracy: it means extending the Rule of Law into societies that are not necessarily familiar with it; and in those societies that are familiar with it, it means extending the Rule of Law into these darker corners of governance as well.When I pay attention to the calls that are made for the Rule of Law around the world, I am struck by the fact that the features that people call attention to are not necessarily the features that legal philosophers have emphasized in their academic conceptions.Legal philosophers tend to emphasize formal elements of the Rule of Law, such as rule by general norms rather than particular decrees; rule by laws laid down in advance rather than by retrospective enactments; rule under a system of norms that has sufficient stability (is sufficiently resistant to change) so as to furnish for those subject to the norms a calculable basis for running their lives or their businesses; rules by norms that are made public, not hidden away in the closets of bureaucracy; rule by clear and determinate legal norms, norms whose meaning is not so obscure or contestable as to leave those who are subject to them at the mercy of official discretion. These are formal aspects of the Rule of Law, because they concern the form of the norms that are applied to our conduct:1 John Locke, Two Treatises of Government (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 274 (II: section 11).generality, prospectivity, stability, publicity, clarity, and so on. But we don’t just value them for formalistic reasons. In F.A. Hayek’s theory of the Rule of Law, we value these features for the contribution they make to predictability which Hayek thinks is indispensable for liberty.2 In Lon Fuller’s theory, we value them also for the way they respect human dignity: “To judge [people’s] actions by unpublished or retrospective laws … is to convey to [them] your indifference to [their] powers of self-determination.”3 (I shall say more about his in section 5.) In Fuller’s theory, too, there is a hunch that if we respect dignity in these formal ways, we will find ourselves more inhibited against more substantive assaults on dignity and justice. That has proved very controversial, but it is further evidence of the point that the interests of those who adopt a formal conception of the Rule of Law are not just formalistic.I have said that this formal conception is not what ordinary people have in the forefront of their minds when they clamor for the extension of the Rule of Law into settings or modes of governance where it has not been present before. Saying that is usually a prelude to a call for a more substantive vision of the Rule of Law.I am not as hostile as I once was to a substantive conception of this ideal.4 I believe that there is a natural overlap between substantive and formal elements, not least because—as we have just seen—the formal elements are usually argued for on substantive grounds of dignity and liberty. I still believe that it is important not to let our enthusiasm for a substantive conception—whereby the Rule of Law is treated as an ideal that calls directly for an end to human rights abuses or as an ideal that calls directly for free markets and respect for private property rights—obscure the independent importance that the formal elements I have mentioned would have even if these other considerations were not so directly at stake.5 But it is probably a mistake to exaggerate the distinctiveness of our several political ideals or the clarity of the boundaries between them.Still, it is not a substantive conception that I have in mind when I say that ordinary people are urging something other than the formal elements that I have mentioned when they clamor for the Rule of Law. Instead I have in mind elements of legal procedure and the institutions like courts that embody them. When people2 F.A. Hayek, The Constitution of Liberty (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960), esp. Chs. 9-10.3 Lon Fuller, The Morality of Law (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1969), 162.4 See Jeremy Waldron, “The Rule of Law in Contemporary Liberal Theory,” Ratio Juris, 2 (1989), 79. For a discussion of substantive Rule of Law ideas, see Paul Craig, “Formal and Substantive Conceptions of the Rule of Law: An Analytical Framework” [1997] Public Law, 467.5 See Jeremy Waldron, “Legislation and the Rule of Law,” Legisprudence 1 (2007) 91, at 115.clamored recently in Pakistan for a restoration of the Rule of Law, their concern was for the independence of the judiciary and the attempt by an unelected administration to fire a whole slew of judges. When people clamor for the Rule of Law in China, they are demanding impartial tribunals that can adjudicate their claims.6 And when advocates for the detainees in the American base at Guantanamo Bay clamor for the Rule of Law they are clamoring for hearings on their clients’ comprehensive loss of liberty in which they or their clients would have an opportunity to put their case, confront and examine the evidence against them, such as it is, and make arguments for their freedom, in accordance with what we would say were normal legal procedures.72. Laundry ListsWhat sort of procedural principles do I have in mind? Theorists of the Rule of Law are fond of producing laundry lists of demands. The best known are the eight formal principles of Lon Fuller’s “inner morality of law”:81.generality;2.publicity;3.prospectivity;4.intelligibility;5.consistency;6.practicability;7.stability; and8.congruence.6 Editorial, “Gathering Storm,” The New York Times, November 8, 2007: “The American Bar Association, its members horrified by events in Pakistan, has written to General Musharraf and condemned his .profound breach of the rule of law.” See also Letter, “Pakistan’s Leaders must Respect the Rule of Law,” The Times (London), November14, 2007 (signed by chairs of Bar Associations in England, Scotland, Ireland, and Wales.)7 See, e.g., Editorial, “The Rule of Law in Guantánamo,” The New York Times, October 11, 2008 and Laura Dickinson, “Using Legal Process to Fight Terrorism: Detentions, Military Commissions, International Tribunals, and the Rule of Law,” Southern Calif. L. Rev. 75 (2002) 1407.8 See also the lists in John Finnis, Natural Law and Natural Rights (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1980), 270, John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971), 236–239, and Joseph Raz, “The Rule of Law and its Virtue,” in his collection The Authority of Law: Essays on Law and Morality (Clarendon Press, 1979), at 214–219.I think we need to match this list with a list of procedural characteristics which are equally indispensable. As a preliminary sketch,9 we might say that no one should have any penalty, stigma or serious loss imposed upon them by government except as the upshot of procedures that involve:A.a hearing by an impartial tribunal that is required to act on the basis ofevidence and argument presented formally before it in relation to legalnorms that govern the imposition of penalty, stigma, loss etc.;B.a legally-trained judicial officer, whose independence of other agenciesof government is assured;C.a right to representation by counsel and to the time and opportunityrequired to