语言学概论复习重点与难点
语言学概论复习超级重点
语言学概论复习超级重点语言学概论复习第一章语言是什么第一节语言是一种声音一、语言是一种声音二、这种声音是人有意识地从发音器官发出的三、这种声音能代表一定的客观现象四、这种声音能分解和组合,这些分解和组合是有规律可寻的第二节语言与说话一、语言不等于说话二、语言是说话所用的材料和规则,语言是抽象的,是全社会一致的三、说话也叫“言语”。
言语是对材料和规则的具体运用,是可感知的,是因人而异的四、语言是通过一定的可感知形式来传递一定信息的符号系统┌听觉语符——音符(语音)┌可感知形式——语符┤│└视觉语符——文字(?)语言┤│┌语汇(词汇)└信息(内容)——语义┤└语法传统上语音、词汇、语法合称语言三要素。
第三节语言的功能一、语言是人类最重要的交际工具(一)人类有多种交际工具:(二)这些都比不上语言重要。
二、语言是人类最重要的思维工具(一)人类左半脑掌管与语言有关的抽象思维;右半脑掌管与语言无关的形象思维(二)抽象思维是否一定要语言参与(三)语言只是一种符号,是一种替代品,人们能利用语言进行思维,也应该可以利用其它的替代品进行思维。
(四)人类有了语言之后主要依靠语言进行思维第四节语言是符号系统一、什么是符号(一)符号就是用一种东西(甲)来代替另外一种东西(乙),通常是用具体的、浅显的、通俗的来代替抽象的、深奥的、孤僻的。
(二)语言也是一种符号,是听觉符号(三)语言符号的特点1.约定俗成(任意性)2.线性(四)符号与客观二、语言的层级体系(一)层级体系的构成(二)语言层级体系的特点:三、组合关系和聚合关系(一)组合关系(二)聚合关系第五节语言系统是人类特有的一、语言能力需要具备的条件(一)生理条件:一定的大脑容量,使之具备抽象、概括能力(二)心理条件:听觉系统和发音器官(三)社会条件:即到了有什么非说不可的地步二、其它动物不具备语言条件第二章语言学第一节什么是语言学语言学是以语言为研究对象的一门科学。
第二节语言学的简要历史一、人类早期关于语言的神话传说二、语言学问题的哲学探讨三、语言研究的语文学阶段(一)中国的语文学研究(二)印度的语文学研究(三)古希腊罗马的语文学研究四、传统语言学五、现代语言学(一)历史比较语言学(二)结构主义语言学(三)转换-生成语言学第三节语言学的分类一、微观语言学和宏观语言学(一)微观语言学研究语言本身。
语言学概论期末复习重点
语言学概论期末复习重点一、语音学语音学是研究语音的学科,重点研究语音的产生、结构、运动和感知等方面。
在复习时,需要关注以下内容:1.国际音标的掌握,包括元音、辅音和音节等。
2.发音器官的构造和功能,比如舌头、喉头、声带等的作用。
3.音位与音素的区别,音位是语言中的最小语音单位,音素是语音的实际表现。
4.音变规律,比如浊音化、清音化、辅音的鼻化等。
二、语法学语法学是研究语言结构和规则的学科,包括句法学、词法学等分支。
在复习时,需要关注以下内容:1.语法的基本概念,包括句子、短语、词类等。
2.句法分析的方法,包括基于短语结构的上下位关系分析和基于依存关系的句法分析。
3.句子成分的分类与功能,包括主语、谓语、宾语、定语等。
4.语法关系的表示,包括句法树和依存关系图等。
三、语义学语义学是研究词义和意义的学科,包括词义学、语用学等分支。
在复习时,需要关注以下内容:1.语义的基本概念,包括词义、句义、语篇意义等。
2.词义的分类,包括编码词义和概念词义等。
3.语义关系的表示,包括隐性关系和显性关系等。
4.语义义原的掌握,比如用来描述词义的最小单位,可以用来解释多义、歧义、同义等现象。
四、语用学语用学是研究语言在特定情境中的使用和理解的学科,包括语用规则、言语行为等方面。
1.言语行为的分类,包括表示、指示、陈述、询问等。
2.言语行为的成分,包括言辞、语境、意图等。
3.语用规则的掌握,比如礼貌原则、言外之意等。
4.言语行为的实现方式,包括直接言语行为和间接言语行为等。
以上仅为语言学概论期末复习的一些重点内容,学生可以结合教材和课堂笔记进行更深入的学习和理解。
此外,复习时可以参考相关的案例和实例,加深对语言学原理的理解和应用。
语言学概论重难点解析
语言学概论重难点解析一、语言与言语得区别与联系。
(一)语言与言语得区别1、语言就是表达思想得工具、就是交际得工具,言语则就是使用语言工具得行为与结果。
就这一点而言,它们就是工具与对工具运用得关系。
2、言语就是个人得,语言就是社会得。
言语就是个人得言语行为,以个人得意志为转移,因而言语具有个人因素。
可以说,每个人说话得嗓音、每个音得具体发音、每个人使用得词语与句子结构等方面都有个人得特色,而且每一个人每一次说话都可能就是不同得。
语言就是属于社会得,语言要遵循一个原则:全社会都能顺利地进行交流。
语言就是从言语中归纳出得一套标准、准则得系统,就是音义结合,由词汇、语法构成得一个完整得体系,因而它具有社会因素。
3、语言就是有限得、封闭得,言语就是无限得、开放得。
语言得材料、规则就是有限得,相对稳定得,因而也就是相对封闭得。
如现代汉语有400多个音节,上千个语素,几十万个词,语法规则更加有限。
汉语如此,其她语种无不如此,其音位、词汇、语法规则都就是有限得。
而且变化缓慢,相对稳定。
言语得开放性,则表现为利用有限得材料与规则造出所需要得无限得句子。
从组合关系上讲,其长度可以就是无限长得(从理论上讲)。
(如:学生。
就是学生。
就是中文系得学生。
她就是中文系得学生。
……她就是闽江学院中文系二年级一班得学生。
……)人们可以利用聚合关系来替换语言链条上得各个环节,因而即使在句子得长度相同得情况下,仍然可以造出各种各样得句子来。
(例如:①我们热爱祖国。
②她们喜欢唱歌。
③小张爱好音乐。
……理论上讲可以就是无限得)数量有限得语音形式与语义内容结合成语素。
数量有限得语素构成数量有限得词语。
数量有限得语法规则支配数量有限得词语,造出无穷无尽得句子,这就就是言语得无限性。
语言得有限性,免除了人们不必要得过重得记忆负担;言语得无限性,使人们能够造出各种各样得句子,充分满足交际得需要。
(二)语言与言语得联系语言与言语又有非常密切得联系。
语言学概论期末复习重点
1.语言学:既是一门古老的科学,又是一门年轻的科学;既与社会科学有着密切的联系,也与自然科学有着密切的联系。
2.语言学的数量:一般认为,世界上已经查明的语言或方言约有5500余种,确认的独立语言2790种,其中70%没有文字。
经过分析研究的语言只有500种左右。
数以千计的语言使用人口越来越少,如北美有170余种印地安语言、澳洲有150余种土语、西非有280种土语目前正在衰亡之中。
3.语言学的研究可以分为三大类:基础研究、应用研究和交叉研究。
4.基础研究是对语言的基础构造、基本性质所进行的研究。
(1)具体语言学:以某一具体语言为研究对象。
(2)一般语言学(普通语言学):以人类的所有语言为研究对象,重在探讨语言的共性、语言的本质和语言与社会等的关系,从而形成普遍理论。
5.研究对象的时间:历时语言学和共时语言学:(1)历时语言学(动态语言学):主要研究语言的发展演变及其规律,是对语言的纵向研究,如汉语发展史、英语发展史。
(2)共时语言学(静态语言学):描写研究语言在某一个时期的状态,主要研究语言的结构系统,是对语言的横向研究,如现代法语、古代汉语等。
6.研究方法上的分类:历史比较语言学、对比语言学:历史比较语言学:用比较的方法对有亲属关系的语言进行研究;对比语言学:用对比的方法对没有亲属关系的语言进行研究。
7.结构主义语言学三大流派:布拉格学派、哥本哈根学派、美国描写语言学派。
西方语言学流派:古印度语言学、古希腊语言学、古罗马语言学;历史比较语言学;结构主义语言学;功能语言学8.说话这一行为以及说出来的话和说话时使用的材料和规则是不同的,前者为言语,后者为语言。
9.语言和言语的关系:第一,语言是一个封闭的系统,而言语是开放的。
只要人类社会存在下去,社会交往就不会中断,语言交际就要不断地持续,新的语句就要不断出现,所以言语是无穷的。
但不论言语总量多么庞大,所使用的材料和规则极其有限的。
第二,语言属于社会全体成员,而言语属于说话者个人。
《语言学概论》知识点复习重点汇总
《语言学概论》知识点复习重点汇总【选择题】1、语言符号的任意性是指语言符号的物质实体和所表示的意义之间没有必然的理据关系,语言符号的声音和意义之间没有必然联系,它们的关系是约定俗成的,是任意的。
2、复合构词:就是词根语素加上词根语素构成一个新词。
复合构词的分类:陈述式复合词、偏正式复合词、支配式复合词、并列式复合词、补充式复合词。
3、表音文字的字符,或者说字母,只跟语言单位的语音发生联系,情况比较简单,不论是音节文字还是辅音文字,还是音位文字,根据是与语言单位的语义还是语音相联系的标准来归类,都是表音文字。
4、语音对应关系:语音对应关系是指不同语言的同义或意义上有联系的一系列语言成分间有语音上的对应。
5、口语和书面语是语言的两种存在形式。
语言首先是以口语的形式存在,文字产生以后,在口语的基础上产生了书面语。
口语是第一性的,书面语是第二性的。
同时,书面语是经过加工、提炼和发展了的口语的书面形式,既不是口语绝对忠实的记录,也不是口语机械的复制品。
6、附加构词(派生词):就是词根语素加上词缀语素构成一个新词。
7、地域方言和亲属方言各自的含义:(1)地域方言的含义:同一种语言由于语音、语汇和语法等方面的差异而在不同的地区形成的地域分支或变体就叫“地域方言”。
(2)亲属方言的含义:同一种语言中分化出来的各个语言,叫做“亲属语言”。
8、歧义:歧义是指同一形式的语言符号序列可能表达不同意义的现象。
歧义以语言符号序列的同形为前提条件。
组合歧义的类型:语法结构歧义、语义结构歧义。
9、语言发展演变的原因:社会活动的需要是语言产生、存在和发展的基本条件;社会的进步;社会的分化和统一;社会之间的接触。
10、语素的各种类型归类:“成语语素”和“不成语语素”、“自由语素”和“不自由语素”、“定位语素”和“不定位语素”、“实义语素”和“虚义语素”。
11、非基本语汇包括:新造词、古语词、方言词、外来词。
12、划分词类的标准:形态标准、意义标准、分布标准。
《语言学概论》重点、难点
《英语语言学概论》重、难点提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义:语言的基本特征(任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性);语言的功能(寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为);语言的起源(神授说,人造说,进化说)等。
第二章语言学语言学定义;研究语言的四大原则(穷尽、一致、简洁、客观);语言学的基本概念(口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为);普通语言学的分支(语音、音位、语法、句法、语义);;语言学的应用(语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学)等。
第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称;英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法;语音学的定义;发音语音学;听觉语音学;声学语音学;元音及辅音的分类;严式与宽式标音等。
