语言学(6-10)

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《语言学》Chapter 6 Pragmatics习题兼答案

《语言学》Chapter 6  Pragmatics习题兼答案

语言学Chapter 6 PRAGMATICS1. What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?答:Generally speaking, pragmatics is the study of meaning in the context. It studies meaning in a dynamic way and as a process. In order to have a successful communication, the speaker and hearer must take the context into their consideration so as to effect the right meaning and intention. The development and establishment pragmatics in 1960s and 1970s resulted mainly from the expansion of the study semantics. However, it is different from the traditional semantics. The major difference between them lies in that pragmatics studies meaning in a dynamic way, while semantics studies meaning in a static way. Pragmatics takes context into consideration while semantics does not. Pragmatics takes care of the aspect of meaning that is not accounted for by semantics.2. Why is the notion of context essential in the pragmatic study of linguistic communication? 答:The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. Various continents of shared knowledge have been identified, e.g. knowledge of the language they use, knowledge of what has been said before, knowledge about the world in general, knowledge about the specific situation in which linguistic communication is taking place, and knowledge about each other. Context determines the speaker's use of language and also the heater's interpretation of what is said to him. Without such knowledge, linguistic communication would not be possible, and without considering such knowledge, linguistic communication cannot be satisfactorily accounted for in a pragmatic sense. Look at the following sentences:(1) How did it go?(2) It is cold in hem.(3) It was a hot Christmas day so we went down to the beach in the afternoon and had agood time swimming and surfing.Sentence (1) might be used in a conversation between two students talking about an examination, or two surgeons talking about an operation, or in some other contexts; (2) might be said by the speaker to ask the hearer to turn on the heater, or leave the place, or to put on more clothes, or to apologize for the poor condition of the room, depending on the situation of context; (3) makes sense only ii the hearer has the knowledge that Christmas falls in summer in the southern hemisphere.3. How are sentence meaning and utterance meaning related, and how do they differ?答: A sentence is a grammatical concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication. But if we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an utterance, and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actually uttered (or used). So it is impossible to tell if “The dog is barking” is a sentence or an utterance. It can be either. It all depends on how we look at it and how we are going to analyze it. If we take it as a grammatical unit and consider it as a self-contained unit in isolation from context, then we are treating it as asentence. If we take it as something a speaker utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then we are treating it as an utterance.Therefore, while the meaning of a sentence is abstract, and decontextualized, that of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. The meaning of an utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. Now, take the sentence "My bag is heavy" as an example. Semantic analysis of the meaning of the sentence results in the one-place predication BAG (BEING HEA VY). Then a pragmatic analysis of the utterance meaning of the .sentence varies with the context in which it is uttered. For example, it could be uttered by a speaker as a straightforward statement, telling the hearer that his bag is heavy. It could also be intended by the speaker as an indirect, polite request, asking the hearer to help him carry the bag. Another possibility is that the speaker is declining someone's request for help. All these are possible interpretations of the same utterance “M y bag is heavy”. How it is to be underst ood depends on the context in which it is uttered and the purpose for which the speaker utters it.While most utterances take the form of grammatically complete sentences, some utterances do not, and some cannot even be restored to complete sentences.4. Try to think of contexts in which the following sentences can be used for other purposes than just stating facts:a) The room is messy.b) Oh, it is raining!c) The music of the movie is good.d) You have been keeping my notes for a whole week now.答:a) A father entered his son’s room and found it is very messy. Then when he said, “The room is messy,” he was blaming his son for not tidying it up.b) A son asked his father to play with him outside. So when the father said, “Oh, it’s raining”,he meant they couldn’t play outside.c) Two persons just watched a movie and had a discussion of it. One person sai d, “The story ofthe movie is very moving”, so wh en the other person sai d, “The music of the movie is good”, he me ant he didn't think the story of the movie was good.d) A person wanted his notes bac k, so when he said, “you ha ve been keeping my notes for awhole wee k now”, he was demanding the return of his notes.5. According to Austin, what are the three acts a person is possibly performing while making an utterance. Give an example.答:According to Austin's new model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act.A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something. A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something. Let's look at an example:You have left the door wide open.The locutionary act performed by the speaker is his utterance of the wo rds “you”, “have”,“door”, “open”, etc. thus expressing what the words literally mean.The illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance he has expressed his intention of speaking, i.e. asking someone to close the door, or making a complaint, depending on the context.The perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance. If the hearer gets the speaker's message and sees that the speaker means to tell him to close the door, the speaker has successfully brought about the change in the real world he has intended to; then the perlocutionary act is successfully performed.6. What are the five types of illocutionary speech acts Searle has specified? What is theillocutionary point of each type?答:(1) representatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true(2) directives: trying to get the hearer to do something(3) commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action(4) expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing(5) declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingThe illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speaker to something's being the case, to the truth of what has been said, in other words, when performing an illocutionary act of representative, the speaker is making a statement or giving a description which he himself believes to be true. Stating, believing, sweating, hypothesizing are among the most typical of the representatives.Directives ate attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do some- thing. Inviting, suggesting, requesting, advising, wanting, threatening and ordering are all specific instances of this class.Commissives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action, i.e. when speaking the speaker puts himself under a certain obligation. Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical ones.The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance. The speaker is expressing his feelings or attitudes towards an existing state of affairs, e.g. apologizing, thanking, congratulating.The last class “declarations” has the characteristic that the successful performance of an act of this type brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality.7. What is indirect language use? How is it explained in the light of speech act theory?答:When someone is not saying I an explicit and straightforward manner what he means to say, rather he is trying to put across his message in an implicit, roundabout way, we can say he is using indirect language.Explanation (略) (见教材p.84-85)8. What are the four maxims of the CP? Try to give your own examples to show how floutingthese maxims gives rise to conversational implicature?答:Cooperative Principle, abbreviated as CP. It goes as follows:Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.To be more specific, there are four maxims under this general principle:(1) The maxim of quantity①Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of theexchange).②Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.(2) The maxim of quality①Do not say what you believe to be false.②Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.(3) The maxim of relationBe relevant.(4) The maxim of manner①Avoid obscurity of expression.②Avoid ambiguity.③Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).④Be orderly.9. What is pragmatic failure? Try to find instances of pragmatic failure in the English usedby Chinese learners of English.答:The technical term for breakdowns in the course of communication is pragmatic failure.Pragmatic failure occurs when the speaker fails to use language effectively to achieve a specific communication purpose, or when the hearer fails to recognize the intention or the illocutionary force of the speaker’s utterance in the context of communication.Instances (略) (见教材p.89)。

语言学重要概念梳理(中英文对照版)

语言学重要概念梳理(中英文对照版)

第一节语言的本质一、语言的普遍特征(Design Features)1.任意性 Arbitratriness:shu 和Tree都能表示“树”这一概念;同样的声音,各国不同的表达方式2.双层结构Duality:语言由声音结构和意义结构组成(the structure ofsounds and meaning)3.多产性productive: 语言可以理解并创造无限数量的新句子,是由双层结构造成的结果(Understand and create unlimited number withsentences)4.移位性 Displacemennt:可以表达许多不在场的东西,如过去的经历、将来可能发生的事情,或者表达根本不存在的东西等5.文化传播性 Cultural Transmission:语言需要后天在特定文化环境中掌握二、语言的功能(Functions of Language)1.传达信息功能 Informative:最主要功能The main function2.人际功能 Interpersonal:人类在社会中建立并维持各自地位的功能establish and maintain their identity3.行事功能 performative:现实应用——判刑、咒语、为船命名等Judge,naming,and curses4.表情功能 Emotive Function:表达强烈情感的语言,如感叹词/句exclamatory expressions5.寒暄功能 Phatic Communion:应酬话phatic language,比如“吃了没?”“天儿真好啊!”等等6.元语言功能 Metalingual Function:用语言来谈论、改变语言本身,如book可以指现实中的书也可以用“book这个词来表达作为语言单位的“书”三、语言学的分支1. 核心语言学 Core linguistic1)语音学 Phonetics:关注语音的产生、传播和接受过程,着重考察人类语言中的单音。

自考“语言学概论”复习资料(6)

自考“语言学概论”复习资料(6)

⼀、什么是⾳位 1、⾳位:从社会功能⾓度划分出来的语⾳单位,是特定语⾔或⽅⾔中具有区别意义作⽤的最⼩的语⾳单位。

2、⾳位的性质:可从以下四点来说明: (1)⾳位的辨义功能。

(2)⾳位是具有辨义功能的最⼩的语⾳单位。

(3)⾳位是由⼀组彼此的差别没有辨义作⽤⽽⾳感上⼜相似的⾳素概括⽽成的⾳类。

(4)⾳位是属于特定的语⾔或⽅⾔的。

3、⾳位的辨义功能:⾳位是从社会功能⾓度划分出来的具有区别意义作⽤的语⾳单位。

⾳位的这种区别意义的作⽤叫做“辨义功能”。

4、⾳位是具有辨义功能的最⼩的语⾳单位:所谓“最⼩的”是指从中不能再切分出更⼩的语⾳单位。

5、⾳位是由⼀组彼此的差别没有辨义作⽤⽽⾳感上⼜相似的⾳素⽽概括成的⾳类;⾳位是从辨义功能的⾓度划分出来的语⾳单位,这种划分只关注那些与意义的区别有关的语⾳差别,⽽对那些与意义的区别⽆关的⾳质上的细微差别则可以忽略不计。