prepare a case;D.a right to be present at all critical stages of the proceeding;E.a right to confront witnesses against the detainee;F.a right to an assurance that the evidence presented by the government hasbeen gathered in a properly supervised way;G.a right to present evidence in one’s own behalf;H.a right to make legal argument about the bearing of the evidence andabout the bearing of the various legal norms relevant to the case;I. a right to hear reasons from the tribunal when it reaches its decision,which are responsive to the evidence and arguments presented before it;andJ.some right of appeal to a higher tribunal of a similar character.These requirements are often associated with terms such as “natural justice”10 and as such they are important parts of the Rule of Law. I believe we radically sell short the idea of the Rule of Law if we understand it to comprise a list like Fuller’s list (1)-(8) above without also including something like the procedural list (A)-(J) that I have just set out. We say the Rule of Law is violated when due attention is not paid to these procedural matters or when the institutions that are supposed to embody these procedures are undermined or interfered with. Equally I think we9 I have adapted this list from A. Wallace Tashima, “The War on Terror and the Rule of Law,” Asian American Law Journal, 15 (2008), 245, at 264.10 In the United Kingdom and elsewhere, the term “natural justice’ is used to refer to the most elementary aspects of what Americans would call procedural due process. See, e.g., Paul Jackson, Natural Justice (London: Sweet & Maxwell, 1979).misrepresent the debate about whether the Rule of Law has also a substantive dimension if we do not contrast a possible list of substantive items—such as (Į) respect for private property(ȕ) prohibitions on torture and brutality(ȕ) a presumption of liberty; and(į) democratic enfranchisement—with both of the lists I have set out (the formal list and the procedural list) rather than with the formal list by itself.3. Form and Procedure in the Work of Hayek, Fuller, and DiceyIt is remarkable how little attention is paid to demands of this procedural kind—demands like (A) through (J)—in the literature in academic legal and political philosophy devoted specifically to discussion of the Rule of Law.The key chapter in F.A. Hayek’s book, The Constitution of Liberty—the chapter entitled “Laws, Commands, and Order”—makes no mention whatever of courts or legal procedures: it is wholly concerned with the relation between formal characteristics like abstraction and generality and individual freedom.11 Later chapters in that book do talk a little about courts, but hardly ever about their procedures.12 The same is true of Hayek’s later work on the Rule of Law, in his trilogy Law, Legislation and Liberty. Hayek talks a lot about the role of judges in Chapter 5 of the first volume of that work. But it is all about the role of judges in generating norms of the appropriate form, rather than about the procedures that characterize courtrooms.13The case of Lon Fuller is even more instructive. Fuller calls his internal morality of law—comprising (1) generality, (2) publicity, (3) prospectivity, etc.– “procedural”, but what he seems to mean is that it is not substantive. Fuller says this:As a convenient (though not wholly satisfactory) way of describing thedistinction … we may speak of a procedural, as distinguished from asubstantive natural law. What I have called the internal morality of law is in11 Hayek, Constitution of Liberty, pp. 148-161.12 See ibid., 218-19 for the suggestion that apart from the formal characteristics of the Rule of Law, its procedural aspects are unimportant: “[T]hey presuppose for their effectiveness the acceptance of the rule of law as here defined and …, without it, all procedural safeguards would be valueless.”13 F.A. Hayek, Rules and Order, Volume 1 of Law, Legislation and Liberty (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973), 94-123.this sense a procedural version of natural law, though to avoidmisunderstanding the word “procedural” should be assigned a special andexpanded sense so that it would include, for example, a substantive accordbetween official action and enacted law. The term “procedural” is, however, broadly appropriate as indicating that we are concerned, not with thesubstantive aims of legal rules, but with the ways in which a system of rules for governing human conduct must be constructed and administered if it is to be efficacious and at the same time remain what it purports to be.14In fact substantive can be contrasted either with procedural or with formal; the two contrasts are quite different and patently what Fuller has in mind is what we should call a formal/substantive contrast.15 The features of his internal morality of law all relate to the form that legal norms take, not to either the procedure of their enactment or (more importantly) to the procedural mode of their administration. Among his nine desiderata, only one comes close to being procedural (in the sense I am distinguishing from formal), namely, the requirement of congruence between official action and law on the books—yet that is the one for which he says (in the passage quoted above) “the word ‘procedural’ should be assigned a special and expanded sense!The point is that there is very little about due process or courtroom procedure in Fuller’s account of law’s internal morality in Chapters 2 and 3 of The Morality of Law.16 Much the same is true of Fuller in his earlier response toH.L.A. Hart’s Holmes Lecture.17 There too Fuller focuses on what we should call formal characteristics of law—generality, publicity, consistency etc.—and his argument that they are prophylactics against injustice is based on an incompatibility between evil ends and law’s forms.[C]oherence and goodness have more affinity than coherence and evil.Accepting this belief, I also believe that when men are compelled to explain14 Fuller, Morality of Law, 96-7.15 Brian Tamanaha, On the Rule of Law: History, Politics, Theory (Cambridge University Press, 2004) gets this right by locating his discussion of Fuller in a chapter called “Formal Theories.” That is then contrasted with a chapter called “Substantive Theories.” Procedural theories don’t rate a mention, but at least it is not assumed by Tamanaha that everything non-substantive is procedural.16 There is a reference to “due process” in Fuller, Morality of Law, 105-6, but that is in the technical sense of the term and it addresses whether ex post facto laws violate due process (in that sense).17 Lon Fuller, “Positivism and Fidelity to Law: A Reply to Hart,” Harvard Law Review,71(1959) 630.and justify their decisions, the effect will generally be to pull those decisions toward goodness, by whatever standards of ultimate goodness there are. …[E]ven in the most perverted regimes there is a certain hesitancy aboutwriting cruelties, intolerances, and inhumanities into law.18The whole of his discussion along these lines, and the whole of his excoriation of Nazi “legality” has to do with legislative form not judicial procedure. That is the ground on which Fuller makes what we would call his “Rule of Law” argument.I do not mean that Fuller