第四章音位学音位理论;最小对立体;自由变异;互补分布;语音的相似性;区别性特征;超语段音位学;音节;重音(词重音、句子重音、音高和语调)等。
第五章词法学词法的定义;曲折词与派生词;构词法(合成与派生);词素的定义;词素变体;自由词素;粘着词素(词根,词缀和词干)等。
第六章词汇学词的定义;语法词与词汇词;变词与不变词;封闭词与开放词;词的辨认;习语与搭配。
第七章句法句法的定义;句法关系;结构;成分;直接成分分析法;并列结构与从属结构;句子成分;范畴(性,数,格);一致;短语,从句,句子扩展等。
第八章语义学语义的定义;语义的有关理论;意义种类(传统、功能、语用);里奇的语义分类;词汇意义关系(同义、反义、下义);句子语义关系。
第九章语言变化语言的发展变化(词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化);第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义;萨丕尔-沃夫假说;语言与思维的关系;语言与文化的关系;中西文化的异同。
第十一章语用学语用学的定义;语义学与语用学的区别;语境与意义;言语行为理论(言内行为、言外行为和言后行为);合作原则。
语言学概论复习要点
语言学概论复习要点《语言学概论》复习要点导言重点名词概念:语言学、普通语言学、专语语言学、共时语言学、历时语言学一、语言学、语言学的对象和任务二、语言学在科学体系中的地位三、语言学的基本类别根据研究的对象的不同,语言学分为共时语言学和历时语言学、专语语言学和普通语言学。
四、语言学流派各个语言学流派的观点、代表人物有所了解即可,注意布拉格学派、哥本哈根学派以及美国结构语言学派(也称美国描写语言学)都属于结构主义学派,是这一学派的三个分支。
关于语言学流派的具体内容阐述,不作考试要求。
第一章言语的社会功能本章须明确两个大的要点:语言的社会功能,即交际工具和思维工具;语言是一种社会现象。
主要名词概念:语言、社会、社会现象第一节语言是人类最重要的交际工具一、语言是人类社会的交际工具1.语言的交际功能:语言是人类区别于其它动物的一个重要标志。
语言是联系社会成员的桥梁和纽带,是社会成员互相之间交际和交流思想的工具,也是协调社会成员行动一致的工具。
2.语言是一种社会现象:语言是一种社会现象,和人类社会有着十分紧密的联系,没有人类社会,就没有语言,人类社会以外的社会无所谓语言。
所谓社会现象是指那些与人类共同体的产生、存在和发展等活动密切联系的现象。
不同的民族有不同的语言,不同的地域有不同的语言,同时社会的变化也给语言以极大的影响,而离开了人类社会,就无所谓语言可言了。
总之,语言就是一种社会现象,同社会的关系非常密切,其产生、发展等都要受到社会的影响。
语言不是自然现象,一方面,语言同社会有着十分紧密的联系,社会的发展变化直接影响着语言的发展变化,也就是说,语言的发展变化是受制于社会的;另一方面,从语言的音义联系看语言不是自然现象,而是社会约定俗成的,没有必然的本质的联系,如果语言是自然现象,世界上的语言应该一样的,没有区别的,而实际上世界上的语言多种多样,而且许多语言中还有方言,这说明语言决不是自然现象。
3.语言是一种特殊的社会现象:语言不但是社会现象,而且是一种特殊的社会现象。
语言学概论重难点
语言学概论》重、难点提示Questions & Answers on Key Points of Linguistics《英语语言学概论》重、难点问与答1.1. What is language?“Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, in Japanese, in Chinese, “check” in Korean. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages, developed or “new”. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.1.2. What are design features of language?“Design features” here refer to the defin ing properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability1.3. What is arbitrariness?By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds (see I .1).A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like “bang”, “crash”, “roar”, which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded to be one word) are not entirely arbitrary either. “Type” and “write” are opaque or unmotivated words, while “type-writer” is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it. So we can say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degree.1.4.What is duality?Linguists refer “duality” (of structure) to the fac t that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.); at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning. According to Hu Zhanglin et al. (p.6), language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language.A small number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences (note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!). Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication system enjoys this duality, or even approaches this honor.1.5.What is productivity?Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one‟s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. No one has ever said or heard “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed wi th an African gibbon”, but he can say it when necessary, and he can understand it in right register. Different from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes outside the language, thus also called “rule-bound creativity” (by N.Chomsky).1.6.What is displacement?“Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. When a man, for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now and there. It couldn‟t be bow wowing sorrowfully for dome lost love or a bone to be lost. The bee‟s system, nonetheless, has a small share of “displacement”, but it is an unspeakable tiny share.1.7.What is cultural transmission?This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it “language acquisition device”, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog‟s barking system. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf‟s roaring “tongue” when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.1.8.What is interchangeability?(1) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. We can say, and on other occasions can receive and understand, for example, “Please do something to make me happy.” Though some people (including me) suggest that there is sex differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable.(2) Some male birds, however, utter some calls, which females do not (or cannot?), and certain kinds of fish have similar haps mentionable. When a dog barks, all the neighboring dogs bark. Then people around can h ardly tell which dog (dogs) is (are0 “speaking” and which listening.1.9.Why do linguists say language is human specific?First of all, human language has six “design features” which animal communication systems donot have, at least not in the true sense of them (see I .2-8). Let‟s borrow C. F. Hocket‟s Chart that compares human language with some animals‟ systems, from Wang Gang (1998,p.8). Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Beatnice and Alan Gardner brought up Washoe, a female chimpanzee, like a human child. She was taught “American sign Language”, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees.Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he is taken back and taught to lo to so (see the “Wolf Child”in I.7)1.10.What functions does language have?Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and per formative. According to Wang Gang (1988,p.11), language has three main functions: a tool of communication, a tool whereby people learn about the world, and a tool by which people learn about the world, and a tool by which people create art. M .A. K.Halliday, representative of the London school, recognizes three “Macro-Functions”: ideational, interpersonal and textual (see! 11-17;see HU Zhuanglin et al., pp10-13, pp394-396).1. 11What is the phatic function?The “phatic function” refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic language (e.g. “How are you?” “Fine, thanks.”) Is insincere if taken literally, but it is important. If you don't say “Hello” to a friend you meet, or if you don‟t answer his “Hi”, you ruin your friendship.1.12. What is the directive function?The “directive function” means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e.g., “Tell me the result when you finish.” Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J.Austin and J.Searle‟s “indirect speech act theory”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp271-278) at least, serve the purpose of direction too, e.g., “If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!”1.13.What is the informative function?Language serves an “informational function” when used to tell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labeled as true (truth) or false (falsehood). According to P.Grice‟s “Cooperative Principle”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp282-283), one ought not to violate the “Maxim of Quality”, when he is informing at all.1.14.What is the interrogative function?When language is use d to obtain information, it serves an “interrogative function”. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc., according to the “indirect speech act theory”, may have this function as well, e.g., “I‟d like to know you better.” This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note that rhetorical questions make an exception, since they demandno answer, at least not the reader‟s/listener‟s answer.1.15.What is the expressive function?The “expressive function” is the use o f language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like “Good heavens!” “My God!” Sentences like “I‟m sorry about the delay” can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative function to pass judgment on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evaluates, appraises or asserts the speaker‟s own attitudes.1.16.What is the evocative function?The “evocative function” is the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is, for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes (not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener; advertising to urge customers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative functions often go together, i.e., you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issue but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or imposing it on, your listener. That‟s also the case with the other way round.1.17.What is the per formative function?This means people speak to “do things” or perform actions. On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. When asked if a third Y angtze Bridge ought to be built in Wuhan, the mayor may say, “OK”, which means more than speech, and more than an average social individual may do for the construction. The judge‟s imprisonment sentence, the president‟s war or independence declaration, etc., are per formatives as well (see J.Austin‟s speech Act Theory, Hu Zhuanglin, ecal.pp271-278).1.18.What is linguistics?“Linguistics” is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one society, but also the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, but to investigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp20-22)1.19.What makes linguistics a science?Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic, investigation of language data, which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the language structure, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make his analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principles: exhaustiveness, consistency, and objectivity. Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant tothe study and give them an adequate explanation, in spite of the complicatedness. He is to leave no linguistic “stone” unturned. Consistency means there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement. Economy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when it is possible. Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjective in the study, a linguist should be (or sound at least) objective, matter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitutes part of the linguistics research.1.20.What are the major branches of linguistics?The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics (e.g.Hu Zhuanglin et al., 1988;Wang Gang, 1988). But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, pragmatics, psycholinguistics, lexic ology, lexicography, etymology, etc.1.21.What are synchronic and diachronic studies?The des cription of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The des cription of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachronic). An essay entitled “On the Use of THE”, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp25-27).1.22.What is speech and what is writing?(1) No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis, namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speech is primary; because it existed long long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds: individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese.(2) In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written codes, gives language new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly, oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional (causing misunderstanding or malentendu), while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading.(3) Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.1.23.What are the differences between the des criptive and the pres criptive approaches?A linguistic study is “des criptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “pres criptive” if it tries to lay down rules for “correct” language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely pres criptive because many early grammars were largely pres criptive because many early grammars were based on “high” (literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly des criptive, however. It (the latter) believes that whatever occurs innatural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also.1.24.What is the difference between langue and parole?F. De Saussure refers “langue”to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, I. e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.1.25.What is the difference between competence and performance?(1) According to N. Chomsky, “competence” is the ideal language user‟s knowledge of the rules of his language, and “performance” is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize gr ammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker‟s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker‟s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.(2) Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.(3) Chomsky‟s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, F. de Saussure‟s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product, and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Sussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.1.26.What is linguistic potential? What is actual linguistic behavior?M. A. K. Halliday made these two terms, or the potential-behavior distinction, in the 1960s, from a functional point of view. There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture, and similarly there are many things he can say, for example, to many people, on many topics. What he actually says (i.e. his “actual linguistic behavior”) on a certain occasion to a certain person is what he has chosen from many possible injustice items, each of which he could have said (linguistic potential).1.27.In what way do language, competence and linguistic potential agree? In what way do they differ? And their counterparts?Langue, competence and linguistic potential have some similar features, but they are innately different (see 1.25). Langue is a social product, and a set of speaking conventions; competence is a property or attribu te of each ideal speaker‟s mind; linguistic potential is all the linguistic corpus or repertoire available from which the speaker chooses items for the actual utterance situation. In other words, langue is invisible but reliable abstract system. Competence means “knowing”, andlinguistic potential a set of possibilities for “doing” or “performing actions”. They are similar in that they all refer to the constant underlying the utterances that constitute what Saussure, Chomsky and Halliday respectively called parole, performance and actual linguistic behavior. Paole, performance and actual linguistic behavior enjoy more similarities than differences.1.28.What is phonetics?