The Historical Deveiopment of the Strategic ilanagement Concept
德国发展历史英语作文
The Journey of Germany: A HistoricalOverviewGermany, a land rich in history and culture, has experienced a remarkable journey from its medieval roots to becoming a global powerhouse. Spanning over centuries, Germany's history is a testament to resilience, transformation, and continuous progress.In the early medieval period, Germany was divided into numerous kingdoms and principalities, each with its own unique identity and culture. This fragmented state ofaffairs persisted for centuries, until the 19th century when the Prussian kingdom emerged as a leading power and统一the various states under the banner of the German Empire. This unification process, known as the "Iron and Blood" era, was a tumultuous time marked by wars and conflicts, but ultimately led to the formation of a unified Germany.The 20th century was a defining period for Germany, marked by both triumphs and tragedies. After the FirstWorld War, Germany emerged as a global power, but the ambitions and actions of its leaders led to the outbreak of the Second World War. The war ended in defeat for Germany,and the country was divided into two halves - the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) and the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) - by the Iron Curtain.The post-war period was a time of reconstruction and reunification. West Germany, with its strong economy and democratic institutions, emerged as a prosperous and influential nation. Meanwhile, East Germany struggled with economic and political challenges within the Soviet-dominated Communist bloc. In 1990, after years of negotiations and preparations, the two Germanys werefinally reunited, marking the end of the Cold War and the division of Europe.Since reunification, Germany has emerged as a leading economic and political power. The country's strong economy, rooted in its industrial might and technological innovation, has made it a key player in the global economy. Germany is also a champion of international cooperation and has played a pivotal role in various international organizations and institutions.Beyond its economic and political achievements, Germany is also renowned for its cultural and intellectualcontributions. The country has produced numerousinfluential thinkers, artists, and scientists who have shaped the world in various fields. Germany's rich literary heritage, including works by authors like Goethe, Schiller, and Kafka, is a testament to its rich cultural legacy.Germany's historical journey is a fascinating narrative of resilience, transformation, and progress. From its medieval fragmentation to its emergence as a unified nation, from the horrors of war to the promise of reunification,and from its economic boom to its global influence, Germany's history is a story of perseverance and continuous development. As it moves forward into the future, Germany remains a beacon of hope and inspiration for the world.**德国发展历程：历史概览**德国，这片富含历史与文化的土地，经历了从中世纪根源到成为全球强国的非凡之旅。
新视野大学英语(第三版)读写教程第二册unit5翻译题参考答案
新视野三版读写2 U5 翻译讲解Part 1The Age of Discovery, also called the Age of Exploration, is a historical period of European global exploration that started in the early 15th century and continued until the 18th century.大发现年代，也被称为大勘探年代，是欧洲进行全球勘查的一个历史时期，始于15 世纪初并一直持续到18 世纪。
It is usually regarded as a bridge between the Middle Ages and the Modern era, in the context of emerging western imperialism and economic competition between European kingdoms seeking wealth through the establishment of trade routes and colonies.这一时期通常被认为是中世纪和近代之间的桥梁，当时西方帝国主义刚兴起，欧洲各王国之间正在经济上互相竞争，他们想通过建立贸易路线和殖民地来寻找财富。
Among many great explorers during this period, the most outstanding one was Christopher Columbus since he discovered the New World.在这一时期众多伟大的探险家中，最杰出的是克里斯托弗•哥伦布，因为他发现了新大陆。
European overseas expansion led to the rise of colonial empires, with the contact between the Old and New Worlds producing the exchange: a wide transfer of plants, animals, foods, culture, and so forth.欧洲的海外扩张导致了殖民帝国的崛起，旧大陆与新大陆的接触也促成了两边的互相交换：大量的植物、动物、食物、文化等得到迁移。
新视野大学英语读写译(第三版)第二册Unit5课后习题答案
Because when politicians encourage people to spend money to get out of the recession, they also advise people to save more. Similarly, when banks offer higher interest rates to increase savings they send credit card offers to let people spend more.People who don't pay the credit card bill on time are called failing consumers in trouble, and those who pay the credit card bill are called valued customers.Because they are regarded as the defender of morals and proper deeds. Schools are the places where students learn what is right and what is wrong. Parents are supposed to have the responsibilities to well behave their children. Politicians always try to impress people with their high moral standards.Because these permissive messages are everywhere we look and we are constantly surrounded by the advertisement that encourages people to spend.Because each advertisement is doing its utmost to influence people's buying decisions and provide information as to what to buy, from breakfast cereal to vacation cruises.On one hand, people want to buy more things because they derive pleasure from treating themselves. On the other hand, they try to control their appetite and avoid falling into debt.They can go to financial literacy classes, consult with the school's financial aid office or seek input from parents or other respected adults. They can also find a partner to help them stay on track. Most importantly, when having financial troubles, they shouldn't feel embarrassed to ask for help to avoid more serious financial problems.Concerning money issues, we should be smart and educated, not affected by the contradicting messages from our environment. We should choose a suitable way of financial management according to our own conditionsCommercial advertisements to persuade people to buy their products, such as:• education-oriented advertisements that provide various courses to attract parents and students;• food and grocery adverti sements to give on sale information to their customers;• health training & maintenance advertisements designed to target different age groups to promote their fitness services;- Public service advertisements to stimulate the public interest and push them to take actionsOffer discount prices.• Send giveaways.• Use new technologies such as online shopping.• Compare with other merchandises.I will spend because life is so short and I don't want to be thrifty or spend money carefully, which will drive me crazy. I only know I should enjoy my life while I'm still young and healthy.