was uninterested in procedure. Towards the end of Chapter 4 of The Morality of Law, there is some consideration about whether the internal morality of law applies to the processes by which allocative decisions are made by government agencies in a mixed economy. Fuller says we face problems of institutional design “unprecedented in scope and importance.”It is inevitable that the legal profession will play a large role in solving these problems. The great danger is that we will unthinkingly carry over to newconditions traditional institutions and procedures that have alreadydemonstrated their faults of design. As lawyers we have a natural inclination to "judicialize" every function of government. Adjudication is a process with which we are familiar and which enables us to show to advantage our special talents. Yet we must face the plain truth that adjudication is an ineffectiveinstrument for economic management and for governmental participation in the allocation of economic resources.19This seems to indicate an interest in procedural as well as formal aspects of the Rule of Law (and indeed a skepticism about their applicability across the board of all government functions).20 But it is remarkable that the interest in the adjudicative process shown in this passage is not matched by anything in the earlier discussion in his book of the inner morality of law.Fuller was in fact a great proceduralist, who made an immense contribution to our understanding of the judicial process.21 Nicola Lacey has ventured the suggestion that Fuller would have been on much stronger ground in his argument with Hart had he focused on procedural and institutional as well as formal aspects18 Ibid., 636-7.19 Fuller, Morality of Law, 176.20 For the implications of this for Fuller’s theory, see Jeremy Waldron, “The Appeal of Law: Efficacy, Freedom, or Fidelity,” in Law and Philosophy, 13 (1994), 259, at 272-5.21 See Lon L. Fuller, “The Forms and Limits of Adjudication,” Harvard Law Review 92 (1978), 353.of legality.22 But he allowed Hart to set the agenda, with the crucial question “What is law and what is its relation to morality ?” and did not force him to open that up, in any particular way to “What, in terms of institutional procedures, is a legal system, and what is the relation of all that to morality?”Fortunately we are not bound to follow him in that. I think we can usefully pursue a procedural (and institutional) dimension of the Rule of Law as well as a formal dimension and distinguish both of them (separately as well as jointly) from a more substantive conception. There is certainly precedent for this elsewhere in the Rule of Law literature.Albert Venn Dicey, for example, when he explained the Rule of Law as a distinguishing feature of the English Constitution, identified it in the first instance with the following feature:When we say that the supremacy or the rule of law is a characteristic of theEnglish constitution, we … mean, in the first place, that no man ispunishable or can be lawfully made to suffer in body or goods except for adistinct breach of law established in the ordinary legal manner before theordinary Courts of the land. In this sense the rule of law is contrasted withevery system of government based on the exercise by persons in authority of wide, arbitrary, or discretionary powers of constraint.23The passage I have emphasized is important. Without it, we tend to read the contrast between the rule of law and arbitrary government in terms of the application of a rule versus purely individualized application of punishment (without guidance by a rule). With it, however, the contrast between law and discretion has to do with institutions and procedures: a person must not be made to suffer except pursuant to a decision of a court arrived at in the ordinary manner observing ordinary legal process.When E.P. Thompson insisted (alarming his fellow Marxists that the Rule of law was “an unqualified human good” and a “cultural achievement of universal significance,”24 he did so by reference in large part to the importance of procedure: [N]ot only were the rulers (indeed, the ruling class as a whole) inhibited by their own rules of law against the exercise of direct unmediated force (arbitrary22 See Nicola Lacey, “Out of the ‘Witches’ Cauldron?—Reinterpreting the Context and Re-assessing the Significance of the Hart-Fuller Debate,” in Peter Cane (ed.) The Hart-Fuller Debate: 50 Years On (Oxford: Hart Publishing, 2010), 1.23 A.V. Dicey, Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution, Eighth edition of 1915 (Indianapolis: Liberty Classics, 1982), 110 (my emphasis).24 E.P. Thompson, Whigs and Hunters: The Origin of the Black Act (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1977), 265-6.imprisonment, the employment of troops against the crowd, torture, and those other conveniences of power with which we are all conversant), but they also believed enough in these rules, and in their accompanying ideological rhetoric, to allow, in certain limited areas, the law itself to be a genuine forum within which certain kinds of class conflict were fought out. There were evenoccasions ... when the Government itself retired from the courts defeated.25As I said earlier, in recent legal philosophy the phrase “the Rule of Law” is often used to conjure up a sort of laundry list of features that a healthy legal system should have. These are mostly variations of the eight formal desiderata of Lon Fuller’s “internal morality,”26 but occasionally procedural and institutional considerations creep in. Thus the fourth, fifth, and seventh items on Joseph Raz’s list are the following: “(4) The independence of the judiciary must be guaranteed. … (5) The principles of natural justice must be observed … [o]pen and fair hearing, absence of bias, and the like … (7) The courts should be easily accessible.”27 The justifications Raz gives often go to the issue of legal determinacy (e.g., “Since the court’s judgment establishes conclusively what is the law in the case before it, the litigants can be guided by law only if the judges apply the law correctly”), but at least the procedural and institutional considerations rate a mention.In many other discussions of the Rule of Law, however, the procedural dimension is simply ignored (or, worse, it is assumed thoughtlessly that the procedural dimension is taken care of by calling the formal dimension “procedural”). I do not mean that judges and courts are ignored. In the last Nomos volume devoted to this subject, there is extensive discussion of judicial authority and judicial discretion: some of it is about equitable decision by judges in hard cases (together with an intriguing account of the idea of practical wisdom as applied to the judiciary) and some of it is about the interpretive techniques that judges should use in difficult cases.28 But if one didn’t know better, one would25 Ibid., 265.26 See for example, Finnis, Natural Law and Natural Rights, p. 270.27 Raz, “The Rule of Law and its Virtue,” at 216-7.28 See the papers on equitable judgment and practical reason by Lawrence Solum, “Equity and the Rule of Law,” in Ian Shapiro (ed.) Nomos XXXVI: The Rule of Law, (New York: New York University Press, 1994), 120 and Stephen