“Phonetics” is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their des cription, classification and trans cription (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp39-40), speech sounds may be studied in different ways, thus by three different branches of phonetics. (1) Articulatory phonetics; the branch of phonetics that examines the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process. (2) Auditory phonetics, the branch of phonetic research from the heare r‟s point of view, looking into the impression which a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by the ear, the auditory nerve and the brain. (3) Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear.Most phoneticians, however, are interested in articulator phonetics.1.29.How are the vocal organs formed?The vocal organs (see Figure1, Hu Zhuanglin et al., p41), or speech organs, are organs of the human body whose secondary use is in the production of speech sounds. The vocal organs can be considered as consisting of three parts; the initiator of the air-stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.1.30.What is place of articulation?It refers to the place in the mouth where, for example, the obstruction occurs, resulting in the utterance of a consonant. Whatever sound is pronounced, at least some vocal organs will get involved. g. Lips, hard palate etc., so a consonant may be one of the following (1) bilabial: [p, b, m]; (2) labiodental: [f, v]; (3) dental: [,]; (4) alveolar: [t, d, l, n.s, z]; (5) retroflex; (6) palato-alveolar: [,]; (7) palatal: [j]; (8) velar [k, g,]; (9) uvular; (10) glottal: [h].Some sounds involve the simultaneous use of two places of articulation. For example, the English [w] has both an approximation of the two lips and those two lips and that of the tongue and the soft palate, and may be termed “labial-velar”.1.31.What is the manner of articulation?The “manner of articulation” literally means the way a sound is articulated. At a given place of articulation, the airstreams may be obstructed in various ways, resulting in various manners of articulation, are the following: (1) plosive: [p, b, t, d, k, g]; (2) nasal: [m, n,]; (3) trill; (4) tap or flap; (5) lateral: [l]; (6) fricative: [f, v, s, z]; (7) approximant: [w, j]; (8) affricate: [].1.32.How do phoneticians classify vowels?Phoneticians, in spite of the difficulty, group vowels in 5 types: (1) long and short vowels, e.g.,[i:,];(4) rounded and unround vowels,e.g.[,i]; (5) pure and gliding vowels, e.g.[I,].1.33.What is IPA? When did it come into being ?The IPA, abbreviation of “International Phonetic Alphabet”, is a compromise system making use of symbols of all sources, including diacritics indicating length, stress and intonation, indicating phonetic variation. Ever since it was developed in 1888, IPA has undergone a number of revisions.1.34.What is narrow trans cription and what is broad trans cription?In handbook of phonetics, Henry Sweet m ade a distinction between “narrow” and “broad” trans criptions, which he called “Narrow Romic”. The former was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation while Broad Romic or trans cription was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.1.35.What is phonology? What is difference between phonetics and phonology?(1) “Phonology” is the study of sound systems- the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the patterns wherein they fall. Minimal pair, phonemes, allophones, free variation, complementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phonologist.(2) Phonetics, as discussed in I.28, is the branch of linguistics studying the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their des cription, classification and trans cription. A phonetist is mainly interested in the physical properties of the speech sounds, whereas a phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they are conceived and printed in the depth of the mind phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which from meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign “accent”, to make up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to from plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one‟s language.1.36.What is a phone? What is a phoneme? What is an allophone?(1) A “phone” is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. When we hear the following words pronounced:[pit], [tip], [spit], etc., the similar phones we have heard are [p] for one thing, and three different[p]‟s, readily making possible the “narrow trans cription or diacritics”. Phones may and may not distinguish meaning. A “phoneme” is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. As an abstract unit, a phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. For example, the phoneme[p] is represented differently in [pit], [tip] and [spit].