• I will save because with the worsening economic situation everywhere, I don't know what would happen to me in the future. To be responsible for myself, I have to save some money for the future.When I don't have much pocket money with me.• When I want to buy something inexpensive but I can't afford it.• When I don't have money to hang out with my friends and classmates.• When I see many things I don't need surrounding me.Record how much they have spent.• Try to use cash instead of credit card.• Withdraw only certain amount of money from bank.• Never borrow money from other people.• Only buy things they need.1. The "discipline" message asks people to save, while the "enjoy yourself"message asks people to spend; therefore, they (contradict) each other.2.It is a(n) (paradox) that in some odd way world peace appears todepend on our spending millions of pounds on weapons that can kill us all.3.It is far more effective for parents to allow for the child's (perspective) and let him make his own choice rather than make a decision for him.4. When you are writing any directions for people, you've got to be direct and(explicit) to make everything rightly understood.5.The new teaching program was (suspended) last semester because the teachers in the department protested its demand for more intensework.6. He is a very considerate and generous person, and he is also one of thosewho can often (derive) pleasure from helping others.7.Many children are addicted to computers, so they often (defy) theirparents and play the computer games for hours every day.8.My roommate is always very optimistic, and that's why he still (retains) his good humor after all the setbacks.9. There is a widely held suspicion that the politician, though retired, still hasgreat power and is (manipulating) events behind the scenes.10. The organization has been working with local authorities as well asregional government and officials to (tackle) the problem of climate.browsermessengerconsumenegotiationobjectionreactionconstitutioncultivationdefinitionexpansionconcentratecivilize1.Public opinion was becoming more (concentrated) on environmentalpollution problems; more and more people were discussing and arguing about them.2.Martin Luther King is a(n) (messenger) who worked for peace; he has shown the Western world that a struggle can be waged without violence.3. Every man ought not to steal, cheat, or destroy the property of others.There is no place for this sort of behavior in a(n) (civilized) society.4.The right to pursue happiness is promised to Americans by the US(Constitution) , but nowadays no one seems quite sure what exactly ismeant by happiness.5.You will need to replace your old (browser) and install a new one. You will need this new software to view web pages.6. Rock music appealed to Sandy so much that she turned up the volume onher player, paying no attention to her father's (objection) .7. As a college student, you should learn things extensively and aim for a(n)(expansion) of knowledge well beyond your area of specialization.8. Because women care much about their appearance and restrict their dietin an effort to control weight, they may not (consume) enough iron-richfood.9.The problem is that most students don't really know the exact(definition) of plagiarism (剽窃) or its consequences, so they don't consider it a serious crime.10.Garden (cultivation) of roses began about 5,000 years ago. They were used at celebrations, for medical purposes, and as a source of perfume.11. The talks next week will focus one economic development of the regionand our immediate (reaction) to the ever-worsening condition of theenvironment.12.The (negotiation) on the trade disputes between the two super large companies went on for years as neither side would give in.To spend or save is a question which many people have. There is always a(n)(1)(dilemma) whether one should spend the money that he has earned orsave that money for the future. Well, there is no (2)(explicit) answer to thequestion as different people have different (3)(perspectives) on their life, and that is the reason why some people tend to spend all the money earned while others (4)(retain) control over their money. People who spend all the money do not think much about the future. The only thing that they enjoy doing most is to (5)(derive) pleasure from spending money. For example, if they like a particular car, mobile phone or laptop, they will buy it without giving it a thought. For them, the most important thing is to satisfy their material (6) (appetite). People who have their first job or who haven't married often fall in this category. In the long run, saving is a good (7)(option) for one's life assaving helps an individual to plan for future (8)(urgent) needs. That is also the reason why many people save money for a rainy day. Individuals who can (9)(suspend) their spending save money successfully. Instead of buyingon impulse, they delay their purchasing decision and won't be easily (10) (manipulated) by commercial ads. Individuals who have responsibility for their family belong to this category.1.People who work in offices are (referred to) as "white-collar workers"for the simple reason that they traditionally wear a white shirt with a collar and a tie to go to work.2. When the police arrived, he had already destroyed the evidence that was(at odds with) his earlier statement made a few hours ago.3.In order to persuade his daughter to (put off) the marriage, the father quoted statistics showing mixed-race couples had higher divorce ratesthan same-race couples.4. The mother made the decision to give cough medicine and Aspirin to hersick child without (consulting with) the child's doctor.5. Both professional experts and school teachers say that children tend to(do their utmost) when they see their parents making similar efforts.6.As she entered the most dynamic period of her career, Kylie (tookstock of) her success and tried to analyze the strong impact of her college education.7. The chief executive George Grey is confident that current growth levelscan be maintained since all the group's development projects stay (on track) .8.It is very important for students to understand and (take in) newinformation. Besides, they should examine and judge information carefully and then make the right decisions.It is often said that whatever wealth one may have will be gone quickly if the person only spends. However, someone thinks the purpose of life is to enjoy every