Burton, “Particularism, Discretion, and the Rule of Law,” ibid., 178. See also the papers on judges’ interpretive strategies by Jack Knight and James Johnson, “Public Choice and the Rule of Law: Rational Choice Theories of Statutory Interpretation,” ibid., 244 and William Eskridge and John Ferejohn, “Politics, Interpretation, and the Rule of Law,” ibid., 265.infer from these discussions that problems were just brought to wise individuals called judges for their decision (with or without the help of sources of law) and the judges in question proceeded to deploy their interpretive strategies and practical wisdom to address those problems; there is no discussion in these papers of the highly proceduralized hearings in which problems are presented to a court, let alone the importance of the various procedural rights and powers possessed by individual litigants in relation to these hearings. Certainly there is no indication by any of the volumes’ contributors that the procedures themselves and the rights and powers associated with them are in and of themselves part of what we value under the heading of “the Rule of Law.”4. Procedure and the Concept of LawElsewhere I have remarked on an interesting parallel between the failure of some of our leading theorists of the Rule of Law to highlight procedural (as opposed to formal) considerations, and the failure of our leading legal philosophers to include procedural and institutional elements in their conception of law itself.29 For my part, I do not think we should regard something as a legal system absent the existence and operation of the sort of institutions we call courts. By courts, I mean institutions which apply norms and directives established in the name of the whole society to individual cases and which settle disputes about the application of those norms. And I mean institutions which do that through the medium of hearings, formal events which are tightly structured procedurally in order to enable an impartial to determine the rights and responsibilities of particular persons fairly and effectively after hearing evidence and argument from both sides.30It is remarkable how little there is about courts in the conceptual accounts of law presented in modern positivist jurisprudence. The leading source is H.L.A. Hart’s magisterial work, The Concept of Law. Hart conceives of law in terms of the union of primary rules of conduct and secondary rules that govern the way in which the primary rules are made, changed, applied and enforced. He certainly seems to regard something like courts as essential. When he introduces the concept of secondary rules, he talks of the emergence of “rules of adjudication” in the transition from a pre-legal to a legal society: “secondary rules empowering individuals to make authoritative determinations of the question of whether, on a29 See Jeremy Waldron, “The Concept and the Rule of Law,” 43 Georgia Law Review (2008), 1-61.30 See Martin Shapiro, Courts, A Comparative and Political Analysis (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981), 1-2 and Fuller, “The Forms and Limits of Adjudication,” passim.particular occasion, a primary rule has been broken.”31 Notice, however, that this account defines the relevant institutions simply in terms of their output function—the making of “authoritative determinations … of whether … a primary rule has been broken.” There is nothing on the distinctive process by which this function is performed.32 A Star Chamber proceeding ex parte without any sort of hearing would satisfy Hart’s definition, so would the tribunals we call in the antipodes “kangaroo courts.”Much the same is true of Joseph Raz’s view about the importance of what he calls primary norm-applying institutions in Practical Reason and Norms, and elsewhere.33 Raz believes that norm-applying institutions are key to our understanding of legal systems (much more so than legislatures).34 Now, there are all sorts of institutionalized ways in which norms may be applied, according to Raz, but “primary norm-applying organ” are of particular interest. Raz describes their operation as follows: “They are institutions with power to determine the normative situation of specified individuals, which are required to exercise these powers by applying existing norms, but whose decisions are binding even when wrong.”35 He tells us that “[c]ourts, tribunals and other judicial bodies are the most important example of primary organs.”36 In his abstract philosophical account, however, the operation of primary norm-applying institutions is understood solely in terms of output (and in terms of what is done with their output). Again there is nothing about mode of operation or procedure. Secret military commissions might meet to “determine the normative situation of specified individuals … by applying existing norms,” in the absence of the individuals in question and without affording any sort of hearing. The impression one gets from Raz’s account is that a system of rule dominated by institutions like that would count as a legal system. Of course Raz would criticize such institutions, and as we have seen, he might use the ideal of the Rule of Law to do so.37 But he seems to suggest that this is relevant to law only at an evaluative level, not at the conceptual level.31 H.L.A. Hart, The Concept of Law, Second Edition (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994), at 96.32 Hart acknowledges that of course secondary rules will have to define processes for these institutions (ibid., 97). But he seems to thinks that this can vary from society to society and that nothing in the concept of law constrains that definition.33 Joseph Raz, Practical Reason and Norms, New edition (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), 134-7.34 Ibid., 132-3.35 Ibid., at 136.36 Idem.37 Raz, “The Rule of Law and its Virtue,” at 217.。
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第三章 热力学第二定律
物理化学The Second Law of Thermodynamics 版权所有：武汉科技大学化学工程与技术学院Copyright © 2015 WUST. All rights reserved.•掌握热机效率的表达、卡诺循环及其重要结论；•掌握热力学第二定律以及由第二定律导出卡诺定理的方法，卡诺定理的推论；•掌握克劳修斯等式和状态函数-熵，克劳修斯不等式和熵增原理，熵判据；•掌握系统熵变（简单pVT变化、相变过程、化学变化）及环境熵变的计算；•掌握热力学第三定律的普朗克表述及熵的物理意义，理解规定摩尔熵、标准摩尔熵、标准摩尔反应熵及能斯特热定理。
•掌握亥姆霍兹自由能和吉布斯自由能定义、亥姆霍兹自由能判据、吉布斯自由能判据，理解亥姆霍兹自由能变和吉布斯自由能变的物理意义及计算，理解可逆与平衡、不可逆与自发的关系；•理解热力学基本方程和热力学关系式（麦克斯韦关系、对应系数关系，其它重要关系）；•掌握热力学第二定律应用实例——克拉佩龙方程、克劳修斯-克拉佩龙方程。
本章主要内容§3.1 卡诺循环§3.2 热力学第二定律§3.3 熵增原理§3.4 单纯pVT变化熵变的计算§3.5 相变过程熵变的计算§3.6 热力学第三定律和化学变化过程熵变计算§3.7 亥姆霍兹函数和吉布斯函数§3.8 热力学基本方程§3.9 克拉佩龙方程§3.10 吉布斯-亥姆霍兹方程和麦克斯韦关系式§3.1 热力学第二定律•自发过程举例•自发过程逆向进行必须消耗功•自发过程的共同特征•热力学第二定律出现问题1.符号：宏观量与微观量2.单位：3.公式4.解题过程：d d δ δU H W Q U H W Q ∆∆d d W Q W Q U H∆∆不带单位计算；单位混用；简写Rδd amb W p V =- () =W pV W pV W pV H U W==-=∆∆∆-缺少必要说明、过程错结果正确amb d W p V=-,m 21amb 21()()V nC T T p V V -=--222p V nRT =由于绝热Q = 0，故∆U =W)1(22)1(11γγγγ--=p T p T W = ∆U = n C V , m (T 2-T 1)2211d d V V amb V V nRT W p V V V=-=-⎰⎰W = －p amb ∆V(1)(2)(3)(4)1. 自发过程举例自发变化某种变化有自动发生的趋势，一旦发生就无需借助外力，可以自动进行，这种变化称为自发变化。
Atkins’PhysChem 06(物理化学课件英文版)
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Chapter 4 The Second Law: The concepts
In this chapter we will discuss : • The origin of the spontaneity
The Second Law of thermodynamics
Clausius expression • Heat can not be