(2) The phones representing a phoneme ar e called its “allophones”, i. e., the different (i.e., phones) but do not make one word so phonetically different as to create a new word or a new meaning thereof. So the different[p]‟s in the above words are the allophones of the same phoneme[p]. How a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random. In most cases it is rule-governed; these rules are to be found out by a phonologist.1.37.What are minimal pairs?When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string , the two forms(i. e., word) are supposed to form a “minimal pair”, e.g., “pill” and “bill”, “pill” and “till”, “till” and “dill”, “till” and “kill”, etc. All these wordstogether constitute a minimal set. They are identical in form except for the initial consonants. There are many minimal pairs in English, which makes it relatively easy to know what are English phonemes. It is of great importance to find the minimal pairs when a phonologist is dealing with the sound system of an unknown language(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp65-66).1.38.What is free variation?If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast; namely, if the substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds then are said to be in “free variation”. The plosives, for example, may no t be exploded when they occur before another plosive or a nasal (e. g., act, apt, good morning). The minute distinctions may, if necessary, be transcribed in diacritics. These unexploded and exploded plosives are in free variation. Sounds in free variation should be assigned to the same phoneme.1.39.What is complementary distribution?When two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in “complementary distribution”. For example, the aspirated English plosives never occur after[s], and the unsaturated ones never occur initially. Sounds in complementary distribution may be assigned to the same phoneme. The allophones of[l], for example, are also in complementary distribution. The clear[l] occurs only before a vowel, the voiceless equivalent of[l] occurs only after a voiceless consonant, such as in the words “please”, “butler”, “clear”, etc., and the dark[l] occurs only after a vowel or as a syllabic sound after a consonant, such as in the words “feel”, “help”, “middle”, etc.1.40.What is the assimilation rule? What is the deletion rule?(1) The “assimilation rule” assimilates one segment to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones more similar. This rule accounts for the raring pronunciation of the nasal[n] that occurs within a word. The rule is that within a word the nasal consonant[n] assumes the same place of articulation as the following consonant. The negative prefix “in-“ serves as a good example. It may be pronounced as [in], or [im] when occurring i n different phonetic contexts: e. g., indiscrete-[ ](alveolar)inconceivable-[ ](velar)input-[…imput](bilabial)The “deletion rule” tells us when a sound is to be deleted although is orthographically represented. While the letter “g” is mute in “sign”, “design” and “paradigm”, it is pronounced in their corresponding derivatives: “signature”, “designation” and “paradigmatic”. The rule then can be stated as: delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. This accounts for some of the seeming irregularities of the English spelling (see Dai Weidong ,pp22-23).1.41.What is suprasegmental phonology? What are suprasegmental features? “Suprasegmental phonology” refers to the study of phonological properties of linguistic units larger than the segment called phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.Hu Zhuanglin et al.,(p,73) includes stress, length and pitch as what they suppose to be “principal suprasegmental features”, calling the concurrent patterning of three “intonation”. Dai Weidong(pp23-25) lists three also, but they are stress, tone and intonation.。
语言学概论考试重点难点
语言学概论滕慧群老师期末复习重点详解版导言无问答题记细节题(单选填空判断名词解释)名词解释:理论语言学:普通语言学的一个部分,与应用语言学相对,主要以语言系统的描写、语言运用机制、语言能力以及语言发展的历史为研究对象,是综合各种语言的基本研究的成果,归纳成语言的一般规律的语言学科。
应用语言学:广义:泛指语言学理论的各种实际应用,包括语言文字教学、词典编撰、文字制定、文学作品的翻译和语言分析、病理语言学、人工智能、机器翻译等的新语言学科。
狭义:专指把语言理论应用于语言教学,(包括本族语教学和外语教学)。
语文学:又叫传统语言学,指19世纪历史比较语言学产生之前的语言研究,这时的语言研究尚未独立,语言学作为其他学科的附庸而存在,语言研究的主要目的是为了阅读古籍和语言教学,从而为统治者治理国家或为其他学科的研究服务。
小学:中国传统的语文学,包括分析字形的文字学、研究字音的音韵学、解释字义的训诂学,围绕阐释和解读先秦典籍来展开研究,因此又被人们称为经学的附庸。
其他:1.普通语言学的奠基人是(索绪尔)和洪堡特。
前者所著的(《普通语言学教程》)在语言学发展史起到了划时代的作用。
2.结构主义语言学派可以分为三派。
它们是(布拉格学派)、(哥本哈根学派)、(美国学派)。
3.(古代印度)、(中国)、(古希腊-罗马)是语言学的三大发源地。
4.现代语言学一百多年发展,经历了三个时期:历史比较语言学、结构主义语言学、转换生成语言学。
5.(ppt填空题:)我国传统语文学包括(文字学)、(音韵学)、(训诂学)等三门分支学科,合称“小学”。
6.在19世纪逐步发展和完善起来的(欧洲历史比较语言学)不但宣告语言学的真正独立,而且为普通语言学的研究奠定了基础。
7.(书后习题:)语言交际过程可以分为编码-发送-传递-接收-解码五个阶段。
8.印度最早的经典所使用的语言是梵语。
9.错:语言学主要是研究古代的口语和书面语。
10.错:语言有自身结构的独立性,与系统之外的社会环境没有关系。
《语言学概论》笔记及复习重点
《语言学概论》笔记及复习重点一、名词解释:历史语言学:主要用历史的方法研究某种语言的短期的和长期的变化规律,如汉语史、英语史。