moment, so they spend all they have earned. Even though Bryan and Peter are close friends, their spending habits are very different.Bryan is very careful about using his pocket money. He only spends money when it's necessary. For example, when his pocket money is only $50, he may spend $20 on necessary stationery for schoolwork. He will try to deposit the remaining $30 in his savings account. In his opinion, though the amount is small, it will help him for a possible rainy day since people never know what could happen in the future.Unlike Bryan, Peter usually spends money at will. He often purchases expensive electronic products such as an iPhone and an iPad. Sometimes, he might buy himself an expensive brand-name shirt or a pair of expensive brand name shoes. Different from Bryan, he never deposits extra money in a bank after meeting his basic needs. To him, saving money in a bank is something very silly because he believes that he can always earn big money after he gets a decent job in the future.All in all, Bryan and Peter are very different in the way they spend money. Spending money wisely and saving extra money for future urgent needs enable students to manage their finance and fully concentrate on their study. They will also derive great pleasure from the way they handle their money.大发现年代，也被称为大勘探年代，是欧洲进行全球勘查的一个历史时期，始于15世纪初并一直持续到18世纪。
高中英语阅读理解主旨大意题单选题40题
高中英语阅读理解主旨大意题单选题40题1. What is the main idea of the passage?A. The history of a city.B. The importance of education.C. The benefits of traveling.D. The development of technology.答案：B。
解析：文章主要讲述了教育对个人和社会的重要性，A 选项城市的历史在文章中未提及，C 选项旅行的好处不是文章重点，D 选项科技的发展与文章内容不符。
2. What is the passage mainly about?A. Different kinds of sports.B. The advantages of a healthy diet.C. The role of music in our lives.D. Ways to improve memory.答案：C。
解析：文章围绕音乐在我们生活中的作用展开，A 选项不同种类的运动与文章无关，B 选项健康饮食的好处不是文章重点，D 选项提高记忆力的方法文章未涉及。
3. What is the main topic of the text?A. Famous painters throughout history.B. The beauty of nature.C. The challenges of modern life.D. The importance of friendship.答案：D。
解析：文章主要探讨了友谊的重要性，A 选项历史上的著名画家文章未提及，B 选项自然之美不是文章核心，C 选项现代生活的挑战不是文章主题。
4. What is the main purpose of the passage?A. To introduce a new product.B. To discuss environmental issues.C. To tell a story about a hero.D. To explain a scientific concept.答案：B。
Chapter 3 the Development of the__ English Vocabulary
Chapter 3 the Development of the English Vocabulary In the study of words, it is of great importance to know something about the origin and growth of the vocabulary. The English language is not the language of the early inhabitants of the British Isles. Then where does it come from? In what way is English related to other languages? A synchronic overview of the Indo-European Language Family will answer these questions.3.1 The Indo-European Language FamilyThe world has 3,000 (some put it 5,000) languages, which can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar.The Indo-European, one of these, is made up of most languages of Europe, the Near East and India. Most of the Indo-European languages are dead. The surviving Indo-European languages fall into ten principal groups, which fall into an Eastern set: Balto-Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Armenian and Albanian; a Western set: Celtic, Italic, Hellenic, Germanic, Hittite, and Tocharian.The Germanic family, which is our chief concern as English and its nearest relations are all members of this family. First, we have the four Northern European Languages: Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, which are generally known as Scandinavian languages. Then come German, Dutch, Flemish and English.3.2 Three Phases of the Historical Development of EnglishEnglish has been the language of England for a comparatively short period. Since its introduction into the island about the middle of the fifth century it has had a career extending through only fifteen hundred years. The first peoples known to inhabit the land were Celts. Their languages Celtic were dialects of still another branch of the Indo-European language family. The second major language known in England was the Latin of the Roman Legions.葡萄牙语 Potuguese 古法语 Old French 罗马尼亚语 Romanian 诺曼法语 Norman French 现代法语 Modern French 印欧语系 Indo-European （消亡） 意大利语族 Italic 奥斯干语支 Oscan 拉丁语支 Iatin 温布利安语支 Umbrian （消亡） 凯尔特语族 Celtic 盖尔语 Gallic 不列颠语支 Brittanic 盖尔语支 Gaelic 古爱尔兰语 Old Irish 古威尔士语 Old Welsh 哥特语 Gothic 东部语支 East 西部语支 West 日耳曼语族 Germanic 北部语支 North 东部语支 East 古诺尔斯语 Old Norse 冰岛语 Icelandic 挪威语 Norwegi 皮克特语 Pictish 威尔士语 Welsh 布列特尼语 Breton 科尼什语 Cornish 西部语支 West 德语 German 低地德语 Low German 高地德语 High German 现代标准德语 Modern German 荷兰语 Dutch 佛兰芒语 Flemish 古撒克逊语 Old Saxon 古低地弗兰克尼语 Old Low Franconian 肯特方言 Kentish 诺森布里亚方言 Northumbrian 默西亚方言 Mercian 西撒克逊方言 West Saxon 现代英语Modern English南部方言 Southern Dialect (盎格鲁人) Angles北部方言 Northern Dialect 中部方言Midland Dialect 东中部方言East Midland Dialect早期现代英语Early Modern English瑞典语 Swedish 丹麦语Danish 苏格兰盖尔语 Scottish Gaelic 爱尔兰盖尔语 Irish Gaelic 曼克斯语 Manx 古英语 Old English 西班牙语 Spanish 意大利语 Italian 盎格鲁·弗里西亚语Anglo-Frisian 古弗里西亚语 Old Frisian3.2.1 Old English (450-1150)The withdrawal of Roman troops virtually invited the invasion of the rich lowlands by the Picts and Scots from the North. The Celts appealed to Germanic warriors from across the North Sea for assistance in defending their land. Soon these German tribes, called Angles, Saxons and Jutes, came in great numbers and became their conquerors.The Germanic speakers took permanent control of the land that was later to be called England (the land of Angles). Their language, historically known as Anglo-Saxon, dominated and almost totally blotted out the Celtic.Though the Saxons were numerically superior to the Angles, the latter were influential enough to impose their name on the whole. That is why the country was called England, and the language English. It is from this language that our present-day English is derived.Old English (the Anglo-Saxon) has a vocabulary of about 50, 000 to 60,000 words, which are almost monogeneous and entirely Germanic with only a few borrowings from Latin and Scandinavian.Old English was a highly inflected language, which differ greatly from the language that we use today.3.2.2 Middle English (1150-1500)The Danish rule continued from 1016 to 1042. Then the Saxon Dynasty was restored and Edward the Confessor, who had no children, came to the English throne and reigned over a united England until 1066. At his death, Harold succeeded him as king of the country. As he was not in the direct line of succession, his rule was opposed by