transferred automatically from a cold object to a hot without any effect to the surroundings.
• Balls rolls down along the slope road.
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Chapter 4 The Second Law: The concepts
4.1 the dispersal of energy
The puzzling things are that something collapse into disorder can result the formation of such ordered substances as crystals or proteins. But in these cases, the organized structures can emerge as energy and matter disperse.
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Chapter 4 The Second Law: The concepts
物理专业名词英语词汇
物理专业名词英语词汇物理专业名词英语词汇大全导语：物理学是研究物质运动最一般规律和物质基本结构的学科。
下面是YJBYS店铺收集整理的有关物理的英语词汇，希望对你有帮助!界面 interfaces界面张力 surface tension浸湿 immersion wetting浸湿功 immersion wetting work精馏 rectify聚(合)电解质polyelectrolyte聚沉 coagulation聚沉值 coagulation value绝对反应速率理论 absolute reaction rate theory振动特征温度 characteristic temperature of vibration蒸气压下降 depression of vapor pressure正常沸点 normal point正吸附 positive adsorption支链反应 branched chain reactions直链反应 straight chain reactions指前因子 pre-exponential factor质量作用定律mass action law制冷系数coefficient of refrigeration中和热heat of neutralization阿伏加德罗常数 Avogadro'number阿伏加德罗定律 Avogadro law阿累尼乌斯电离理论Arrhenius ionization theory阿累尼乌斯方程Arrhenius equation阿累尼乌斯活化能 Arrhenius activation energy阿马格定律 Amagat law艾林方程 Erying equation爱因斯坦光化当量定律Einstein's law of photochemical equivalence爱因斯坦-斯托克斯方程 Einstein-Stokes equation安托万常数 Antoine constant安托万方程 Antoine equation盎萨格电导理论Onsager's theory of conductance半电池half cell半衰期half time period饱和液体 saturated liquids饱和蒸气 saturated vapor饱和吸附量 saturated extent of adsorption饱和蒸气压 saturated vapor pressure爆炸界限 explosion limits比表面功 specific surface work比表面吉布斯函数 specific surface Gibbs function比浓粘度 reduced viscosity标准电动势 standard electromotive force标准电极电势 standard electrode potential标准摩尔反应焓 standard molar reaction enthalpy标准摩尔反应吉布斯函数 standard Gibbs function of molar reaction标准摩尔反应熵 standard molar reaction entropy标准摩尔焓函数 standard molar enthalpy function标准摩尔吉布斯自由能函数standard molar Gibbs free energy function标准摩尔燃烧焓 standard molar combustion enthalpy标准摩尔熵 standard molar entropy标准摩尔生成焓 standard molar formation enthalpy标准摩尔生成吉布斯函数standard molar formation Gibbsfunction标准平衡常数 standard equilibrium constant标准氢电极 standard hydrogen electrode标准态 standard state标准熵 standard entropy标准压力 standard pressure标准状况 standard condition表观活化能apparent activation energy表观摩尔质量 apparent molecular weight表观迁移数apparent transference number表面 surfaces表面过程控制 surface process control表面活性剂surfactants表面吸附量 surface excess表面张力 surface tension表面质量作用定律 surface mass action law波义尔定律 Boyle law波义尔温度 Boyle temperature波义尔点 Boyle point玻尔兹曼常数 Boltzmann constant玻尔兹曼分布 Boltzmann distribution玻尔兹曼公式 Boltzmann formula玻尔兹曼熵定理 Boltzmann entropy theorem玻色-爱因斯坦统计Bose-Einstein statistics泊Poise不可逆过程 irreversible process不可逆过程热力学thermodynamics of irreversible processes 不可逆相变化 irreversible phase change布朗运动 brownian movement查理定律 Charle's law产率 yield敞开系统 open system超电势 over potential沉降 sedimentation沉降电势 sedimentation potential沉降平衡 sedimentation equilibrium触变 thixotropy粗分散系统 thick disperse system催化剂 catalyst单分子层吸附理论 mono molecule layer adsorption单分子反应 unimolecular reaction单链反应 straight chain reactions弹式量热计 bomb calorimeter道尔顿定律 Dalton law道尔顿分压定律 Dalton partial pressure law德拜和法尔肯哈根效应Debye and Falkenhagen effect 德拜立方公式 Debye cubic formula德拜-休克尔极限公式 Debye-Huckel's limiting equation 等焓过程 isenthalpic process等焓线isenthalpic line等几率定理 theorem of equal probability等温等容位Helmholtz free energy等温等压位Gibbs free energy等温方程 equation at constant temperature低共熔点 eutectic point低共熔混合物 eutectic mixture低会溶点 lower consolute point低熔冰盐合晶 cryohydric第二类永动机 perpetual machine of the second kind 第三定律熵 third-law entropy第一类永动机 perpetual machine of the first kind缔合化学吸附 association chemical adsorption电池常数 cell constant电池电动势 electromotive force of cells电池反应 cell reaction电导 conductance电导率 conductivity电动势的温度系数 temperature coefficient of electromotive force电动电势 zeta potential电功electric work电化学 electrochemistry电化学极化 electrochemical polarization电极电势 electrode potential电极反应 reactions on the electrode电极种类 type of electrodes电解池 electrolytic cell电量计 coulometer电流效率current efficiency电迁移 electro migration电迁移率 electromobility电渗 electroosmosis电渗析 electrodialysis电泳 electrophoresis丁达尔效应 Dyndall effect定容摩尔热容 molar heat capacity under constant volume 定容温度计 Constant voIume thermometer定压摩尔热容 molar heat capacity under constant pressure 定压温度计 constant pressure thermometer定域子系统 localized particle system动力学方程kinetic equations动力学控制 kinetics control独立子系统 independent particle system对比摩尔体积 reduced mole volume对比体积 reduced volume对比温度 reduced temperature对比压力 reduced pressure对称数 symmetry number对行反应reversible reactions对应状态原理 principle of corresponding state多方过程polytropic process多分子层吸附理论adsorption theory of multi-molecular layers二级反应second order reaction二级相变second order phase change法拉第常数 faraday constant法拉第定律 Faraday's law反电动势back E.M.F.反渗透 reverse osmosis反应分子数 molecularity反应级数 reaction orders反应进度 extent of reaction反应热heat of reaction反应速率rate of reaction反应速率常数 constant of reaction rate范德华常数 van der Waals constant范德华方程 van der Waals equation范德华力 van der Waals force范德华气体 van der Waals gases范特霍夫方程 van't Hoff equation范特霍夫规则 van't Hoff rule范特霍夫渗透压公式 van't Hoff equation of osmotic pressure 非基元反应 non-elementary reactions非体积功 non-volume work非依时计量学反应time independent stoichiometric reactions菲克扩散第一定律 Fick's first law of diffusion沸点 boiling point沸点升高 elevation of boiling point费米-狄拉克统计Fermi-Dirac statistics分布 distribution分布数 distribution numbers分解电压 decomposition voltage分配定律 distribution law分散系统 disperse system分散相 dispersion phase分体积 partial volume分体积定律 partial volume law分压 partial pressure分压定律 partial pressure law分子反应力学 mechanics of molecular reactions分子间力 intermolecular force分子蒸馏molecular distillation封闭系统 closed system附加压力 excess pressure弗罗因德利希吸附经验式Freundlich empirical formula of adsorption负极 negative pole负吸附 negative adsorption复合反应composite reaction盖·吕萨克定律 Gay-Lussac law盖斯定律 Hess law甘汞电极 calomel electrode感胶离子序 lyotropic series杠杆规则 lever rule高分子溶液 macromolecular solution高会溶点 upper consolute point隔离法the isolation method格罗塞斯-德雷珀定律 Grotthus-Draoer's law隔离系统 isolated system根均方速率 root-mean-square speed功 work功函work content共轭溶液 conjugate solution共沸温度 azeotropic temperature构型熵configurational entropy孤立系统 isolated system固溶胶 solid sol固态混合物 solid solution固相线 solid phase line光反应 photoreaction光化学第二定律 the second law of actinochemistry 光化学第一定律 the first law of actinochemistry光敏反应 photosensitized reactions光谱熵 spectrum entropy广度性质 extensive property广延量 extensive quantity广延性质 extensive property规定熵 stipulated entropy过饱和溶液 oversaturated solution过饱和蒸气 oversaturated vapor过程 process过渡状态理论 transition state theory过冷水 super-cooled water过冷液体 overcooled liquid过热液体 overheated liquid亥姆霍兹函数 Helmholtz function亥姆霍兹函数判据 Helmholtz function criterion亥姆霍兹自由能 Helmholtz free energy亥氏函数 Helmholtz function焓 enthalpy亨利常数 Henry constant亨利定律 Henry law恒沸混合物 constant boiling mixture恒容摩尔热容 molar heat capacity at constant volume恒容热 heat at constant volume恒外压 constant external pressure恒压摩尔热容 molar heat capacity at constant pressure恒压热 heat at constant pressure化学动力学chemical kinetics化学反应计量式stoichiometric equation of chemical reaction化学反应计量系数stoichiometric coefficient of chemical reaction化学反应进度 extent of chemical reaction化学亲合势 chemical affinity化学热力学chemical