6、⾳位属于特定的语⾔或⽅⾔: (1)⾳位总是属于特定的语⾔或⽅⾔的,总是特定的语⾳系统的成员,不存在超语⾔或超⽅⾔的⾳位。

(2)每种语⾔或⽅⾔的⾳位都形成-个具有⾃⼰特点⽽不同于其他语⾔或⽅⾔的系统。

(3)处于不同系统中的⾳位是各不相同的。

①不同的系统⾥有不同的⾳素,因⽽具有不同的⾳位。

②相同的⾳素在不同的系统中所起的作⽤不⼀定相同,因⽽不同语⾔或⽅⾔表⾯上相同的⾳位实际上并不能对等。

7、⾳位理论的基本原理:根据是否具有辨义功能,可将具体语⾔或⽅⾔⾥数⽬繁多的语素归纳为⼀套为数有限的⾳位,从⽽使语⾳系统的结构特征得以呈现。

8、⾳质⾳位和⾮⾳质⾳位的区别:⾳质⾳位以⾳素为材料,通过⾳质的差别来起辨义作⽤的⾳位⼜叫做“⾳段⾳位”。

⽽⾮⾳质⾳位是通过⾳⾼、⾳强、⾳长的差别来起辨义作⽤的⾳位,⼜叫做“超⾳段⾳位”。

⼆、⾳位变体 1、⾳位变体:同属于⼀个⾳位的不同⾳素。

2、条件变体: (1)条件变体的含义。

(2)划分和归并⾳位的对⽴原则、互补原则和相似原则。

语言学概论 自学笔记 第六章 文字

语言学概论  自学笔记   第六章  文字

第六章文字一、名词解释1.文字2.字符3.意符4.音符5.记号6.自源文字7.他源文字8.单纯字符9.复合字符 10.词语文字 11.语素文字 12.音节文字 13.音位文字 14.表意文字15.表音文字 16.意音文字 17.假借字 18.楔形文字 19.象形字 20.指事字、会意字21.“六书” 22.独体字23.合体字、偏旁、形旁、声旁24.字符的书写规则 25.“文字的创制”26.语言规划二、简答和论述1.文字是语言的书写符号系统.2.简述字符的类型。

3.谈谈自源文字是如何表音的?4.举例说明音符最初都是由已有的意符转化而来的.5.“自源文字”与“他源文字”的区别。

6.简述划分文字类型的标准。

7.应该如何看待一些表示比较复杂意思的图画以及夹杂一部分字符的图画跟文字的关系?8.如何正确认识汉字的类型?9.汉字是不是音种语素文字或语素一节文字?请谈谈你的看法。

10.文字和语言的关系.11.语言对文字的影响.12.文字对语言的影响.13.简要说明不少人将文字和书面语等同起来进而把文字和语言等同起来的原因?14.文字起源于图画和契刻.15.结绳跟文字的起源没有直接的关系.16.古苏美尔文字的情况.17.古埃及文字的情况.18.腓尼基人借用古埃及文字创造了最早的辅音文字.19.“辅音文字”的起源。

20.试述“音位”文字的发展过程。

21.汉字的形旁跟表意字符的区别.22.汉字的声旁跟表音字符不完全相同.23.汉字字体的演变.24.汉语字符组合规则.25.应该如何看待“文字发展三阶段论”的观点.26.非洲一些新兴国家创制文字的情况.27.新中国为少数民族语言创制文字的情况.28.文字改革的类型.29.文字的创制有哪些值得注意的问题?30.文字创制的目的。

31.应该如何对待文字改革?32.文字改革与创制文字的异同。

33.在现代汉语中,诸如“日、山、火、象”这样的字很多。

这些字的共同特点表现在它们的字形与其所表示的意义之间存在着千丝万缕的关联。

语言学第六章chapter6课件

语言学第六章chapter6课件
语言学第六章chapter6
Five types of deixis
1. Person deixis: me, you, him, them. 2. Time deixis: now, then, tonight, last week. 3. Space/spatial/place deixis: here, there, and
6.2.2 Deixis
Deixis (指示), which means “pointing” via language, the interpretation of many words and expressions by reference to the situational context of tc form used to do this “pointing” is called a deictic expression, or indexical.
语言学第六章chapter6
(3) A: Can I borrow your dictionary? B: Yeah, it’s on the table.
antecedent, anaphor or anaphoric expression.
indirect anaphor or bridging reference : (4) I walked into the room. The windows
语言学第六章chapter6
A melamed [小学教师, Hebrew teacher] discovering that he had left his comfortable slippers back in the house, sent a student after them with a note for his wife.

英语语言学分支

英语语言学分支

英语语言学分支(原创实用版)目录1.英语语言学的分支概述2.语音学3.语法学4.语义学5.语用学6.语言学与其他学科的联系正文一、英语语言学的分支概述英语语言学作为语言学的一个重要分支,主要研究英语的语音、语法、语义、语用等方面的规律。

英语语言学可以分为多个子领域,每个子领域都有其独特的研究方法和目标。

本文将对英语语言学的主要分支进行简要介绍。

二、语音学语音学是研究语音现象的学科,主要关注发音、声调、音位等方面的问题。

在英语语音学中,研究者需要分析英语音标的发音规律,以及不同口音和方言的特点。

此外,语音学还涉及到语音识别和合成等领域。

三、语法学语法学是研究语言结构的学科,主要关注词汇、句子和篇章的组织规律。

在英语语法学中,研究者需要分析英语单词的词性、词序、句子成分等方面的问题。

语法学的研究成果对语言教学、翻译和自然语言处理等方面具有重要意义。

四、语义学语义学是研究语言意义的学科,主要关注词汇、句子和篇章的含义。

在英语语义学中,研究者需要分析英语单词和句子的意义、语义关系等方面的问题。

语义学的研究成果有助于提高语言表达的准确性和理解能力。

五、语用学语用学是研究语言使用情况的学科,主要关注语言在不同情境下的功能和效果。

在英语语用学中,研究者需要分析英语在不同语境、交际目的和文化背景中的使用规律。

语用学的研究成果对跨文化交际、语言教学和翻译等方面具有重要意义。

六、语言学与其他学科的联系英语语言学与许多其他学科有着密切的联系,如心理学、社会学、哲学、计算机科学等。

这些学科的研究成果为英语语言学的研究提供了丰富的理论资源和方法论支持。

同时,英语语言学的研究成果也在这些学科领域产生了广泛的应用价值。

总之,英语语言学作为一个多元化的学科体系,其各个分支领域都有独特的研究内容和方法。

语言学基础复习(全)

语言学基础复习(全)

语言学基础复习(全)
1. 什么是语言学?
语言学是研究语言的科学领域。

它探究语言的结构、性质和使用,并研究语言之间的相互关系。

2. 语音学
语音学是语言学的一个分支,研究语言中的音素、音系和语音规律。

它涉及到语音的产生、传播和感知。

3. 语法学
语法学是研究语言中的句法结构和规则的学科。

它研究句子的结构、词类和句法关系等。

4. 语义学
语义学研究语言中词语、短语和句子的意义。

它关注词义、义项和语义关系等。

5. 语用学
语用学研究语言的使用方式和交际功能。

它研究语言的意图、推理和上下文等因素。

6. 语言变异和语言变化
语言变异和语言变化是研究语言不同方言、变体以及语言演变过程的学科。

7. 语言学与其他学科的关系
语言学与其他学科如心理学、认知科学、社会学和人机交互等有紧密的联系和应用。

8. 语言学的研究方法
语言学采用多种研究方法,包括实地调查、语料库研究、实验
研究和理论推导等。

9. 语言学的应用领域
语言学的应用领域包括教育、语言教学、翻译、语音识别、自
然语言处理等。

10. 语言学的发展前景
随着科技的进步和社会的发展,语言学在多个领域将继续发展,如自然语言处理、人机交互、机器翻译等。

以上是对语言学基础的简要复习,希望能够帮助你加深对语言
学的理解。

语言学知识

语言学知识

一、定义:什么是语言学?Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.二、语言学研究的核心(下面的术语要尽量全都认识,不然做题时可能看不懂选项)1、Phonetics 语音学2、Phonology 音位学3、Morphology 形态学4、Syntax 句法学5、Semantics 语义学6、Pragmatics 语用学三、语言(Langue)和言语(Parole)这个考过的。

Parole这个概念是F. de Saussure(索绪尔)提出的。

Langue指语言系统的整体,“所有(语言使用)个体头脑中存储的词语-----形象之总和”,这个整体相对较为稳定;Parole指某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语,它是随时间和地点变化的一个动态的实体。

四、语言的功能Functions of Language(这个也考过的。

考过the informative function,就是高速公路指示牌的那道题)1、The instrumental function2、The regulatory function3、The heuristic function4、The interactional function5、The personal function6、The imaginative function7、The informative function五、语言的普遍特征Design Features这个也考过的,这五个特征由美国语言学家Charles Hockett提出。

弱弱地说一句:如果真的在临时抱佛脚,那就不要管这五个术语的具体含义了,只要能强行记下来应付考试就是了。

>_<1、Arbitrariness 任意性2、Productivity 多产性3、Duality 双层结构4、Displacement 移位性5、Cultural Transmission 文化传播性六、语音学和音位学(一)语音学Phonetics: the study of the phonic medium of language.1、三大分支(1)Articulatory Phonetics发音语音学(2)Auditory Phonetics 听觉语音学(3)Acoustic Phonetics 声学语音学2、辅音和元音(这个考过的,考过二者的区别)(二)音位学Phonology: aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form pattern and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.1、三个术语(1)Phone音素(2)Phoneme音位(3)Allophone音位变体2、Suprasegmental Phonology超音段音位(考过的)包括Stress重音、Tone音调、Intonation语调七、形态学Morphology: refers to the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.(一)两类词汇1、Closed class words封闭性词汇2、Open class words开放性词汇(二)Morpheme词素1、Free morpheme自由词素2、Bound morpheme粘着词素3、Stem词干4、Root词根(三)Word-formation构词法(四)Inflection屈折变化八、句法学Syntax: studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.九、语义学Semantics: is generally considered to be the study of meaning in language.1、Synonymy同义关系2、Polysemy一词多义3、Homophones同音异义&Homogragh同形异义&Complete homonyms同形同音异义4、Hyponymy上下义关系5、Antonymy反义关系6、Analysis of meaning语义分析(1)Componential analysis成分分析(2)Predication analysis述谓分析7、 Two-place predicate二向谓词、one-place predicate一向谓词、no-place predicate 零向谓词8、 Sense relations between sentences(1)Entailment(2)Presupposition十、语用学1、Pragmatics: the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. (Or it refers to the study of natural language understanding, and specifically the study of how context influences the interpretation of meanings.)2、区分语义学和语用学的最本质因素是:是否考虑了语言使用过程中的语境。