William, Duke of Normandy, first cousin of Edward, for William considered himself the rightful heir to the throne. The English nobles disagreed, so William invaded the island. At the battle of Hastings (1066), the power of Harold was crushed and William became master of England. This event was known in history as the Norman Conquest. However, the influx of French words into English did not occur until after 1300. Norman French became the polite speech. The native tongue was a despised language which was left to the use of boors and serfs.In the next hundred years or so, with the separation of the two nations, the nobility of England still spoke French, but bit by bit English came back into the schools, the law courts and government and regained social status. It made the final step back to a position of importance when it emerged once again as a respected literary medium with the Wycliff translation of the Bible and the writings of Chaucer, Langland and others. Norman French was a class language, never the speech of England.The Middle English period was one of great changes, changes more extensive and fundamental than those that had taken place at any time before and since. The single most significant fact of this period was the steady erosion of the Old English inflectional systems. If we say that the Old English was a period of full endings, the Middle English was a period of leveled endings. Another significant point is the French influence on English vocabulary. The number of French words that poured into English was unbelievably great and covered every realm of culture and society.3.2.3 Modern English (1500-up to the present )Modern English dates from the Caxton and the establishment of printing in England. It may be subdivided into Early Modern English (1500-1700) and Late Modern English (1700- up to the present).In the early period of Modern English, enormous numbers of Latin words became English words because of the Renaissance. These contributed to the decidedly Latinate flavour of Modern English. Now the rapidly expanding use of printing and the needs of the schools began to set standard spellings for most words.Since the mid-seventeenth century, England experienced the Bourgeois Revolution followed by the Industrial Revolution and rose to be a great economic power, thus enabling English to absorb words from all major languages of the world.Since the beginning of 20th century, particularly after World War II, thousands and thousands of new words have been created to express new ideas, inventions and scientific achievements.3.3 General Characteristics of English3.3.1 Receptivity, Adaptability and HeterogeneityEnglish has taken to itself material from all other languages and has made the new elements its own. Having received all kinds of foreign elements, the English vocabulary is copious and heterogeneous.3.3.2 Simplicity of InflectionOld English was characterized by ‘full endings’, Middle English by ‘leveled endings’ and Modern English by ‘lost endings’.3.3.3 Relatively Fixed Word-orderIn an analytic language like Modern English, the word order is required to be relatively fixed. The semantic relation is closely connected to the positions of the words. The change of word-order may result in a change of meaning.3.4 Foreign Elements in the English VocabularyOf all the foreign languages from which words have been borrowed into English, Latin, Greek, French and Scandinavian stand out as the major contributors, which have had great influence on the English language vocabulary.3.4.1 LatinFor 2,000 years Modern English vocabulary has borrowed so heavily and complexly from Latin.1) The Pre-Anglo-Saxon PeriodDuring the Pre-Anglo-Saxon Period the words borrowed naturally reflected the new conceptions and experience in war and agriculture, e.g. battle, banner, cheese, pepper, butter, etc.2) The Old English PeriodBorrowings of this period came in the wake of the introduction of Christianity into Britain in 597. In the four hundred years or more up to the Norman Conquest, a variety of additional Latin words were adopted. Among the church terms are altar, candle, creed, disciple, nun, etc.3) The Middle English PeriodThe Norman Conquest marked the beginning of the third period of borrowingfrom Latin, though many of them made their way through French. The lexical settlers of Latin via French are generally more popular than those borrowed directly from Latin. The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries were especially prolific in Latin borrowings under the influence of Renaissance. The following is a list of direct Latin borrowings in this period: gesture, history, include, incredible, individual, innumerable, necessary, nervous, picture, polite, popular, prevent, private, solar, temporal, etc. It is noticeable that some of the Latin suffixes, -able, -ible, -al, -ous, -ive and others now become common in English.4) The Modern English PeriodWords borrowed since 1,500 are late ones, which are mostly of abstract and scientific character. These words generally retain their Latin forms: focus, status, circus, apparatus, genius, esteem, minimum, maximum, via, criteria, species, series, protest, enterprise, etc.Many of the frequently used abbreviations are from Latin:i.e. (id est) = that is to saye.g. (exempli gratia) = for examplea.m. (ante meridiem) = before noonetc. (et cetera) = and so onp.m. (post meridiem) = after nooncf. (confer) = compareibid. (ibidem) = in the same place3.4.2 GreekThe influx of Greek words into English began with the revival of learning from Greek classics. Here is a selection of such borrowings, which, even if through Latin and French, remain identifiably Greek in form, e.g. democracy, politics, logic, philosophy, atom, geography, mathematics, clinic, diagnosis, alphabet, drama, grammar, idiom, poem, poet, rhythm, athlete, marathon, architect, hero, idiot, method, music, mystery, etc.The greatest influence of Greek perhaps lies in its loan of word-building elements into English. The Greek and Latin elements are assimilated with native elements in such a way that they can be mixed to form new words, known as hybrids. For example, anti- and hyper-, which are Greek prefixes, meaning ‘against’and ‘beyond’ respectively, can be added to English root as in anti-British and to Latin root as in hypersensitive. The Greek verb suffix –ize can be fixed at the end of words of any origin to form verbs, e.g. popularize, westernize, etc.3.4.3 FrenchIt is estimated that about one fourth of modern English vocabulary has come from French. Until the