thermodynamics化学势 chemical potential化学势判据 chemical potential criterion化学吸附 chemisorptions环境 environment环境熵变 entropy change in environment挥发度volatility混合熵 entropy of mixing混合物 mixture活度 activity活化控制 activation control活化络合物理论 activated complex theory活化能activation energy霍根-华森图 Hougen-Watson Chart基态能级 energy level at ground state基希霍夫公式 Kirchhoff formula基元反应elementary reactions积分溶解热 integration heat of dissolution吉布斯-杜亥姆方程 Gibbs-Duhem equation吉布斯-亥姆霍兹方程 Gibbs-Helmhotz equation 吉布斯函数 Gibbs function吉布斯函数判据 Gibbs function criterion吉布斯吸附公式Gibbs adsorption formula吉布斯自由能 Gibbs free energy吉氏函数 Gibbs function极化电极电势 polarization potential of electrode 极化曲线 polarization curves极化作用 polarization极限摩尔电导率 limiting molar conductivity几率因子 steric factor计量式 stoichiometric equation计量系数 stoichiometric coefficient价数规则 rule of valence简并度 degeneracy键焓bond enthalpy胶冻 broth jelly胶核 colloidal nucleus胶凝作用 demulsification胶束micelle胶体 colloid胶体分散系统 dispersion system of colloid胶体化学 collochemistry胶体粒子 colloidal particles胶团 micelle焦耳Joule焦耳-汤姆生实验 Joule-Thomson experiment焦耳-汤姆生系数 Joule-Thomson coefficient焦耳-汤姆生效应 Joule-Thomson effect焦耳定律 Joule`s law接触电势contact potential接触角 contact angle节流过程 throttling process节流膨胀 throttling expansion节流膨胀系数 coefficient of throttling expansion 结线 tie line结晶热heat of crystallization解离化学吸附 dissociation chemical adsorption 绝对熵 absolute entropy绝对温标absolute temperature scale绝热过程 adiabatic process绝热量热计adiabatic calorimeter绝热指数 adiabatic index卡诺定理 Carnot theorem下载文档。
熵-英文版
The principle states that for an isolated Or a closed adiabatic Or System + Surroundings A process can only take place such that Sgen≥ 0 where Sge = 0 for a reversible process only And Sge can never be les than zero. Implications: Entropy, unlike energy, is non-conservative since it is always increasing. The entropy of the universe is continuously increasing, in other words, it is becoming disorganized and is approaching chaotic. The entropy generation is due to the presence of irreversibilities. Therefore, the higher the entropy generation the higher the irreversibilities and, accordingly, the lower the efficiency of a device since a reversible system is the most efficient system. The above is another statement of the second law
Second Law & Entropy Balance (YAC- Ch. 6-4)
物理化学英文4第二定律 The Second Law
Carnot Cycle
p / atm
3
isothermal: 100 K
adiabatic
2
isothermal: 200 K
adiabatic
1
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
V/L
Carnot Efficiency
DS = DSengine + DSsurr 0 but DSengine = 0 \ DSsurr = - (qh / Th) + (qc / Tc) 0 \ qc / qh Tc / Th e = |w| / qh = 1 - |qc| / qh
\ e 1 - (Tc / Th)
Spontaneity and Equilibrium
A spontaneous change is an irreversible one. Therefore any change for which dS>dq/T will occur spontaneously In an isolated system, any change for which dS>0 will occur spontaneously. In an isolated system at equilibrium, the entropy is at a maximum.
state. 4. In an isolated system, DS is zero for a reversible
process, and positive for a spontaneous one.
The Entropy Function
The entropy S is defined by
法不能向不法让步时事新闻英语作文素材
法不能向不法让步时事新闻英语作文素材全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇1The Erosion of Justice: When Laws Bend to LawlessnessIt's a chilling thought that keeps me awake at night – the idea that our society could slowly descent into a state of chaos and anarchy, all because we allowed the unlawful to chip away at the very foundation of our legal system. As a student, I've been taught time and again about the sanctity of the rule of law, and how it serves as the bedrock of a civilized society. Yet, as I turn on the news or scroll through social media, I'm bombarded with stories that seem to mock those very principles.The headlines scream of politicians caught in corruption scandals, only to walk free with a slap on the wrist. Corporate giants exploit legal loopholes to avoid paying their fair share of taxes, while hardworking citizens shoulder the burden. Violent criminals are released back onto the streets, their sentences reduced due to overcrowded prisons or misguided attempts at "rehabilitation."It's a bitter pill to swallow, especially for those of us who have been raised to respect the law and believe in its unwavering authority. How can we maintain faith in a system that appears to be crumbling before our very eyes?The truth is, when we allow the unlawful to seep into the cracks of our legal framework, we risk eroding the very fabric of our society. It's a slippery slope, one that begins with small concessions and ends with a complete disregard for the rule of law.Take, for instance, the recent case of a high-profile businessman who was caught embezzling millions from his company. Despite overwhelming evidence, he managed to secure a lenient sentence by exploiting his wealth and connections. What message does this send to the average citizen? That the law is merely a suggestion for the rich and powerful, while the rest of us must abide by it without question?Or consider the ongoing debate surrounding illegal immigration. While compassion and understanding are crucial, we cannot simply turn a blind eye to those who willfully disregard our nation's immigration laws. To do so would be to undermine the very principles upon which those laws are built –principles of sovereignty, security, and the orderly regulation of our borders.Perhaps the most egregious examples come from the realms of organized crime and terrorism, where entire networks operate outside the bounds of the law, engaging in activities that tear at the very fabric of our society. From drug trafficking and human smuggling to acts of violence and intimidation, these criminal enterprises thrive when the rule of law is weakened or selectively enforced.But the consequences of allowing the unlawful to encroach upon the legal extend far beyond the realm of criminal justice. They permeate every aspect of our daily lives, eroding public trust, breeding cynicism, and fostering an environment where the very concept of justice is called into question.Imagine a world where contracts are routinely broken without consequence, where property rights are trampled upon by those with the means to do so, where discrimination and harassment are swept under the rug in the name of expediency. It's a dystopian vision, one that should send shivers down the spine of every law-abiding citizen.And yet, we inches closer to that reality with every concession we make, with every instance where we allow the unlawful to chip away at the foundations of our legal system.As students, we are taught to respect the law, to abide by its tenets, and to uphold its principles. But we are also taught to question, to challenge, and to hold our institutions accountable. It is our duty, then, to raise our voices against the erosion of justice, to demand that our leaders and those in positions of power uphold the rule of law without exception or favor.We cannot afford to live in a society where the unlawful is allowed to dictate the terms, where the whims of the powerful supersede the rights of the many. For when we surrender the sanctity of the law to the whims of the lawless, we open the floodgates to chaos, injustice, and the disintegration of everything we hold dear.The law, by its very nature, must be inflexible, unwavering, and