语言学概论(6)语法介绍

语言学概论(6)语法介绍

三、组合规则


1、语素组合成词的规则(构词法) A.词根和词缀 按作用语素分词根和词缀两类 词缀按与词根语素的关系分前缀、中缀、后缀 词缀按功能分派生词缀和屈折词缀 词根和构词词缀叫构词语素,屈折词缀叫变词语素 B.单纯词和合成词 单纯词,由一个词根语素构成的词。 合成词,由两个或两个以上构词语素构成的词,分复合词与 派生词两种。 合成法与派生法(附加法)
2、词与词组合的规则(结构类型) 主谓结构(有的语言需要主谓一致的形态变化) 述宾结构(有的语言宾语在前,述语在后) 偏正结构(有的语言正在前,偏在后) 联合结构(一般用虚词连结相关语法单位) 述补结构(属于汉语特有的一种结构) (英语:主语补足语,宾语补足语 Push the door open;push the door hard)

d.句子是表达比较完整的意思,具有一定语
调的交际的基本单位。 语素、词、词组是语言的静态单位、备用单 位;句子是语言的动态单位、使用单位。 按结构分类,句子可以分为主谓句、非主谓 句;单句和复句。 按语气或功能分类,句子可分为陈述句、疑 问句、祈使句、感叹句。
2、语法规则
语法规则是指语法单位之间的关系,主要分组合规 则和聚合规则 A、组合规则:语法单位相互连接起来构成更大的语言 片段的规则,包括语素构成词的构词法(构词法和 构形法合称词法)和词构成词组或句子的句法。 B、聚合规则:语法单位的归类的规则,也就是什么样 的语法单位同什么样的语法单位在语法功能上相同, 能够相互替换,这些单位形成一个聚合。 C.组合规则和聚合规则是相互依存的:组合规则的实 现依托于聚合,聚合类的归并也源于具体的组合。
D、民族性

语法的民族性指的是一种语言的语法在结构Байду номын сангаас则上表现出来 的不同于其他语言的特点,也即是说,各民族语言都有自己 的语法规则和语法体系。我们对不同语言进行比较就会发现 他们之间有不同之处。例如,汉语说“两本书”,而英语则 说“two books”,两者词序相同,但是英语没有量词。汉 语说“一个女孩”,法语则说 “une fille chinoise”,法语 不但没有量词,而且,二者词序也和汉语有所不同,并且, 法语的冠词、名词、形容词等都有阴性、阳性的区别,汉语 中则没有。

语言学纲要6第三章语音和音系第三节

语言学纲要6第三章语音和音系第三节

• 2.决定辅音音质的因素: • 刚才我们复习决定元音音质时讲,决定元 音音质的主要有三个方面的因素,舌位的 高低(例如[i]和[a]的区别),舌位的 前后(例如[y]和[u]的区别),嘴唇的 圆展(例如[i]和[y]的区别)。那么, 决定元音音质的主要因素有几个呢?一般 认为,决定辅音音质的两个方面的因素, 一是是发音部位,二是发音方法。下面我 们分别来介绍。
• 二、元音和辅音及其区别 • 语言当的音可以分为元音和辅音两大类。 • 一般说来,元音和辅音的区别可以从下面几个 方面来考虑: • 1.从功能上来讲,元音往往能自成音节,辅 音一般不能独立地构成音节。 • 2.在物理属性方面,元音基本上由乐音构成, 辅音则有一定的噪音。 • 3.在听觉上,发元音时,声带振动,比较响 亮;发辅音时,有的声带不振动,自然不够响亮, 有的声带即使振动,但由于在声腔中受到某种阻 碍,还是不如元音响亮。 • 4.在生理属性方面,主要有三个方面的区别:
• 第一,发辅音的时候,发音器官的某一部 位形成阻碍,气流在只有克服阻碍才能发 出来;发元音的时候,气流通过生门使声 带发生振动,气流在其通道上不受到阻碍, 只受到各种共鸣。 • 第二,发辅音时,因为要克服某种阻碍, 气流就比较强;发元音时,因无需克服阻 碍,气流就比较弱。 • 第三,发辅音时,因为要有一定的阻碍, 阻碍部位的发音器官就明显地紧张;发元 音时,发音器官的紧张度并不集中于某个 部位,发音器官的各部位均匀紧张。
• 2.喉头和声带 • 喉头由软骨构成,呈圆筒形,下接气管,上通咽 腔。 • 喉头的外表是喉结,当中有一对声带。声带是两 片很小的薄膜,长度只有13-14毫米,前后两端 粘附在软骨上,中间的通路叫声门。 • 发a,i,u,m,n,l的时候,声门就闭拢,气流冲击声带, 使它发生振动,于是发出元音(纯粹的乐音)和 带乐音成分的辅音。 • 不说话,或发f,s等音的时候,声门是张开的,气 流可以只有通过,声带不振动。 • 见教材58页。

语言学概论的试题及答案

语言学概论的试题及答案

语言学概论试题及答案语言学概论试题及答案(一):一、单项选择题(本大题共25小题,每小题1分,共25分)在每小题列出的四个备选项中只有一个是贴合题目要求的,请将其代码填写在题后的括号内。

错选、多选或未选均无分。

1.决定两种话是不一样语言还是同一种语言的不一样方言就应主要参考(C)A.相互理解程度B.语言结构的差异程度C.共同的历史文化传统和民族认同感D.是否属于同一个国家2.关于“说话”这种口头交际行为,下列说法正确的一项是(D)A.只涉及心理问题,不涉及物理和生理问题B.只涉及物理问题,不涉及生理和心理问题C.只涉及生理问题,不涉及物理和心理问题D.既涉及心理问题,又涉及生理和物理问题3.关于语音四要素,下列说法不正确的一项是(B)A.在任何语言中,音高变化都是语调的主要构成要素B.能起区别语言好处作用的是绝对的音高、音强和音长C.音长是由发音体振动的持续时光决定的D.音强是由发音体振动的振幅大小决定的4.下列关于区别特征的表述中,不正确的一项是(B)A.音位是透过区别特征相互区别的B.区别特征完全取决于语音的自然属性C.音位的辨义功能由区别特征负担D.区别特征通常都表现为二项对立5.关于“复辅音”,下列说法不正确的一项是(B)A.复辅音是一个音节内两个或几个辅音的组合B.复辅音内的几个辅音彼此之间有过渡音联结C.复辅音内的几个辅音的音质变化是突变式的D.复辅音并不是所有语言中都存在的语音现象6.从语言信息处理技术本身来看,下列各项中,属于未来一段时光研究的主攻方向的是(D)A.文字编码B.语音识别C.文本检索D.机器翻译7.下列各组辅音中,发音部位相同的一组是(A)A.[k,] B.[m,n] C.[n,] D.[k,p]8.北京话“面”单念时读作[mi?n],但“面包”却读作[mi?mp u],这种语流音变现象是(C)A.弱化B.增音C.同化D.异化9.关于现代汉语“洗”和“浴”两个语素,下列说法不正确的一项是(C)A.“洗”是成词语素,“浴”是不成词语素B.“洗”是自由语素,“浴”是黏着语素C.“洗”是不定位语素,“浴”是定位语素D.“洗”和“浴”都是实义语素10.下列各组中,三个复合词构词类型不一致的一组是(A)A.席卷耳鸣地震B.打倒切断推翻C.发光散热出气D.天地欢乐爱好11.下列各组词,吸收外来成分的手段存在不一致状况的一组是(D)A.丹麦挪威法兰西B.沙拉咖啡麦当劳C.卡车啤酒立邦漆D.香波克隆好莱坞12.汉语中的词类(词的语法分类)能够首先分出的两个大类是(B)A.基本词和非基本词B.实词和虚词C.典型词和兼类词D.体词和谓词13.语法现象能够分成“核心语法现象”和“外围语法现象”,其中“核心语法现象”主要是指(D)A.词语搭配问题B.好处表达问题C.语音实现问题D.句法结构问题14.主要功能是用来“造句”的同一级语法单位是指(C)A.语素和语素组B.语素组和词C.词和词组D.词组和句子15.语法规则的“抽象性”是指(A)A.对语言的结构和成分进行类的概括B.相同规则可在一个结构里重复使用C.语法规则之间能够相互推导和解释D.语法规则的发展变化过程十分缓慢16.下列关于“直接组成成分分析法”(层次分析法)的表述,不正确的一项是(D)A.从最大的词组开始逐层切分,一向切分到词为止B.从最小的词开始逐层组合,一向组合到词组为止C.分析时要依据两条原则:“成结构”和“有好处”D.分析时采用的方法是“先分主干”和“后添枝叶”17.“汽车”和“卡车”是(A)A.上下位词B.同义词C.等义词D.近义词18.下列各项中,语义结构属于复合述谓结构的一项是(B)A.这样做不值得B.他跑过去开门C.我们单位需要增加编制D.他们正在研究如何筹集资金19.下列各项中,甲和乙是预设关系的一项是(C)A.(甲)他买了一支钢笔//(乙)他买了一支笔B.(甲)老王在小李的左边//(乙)小李在老王的右边C.(甲)他早就不在学校工作了//(乙)他以前在学校工作过D.(甲)什么水果他都吃过//(乙)他吃过苹果20.文字最基本的单位是(B)A.笔画B.字符C.偏旁D.部首21.根据字符跟什么样的语言单位相联系的标准来分类,已知自源文字都属于(A)A.词语文字B.语素文字C.音节文字D.音位文字22.在语言谱系分类的层级体系中,最大的类别是(C)A.语族B.语支C.语系D.语群23.在儿童学会说话的过程中,“双词阶段”标志着儿童产生的语言潜力是(C)A.语音潜力B.语汇潜力C.语法潜力D.语义潜力24.“萨丕尔(E。