Norman Conquest, the exchange of words between English and French had been minimal. But when William the Conqueror ascended the English throne, French suddenly became the language of government. Almost overnight English had become a second class language in its native land. In the one and the half centuries immediately after the Conquest, a number of probably fewer than 1,00 French words were absorbed into the permanent vocabulary of English.The supremacy of French began to recede in the mid-13th century, when theacculturated descendants of the invaders at last began to think of themselves more as Englishmen than French and with it Norman French gave way to English. Borrowing from French now was free. Between 1250 and 1500 an approximate 9,000 words of French origin poured into the language, of which at least 75 percent are still in use today, e.g. govern, crown, country, power, council, people, nation, prince, duke, judge, jury, court, angel, sacrifice, miracle, preach, virtue, duty, conscience, war, battle, captain, soldier, beef, mutton, pork, bacon, roast, soup, supper, feast, tower, castle, fashion, dress, coat, fur, joy, pleasure, leisure, sport, etc.Although the rate of foreign borrowings tapered off to a certain extent during the 15th century, it sharply revived in the 16th and the English Renaissance. Nevertheless, new French borrowings during this period tended to be supplementary rather than central to the English vocabulary as there was a resistance that grew on the part of the English to borrowing of any kind. In the 150 years between 1650 and 1800, less than half as many French words were brought into English as had been added in the preceding years of the same length of time. Such words as ballet, dentist, cartoon, publicity, ridicule, routine are representatives of the hundreds of words absorbed in the period under discussion.Contemporary French influence on English since 1800 is difficult to define. But one thing is certain that the rate at which we have borrowed has increased considerably over that of the 18th century though the rate is still a fraction of what it was in the Middle Ages.3.4.4 ScandinavianThe Scandinavian languages: Norwegian, Swedish, Danish and Icelandic, constitute the northern branch of the Germanic group. The earliest recorded form of Scandinavian is Old Norse. The Vikings, who were first to raid Britain in A.D. 787, were a Germanic people closely related to the Anglo-Saxons, who had originally lived just south of them on the Continent. Their languages known as Old Norse were very similar to Old English. Sharing a stock of basic words, the two peoples could understand each other quite well. In the 200 years that followed from the Norsemen invasion, Norsemen swarmed into the British Isles and occupied the greater part of the land, which remained bilingual. However, the English element eventually prevailed and the descendants of the Norsemen gradually forgot Norse and spoke English. The English then was the result of the fusion of the two peoples and cultures. Accordingly, hundreds of words were permanently absorbed into the English vocabulary. Many of these were basic and everyday words, often displacing original English ones such as skill, husband, sister, bag, bank, club, both, they, them, get, take, die, hit, happy, low, tight, ugly, wrong, etc.Numerically, the Scandinavian words in the English vocabulary are not many as compared with those of French.3.4.5 Other Foreign ElementsAs we have mentioned above, English is a heavy borrower, which has absorbed words from all the major languages of the world with which it has had contact. Apart from Latin, Greek, French and Scandinavian, the other elements are much less important. Even among the minor languages, Italian, German, Dutch and Spanishhave made considerable contributions to the English vocabulary. All the others are felt to be superficial.1)ItalianSome of the Italian words borrowed into English are: corridor, balcony, design, sonnet, model, picturesque, piano, violin, concert, opera, spaghetti, macaroni, broccoli, campaign, cannon, attitude, casino, influenza, jeans, umbrella, volcano, etc.2) GermanThe number of German borrowings is limited, some of them are nickel, Fahrenheit, ecology, hamburger, noodle, dollar, kindergarten, semester.3)DutchDutch is closely related to English. As the Dutch were leaders in the sea and the seafaring as well as industry, and transportation, especially in the golden ages in the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries, three quarters of the Dutch borrowings occurred during this period: yacht, sledge, stove, landscape, sketch, skate, boss, Santa Claus, etc.4)Spanish and PortugueseWords from Portuguese are mainly associated with slave culture. The more recent loanwords coming directly from Portuguese include Negro, potato, cafeteria, zebra, apricot, banana, etc.5)CelticCeltic is the language spoken by the earliest people in the British Isles, but unfortunately it has hardly had any influence on English vocabulary. Only a meager handful of Celtic words are left in English: dun, slough etc. the Celtic element is also found largely in place names such as rivers (Thames, Avon) and city names (York, London, Kent).There are some other loan words borrowed from other languages.Arabic: alcohol, coffee, cotton, magazine, muslin, sofa etc.Indian: candy, pajamas, shampoo etc.Russian: czar, vodka etc.Czech: robot.Bulgarian: coachPersian: bazaar, orange, check, lilac etc.Turkish: turkey, yoghurt etc.Malay: bamboo, caddy etc.Polynesian: taboo, tattooJapanese: kimono, karate, judo, tatami, etc.Australian aboriginal dialect: kangaroo, koalaAmerican Indian: moose, raccoon etcMexican: chocolate, tomato etc.Caribbean: barbecue, canoe, hurricane, maize etc.African: lion, paper, sack etc.Chinese: typhoon, tea, china, chopsticks, tofu, yin-yang, zongzi, etc.In earlier times, borrowing was a very important means of vocabulary development. While in modern times, the role of borrowing is diminishing and can hardly compare with some of the means of word-creation such as affixation,compounding and conversion.。
The age of Enlightment (启蒙时期的英国文学)
Historical Background--- Enlightenment
The Enlightenment European intellectual movement reached its high point in the 18th century. Enlightenment thinkers were believers in social progress and in the liberating possibilities of rational and scientific knowledge. They were often critical of existing society and were hostile to religion, which they saw as keeping the human mind chained down by superstition.