blind to the influence of those who would seek to subvert it. It is the great equalizer, the final arbiter of justice, and the foundation upon which our society is built. To allow it to be corrupted, compromised, or co-opted by the unlawful is to invite the collapse of everything we hold sacred.As students, as citizens, and as members of a society that values justice and the rule of law, it is our solemn duty to speak out against the encroachment of the unlawful. We must demand that our leaders uphold the law without exception, that our institutions remain steadfast in their commitment to justice, and that those who transgress be held accountable, regardless of their wealth, status, or connections.For when we allow the unlawful to dictate the terms, we surrender our very humanity, our sense of decency, and our commitment to the principles that have guided us for centuries. We become complicit in the erosion of justice, complacent in the face of lawlessness, and culpable in the unraveling of the social contract that binds us together.The road ahead is long and arduous, but the alternative is far too bleak to contemplate. We must stand firm, resolute in our belief that the law cannot – and must not – bend to the whims of the unlawful. For when we surrender that principle, we surrender everything that makes us a just and civilized society.篇2No Ground Given: Upholding Justice in the Face of Civil UnrestThe recent outbreak of civil unrest across major cities has gripped the nation and sparked intense debates around the rule of law. As clashes between protesters and law enforcement escalated, growing calls emerged for authorities to take a softer stance and make concessions in a bid to quell the violence. However, such demands pose a dangerous threat to the very fabric of our society – a society built on the bedrock principles of justice, order and equality before the law.The notion of capitulating to lawlessness sets a perilous precedent that undermines the entire justice system. Laws are not meant to be bent or bypassed based on circumstances or pressures. They are the great equalizer, applied indiscriminately to all citizens regardless of their grievances or rationales. To compromise these laws is to erode the moral authority and credibility of the institutions entrusted to uphold them.At its core, this unrest stems from perceived injustices and disparities that have long festered beneath the surface. Economic divides, racial tensions, and a myriad of complex societal issues have fueled rage and resentment. However, resorting to wanton violence and destruction is not the answer. It merely breeds further chaos and suffering, doing little to address the root causes.As Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. so eloquently stated, "Nonviolence is the answer to the crucial political and moral questions of our time." His philosophy of nonviolent civil disobedience brought about monumental change by appealing to the highest values of human dignity and moral courage. True and lasting progress arises not from might, but from the unwavering pursuit of justice through lawful means.To concede to lawlessness would be an insult to the countless men and women who have sacrificed everything in the name of upholding the law. The brave officers who daily put their lives on the line, the incorruptible judges who interpret the law without fear or favor, and the ardent civil rights leaders who endured immeasurable hardship to secure the rights we enjoy today – their noble sacrifices must not be in vain.Moreover, the call to go easy on lawbreakers is a slap in the face to the overwhelming majority of citizens who rightfully expect fair and equal protection under the law. Why should the law-abiding bear the brunt of disorder while perpetrators are granted leniency? Such a double standard would only breed further resentment and division within our communities.Restraint and proportionality should always guide law enforcement's response, as any excessive use of force is not onlyunethical but counterproductive. However, this does not equate to turning a blind eye to blatant criminality. Rioting, looting, and wanton destruction must be firmly denounced and dealt with according to the letter of the law. Failure to do so would signal state-sanctioned lawlessness, a Pandora's box that once opened, may prove impossible to close.Some may argue that tough justice only breeds more unrest, creating a vicious cycle of retaliation. Yet, history has shown time and again that yielding to the demands of anarchy is a feeble band-aid that fails to address the deeper wounds. From the LA Riots to the Troubles in Northern Ireland, lax enforcement has consistently emboldened extremists and prolonged strife.In contrast, steadfast upholding of the law channels tensions into productive channels for reform. The Civil Rights Movement's success stemmed not from concessions to rioters, but from the moral high ground occupied by its peaceful protectors. Similarly, the dismantling of Apartheid in South Africa was achieved through unflinching civil disobedience, not violent insurrection.To relinquish the rule of law is to surrender the moral authority that sustains a civilized society. Without this shared commitment to justice and order, we devolve intomight-makes-right cynicism where the loudest and mostdisruptive voices hold sway. Such a Hobbesian state of nature benefits no one but the merchants of chaos seeking to sow seeds of division and mistrust.Undoubtedly, our justice system is imperfect, marred by human flaws and inherited biases. Valid concerns around inequitable enforcement, racial profiling, and disproportionate sentencing must be addressed through robust reforms. However, the solution lies not in capitulating to anarchy, but in doubling down on our founding ideals of equality, due process, and the sanctity of constitutional rights for all.To move forward as a nation, we must remain unwavering in our commitment篇3The Unyielding Line: Why the Law Must Never Bend to InjusticeAs students, we are taught from a young age about the sanctity of the law and the importance of an orderly society governed by rules and regulations. However, recent events have called into question whether adhering strictly to the letter of the law is always the right path forward, especially when injustice rears its ugly head. I firmly believe that the law must beuncompromising and resolute, never allowing itself to be swayed by unscrupulous forces seeking to undermine justice and the moral fabric of our civilization.The insidious notion that the law should accommodate or turn a blind eye to wrongdoing is a dangerous slope that, if embarked upon, will inevitably lead to a society crumbling under the weight of its own moral decay. By its very definition, the law exists to uphold principles of justice, equality, and the protection of fundamental human rights. To suggest that it should compromise those tenets in favor of expediency or appeasement is not only paradoxical but borders on an affront to the very concept of an equitable system of governance.Recent headlines have been inundated with stories of public officials, corporate leaders, and other influential figures abusing their power and positions