语言学概论(6)

语言学概论(6)
第六章 词汇 第一节 词汇和词汇学 一、什么是词和词汇 词是人们自然地感觉到的、 词是人们自然地感觉到的、在说话中能自由运用的 最小语言单位。 最小语言单位。 The word is the smallest significant unit of a given language capable of functioning alone. 词汇,又叫语汇,是词语的总汇, 词汇,又叫语汇,是词语的总汇,即语言符号的聚 合体。语汇所指范围有大有小, 合体。语汇所指范围有大有小,最大范围是指一种语言 系统中的全部词语。 系统中的全部词语。语汇一般指一种语言或方言中某个 历史时期的词语的聚合体。如现代汉语语汇等。 历史时期的词语的聚合体。如现代汉语语汇等。词汇有 时还指某个作家、某部作品、 时还指某个作家、某部作品、某个学科或某种性质的词 语的聚合体。如鲁迅的语汇、 红楼梦》的语汇、 语的聚合体。如鲁迅的语汇、《红楼梦》的语汇、计算 机语汇等。 机语汇等。 一种语言的语汇不是杂乱无章的, 一种语言的语汇不是杂乱无章的,而是一个有机的 系统。 系统。
root prefix inflectional affix eg. books affix infix suffix derivational affix eg. careful The majority of roots are free forms, and bound roots are relatively few ,but they do exist, such as -ceive, -tain and -cur in receive, retain and recur. 3 、 morpheme
3)语素变体(allomorph) )语素变体( ) An allomorph is a positional variant of a morpheme occurring in a specific environment and so characterized by complementary distribution. eg. ir-, im-,in -, etc; -ion,-tion, etc. (2)词(omission) ) ) (3)固定短语(omission) )固定短语( )

语言学概论复习题

语言学概论复习题

语言学概论复习题CABCC6-10 ACAAC11-14 AABC1. Which of the following statements about language is NOJ true?A. Language is a system.B. Language is symbolic.C. Animals also have language.D. Language is arbitrary.2. Which of the following features is NOT one of the designfeatures of language?A. Symbolic.B. Dual.C. Productive.D. Arbitrary.3. What are the dual structures of language?A. Sounds and letters.B. Sounds and meaning.C. Letters and meaning.D. Sounds and symbols.4. Which of the following statements can be used to describe'displacement', one of the unique properties of language?A. We can easily teach our children to learn a certain language.B. We can use both' shu' and 'tree' to describe the same thing.C. We can use language to refer to something not present.D. We can produce sentences that have never been heard before.5. What is the most important function of language?A. InterpersonalB. PhaticC. Informative.D. Metalingual6. Which of the following is one of the core branches of linguistics?A. Phonology(音韵学、音系学)B. PsycholinguisticsC. Socio-linguistics.D. Anthropology.7. Which of the following branches of linguistics takes the innerStructure of word as its main object of study?A. Phonetics.B. Semantics.C. Morphology.D. Syntax.8. Which of the following modes of study emphasizes on the"standards" of language?A. Prescriptive.B. Descriptive.C. Synchronic.D. Diachronic.9. Who put forward the distinction between Langue and Parole?A. SaussureB. ChomskyC. HallidayD. Anonymous10. The distinction between competence and performance isproposed by __ .A. SaussureB. HallidayC. ChomskyD. the Prague School11. According to Chomsky, __ is the ideal user's internalizedknowledge of his language.A. competenceB. paroleC. performanceD. langue12. is a design feature of human language that enablesspeakers to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time and space.A. DisplacementB. ArbitrarinessC. DualityD. Productivity13. The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it?" isA. informative提供有效信息的B. phatic交流感情的C.directive指令的D. performative表实现愿望之行为的14. General linguistics is the scientific study of _A. language of a certain individualB. the German languageC. human languages in generalD. the system of a particular language1-51. Articulatory phonetics 发音学mainly studies __ .A. the physical properties of the sounds produced in speechB. the perception of soundsC. the combination of soundsD. the production of sounds2. Where are the vocal cords?A. In the mouth.B. In the nasal cavity.C. Above the tongue.D. Inside the larynx.3. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies inA. the place of articulationB. the obstruction of airstream 气流C. the position of the tongueD. the shape of the lips4. Which of the following phonetic descriptions matches theEnglish consonant [p]? -A. A voiceless bilabial stop.B. A voiced bilabial stop.C. A voiceless dental stop.D. A voiced dental fricative.5. Wha't is the common factor of the three sounds: [p], [k], [t]?A. VoicelessB. SpreadC. VoicedD. Nasal6. What phonetic feature distinguish the [p] in please and the [p]in speak?A. VoicingB. AspirationC. RoundnessD. Nasality7. Which of the following sounds is a vowel glide?A. [ t ]B. [ o ] c. [ ei ] D. [dau]8. Which of the following is not a distinctive feature in English?A. voicingB. nasalC. approximationD. aspiration9. Which of the following is not one of the criteria of vowel description?A. The part of the tongue that is raised.B. The extent to which the tongue rises.C. The shape of the lips.D. The extent to which the teeth draw together.10. Which of the following sounds is a back vowel?A. [i]B. [w]C. [e]D. [u]11. The diphthong in the word bite is composed of: __ .A. [a] and [i]B. le] and [i]C. [a] and le]D. [o] and[i]12. English consonants can be classified into stops, fricatives,nasals, etc. in terms ofA. manner of articulationB. openness of mouthC. place of articulationD. voicing13. The phonological features of the consonant [k] are __ .A. voiced stopB. voiceless stopC. voiced fricativeD. voiceless fricative14. [e] is different from [a] inA. the shape of the lipsB. the height of the tongueC. the part of the tongue that is raisedD. the position of the soft palate15. [p] is different from [k] inA. the manner of articulationB. the shape of the lipsC. the vibration of the vocal cordsD. the place of articulation16. Vibration of the vocal cords results inA. aspirationB. nasalityC. obstructionD. voicing1-5 DDBAA6-10 B CDDD11-16 AABBDD1. is the branch of linguistics which studies thecharacteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.A. PhoneticsB. PhonologyC. SemanticsD.Pragmatics2. studies the sound systems in a certain language.A. PhoneticsB. PhonologyC. SemanticsD. Pragmatic3. Which of the following groups of words is a minimal pair?A. but-pubB. wet-whichC. cool-curlD. fail-find4. Minimal pairs are used to .A. find the distinctive features of a language.B. find the phonemes of a language.C. compare two words.D. find the allophones of a language.5. If two similar sound segments never occur in the samephonetic environment, then they are __ .A. two separate phonemes.B. two allophones of a phoneme.C. two free variations of a phoneme.D. a minimal pair.6. Which of the following distinctive features can be used toseparate [k] from [g]?A. Glottal (place of articulation)B. NasalC. VoicedD. Spread7. Usually, suprasegmental features include , length andpitch.A. PhonemeB. speech soundsC. syllablesD. stress8. is an indispensable part of a syllable.A. CodaB. OnsetC. StemD. Peak9. The onset of a syllable can be composed of .A. one vowelB. two vowelsC. three consonantsD. four consonants10. Where is the primary stress of the word phonology?A. phoB. noC. loD. gy11. In the following lines, And where are they? and where arethou ... the last word thou should be stressed because it is in a comparative position with the word they. We name this kind of sentence stress asA. structural sentence stressB. contrastive sentence stressC. grammatical sentence stressD. primary sentence stress12. In isolated reading (i.e., without any specific context), theword in in the sentence She is in the classroom shouldA. not be stressedB. be stressedC. be the primary stress of the sentenceD. be more stressed than is13. If there is an English adjective 'pornatial', is the mostpossible for negative form.A. ip-B. im-C. il-D. in-14. is not a suprasegmental feature.A. AspirationB. IntonationC. StressD. Tone1-5 ABCBB6-10 CDDCB11-14 BABA1. __ is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationshipbetween expression and content.A. WordB. MorphemeC. AllomorphD. Root2. __ studies the internal structure of words, and the rules bywhich words are formed.A. MorphologyB. SyntaxC. PhonologyD. Semantics3. Lexeme is __ .A. a physically definable unitB. the common factor underlying a set of formsC. a grammatical unitD. an indefinable unit4. An __ language is a language in which concepts that we express usingprepositions, possessive adjectives; and so on are expressed as morphs concatenated ill the same words as the relevant base.A. InflectingB. AgglutinatingC. IsolatingD. Analytical5. In the word conceive, the morpheme -ceive is aA. free rootB. bound rootC. suffixD. prefix6. The plural affix in the word tables is a(n) .A. inflectional suffixB. derivational suffixC. free morphemeD. root7. Which of the following sounds does not belong to theallomorphs of the English plural morpheme __ .A. [s]B. [iz]C. [ai]D. [is]8. Which of the following processes of lexical change does theChinese word "科技" experienced?A. BlendingB. AbbreviationC. BorrowingD. Back-formation9. Which of the following words is created through the processof acronym.A. adB. editC. AIDSD. Bobo10. All words contain aA. root morphemeB. bound morphemeC. prefixD. suffix11. Which of the following words is a derivational one __ .A. black boardB. teachesC. considerationD. books12. __ belongs to a closed word class.A. InB. BeautifulC. NounD. Create13. The relationship between "fruit" and "apple" is .A. homonymyB. hyponymyC. polysemyD. synonymy14. The word "lab" is formed throughA. back formationB. blendingC. clippingD. derivation1-5 BABBB 6-10 ACBCA 11-14 CABC1. When we say that we can change the second word in thesentence He is waiting outside with another word or phrase, we are talking about __ inside the sentence.A. syntactic relationsB. paradigmatic relationsC. Linear relationsD. Government2. The part of the grammar that represents a speaker'sknowledge of the structure of phrases and sentences is called .A. lexiconB. morphologyC. syntaxD. semantics3. What does 'IC' stands for as a syntactic notion and analyticaltechnique?A. Inferential ConnectiveB. Inflectional ComponentC. Immediate Constituent D; Implicative Communication4. If we are to use the technique of IC analysis to analyze thesentence she broke the window with a stone yesterday, where is the first cut?A. between stone and yesterdayB. between she and brokeC. between broke and the windowD. between window and with5. __ is the defining properties of units like noun (number,gender, etc.) and verb (tense, aspect, etc.).A. Parts of speechB. Word classesC. Grammatical categoriesD. Functions of words6. Which of the following items is not one of the grammaticalcategories of English pronouns?A. genderB. numberC. caseD. voice7. __ is a relationship in which a word of a certain classdetermines the form of others in terms of certain categories.A. ConcordB. Immediate constituentC. Syntagmatic relationsD. Government8. __ proposed to define sentence as the maximum free form.A. BloomfieldB. ChomskyC. HallidayD. Saussure9. The phrase boys and girls is a(n) __ .A. subordinate endocentric constructionB. coordinate endocentric constructionC. subordinate exocentric constructionD. coordinate exocentric construction10. Chomsky holds that the major task of linguistics is to __ .A. study real 'facts' in daily settingsB. tell people how to speak appropriatelyC. look for 'the universal grammar'D. tell people what is right in language use11. What is the full form of LAD?A. Language associative districtB. Linguistic acquisition districtC. Language associative deviceD. Language acquisition device12. A speaker's actual utterance in Chomsky's terminology is called __ .A. deep structureB. linguistic universalsC. universal grammarD. surface structure13. Chomsky studies language from a psychological point ofview, holding language is a form of __ ; while Halliday focuses on the social aspect of language regarding language as a form of __ .A. knowing, doingB. knowing, thinkingC. thinking, doingD. doing, knowing1-5 BCCBC 6-10 DDADC 11-13 DDA1. The pair of words "lend" and "borrow" areA. gradab1e oppositesB. converse oppositesC. co-hyponymsD. synonyms2. A word with several meanings is called __ word.A. a polysemousB. a synonymousC. an abnormalD. a multiple3. The semantic components of the word "gentleman" can beexpressed as_A. +animate, +male, +human, -adultB. +animate, +male, +human, +adultC. +animate, -male, +human, -adultD. +animate,-male, +human, +adult4. __ is not included in Leech's associative meaning:A. Connotative meaningB. Social meaningC. Collocational meaningD. Thematic meaning5. Among Leech's seven types of meaning is concerned withthe relationship between a word and the thing it refers to .A. conceptualB. affectiveC. reflectedD. thematic6. According to the referential theory, a word is not directlyrelated to the thing it refers to. They are connected byA. meaningB. referenceC. conceptD. sense7. __ is a phrase which can only be understood as a unit, notas a summation of the meaning of each constituent word,A. CollocationB. IdiomC. Semantic componentD. Synonym8. "Big" and" Small" are a pair of __ opposites.A. complementaryB. gradableC. completeD. converse1-5 BABDA 6-8 CBB1. According to C. Morris and R. Carnap, __ is studies therelationship between symbols and their interpreters.A. SyntaxB. SemanticsC. PragmaticsD. Sociolinguistics2. There are __ deixis in the sentence she has sold it here yesterday.A.3B.4C.5D.63. “We can do things with words”—this is the main idea ofA. the Speech Act theoryB. the Co-operative PrinciplesC. the Polite PrinciplesD. pragmatics4. __ refers to the utterance of a sentence with determinatesense and reference.A. Locutionary actB. Illocutionary actC. Perlocutionary actD. Speech act5. __ may be used as an example of indirect--speech act.A. "Could you open the window?"B. "I hereby declare Mr. Williams elected."C. "Good morning!"D. "I command you to report at 6 in the morning tomorrow."6. In the following conversation:A: Beirut is in Peru, isn't it?B: And Rome is in Romania, I suppose.B violates theA. Quantity MaximB. Quality MaximC. Relation MaximD. Manner Maxim7. The maxim of requires that a participant's contribution be relevant toConversationA. quantityB. qualityC. mannerD. relation8. For the following conversation:A: Did you see my book in the classroom this morning?B: I was in the library.the conversation implicature is .A. B saw A’s bookB. B was not in the classroom that morningC. B did not see A’s bookD. B stole A's book1-5 CBAAA 6-8 CDC。