共时语言学:研究语言在某一时期的相对静止的情况,如现代汉语。
普通语言学:研究对象是人类语言,着重从理论上探讨语言的共同特点和一般规律,也叫一般语言学。
隐性意义:指隐藏在显性意义后面的各种语法关系,通常表现为施事与动作,动作与受事的关系等。
隐性形式:从微观角度看,句法结构的外部形式具有层次性。
这种层次性不能从外表一眼看出来,需要我们从小到大或从大到小地分析。
显性形式:从宏观上看,句法结构外部形式是线条性,我们把它叫显性形式。
语言学:是研究语言的科学。
语言学家研究的只是经过语言学家主观概括和不同程度上理想化和简单化了的语言。
符号:指的是根据社会的约定俗成使用某种特定的物质实体来表示某种特定的意义而形成的这种实体和意义的结合体。
“符号”必然包括有任何情况下永远不可分割的两个方面,一个方面是物质的实体,另一个方面是约定俗成的意义。
“能指”:是索绪尔给语言符号的物质实体创制的一个专门的术语。
也就是能够指称某种意义的成分。
“所指”:是索绪尔给符号所指的意义内容创制的一个专门术语,也就是“能指成分”,即特定的物质实体,所指的意义内容。
语音:虽是一种声音,但又与一般的声音有着本质的区别。
它是由人的发音器官发出的,负载着一定的意义,并作为语言符号系统载体的声音。
音素:是从音质角度划分出来的最小语音单位。
根据音质的不同,对一串语音不断加以切分,直到不能切分为止,这样得到的语音就是“音素”。
标写语音的书面符号叫做“音标”。
“音位”:就是从社会功能的角度划分出来的语音单位,它是特定语言或方言中具有区别意义作用的最小的语音单位。
“音质音位”和“非音质音位”:音位从构成材料上看,可以分为音质音位和非音质音位。
以音素为材料,通过音质的差别来起辨义作用的音位叫“音质音位”。
语音中除音质外,音高、音强、音长也能起这种作用,因此也构成音位。
《语言学概论》期末复习重点难点
《语言学概论》期末复习重点难点语言学概论第一章语言的本质语言与言语的关系1.言语是指说话这一行为以及说出来的话;语言是指说话时使用的材料和规则。
2.语言是一个封闭的系统,而言语是开放的;语言具有有限性,言语具有无限性。
语言材料和规则都是有限的。
但使用这些词和语法规则能造出多少汉语的句子确实无法计数的。
3.语言属于社会全体成员,言语属于讲话者个人。
不同的人在不同的语境、根据不同的意图讲出的每句话都已经具有了即时即地的色彩。
因此,语言属于个人。
但不同人所使用的语言材料和规则却属于讲这种语言的社会全体成员。
4.语言存在于言语之中,言语是对语言的具体运用;语言规则和材料是一种抽象的体系,人所听到的是具体的言语。
语言符号有哪些符号属性每种属性用一句话说明要点。
1.任意性(根本属性)。
人们选择哪一个具体语音形式和哪一个具体语义内容所结合成一个语言符号是完全任意的,是无可论证的。
2.线条性。
语言符号在使用中必须按时间先后顺次排列出现,人们不可能同事使用或说出多个符号。
3.相对稳定性。
语言不是一成不变的,它还是会发生变化的,只不过这种变化的过程是非常缓慢的,因此具有相对稳定的特点总结(语言的组成要素)两种说法的出发点不同,认识问题的角度不同。
语音、词汇、语法三要素的说法是从组织语言的角度出发的;语音、语义、语法三要素的说法是从分析语言的角度出发的。
两种说法在理论上都有纠结的方面。
1.前一种说法的问题主要在语音与词汇两个因素之间有交叉,因为词的构成的一个方面就是语音;2.后一种说法的问题主要在语法同语义之间有交叉,因为语法内容中包括语法范畴,而语法范畴是由一定语法形式表达的语法意义,比如books中的-s表示复数的语法意义,而语法意义也是语义中的一种。
语言的几层体系的特点(从底层到上层的变化特点)1.语言是由语音、语义、语法三要素组成的系统。
这个系统可以再分为两个层级:帝层和上层。
底层是由一套音位组成的,构成语言的形式系统,不涉及语义。
语言学概论考试重点难点
语言学概论考试重点难点The document was finally revised on 2021语言学概论滕慧群老师期末复习重点详解版导言无问答题记细节题(单选填空判断名词解释)名词解释:理论语言学:普通语言学的一个部分,与应用语言学相对,主要以语言系统的描写、语言运用机制、语言能力以及语言发展的历史为研究对象,是综合各种语言的基本研究的成果,归纳成语言的一般规律的语言学科。
应用语言学:广义:泛指语言学理论的各种实际应用,包括语言文字教学、词典编撰、文字制定、文学作品的翻译和语言分析、病理语言学、人工智能、机器翻译等的新语言学科。
狭义:专指把语言理论应用于语言教学,(包括本族语教学和外语教学)。
语文学:又叫传统语言学,指19世纪历史比较语言学产生之前的语言研究,这时的语言研究尚未独立,语言学作为其他学科的附庸而存在,语言研究的主要目的是为了阅读古籍和语言教学,从而为统治者治理国家或为其他学科的研究服务。
小学:中国传统的语文学,包括分析字形的文字学、研究字音的音韵学、解释字义的训诂学,围绕阐释和解读先秦典籍来展开研究,因此又被人们称为经学的附庸。
其他:1.普通语言学的奠基人是(索绪尔)和洪堡特。
前者所著的(《普通语言学教程》)在语言学发展史起到了划时代的作用。
2.结构主义语言学派可以分为三派。
它们是(布拉格学派)、(哥本哈根学派)、(美国学派)。
3.(古代印度)、(中国)、(古希腊-罗马)是语言学的三大发源地。
4.现代语言学一百多年发展,经历了三个时期:历史比较语言学、结构主义语言学、转换生成语言学。
5.(ppt填空题:)我国传统语文学包括(文字学)、(音韵学)、(训诂学)等三门分支学科,合称“小学”。
6.在19世纪逐步发展和完善起来的(欧洲历史比较语言学)不但宣告语言学的真正独立,而且为普通语言学的研究奠定了基础。
7.(书后习题:)语言交际过程可以分为编码-发送-传递-接收-解码五个阶段。
《语言学概论》笔记及复习重点
《语言学概论》笔记及复习重点一、名词解释:历史语言学:主要用历史的方法研究某种语言的短期的和长期的变化规律,如汉语史、英语史。
共时语言学:研究语言在某一时期的相对静止的情况,如现代汉语。
普通语言学:研究对象是人类语言,着重从理论上探讨语言的共同特点和一般规律,也叫一般语言学。
隐性意义:指隐藏在显性意义后面的各种语法关系,通常表现为施事与动作,动作与受事的关系等。
隐性形式:从微观角度看,句法结构的外部形式具有层次性。
这种层次性不能从外表一眼看出来,需要我们从小到大或从大到小地分析。
显性形式:从宏观上看,句法结构外部形式是线条性,我们把它叫显性形式。
语言学:是研究语言的科学。
语言学家研究的只是经过语言学家主观概括和不同程度上理想化和简单化了的语言。
符号:指的是根据社会的约定俗成使用某种特定的物质实体来表示某种特定的意义而形成的这种实体和意义的结合体。
“符号”必然包括有任何情况下永远不可分割的两个方面,一个方面是物质的实体,另一个方面是约定俗成的意义。
“能指”:是索绪尔给语言符号的物质实体创制的一个专门的术语。
也就是能够指称某种意义的成分。
“所指”:是索绪尔给符号所指的意义内容创制的一个专门术语,也就是“能指成分”,即特定的物质实体,所指的意义内容。
语音:虽是一种声音,但又与一般的声音有着本质的区别。
它是由人的发音器官发出的,负载着一定的意义,并作为语言符号系统载体的声音。
音素:是从音质角度划分出来的最小语音单位。
根据音质的不同,对一串语音不断加以切分,直到不能切分为止,这样得到的语音就是“音素”。
标写语音的书面符号叫做“音标”。
“音位”:就是从社会功能的角度划分出来的语音单位,它是特定语言或方言中具有区别意义作用的最小的语音单位。
“音质音位”和“非音质音位”:音位从构成材料上看,可以分为音质音位和非音质音位。
以音素为材料,通过音质的差别来起辨义作用的音位叫“音质音位”。
语音中除音质外,音高、音强、音长也能起这种作用,因此也构成音位。
汉语言文学《语言学概论》复习要点
《语言学概论》复习要点重点名词概念:语言学、普通语言学、专语语言学、共时语言学、历时语言学一、语言学、语言学的对象和任务二、语言学在科学体系中的地位三、语言学的基本类别根据研究的对象的不同,语言学分为共时语言学和历时语言学、专语语言学和普通语言学。
四、语言学流派各个语言学流派的观点、代表人物有所了解即可,注意布拉格学派、哥本哈根学派以及美国结构语言学派(也称美国描写语言学)都属于结构主义学派,是这一学派的三个分支。
关于语言学流派的具体内容阐述,不作考试要求。
第一章言语的社会功能本章须明确两个大的要点:语言的社会功能,即交际工具和思维工具;语言是一种社会现象。
主要名词概念:语言、社会、社会现象第一节语言是人类最重要的交际工具一、语言是人类社会的交际工具1.语言的交际功能:语言是人类区别于其它动物的一个重要标志。
语言是联系社会成员的桥梁和纽带,是社会成员互相之间交际和交流思想的工具,也是协调社会成员行动一致的工具。
2.语言是一种社会现象:语言是一种社会现象,和人类社会有着十分紧密的联系,没有人类社会,就没有语言,人类社会以外的社会无所谓语言。
所谓社会现象是指那些与人类共同体的产生、存在和发展等活动密切联系的现象。
不同的民族有不同的语言,不同的地域有不同的语言,同时社会的变化也给语言以极大的影响,而离开了人类社会,就无所谓语言可言了。
总之,语言就是一种社会现象,同社会的关系非常密切,其产生、发展等都要受到社会的影响。
语言不是自然现象,一方面,语言同社会有着十分紧密的联系,社会的发展变化直接影响着语言的发展变化,也就是说,语言的发展变化是受制于社会的;另一方面,从语言的音义联系看语言不是自然现象,而是社会约定俗成的,没有必然的本质的联系,如果语言是自然现象,世界上的语言应该一样的,没有区别的,而实际上世界上的语言多种多样,而且许多语言中还有方言,这说明语言决不是自然现象。
3.语言是一种特殊的社会现象:语言不但是社会现象,而且是一种特殊的社会现象。
语言学概论复习要注意的几个问题
• 举例说明语义场有哪些类型? • 答:①同义义场:指由语义特征基本相同的词义 构成的语义场。 • ②反义义场:含有一个对立或相反义素的词义的 聚合称为反义义场,也称反义词聚。 • ③多义义场:指具有派生关系的一个词的各个义 项聚合在一起形成的语义场。 • ④联想义场:把以一个共同义素为核心形成的词 义聚合叫联想义场。这个共同的义素代表了这个 联想场的上位语义范畴,其下位概念的语义都可 以构成一个联想场。
恳求:〔+求人做事+态度最为诚恳〕
• □ 对下列各组词进行义素分析: • 伯父、伯母、叔父、婶母、姑父、姑妈、舅父、舅妈、姨夫、姨妈 • • 答:伯父:〔+人+亲属+长辈+男+父系-姻亲+比父大〕 • • 伯母:〔+人+亲属+长辈-男+父系+姻亲+/-比父大〕 • • 叔父:〔+人+亲属+长辈+男+父系-姻亲-比父大〕 • • 婶母:〔+人+亲属+长辈-男+父系+姻亲+/-比父大〕 • • 姑父:〔+人+亲属+长辈+男+父系+姻亲+/-比父大〕
•
•
姑妈:〔+人+亲属+长辈-男+父系-姻亲+/-比父大〕
舅父:〔+人+亲属+长辈+男-父系-姻亲+/-比父大〕
•
• •
舅妈:〔+人+亲属+长辈-男-父系+姻亲+/-比父大〕
姨夫:〔+人+亲属+长辈+男-父系+姻亲+/-比父大〕 姨妈:〔+人+亲属+长辈-男-父系-姻亲+/-比父大〕