for personal gain, skirting laws and regulations with seeming impunity. From financial crimes and corruption scandals to brazen human rights violations, the misdeeds of the few have cast a pall over the integrity of our institutions and shaken the public's faith in the rule of law.In the face of such egregious affronts to justice, some have advocated for a "pragmatic" approach, suggesting that strict adherence to the law may be too inflexible and that certainindiscretions should be overlooked or handled with a lighter touch for the sake of societal stability or economic expediency. However, this line of thinking is not only morally bankrupt but also incredibly short-sighted.By allowing the law to bend or make exceptions for the wealthy, the powerful, or those deemed "too big to prosecute," we create a dangerous precedent that erodes the very foundation upon which our legal system is built. The law must apply equally to all, regardless of status, wealth, or influence. To do otherwise is to open the floodgates for further injustice, as those who seek to exploit the system for their own gain will quickly realize that the consequences for their actions are negotiable or non-existent.Moreover, the notion that upholding the law is an impediment to progress or stability is a fallacy. True progress and lasting stability can only be。
开放系 巨正则系综
第六章 开放系 巨正则系综（Open Systems Grand Canonical Ensembles ）本章讨论粒子数可变的系综，从而可讨论相变的化学平衡问题。
§6-1 巨正则分布 （Grand Canonical Distribution ）1．巨正则分布（G .C.D ）。
2．经典极限（Classical limit ）。
3．多组元情形（Case for Many Components ）。
1.粒子数可变的系统称为开放系，开放系组成的系综为巨正则系综，此时系综只有确定的V T ,, 。
巨正则分布，设系统+源=封闭系, 由封闭系的条件const=++t r N N N ，且N N r >>t r s E E E =+， 且E E r >>平衡态时，总系处于t E 之t 态的几率为∑----===tE E E t ttTeZ eeZββψβρ,1由此出发讨论开放系之系综分布，考虑开放系处于N ，s E 的某一态的统计平均值。
由正则分布之定义∑--=tE steN uu βψ)(（t 表示对所有态求和）∑∑∑=---⋅=trsN N sE rE seeN u)(ββψ可改写为∑∑∑=---⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡=ts r N N sE s r E e N u e u 0)(βψβ[]中应与r N 有关，化为)(N N rE t ree--=∑σβ （展开） NN Nt te)(')(σσ-≈tN为一大数，可认为∞→t N ，sN sE N u eu s∑∑∞=---=∴0βαζ由统计平均值定义可知：sEN s e βαζρ---= 为正则分布。
ζ-e可由归一化条件：1=∑∑∞=---N sE N seβαζ 定出。
为了方便，常定义巨配分函数(Grand Partition Function)∑∑∞=--=Ξ=0N sE N seeβαζ.2．经典极限: 在Γ空间p d q d内可能的微观状态数为Nrh N pd q d !,故系统处于p d q d内的几率为Nrp q E N hN pd q de p d q d p q !)(),( βαςρ---=⋅ 为正则分布),(!1)(p q N N NrehN p qβαςρ---=⋅ 为几率密度相应的巨配分函数pd q d eN he e p q E N NrN⎰∑-∞=-==Ξ),(0!βαζ∑⎰∞==),(),(N p d q d p q p q u u ρ3．多组元情形：∑∑==i ii r iiNr N NN ,则)(!1)(p q E N ir N i ii i ii ehN p q⋅---∑=⋅∏βαζρpd q d ehN ee p q E N ir N i N i ii iii ⎰∑∏⋅--∑==Ξ)()(!βαςpd q d p q u p q u i N ∑⎰⋅⋅=)()()(ρ , 其中∑∑∑∑∞=∞=∞==)(0001ii i NN N N .§6-2 开放系的热力学公式(Thermodynamic Formulae for Open Systems)1．热力学公式 S N p Y E ,),(,。
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dQ = 0= ∫ T reversible
IaII
∫
dQ dQ dQ dQ + ∫ =∫ −∫ T IIbI T T IbII T IaII
⇒
IaII
∫
dQ dQ = ∫ T T IbII
ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ
i .e .
∫
I
II
dQ is independent of path. T
∴ E ntropy S is ther efor e a therm odynam i c state function
efficiency of engine 热机效率 制冷机
“perfect” engine 理想热机 coefficient of performance K “perfect” refrigerator; Carnot theorem configuration equally probable microstates of system multiplicity W
相等的两物体，接触时的热交换可以是可逆过程)。
The process must be quasi-static so that the system is always in an equilibrium state (or infinitesimally near an equilibrium state).
Get energy from the ground
×
Stone leaps up
cool coffee
Take energy from air
× ×
warmer coffee
A drop of ink in a glass of water spread
×
All ink molecules return to their original locations.
T2 dT V 2 pdV dQ1 + dQ 2 dQ ∴ ΔS = ∫ =∫ = nC V ∫ +∫ T1 T V1 T T T T2 dT V 2 pVdV T2 dT V 2 dV +∫ = nC V ∫ + nR ∫ = nC V ∫ T1 T V1 T1 T V1 V TV T2 V2 + nR In = nC V In T1 V1
Δ S = n C V In T
f
Ti
+ n R In
V
f
Vi
For example: an ideal gas undergoing: (1) process at constant volume: ΔS=nCVIn(T2/ T1) (2) isothermal process: ΔS=Q/T=nRIn(V2/ V1) (3) adiabatic free expansion: the process is irreversible, Q=0, ΔEint=0, T2=T1, V1 →V2. We can find ΔS by evaluating ∫dQ/T over a reversible isotherm process (has the same initial and final state as adiabatic free expansion )⇒ΔS=nRIn(V2/ V1)>0. Note that the isothermal path does not represent the actual process.
Since entropy is thermodynamic state function, for any process which have a given initial and final state I (p1,v1,T1), II (p2,v2,T2), we can use a reversible processes including a reversible constant volume process ((p1,v1,T1)→ (p1´,v1,T2)) and a reversible isothermal process ((p1´,v1,T2) → (p2,v2,T2)). For constant volume process: dQ1=dEint=nCVdT For isothermal process: dQ2=-dW=pdV
RT dQ nCV dT nRdV dQ = dEint - dW = nCV dT + pdV = nCV dT + n dV ⇒ = + V T T V 2 dQ T2 V2 T ∫1 T =nCV In T1 + nRIn V1 , for cyclical(循环) process， 2 = T1，V2 = V1 dQ ∴∫ = 0, it's also true for reversible process. T
To have a reversible process, great care must be taken to eliminate frictional and other dissipative forces and to make the process quasi-static. Since this can never be done completely, a reversible process seems impossible in practice. Nevertheless, one can come very close to a reversible process, and the concept is very important in theory. Note: Reversible processes are quasi-static but not all quasistatic processes are reversible (eg. quasi-static processes involving friction ) 24-2 . Entropy S 1. The definition of entropy change Entropy difference between two infinitesmally close equilibrium states: dS=dQ/T between any two equilibrium states: f dQ ΔS = ∫ (reversible process) i T
24-1 One-Way Processes
All naturally occurring processes proceed in one direction only. They never, of their own accord, proceed in the opposite direction. A stone on the ground
Chap.24 Entropy and the second law of thermodynamics
reversible and irreversible entropy Carnot engine 熵 卡诺热机 可逆和不可逆 quasi-static refrigerator 制冷系数 理想制冷机 卡诺定理 位形,组态 等概率 系统微观态 热力学概率 disorder 无序 准静态
ΔS depends only on properties of the initial state and of the final state. Thus entropy S is indeed a state property. Vf Tf Δ S = nR ln + nCV ln Vi Ti
Δ S = nC p ln Δ S = nC p ln Tf Ti Vf Vi − nR ln pf pi pf pi
+ nCV ln
24-3 Entropy Change for Irreversible Processes How can we calculate the entropy change in an irreversible process? 1). Find a reversible process that connects these same two states. Any of the many such processes will do. 2 ) . Calculate ΔS for this chosen equivalent reversible process. The result will hold for the original irreversible process as well. Why can we do this way? Fortunately, the entropy is a state function! We can also use the following equation directly to evaluate the entropy difference between any two equilibrium states:
A. reversible and irreversible processes. A reversible process is one in which both the system and its environment can be returned to exactly the states they were in before the process occurred. Some conditions for reversible process :
Note: a reversible path must be used to evaluate the integral but that entropy differences are defined regardless of weather the actual process is reversible or irreversible. The initial and final states must be equilibrium states, however. 2. Entropy as a state property dQ We first prove that for any quasi-static cyclical process ∫ T = 0 From the first law of thermodynamics,