语言学概论第6章重点

语言学概论第6章重点

Chapter 6 Syntax 句法学6.1 Syntax:definition 定义Syntax is a study of sentences:sentence structure and formation 句法学就是对句子的学习。

Syntax can be defined as the branch of linguistics that studies how the words of a language can be combined to make larger units, such as phrases, clauses and sentences.语法可以被定义为语言学的分支研究语言的词汇如何被合并成更大的单位,比如短语和句子,从句。

It studies the interrelationships between elements of the sentence structure and the rules gov erning the production of sentences. 它研究句子中各种成分之间的关系。

句法研究语言的句子结构。

Finite(有限的)number of words and small set of rules can create infinite number of sentences.有限的单词和少量规则能创造无穷尽的句子。

Syntactic knowledge: the intuition of a native speaker about how words are combined to be phrases and and how phrases are combined into sentences. 句法知识:说话者用直觉知道母语词汇如何结合成词组和短语如何组合成的句子。

6.2 Grammar,syntax and morphology 语法、句法学和形态学Grammar :“the knowledge and study of the morphological and syntactic regularities of a natural lang uage. ”It excludes phonetics, phonology, semantics.语法是关于自然语言形态规则和句法规则的知识和研究。

语言学第六章 语用学

语言学第六章 语用学

Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning
---- Sentence meaning(句子意义): Abstract and context-independent meaning; literal meaning of a sentence; having a dyadic relation as in: What does X mean? ----utterance meaning(话语意义): concrete and context-dependent meaning; intended meaning of a speaker; having a triadic relation as in: What did you mean by X?
Performatives (行事话语) ---- sentences that do not state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable.
Note: Sometimes it is easy to get confused, e.g.“It is raining outside” can be a constative, and also a performative, for by uttering such a sentence, we may not only state a fact, but involve in the act of informing someone about the rain.
The locutionary act(言内行为)an act of saying
something,uttering words,phrases ,clauses and so on, i.e. an act of making a meaningful utterance (literal meaning of an utterance);