• □ 给“看大剪刀把儿”、“老大爷看画儿”注上严式音 标,并分别分析句中的原因是几个音位?为什么? • • 答:看大剪刀把儿:[kʰan51 tA51 tɕiæn214 tɑu55 pɐɹ51]其中的元音是三个音位,[a] [A] [æ] [ɑ] [ɐ]由 于不区别意义,互补分布,发音相似,所以可以归为一个 音位/a/。[u][i]不能归入/a/音位,因为他们在相同的环 境中区别意义,如[tu] [ti] [ta],所以是三个音位。 • • 注:[a]只出现在[i][n]之前;[A]只出现在辅音后面或单 独使用;[æ]只出现在[i][n]或[y][n]之间;[ɑ]只出现在 [u][ŋ]之前;[ɐ]只出现在儿化音之前。 • • 老大爷看画儿:[lɑu214 tA51 jɛ35 kʰan51 xuɐɹ 51]。
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语言学概论复习重点与难点<语言学概论>复习重点与难点指导老师陈蓉1.1语义就是语言的意义,是语言形式表达的内容。
语义包含两个方面的内容,一是思想,也就是所谓的“理性意义”,一是情感,也就是所谓的“非理性意义”。
理性意义也叫做逻辑意义或指称意义,是对主客观世界的认识。
理性意义是语义的基本要素。
非理性意义是说话人的主观情感、态度以及语体风格等方面的内容,它一般总是附着在特定的理性意义之上的。
语义是同语言形式结合在一起的意义,同语言形式的结合是语义的基本特征。
语言形式粗略的说,包括“语汇形式”和“语法形式”两类。
语汇形式就是一种语言里所有的实词和固定短语,语法形式包括语序、虚词、形态、重音、语调等形式。
由语汇形式表达的语义通常叫“词汇意义”,由语法形式表达的语义叫“语法意义”。
在语言里,语素、词、词组、句子等各级单位都有意义,它们的意义都是语义。
其中句子的意义和词的意义具有突出的地位。
语言形式所表达的意义有一般与个别、稳定与临时的分别。
在通常情况下都能够存在的意义是一般的、稳定的,在特定睥上下文、特定的交际场合中或特定的知识背景下才能出现的意义是人别的临时的。
前者叫“语言意义”即语义,后者叫“语境意义”。
1.2 语义的概括性概括性是语义的重要属性,无论是词义还是句义都是概括的。
1.3 语义的模糊性所谓的模糊性是指词义所反映的对象只有一个大致的范围,而没有明确的界限。
但也不是所有的词语都如此。
不少词语的词义是精确的。
1.4 语义的民族性语义的民族特点比较突出地体现在词义上。
语义的民族特点也体现在词语的非理性意义方面。
2.1 词义的构成词义是指词的语音形式所表达的内容。
词的意义包括词汇意义和语法意义两部分。
词义可以说是由理性意义和非理性意义两部分构成的。
词的理性意义是通过人的抽象思维对物质世界和精神世界的各种对象的概括的反映而形成的。
词的理性意义由于概括深度上的差异而分为两种类型:一种是人们对事物所具有的一组非本质特征的反映,这种词的理性意义可以称之为“通俗意义”;另一种是人们对事物的本质特征的反映,这种词的理性意义可以称为“科学意义”。
词的理性意义是词义的基本的和核心的部分。
词的非理性意义是附着在词的理性意义之上的,因而又叫做词义的附加色彩。
词的非理性意义主要表现在以下几个方面:一是感情色彩。
感情色彩中最主要的是“褒义色彩”和“贬义色彩”。
褒义色彩表现的是对词义反映对象的肯定、赞许、喜爱的态度;贬义色彩表现的是对词义反映对象的否定、贬斥、厌恶的态度。
没有感情色彩的词是中性词,这样的词在语言的词汇中占大多数。
二是语体色彩。
由交际环境的不同而导致的语言变体就是“语体”。
口语语体和书面语体是语言中两种最基本的语体。
如果一个词语只用于或经常用于某种语体之中,就会带上这种语体色彩,这就是词的“语体色彩”。
词的语体色彩分为口语色彩和书面语色彩两种基本类型。
不带任何语体色彩的词语是通用词语,它们通用于口语和书面语。
三是形象色彩。
词的形象色彩是指由词内部的组成成分所引起的对事物视觉形象或听觉形象的联想。
2.2 义项和非义项义项是词典释义的最小单位。
义项是从词语的各种用例中概括出来的共同的、一般的、稳定的意义,不包括词语在特定的语言环境里所显现的个别的、具体的、临时的意义。
一个词有几个义项,这几个义项尽管反映的对象不同,但它们应该有一般人可以感觉得到的联系,如果没有这种联系,它们就不能算是同一个词的不同义项,而只难算不同的词。
2.3 义素和义素分析由分析义项得到的词义的语义特征叫做“义素”,又叫“语义成分”、“语义原子”。
义素是理论分析的结果,是一种不与语音形式相联系的抽象的语义单位。
义素分析就是把词语的义项进一步分析为若干义素的组合,以便说明词义的结构、词义之间的异同以及词义之间的各种关系。
义素分析的基本方法是对比法。
义素分析通常可以按照三个步骤来进行:首先是确定对比的范围。
一般来说,用来对比的应该是指称同一种类对象的词语。
第二步是比较词义的异同。
最后一步是整理和描写。
义素分析应力求做到准确,和简明。
义素分析的作用:首先,义素分析可以清楚、简洁地说明词义的结构,便于比较词义之间的异同,便于揭示近义词、反义词等词义关系,有利于词义的研究、学习和掌握。
其次,义素分析还有助于说明词语组合的语义限制条件。
最后语义分析还可以使语义的描写形式化。
3.1 单义和多义一个词的意义可以概括反映一类对象,也就是只有一个义项,这类词叫“单义词”。
一个词的意义包含几个互相联系的义项,这类词叫“多义词”。
科学术语一般都是单义的,并且不带任何附加色彩,一个词在刚产生时往往是单义的。
词由单义发展为多义是有其各方面的根源的。
首先,客观对象之间的各种联系是词语多义化的现实基础。
其次,词语的多义化是语言经济原则的必然产物。
多义词的多个意义中,最初的那个意义叫“本义”。
多义词的其他意义都是直接或间接地从本义衍生出来的,这些后来衍生出来的意义叫“派生义”,也叫“引申意”。
多义词的多个意义中,总有一个是某个时期最常用最主要的,这个意义叫“基本义”。
基本义不同于本义,基本义是就某个时代中多义词各个意义之间的关系和使用频率而言行的,而本义则是就多义词各个意义产生时间的先后而言的。
由于确定二者的依据不同,词的本义和基本义可能是一致的,也可能是不一致的。
派生意产生的途径就是一般所说的引申。
引申一般都是沿着客观对象间的相关性联系或相似性联系这两个方向进行的。
前者的引申方式叫“借代”,后者的引申方式叫“比喻”。
借代是指甲、乙两类对象之间虽没有相似性,但存在着某种比较稳定的联系,在此基础上,用原本指称甲类对象的词语去指称乙类对象,从而使词语产生新的意义。
比喻是指甲、乙两类对象之间有某种相似性,在此基础上,用原本指称甲类对象的词语去指称己类对象,从而使词语产生新的意义。
相同的语音形式和书写形式表示几个意思不一定是多义词,如果这几个意思之间没有联系,那就只是同音词。
多义词和同音词的共同之处在于:它们都是以一个语音形式来表示多个意义。
多义词和同音词的区别是:多义词的各个意义之间有着内在的联系,同音词的意义之间则没有任何联系;多义词是一个词兼有几个互相有联系的意义,是词义的一种聚合方式,而同音词则是两个或几个不同的词,与词义的聚合没有直接的关系。
3.2 同义词以不同的语音形式表达相同或相近的意义,就是同义词。
同义词是指一种语言或方言中意义相同或相近的两个或两个以上的词。
同义词具有这样一些特点:首先,同义词是就词语之间的关系而言的,孤立的词语无所谓同义词。
其次,要构成同义词,不同词语的词义所概括反映的对象必须是相同的,或者是基本相同的,因而指称某一大类事物的词和指称这一大类事物中的某一小类的词不能构成同义词,指称事物整体的词和指称整体中的某个部分的词也不能构成同义词。
最后,同义词是就特定语言和方言的词汇系统而言的,不能跨越语言或方言来讨论同义词。
同义词有的意义完全相同,有的大同小异,因而可分为“等义词”和“近义词”两类。
等义词是指包括理性意义和非理性意义在内的词义完全相同的两个或两个以上的词。
语言中的等义词有些是借用外语词或方言词的结果。
近义词是指理性意义相同或基本相同,但又有细微差别的两个或两个以上的词。
一般所说的同义词绝大多数都属于这种类型。
近义词之间的差别可以表现在词的理性意义上,也可以表现在非理性意义上。
有些近义词的差别主要表现为感情色彩的不同,有的表现为语体色彩的不同,有的表现为形象色彩的不同。
3.3 反义词反义词指的是一种语言或方言中意义相反的两个词。
反义词的特点:首先,反义词的意义反映的是同类事物内部两个矛盾或以对立的方面,具有共同的意义领域是构成词语间反义关系的基础。
其次,反义词是指两个词意义相反,这种意义相反,是以逻辑上的矛盾关系和反对关系为基础的。
再其次,反义词是就词语的基本理性意义之间的关系而言的,理性意义上的细差别及附加色彩的对立都可能成为近义词之间的反义因素,但不能构成反义词。
最后,和同义词一样,反义词是就特定的语言或方言的词汇系统而言的。
反义词可以分为“绝对反义词”和“相对反义词”。
如果两个反义词处于矛盾关系之中,非A 即B ,这种词就叫绝对反义词。
如果两个反义词处在反对关系中,肯定一方就必然否定另一方,否定另一方则未必肯定另一方,二者之间存在着非此非彼的中间状态,这类反义词就叫相对反义词。
反义词的作用:首先,利用反义词可以帮助我们在编纂词典时确定多义词的义项,可以帮助我们辨析近义词之间的细微差别。
其次,反义词在修辞上有对比作用,可以用来揭示矛盾,突出对立面,增强语言的表现力。
3.4 语义场词义有一定的系统性。
语义场就是这种词义系统性的重要表现。
语义场是指若干具有共同的类属义素的词语(义项)构成的聚合体,类属义素是指反映一物所属类别的语义特征。
语义场与语言中的上下位词有着密切的关系。
属于同一个上位词的若干个下位词都具有相同的类属义素,可以构成一个语义场。
语义场最重要的特点是它的系统性。
系统性也有程度的差别。
语义场的另一个特点是它的层次性。
研究语义场的意义:首先,语义场研究以系统的观点来看待语言中的词汇意义,不是把不同的词义看作彼此毫不相干的个体而孤立地研究单个的词义及其变化。
其次,语义研究可以为义素分析提供一个分析的基础。
再其次,语义场研究为词义体系的建立提供了一种可供选择的理论和途径。
最后,语义场的研究工作认识不同语言之间的语义对应关系提供了一种可以利用的手段和框架。
4.1 句义的构成句子的语言意义可以依据表达形式的不同而大致分析为词汇意义、关系意义和语气意义三个主要部分。
词是句子的基本构成成分,句子中词的意义也就成为句义的重要组成部分。
句子通常都是由词语组合而成的,词语在组合时总要形成一定的结构关系,由这些关系所赋予的意义就是我们所说的“关系意义”。
词语在组合过程中形成的相互关系包括语法结构关系和语义结构关系。
因而,词语之间的关系意义又可分为“语法关系意义”和“语义关系意义”。
词语在一定的语法结构中形成的相互关系就是语法结构关系,由这种结构关系所赋予的意义就是语法关系意义。
比如主谓结构关系所赋予的意是陈述,动宾结构关系所赋予的意义是涉及,语义结构关系是指词语在组合中产生的语义上的关系,它是一定的现实关系的概括反映。
反映说话人使用句子的目的和说话人情绪的意义就是“语气意义”。
语气意主包括陈述、疑问、祈使、感叹等不同的语气。
语气一般都是通过语调形式来表达的。
4.2 句子的语义结构从语义结构上看,一个句子包括“情态”和“命题”两部分。
情态部分包括时态、语态、语气等方面的意义,情态以外的部分便是命题。
一个命题在语义结构上可以进一步分析为一个“述谓结构”,一个述谓结构由一个“谓词”和若干个变元组成。