Some famous novels of the kind are Laurence
Sterne‘s A Sentimental Journey through France
and Italy (1768), Goldsmith‘ The Vicar of Wakefield (1766).
Gothic Novel
Historical Background--- Enlightenment
The first representatives of the English Enlightenment were Joseph Addison(16721717), and Richard Steele (1672-1929), the publishers of a moralistic journal of The Spectator, and the poet Alexander Pope(1688-1744).
中国和西方文化礼仪的差异 The Differences between Chinese and Western Etiquette
中国和西方文化礼仪的差距摘要礼仪是人与人之间交流的规则是一种语言也是一种工具由于形成礼仪的重要根源――宗教信仰的不同使得世界上信仰不同宗教的人们遵守着各不相同的礼仪由于各国的历史和文化底蕴不同各国人民在进行礼尚交往时的习惯也有不少差异特别是中西方之间礼仪上的差异很大为了达到这种语言的共鸣中西方礼仪应该得到重视由此可见了解中西方交往的习惯差异是很有必要的往大处来说一个国家无论是在政治上还是在经济贸易中了解对方国家的礼仪习惯将有利于各国之间的交往随着中西方文化的不断发展中西方的礼仪正在相互融合西方人逐渐接受了中国文化中重情感等合理因素中国人也逐渐接受了西方文化中先进文明的礼仪和交往方式我们得承认当今国际通行的礼仪基本上是西方礼仪为此本文探讨研究了中西方礼仪的差异为了减少中西方文化礼仪上的差距使中西方人们之间的交往更加容易本文通过对中西方各个方面文化礼仪的不同展开讨论差距是有取其精华进行中外文化礼仪上的上的交流和沟通学习关键词：礼仪差异中国的礼仪西方的礼仪AbstractEtiquette is the rules of communication between people and it is a language but also a tool Since the formation of a major source of ritual –the difference of religious beliefs what making the world believe in different religions that people follow a different liturgical As different countries with different historical and cultural heritage Needless to say there are many differences in habits when people of all countries dealing during the ceremony Particularly in the etiquette between Western and Chinese is very large in order to achieve the resonance of the language the differences should be taken seriouslyThis shows that the habit of understanding between Chinese and Western communication is necessary Look at the big run a country both in politics or in economy and trade to understand the ritual habits of the other country it will be conducive to the exchanges between the countries With the continuous development of Chinese and western culture the Chinese and western etiquette is mutual confluence and westerners gradually accepted in Chinese culture such as heavy emotion and reasonable factors and the Chinese also gradually accepted the western culture advanced civilization etiquette and communication mode We must admit that todays international etiquette is basically the etiquette of western therefore this paper studied the differences between Chinese and western etiquette In order to reduce the gap between the Chinese andwestern culture etiquette make the interaction between Chinese and western people more easily This article discusses on various aspects of differences between Chinese and western culture etiquette Athough there are many differences and we should extrct its essence we can take a tall on chinese and wester cultural ceremonial exchanges and communication and learningKey words：Etiquette Differences Chinese etiquette Western etiquetteChapter one IntroductionEtiquette is people in social interactions as it is due to historical tradition customsreligious beliefs and the trend of The Times that the formation of the influence of such factors Both for people identity and for the people had to follow For the purpose of establishing harmonious relationsand the sum of the various line with the spirit and requirements of ritual code of conduct First we must understand the different etiquette is based on their cultural roots The Concept of Etiquette and the Reasons for Studying Etiquette Etiquette is the process and means to show waht respect to each other in interpersonal relationship Etiquette can be said to be a persons external appearance of inward cultivation and quality From the aspect of communication interpersonal etiquette can be regarded as a kind of art and a method of communication It is a common respect for person and a friendly practice in interpersonal relationshipsFrom the respect of transmitting interpersonal rituals can be roughly divided into chief etiquette business etiquette service etiquette social etiquette foreign etiquette and several other major branchesAn important reason that different countries have different histories and cultures there are a lot of differences in the habit of conducts and the ceremony especially between China and the West the jokes and the mistakes caused by misunderstanding is not unusual This shows that theunderstanding of the different etiquettes between Chinese and the Westerners is absolutely necessary In the office to understand each others customer will be conductive to the exchanges between the countries A person who understands others rituals and folk customs can be seen as respecting for others and can be easier to make a good impression on the other side Along with the constant development of Chinese culture and the Western culture Chinese ritual and the Western ritual are fusions The Westerners have accepted the reasonable factors in Chinese culture and other important feelings Chinese people have gradually accepted the advanced civilization of the Western culture and etiquette style However in real life the etiquettes impact due to cultural differences between China and the West still exists The paper explores the differences between Chinese etiquette and the Western etiquette to make Chinese communicate with the Westerners more easilyThe Origin of Chinese EtiquetteIn China etiquette is equal to courtesy and ceremony The essence of etiquette is the method of dealing with people and the belief in ghosts and spirits People consider that all things are controlled by the ghosts which can not be seen Therefore the etiquette is originated from the belief in ghosts and spirits as well as a special form of belief in ghosts and spirits China is a state of ceremonies Back to five thousand years ago etiquette used to be the core of traditional culture Up to now the etiquette has been really reformed Thusit becomes rituals of modern civilization Chinese etiquette in Chinese culture plays a quasi-legal role Etiquettes origins can be traced back to the early time of human beings It should be said that at the very beginning of the history of the Chinese nation etiquette was generated along with the human activities and with a primitive religion Etiquette is the system to deal with the three relationships among the people God and the ghosts It is said that there were five ceremonies in ancient China In fact etiquette can be divided into two main parts one is politics and the other is life Chinese legal system was bred during the establishment and implementation of the protocol The essence of etiquette is the way how to deal with people and the belief in ghosts and spiritsOur group culture