语言学练习题(附答案)Chapter1Language说课讲解

语言学练习题(附答案)Chapter1Language说课讲解

Chapter One Language1. Define the following terms1) discreteness 2) design features3) arbitrariness 4) duality5) displacement 6) cultural transmission7) the imaginative function of language 8) the personal function of language9) the heuristic function of language 10) language2. Multiple ChoiceDirections: In each question there are four choices. Decide which one would be the bestanswer to the question or to complete the sentence best.1) Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?A. treeB. crashC. typewriterD. bang________.2) The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade” isA. interrogativeB. directiveC. informativeD. performative3) In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present arelikely to say sui sui ping an (every year be safe and happy) as a means of controlling theforces which the believers feel might affect their lives. Which function does itperform?A. Interpersonal.B. Emotive. C Performative. D. Recreational.4) Which of the following properties of language enables language users to overcome thebarriers causedby time and place, due to this feature of language, speakers of a languageare free to talk about anything in any situation?A. interchangeability.B. Duality.C. Displacement.D. Arbitrariness.5) Study the following dialogue. What function does it play according to the functions oflanguage?—A nice day, isn’t it?—Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.A. EmotiveB. Phatic.C. Peformative.D. Interpersonal.6) Unlike animal communication systems, human language is .A. stimulus freeB. stimulus boundC. under immediate stimulus controlD. stimulated by some occurrence of communal interest.7) Which of the following is the most important function of language?A. interpersonal functionB. performative functionC. informative functionD. recreational function8) In different languages, different terms are used to express the animal “狗”, this showsthe nature of --- of human language.A arbitrarinessB cultural transmissionC displacementD discreteness9) Which of the following disciplines are related to applied linguistics?A. statisticsB. psycholinguisticsC. physicsD. philosophy10) has been widely accepted as the father of modem linguistics.A. ChomskyB. SaussureC. BloomfieldD. John Lyons3. Word CompletionDirections: Fill in the blanks with the most suitable words.1) Design features, a framework proposed by the American linguist Charles Hockett, referto the ________ properties of human language that distinguishes it from any animalsystem of communication.2) ________ refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfullydistinct. For instance, the difference between the sounds /p/ and /b/ is not actually verygreat, but when these sounds are part of a language like English, they are used in such away that the occurrence of one rather than the other is meaningful.3) In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can becombined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usuallytermed p_______ or c________.4) Language has many functions. We can use language to talk about language itself. Thisfunction is m________ function.5) Cultural transmission refers to the fact that language is c________ transmitted. It ispassed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than byi_________.6) One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of ________ over writing.7) The ________ function refers to the use of language to communicate knowledge aboutthe world, to report events, to make statements, to give accounts, to explain relationships,to relay messages and so on.8) The ________ function refers to language used to ensure social maintenance. Phaticcommunion is part of it. The term phatic communion introduced by the anthropologistBronislaw Malinowski refers to language used for establishing an atmosphere ormaintaining social contact rather than for exchanging facts.9) Language is a system of arbitrary symbols used for human Communication.10) Language has two levels. They are ______ level and ______ level.11) Language is a ________ because every language consists of a set of rules whichunderlie people’s actual speech or writing.12) The _function refers to language used in an attempt to control events once theyhappen.13) The design features of language are (1) (2) (3)(4) (5) (6) and (7) _______.tween14) By saying “language is arbitrary”, we mean that there is no logical connection bemeaning and .15) The four principles in the linguistic study are (1) (2) (3)and (4) .4. True or False QuestionsDirections: Decide whether the following statements are true or false. Write T for true and F for false in the bracket before each of them.1) ( ) The relation between form and meaning in human language is natural.2) ( ) When language is used to get information from others, it serves an informativefunction.3) ( ) The reason for French to use cheval and for English to use horse to refer to the sameanimal is inexplicable.4) ( ) Most animal communication systems lack the primary level of articulation.5) ( ) Language change is universal,ongoing and arbitrary.6) ( ) Language is a system of arbitrary, written signs which permit all the people in a givenculture, or other people who have learned the system of that culture, to communicate orinteract.7) ( ) In theory, the length of sentences is limited.8) ( ) The relationship between the sounds and their meaning is arbitrary.9) ( ) Linguistic symbols are a kind of visual symbols, which include vocal symbols.10) ( ) Linguistic symbols are produced by human speech organs.11) ( ) Every language has two levels: grammatically —meaningless and sound —meaningful.12) ( ) Such features of language as being creative, vocal, and arbitrary can differentiatehuman languages from animal communicative systems.13) ( ) Duality is one of the characteristics of human language. It refers to the fact thatlanguage has two levels of structures: the system of sounds and the system of meanings.14) ( ) Language is a means of verbal communication. Therefore, the communication wayused by the deaf-mute is not language.15) ( ) Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and conventionality oflanguage makes a language be passed from generation to generation. As a foreignlanguage learner, the latter is more important for us.5. Glossary translation1)personal function2)heauristic function3)ideational function4)interchangeability5)控制功能6)表现功能7)文化传递性8)分离性9)区别性特征10)不受时空限制的属性11)Interactional function12)instrumentational function13)imaginative function14)寒暄功能15)元语言功能16)Personal function17)performative function18)娱乐功能19)信息功能20)人际功能6. Short Essay Questions1)What are the functions of language? Exemplify each function.2)Explain what the term duality means as it is used to describe a property of humanlanguage.3)Is language productive or not? Why?4)What is language?5)What are the major design features of language? Please explain three of them withexamples.Key to Chapter One1. Define the followina terms1) Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfullydistinct. For instance, the difference between the sounds /p/ and /b/ is not actually very great, butwhen these sounds are part of a language like English, they are used in such a way that theoccurrence of one rather than the other is meaningful. The fact that the pronunciation of theforms pad and bad leads to a distinction in meaning can only be due to the difference between thesounds/p/ and /b/in English. Each sound in the language is thought of as discrete. It ispossible to produce a range of sounds in a continuous stream which are all generally like thesounds /p/ and /b/.refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the2) “Design f eatures” difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They arearbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability. (3分)3) “Arbitrariness” means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. Adog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig.Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely arbitrary, because thereare cases where there are or at least seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think ofecho Words, like “bang”, “crash”,”roar”,’ which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds are not entirely arbitrary either. “Snow” are arbitrary or unmotivatedand “storm” words, while “snowstorm” is less so. So we can say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degree.4) Linguists refer “duality” of structure to the fact that in all languages so far investigated,one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed interms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.); at the second, lowerlevel, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but whichcombine to form units of meaning. According to Hu Zhuanglin et al., language is a system of twosets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings oflanguage. A small number of sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number ofsemantic units (words), and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinitenumber of sentences. (For example, we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!)Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animalcommunication system enjoys this duality, or even approaches this honor.5) “Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact thatone can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words,one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Languageto describe something that had occurred, isitself can be talked about too. People can use language’ occurring, or is to occur. But a dog could not bark for a bone to be lost. The bee’s Syste small share of “displacement”, but it is an unspeakable tiny share.6) Language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but the details ofthe linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity forlanguage in human beings (N. Chomsky called it “language acquisition device”, or LAD) has a geneticbasis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one rather than agenetic one like the dog’s barking system.If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannotroaringacquire language. The wolf-child reared by the wolves turned out to speak the wo lf’s“tongue” when he was saved. And it was difficult for him to acquire human language.7) The imaginative function refers to language used to create imaginary system, whetherthese are literary works, philosophical systems or utopian visions on the one hand, or daydreamsand idle musings on the other hand. It is also language used for sheer joy of using language,such as a baby’s babbling, a chanter’s chanting, a poet’s pleasuring.feelings,8) The personal function refers to language used to express the individual’semotions and personality.9) The heuristic function of language refers to language used in order to acquire knowledgeand understanding the world. The heuristic functioning provides a basis for the structure ofknowledge in the different disciplines. Language allows people to ask questions about the natureof the world they live in and to construct possible answers.10) Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2. Multiple Choice1) – 5): A C C C B 6) – 10): A C C B B3. Word Completion.1) defining 2) Descreteness 3)productivity or creativity 4) metalingual 5) culturally, instinctor inheritance 6) speech 7) representational 8) interactional; 9) vocal;10) gramatically meaningful,sound meaningless; 11) system; 12) regulatory 13) arbitrariness, duality, productivity, culturaltransmission, interchangeability, discreteness, displacement. 14) sound; 15) exhaustiveness,economy, objectivity, consistency4. True or False Questions1 – 5: FFTFF 6 – 10: FFTFT 11 – 15: FFTFT5. Glossary Translation1)personal function: 人际功能2)heauristic function:启发功能3)ideational function:概念功能4)interchangeability:互换性5)控制功能:regulatory function6)表现功能: representational functin7)文化传递性: cultural transmisssion8)分离性: discreteness9)区别性特征: design features10)不受时空限制的属性: displacement11)Interactional function: 互动功能12)instrumentational function:工具功能13)imaginative function:想象功能14)寒暄功能:phatic function15)元语言功能: metalingual function or metafunction of language16)personal function: 自指性功能17)performative function: 表达功能18)娱乐功能: recreational function19)信息功能: informative function20)人际功能: interpersonal function6. Short Essay Questions1) What are the functions of language? Exemplify each function.According to Wang Gang (1988: 11), the functions of language can be mainly embodied in three aspects. i) Language is a tool of human communication; ii) Language is a tool whereby people learn about the world; iii) Language is a tool by which people create art.As a matter of fact, different linguists have different terms for the various functions of language. The British linguist M. A. K. Halliday uses the following terms to refer to the initial functions of children’s language:(1) InstrumentalThe instrumental function of language refers to the fact that language allows speakers to get things done. It allows them to control things in the environment. People can cause things to be done and to happen through the use of words alone. An immediate contrast here is with the animal world in which sounds are hardly used in this way, and, when they are, they are used in an extremely limited degree. The instrumental function can be primitive too in human interaction. Performative utterances such as the words which name a ship at a launching ceremony clearly have instrumental functions if the right circumstances exist;they are acts, e.g. I name this ship Liberty Bell.(2) RegulatoryThe regulatory function refers to language used in an attempt to control events once they happen. Those events may involve the self as well as others. People do try to control themselves through language, e.g. Why did I say that?/ Steady! / And Let me think about that again. Language helps to regulate encounters among people. Language provides devices for regulating specific kinds of encounters and contains words for approving or disapproving and for controlling or disrupting the behavior of others. It allows us to establish complex patterns of organization in order to try to regulate behavior, from game playing to political organization, from answering the telephone to addressing in foreign affairs. It is the regulatory function of language that allows people some measure of control over events that occur in their lives.(3)RepresentationalThe representational function refers to the use of language to communicate knowledge about the world, to report events, to make statements, to give accounts, to explain relationships, to relay messages and so on. This function of language is represented by all kinds of record-keeping, such as historical records, geographical surveys, business accounts, scientific reports, government acts, and public data banks. It is an essential domain of language use, for the availability of this material guarantees the knowledge-base of subsequent generations, which is a prerequisite of social development.(4) InteractionalThe interactional function refers to language used to ensure social maintenance. Phaticcommunion is part of it. The term phatic communion introduced by the anthropologistBronislaw Malinowski refers to language used for establishing an atmosphere or maintainingsocial contact rather than for exchanging facts. A greeting such as how are you?is relativelyempty of content, and answers like fine or very well, thank you are equally empty, because thespeaker is not interested in the hearer’s health, but rather to demonstrate his politeness and general attitude toward the other person when he gives a conversational greeting.(5) PersonalThe personal function refers to language used to express the i ndividual’s feelings, emotionsand personality. A person’s individuality is usually characterized by his or her use of personalfunction of communication. Each individual has a “voice” in what happens to him. He is freeto speak or not to speak, to say, as much or as little as he pleases, and to choose how to say whathe says. The use of language can tell the listener or reader a great deal about the speaker orwriter — in particular, about his regional origin, social background, level of education, occupation,age, sex, and personality.Language also provides the individual with a means to express feelings, whether outright inthe form of exclamations, endorsements, or curse, or much more subtly through a careful choice ofwords. Many social situations display language used to foster a sense of identity: the shouting ofa crowd at a football match, the shouting of names or slogans at public meetings, the reactions ofthe audience to television game shows, the shouts of affirmation at some religious meetings. Forexample, the crowds attending President Regan’s pre-election meetings in 1984 repeatedlywhich united among those who shared the same political views.Four more years!” shouted “(6) HeuristicThe heuristic function refers to language used in order to acquire knowledge and understanding the world. The heuristic functioning provides a basis for the structure ofknowledge in the different disciplines. Insofar as the inquiry into language itself, a necessaryresult is the creation of a metalanguage, i.e. a language used to refer to language, containing termssuch as sound, syllable, word, structure, sentence, meaning and so on.(7) ImaginativeThe imaginative function refers to language used to create imaginary system, whether theseare literary works, philosophical systems or utopian visions on the one hand, or daydreams andidle musings on the other hand. The imaginative function also allows people to consider not justthe real world but all possible worlds — and many impossible ones. Much literature is the mostobvious example to serve this function as an account of Robinson Crusoe in the deserted island.The imaginative function enables life to be lived vicariously and helps satisfy numerous deepartistic urges.2) Explain what the term duality means as it is used to describe a property of humanlanguage.Language is organized at two levels or layers-- sounds and meaning-- simultaneously. ThisIn terms of speech production, we have theproperty is called duality, or “double articulation”.physical level at which we can produce individual sounds, like n, b, and i. As individual sound,none of these discrete forms has any intrinsic meaning. When we produce those sounds in aparticular combination, as in bin, we have another level producing a meaning, which is differentfrom the meaning of the combination in nib. So, at one level, we have distinct sounds, and at another level, we have distinct meanings. This duality of levels is, in fact,: one of the most economical features of human language, since with a limited set of distinct sounds we are capableof producing a very large number of sound combinations (relatively finite words and infinite number of sentences) which are distinct in meaning. No animal communication system has duality, or ever comes near to possessing it.3) Is language productive or not? Why?(1) Language is productive or creative. (233) This means that users can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before. Every day we send messages that have never been sent before, and we understand novel messages. Much of them we say and hear for the firstA red-eyed time; yet there seems no problem of understanding. For example, the sentence” must be new to you and it does not describe a common elephant is dancing on the hotel bed” happening in the world. Nevertheless, nobody has any difficulty in understanding it.(2) Productivity is unique to human language. Most animal communication systems appear to be highly restricted with respect to the number of different signals that their users can send and receive. For example, gibbon calls are not productive, for they draw all their calls from a limited repertoire, which is rapidly exhausted, making any novelty impossible. Bee dancing is used onlyto indicate food sources, which is the only message that can be sent through the dancing.(3) The productivity or creativity of language partially. originates from its duality, because of which the speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never before produced or heard. The productivity of language also means its potential to create endless sentences. It is the recursive nature of language that provides a theoretical basis for this possibility.4) What is language?(1) It is very difficult to give this question a satisfactory definition. However, most linguists would accept a tentative definition like this: language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols usedfor human communication. (2) Language must be a system, since elements in it are arranged according to certain rules; they cannot be combined at will. If language were not systematic, it could not be learned or used consistently. (3) Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the word pen and the thing we use to write with. The fact that different languages have different words for it (钢笔in Chinese for instance) speaks strongly for the arbitrary nature of language. (4) This also explains the symbolic nature of language: words are associated with objects, actions, ideas by convention. (5) We say language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages, no matter how well developed are their writing systems. All evidence shows that writing systems came much later than the spoken forms and thatin the they are only attempts to capture sounds and meaning on paper (6) The term “human” definition is meant to specify that language is human.specific; that is, it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.5) What are the major design features of language? Please explain three of themwith examples.(1) Displacement is one of the defining properties of human language, which refers to thefact that human language can be used to talk about things that are present or not present, real ornot real, and about matters in the past, present or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of its users.This phenomenon is thought of as “displacement”, which can provide its users with an opportunity to communicate about a wide range of subjects, free from any barriers caused by separation intime and space. That is, the feature of displacement can enable us to talk about things and placeswhose existence we cannot even be sure of. We can refer to mythical creatures, demons, fairies,angels, Santa Claus, and recently invented characters such as superman. This feature is unique tohuman language. No animal communication system possesses it. Some animal calls are oftenuttered in response to immediate changes of situation. For instance, during the mating season, inthe present of danger or pain, animals will make calls. Once the danger or pain is missing, theircalls stop.(2) Discreteness The sounds used in language are meaningfully distinct. For example, thedifference between the sounds b andp is actually not very great, but when these sounds are part ofa language like English, they are used in such a way that the occurrence of one rather than theother is meaningful. The fact that the pronunciation of the forms pack and back leads to adistinction in meaning can only be due to the difference between the sounds p and b in English.This property of language is described as discreteness. Each sound in the language is treated asdiscrete. It is possible; in fact, to produce a range of sounds in a continuous stream which are allgenerally like the p and b sounds. However, that continuous stream will only be interpreted asbeing either a p sound, or a b sound (or, possibly, as a non-sound) in the language. We have a verydiscrete view of the sounds of our language and wherever a pronunciation falls within thephysically possible range of sounds, it will be interpreted as a linguistically specific and meaningfully distinct sound(3) Language is a system. It is organized into two levels simultaneously. We have distinctsounds at the lower level (sound level), which is seen as a sequence of segments which have nomeaning in themselves. At the higher level, we have distinct meanings (meaningful level).Language is analyzed in terms of combination of meaningful units. Then the meaningful units(such as morphemes, words, etc.) at the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into aninfinite number of sentences. The organization of language into levels, one of sounds, the otherof meaning, is known as duality or double articulation. This unique feature of languageenables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge. No animal communicationsystem possesses the feature of duality.。

《语言学概论》试题(6)

《语言学概论》试题(6)

《语言学概论》试题(6)一、填空(15%)1、传统语文学一般主要指古代(印度)、古代(希腊)和古代中国三个地方的语文学。

中国传统的语文学通常叫小学。

•2、谱系分类根据亲属关系的远近依次把语言分为(语系、语族、语支)。

•3、语言系统的两种基本关系是(组合关系)和(聚合关系)。

它们是打开语言的两把钥匙。

•4、从声音产生的角度来看,辅音的不同由(发音体)的不同和(发音方法)的不同决定的。

元音的不同主要由(共鸣器)的形状和大小的不同决定。

•5、世界上的表音文字可以分为(音节文字)和(音位)文字。

•6、不同级别的语法单位都可以从外部(功能)和内部(结构)的差别进行两种分类。

•7、汉语方言之间的差别有的比英语和德语的差别还要大,但是仍然属于一种语言,这是因为使用者共同属于一个(民族),•并且有共同的(书面语(文字)),有共同语和共同的政治、经济、文化生活等。

二、选择题(10%)1、下面关于语言学发展路线不正确的一个是(A)A、从重视口语到重视书面语B、从重视表层到重视深层C、从重视外部亲属关系到重视内部结构关系D、从重视历史规定到重视现状描写2、语言的谱系分类采用的语言学方法是(、C)A、结构主义语言学B、转换生成语言学C、历史比较语言学D、传统语言学3、汉语拼音hen(恨)代表的是(B)A、开音节B、闭音节C、只有起音和领音的音节D、没有音谷的音节••4、属于音节文字的是(C)••A、俄语文字B、日语的汉字••C、日语的假名D、中国纳西族的东巴文字••5、根据构成词的语素数量的多少,把词分为(C)••A、单义词和多义词B、类义词和同义词••C、单纯词和合成词D、复合词和派生词••6、综合性的语法手段中没有(C)•A、重叠B、附加C、虚词D、内部屈折• 7、“说的是他”具有两种(D)•A、语音停顿B、层次结构••C、表层意义D、深层意义••8、从语言的词的构造来看,汉语属于(C)••A、汉藏语系B、印欧语系C、词根语D、粘着语9、下列诸现象中属于构词现象的是(A)A、汉语的“桌”加“子”变成“桌子”B、汉语的“同学”加“们”变成“同学们”C、英语的“help”(“帮助”,•现在时)加“ed”变成“helped”(“帮助”,过去时)•••••D、英语的“dog•”(“狗”,•单数)加“s•”变成“dogs”(“狗”,复数)••10、现代汉语属于(B)••A、比较语言学B、共时语言学••C、历时语言学D、一般语言学•三、名词解释(20%)1、显性语法意义通过词形变化、•辅助词和词序等手段所反映出来的各种语法关系2、谱系分类按语言的共同来源进行分类3、描写语言学对具体语言进行断代描写的语言学4、音素音节中从音质角度划分出来的最小的语音单位• 5、单纯词由一个语素构成的词四、试以国际音标标出下列各词的读音。

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第六章语义学一、导读6.1 意义研究语义学(semantics)是研究意义的科学。