attaches great importance to the family friends relationship regard it as of society cells But in western countries advocating independence self-improvement and self-reliance Chinese people value their traditional favorable king-subject honestly seniority hierarchical while in Anglo-American countries elders and junior dont dispute between equal status with young boundaries friends Chinese traditional ideas always advocating "four generations" "family reunion" has a "parents not in the words ancient preceptIn the Western countries the word etiquette used to mean keep off the grass Louis XIVs 路易十四gardener noticed that the aristocrats were walking through his gardens and then he put up signs etiquetteto warn them off The dukes and duchesses walked right past these signs Due to this blatant disregard the king of Versailles decreed that no individual was to go beyond the bounds of the etiquettes The meaning of etiquette would later include the ticket to court functions that lists the instructions on which a person would stand and what was to be done Etiquette like language has evolved but it still means literally keep off the grass Until the 1960s the importance of good manners was taught without question but with the liberated 70s it came a decline in the popularity of teaching proper etiquette In 2004 a new emphasis has been placed on returning to traditional values Proper etiquette and protocol have given children and adults a vital tool that provides not only a competitive edge but a sense of confidenceTravel" While in Anglo-American countries 18 children still lives at home depend on their parents life is incredible things they must rely on our own hands to live independently Similarly older parents even lost self-care ability general wont drag childrenThe Integration between Chinese and the Western EthicsIn modern society it seems that the world is getting smaller and smaller people are very active in frequent exchanges Human decency plays the basic role of social ethics It is the part which is the most straightforward and the easiest to operate during the process of globalization It has become a code of conduct guidelines and the ceremony together with the goal of establishing a harmoniousrelationship in social intercourse The international etiquette combines ritual characteristics of various countries and people and can be understood by the people of different countries and nations International etiquette can be shared by more and more different cultures and customs because etiquette itself is a cultural phenomenon Culture includes both ideas and customs and both spiritual habits and physical habits The etiquette obviously has the cultural identity which combines ideas and customs habits of mind and bodies It reflects the sense of the organic unity of moral and ethical behaviors Therefore many countries are paying great attention to combining international etiquette with national etiquette creatively Individual Freedom and TeamworkThe Westerners cherish individual freedom and independence They are not willing to be subjected to any limitation Chinese culture mostly emphasizes on collective interests They subordinate their personal interests to advocate collective interests They advocate unity cooperation and unisonThis means that etiquette in the Western and Chinese society is in a more appropriate locationChapter two Differences in several aspectThe differences of daily communicationDaily to greet Chinese people mostly used to say Did you eat " "Where are you going "etc It reflects the interpersonal kindness But for westerners this greeting will make them feel suddenly embarrassed even unhappy because westernerswill put this friendly greeting that just for Chinese to understand the "questioned" it means they are questioned because something and they feel others in their private lives In a word the behaviour make them feel uncomfortableIn the west daily to greet they only say "Hello" or due to the time saying "good morning" "Good afternoon" and"Good night" it is ok The Englishman meet you and he would say "it is a fine day today"If you are not very busy when you meet the people who are strangeryou can say "hello" and the answer to you should also be "hello" If someone want to shake hands with you of course you should shake hands with him and the same time you must remember to refuse to shake hands is very impolite Usually by older or the woman first give the hand On the appellation in Chinese only between several best friend and very closed people can directly call " first names" But in the west the rang of people directly call" first names" is wider than it in China In the west commonly used "sir" and "madam" represent the people who is a stranger you dont know the name You can call ten or twenties woman "young lady"and married women could be called "lady" etc Between family members it can absolutely regardless of degress generally can call the name each othe In the homethey can directly call father and mothers names For all the male elders they can call "uncle"and to all female elders they can call "aunt" It is in China is no good Chinese people mustdistinguish degress young and old otherwise they will be thinked of impoliteGenerally speaking you really cant accept the invitation you can politely declined to say you cant go and explain the reason Just say "I cant go to" or "I dont go to" is not polite Say "sorry" is not enough Just say "thank you" it can make the person puzzlinghe dont know you exactly mean wether you accept the invitation or decline the invitationWhen you meet people firstly you usually shake hands In addition long-lost friends when we meet and we usually shake hands However when they met and dont shake hands with a bow slightly bow and a smileit is also very politeChinese and western languages have many different farewell laguages If you farewell to patients Chinese people will say the word of"drink more water" "put on more clothes"and "sleep early" and so on to express the carefullness to patient But westerners never say that words such as "drink more water" because this words will be thought the backseat driver For example they will say "take care" or "I hope you will soon recover" etcDining etiquette differenceChinese people have a words that called "People regard food as their heave "民以食为天thus diet in the Chinese idea ia very important so Chinese people look the daily diet as their top thing Chinese dishes are exquisitely prepared deliciousChinese peoplepay more attation to food color smell taste shape meaning sometimes