它的理论探讨对象是语言的意义(linguistic meaning)或语义,语义是一般意义的一部分。

人类对语言意义的关注已有久远的历史。

古希腊哲学家在研究哲学问题时,也涉及了语言的意义问题。

但古今中外的各种学科,都未把语言的意义问题进行系统探讨。

只有语义学才把语言意义作为直接的、基本的研究对象,并对语言意义进行全面、系统的研究。

现代语义学的一个重要特点是这门学科与许多相关科学的相互借鉴和交融贯通。

哲学、逻辑学、符号学、心理学、音韵学、人类学等众多学科都为语义学的发展提供了丰富的营养,而语义学则是兼收并蓄,博采众长,使自身的理论日斟精深,体系趋于完整。

6.2 指称和意义语义学中涉及意义问题的几种主要理论有指称论、意念论、实证论等等。

指称论将词义与词的指称对象直接联系,其观察词义的出发点是外延逻辑。

指称论提供了一种对词义的自然、直观的解释:词语有意义是因为词语标示了语言外世界中的事物。

词的意义就是它指称的对象。

意义的指称论有明显的缺陷,用此理论解释词义会遇到各种矛盾:并非所有的词语都有指称对象,某些词(如语气词、感叹词、连接词、介词等)都无指称对象。

不同词语可指称同一对象。

如“伦敦”和“英国首都”指称同一城市,但意义也不同。

有些词在现实世界中无指称对象,但有意义,如“负一”。

这些情况一方面显示出意义并不局限于指称,另一方面在语言表达与所确定的实体之间并不总是存在一一对应的关系。

意义常常大于所指。

词汇不仅与客观世界相关也与人类思维有联系。

因此除了指称,还有意义。

意义是思维的体现。

6.3 词汇意义的分类词汇意义主要有指称意义和联想意义。

指称意义是指词和句子等语言成分跟语言外部世界的关系。

如woman(女人)一词其意义可以说包含了+HUMAN(人),-MALE(非男性),+ADULT(成人)这几个特征。

附加在指称意义上的其它意义会随着历史时期的不同而有所改变。

在所有语言中可能都会有一个表示女人的词。

但是由于在不同文化中妇女的的社会地位不同,与指称意义(女人)相联系的其它意义在不同的语言中也会迥异。

母系氏族社会中人们对女性的概念一定与父系氏族社会不同。

联想意义依赖于指称意义。

与指称意义不同的是联想意义不稳定或更受文化因素制约。

例如,虽然king这个词的指称意义在英语中没有变化,可是当今的英国人对king的理解会比以前有所不同。

联想意义实际上是一个概括性的术语。

联想意义范畴可划分为内涵意义、社会意义、感情意义、反映意义和搭配意义。

上述五类意义之间有很多共同之处;它们都具有不限定,可变化的特性,并且都能作程度和范围的分析,而不能用那些孤立的“不是这个便是那个”的方式进行分析。

内涵意义是指一个词语除了它本身的意义之外,凭借它所指的内容还具有的一种交际价值。

在讨论内涵的时候,我们谈的是人们在使用或听到一个词语时,这个词语使人所联想到的“真实世界”中的经验。

内涵对语言来说是附带的,而不是语言的基本组成部分。

内涵意义具有附属性。

它经常随着文化,历史时期和个人经历的变化而发生很大的变化。

社会意义是语言所表示的关于使用该段语言的社会环境的意义。

一些词或发音具有方言性质,就是指这些词或发音表明说话者所生活的地理环境和社会环境。

语言的其他特征向我们表明讲话人和听话人之间的社会关系。

另外语言能反映讲话人的个人感情,包括他对听话者和他所谈事物的态度。

这一类意义可以叫做感情意义。

反映意义是指当词义构成我们对这个词的另一种意义的联想时,便产生反映意义。

这种情况可以用带有禁忌意义的词语清楚地加以说明。

如cock在养鸡厂的意义上要用rooster(雄鸡)来代替。

搭配意义是由一个词所获得的各种联想构成的,而这些联想则产生于与这个词同时出现的一些词的意义,pretty(漂亮)和handsome(俊美)在“好看”这个含义上有共同点,但两者可以通过一系列名词同现或搭配来加以区别:girl boypretty woman handsome manflower car overcoat6.4词汇意义关系词汇意义关系的研究是词汇语义学的任务之一。

词汇之间不仅在词形上相联系而且在词义上也不是彼此孤立的。

这种词与词之间的语义关系有同义关系(synonymy)、反义关系(antonymy)、同音同形异义(homophony)、一词多义(polysemy)、上下义关系(hyponymy)等。

同义关系是指英语中有不少词相互间意思相同或者基本相同。

这样的词之间的关系是同义关系。

这样的词是同义词(synonyms)。

同义现象还可以进一步分为方言同义、不同风格的同义、语域不同的同义、情感意义不同的同义、搭配不同的同义。

同义现象经常作为衔接手段用于口语或书面语中。

为了避免重复,在文中作者/说话者需要用同义词来代替前文中所出现过的词。

如果两个词意义相反,那么这两个词的语义关系是反义关系,这两个词被称为反义词(antonyms)。

如up -down。

反义词也分为不同的类型。

如分级反义、互补反义、互逆反义。

分级反义是指两词的语义特征形成对立的两极,在此两极中可插入表示不同程度的词语,体现出对立的层次(gradability),如old—young。

互补反义词是指在语义上相互对立,彼此排斥,非此即彼,非彼即此的一对词语。

如alive -dead。

互逆反义词是指表示相反方向动作过程的词。

如push -pull, come -go等都是互逆反义词。

同音同形异义词是指具有相同的发音方式和书写方式但其意义不同的词。

一词多义是指一个词含有几个相联系的意义。

例如,head至少有两个词义:词义1“头部(人体部位)”;词义2“领导人”。

上下义关系是一种包含关系。

即意义包含在另一个词义中的系统意义关系。

上义词支配下义词。

如老虎,狮子,大象和狗都是动物(animal)一词的下义词,而像animal这类的词被称作老虎,狮子,大象和狗的上义词。

这种垂直的语义关系把词和词联系在层次网中。

6.5 描述词汇意义:成分分析在现代语言学之前的语义研究中,词义被认为是无法解释的。

目前语义学家已经表明词义可以用一套概括的意义成分(或语义特征)来进行分析(componential analysis)。

这种把词分析出它的组成成分或语义特征的方式称作成分分析。

词除了具有指称外部世界实体的指称意义之外,还具有内在意义。

词的内在意义由语义特征(semantic features)组成。

我们可以用对分法(binary opposites)来描述语义特征。

通常可用“+”号来表示某词具有某个语义特征,用“-”号来表示某词不具有某个语义特征。

看一下man, woman, boy和girl这些单词,我们可以写出它们的语义特征来。

man boy: woman: girl:+human +human +human +human+male +male -male -male+adult -adult +adult -adult一个词往往具有几个语义特征。

语义成分分析使我们了解词的语义组成,揭示相关词之间的异同,能使我们把许多词归类。

比如,man 和boy可以根据[+human,+male]这两个特征归在一类中。

这说明四个单词中的每一个词的意义都是由三个语义特征组成的(+HUMAN,+/-MALE,+/-ADULT)。

我们还可以对动词、形容词等词进行语义成分分析。

例如,形容词green\red\yellow等都具有[+colour] 这一语义特征6.6 词汇和概念从前面的陈述中我们知道词汇意义包括所指和意义。

所指把符号和符号表示的实体联系起来,意义把符号与思维联系起来。

这样一来词汇与概念相联系是符合逻辑的。

词和概念之间的这种关系自从二十世纪七十年代就成为认知语义学的一个中心话题了。

下面是从认知语义学角度研究意义的三个领域。

范畴化现假定语义分类是人对世界分类的经验性映现,有结构层次之分,在信息处理,知识获取和语言学习中就有一个最佳层次问题,此层次即为基本范畴(Categorization)。

下面举一个从动物一般概念到具体某种动物的语义网络的例子来说明这一问题。

动物A家畜B宠物C猫D波斯猫E红蓝眼波斯猫F该网络自动物范畴逐渐细化,向猫的概念方向发展。

然而我们一般会自动将焦点定位于“猫”的概念上,因为对“猫”的感知具备下列特征,故有“猫”概念出现的D层次就成为该概念网络中的基本范畴层次。

也就是说,对“猫”的感知,(a)最自然即无须添加想象力;(b)感知上辨认最快;(c)交际功能上能反映的层次最高;(d)对概念的习得和命名较早;(e)知识组织上最有效或图式化最快;以及(f)言语上有相应的独立词语表达且该词语一般长度最短和使用最频繁。

类典型认知语义学认为,语言利用并受制于人类的一般认知机制,故语言范畴也应该是认知范畴的一种,研究语言范畴有助于我们进一步理解认知规律。

也就是说,研究语言可揭示心智奥秘,而研究心智(即认知系统)又有助于研究语言的性状,两者相辅相成。

古典本体论认为,范畴以基本特征(essential features)或者说以事物固有的本质特性为存在依据,与认识主体无关,故词语和语言结构的分类,也应以客观世界范畴为基础。

而以体验主义哲学观为基底的认知语义学则持不同的观点,认为人对世界的范畴化是人与世界互动的结果,即有人的因素介入。

因此认定范畴的依据应是属性,即事物的心理体现,是世界在认知主体即人脑中的反映。

范畴可以从形式和功能两方面定位。

比如对“花瓶”的判断,除了有形式标准外,有时还可以考虑功能因素,即以是否插上花为准,如杯子里插上花就成了花瓶。

Rosch(1975)把“鸟”的属性分解成含有FEATHERS、WINGS、BEAK、FL YING、TINY 等属性的鉴别或指标测试清单,并请受试者按此清单给不同的鸟打分,即计算属性的合格数量,有一个算一个,最后得出下列鸟的原型序列:robin(prototype)→canary→parrot→emus/penguins最左边的成员得分或属性合格率最高,故成为本类中的最佳或最典型成员,而其他成员的得分则按从左向右的方向递减。

可以想象,对属性集合的判断在某种程度上还应受到文化差异的影响。

如把受试者换成英国人或中国人,最佳成员可能就会换成sparrow,这就进一步证明了范畴化过程中的主观能动性和文化所起的作用。

对范畴的评判,还可以考虑其总体印象,即完形性(gestalt)或整体论因素。

比如对“椅子”自然类的典型性评判,有时很难把“有几个脚”等因素当作裁定的指标,而要以对椅子的功能和总体印象为评判标准。

语言成分的分类或词性鉴别也源于范畴化,多半也依赖原型效果。

结构层次我们可以把词汇意义的包含关系看作概念范畴。

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