more than on nutrition to pay attention toBoth we think of foods delicious and beautifuland the nutrition is always be ignored Western diet attach importance to rang in food nutritions and absorptionit is a science diet idea Westerners pay more attention to the foods nutrition and neglect of the food color fragrance taste shape meaningTheir diet is to survive and health it seems does not important to tasteIn the dining atmosphereall of the Chinese like lively mood while their have a dinner Many people sit together to eat and drinkthey are talking and laughing Everybody together to build a kind of a warmly lively dining atmosphereExpect it is in a very formal banquets Chinese people have not very special etiquette on the table While the westerners in the dinner all of them like quiet and gracful environment They think they must pay attention to manners when they are on the table and not to lose courtesy For instance when they have a meal and can not with a very unpleasant soundWhen Chinese and western host a dinner it also has its own characteristics In China most of them base on the left for honour throughout the ages When fete guests we will firstly arrange the honorest guest seat on the left positionand arrange others in turn In the west right is for honour men and women seat interval and the couple also separatly seat Female guests seats is slightly more honour than male guests seatsfor the man he ready for the chair to the woman in his right is to show his respect In addition westerners have meal must sit upright they think bend down with the mouth gather to food is very rude but this is exactly the way Chinese people usually to eat Eatting western-style food owners do not advocate drink the more alcohol in Chinas table wine is essential thing With the wine drinking sometimes in order to show respect for each other and drinking the wine upChinese table is lively western table is quiet Chinese people want to use words and deeds to advised friends to drink and eat westerners just using the words to advise In the Chinese history Wine culture is regarded as business make friends and so on the social occasions essentials In the westpeople usually drink beer wine and they dont like urge others to drink In China the banquet demands to have dishes in a tablewhile westerners think it is not health practicing separate eating When Chinese banquetsthey toast each other and dance and sing Westerner requires less noise and less action and there is many dining programsDress etiquette differenceWestern man usually wear a conservative style suit in formal social occasions they wear white shirt and tie inside They like black so they usually wear black leather shoes Western lady usually wear a dress suits in formal occasions Another custom is woman wear earrings when they go out Western countries especially in the United States people like to wear leisure clothes at ordinary times such asT-shirts with jeansTodays Chinese dress increasingly westernized more and more people change their ideasjust as traditional qipao 旗袍and ZhongShanZhuang中山装and so on have withdrawn from the stage of history Formal occasions men and womens dressing have noting difference with the west In the usual civic lifeyou can see many people wear vest shorts and slipperswhich are not keep up with etiquette In all ages dress represents a kind of social culture which embodies a persons knowledge and aesthetics it is a persons identity temperament and the inherent quality wordless recommendation In a sense the dress is an art dress can convey emotion and meaning that isnt even use words can replace In different situations dressing oneself appropriately and moderately people give a person a favourable impression and dressing inappropriately then lower the ones identity and damage his own image In a social situation appropriate dress is a polite behavior to a certain extent it directly influences the interpersonal harmonyInflunce factors of the dressing effects the important one is to have a culture and elegant aesthetic ability the so-called "Knowledge makes a gentleman"腹有诗书气自华Second it has a sports bodybuilding quality Strong and handsome body is natural condition for dressing beauty Third is to grasp ordinary knowledge of dressing dress principle and dress etiquette knowledge this is indispensable conditions that reaching the inside and outsideharmonious and unified beautyWesterners pay attention to identity they ragard the clothes as the symbolwhile Chinese pay attention to lasting appeal 韵味If the western dress culture painstakingly pursue to performance beauty and totally ignore the dress ethics so China dress culture retains some moral systems more or less because it was affected by the traditional ethical values But the most representative dress is our countrys ZhongShanZhuang and western representative outfit is suitWearing the Maosuits 中山装not only we must buckle on all the buttons but also must be fastened collar button and rolling up sleeves is not allowed When wearing the double platoon suit you must buckle on all the buttons Wear single side three tablets buckle suit only can buckle up one button or two buttons that medium and first clasp Wear single side two claps suit only buckle up one button and dont allow to buckle on single-breasted suits all the button When wearing a suit the proper wear is white shirts and a tie the standard length of the tie is its foot arrive the straps bottomGenerally speaking Clothes makes the manand saddle makes a horse 人靠衣装马靠鞍Although judging a man only by his appearance is not pleasant 以貌取人不可取but in the modern life dress become an more and more important part of etiquette and dress properly or not not only is the embodiment of the individual grade more it can become the scale ofthe consideration that people to each other a of The great British author Shakespeare had said "A mans dress which is the most true portraiture of his upbringing grade and the status" 一个人的衣着是他的教养地位品味的最真实写照So in daily work and interactions especially in the formal occasions and dress is a problem that is more and more important and we are modern people pay more attentionBackground difference between China and WesternThe eastern civilization and western civilization is boring and developing in certain social historical conditions without which is excellent or worse The history of the west it is only 200 yearsa very short history and its people from various places and they came here to immigrateso many different nationalities and races got togetherThey embrace the oath "As long as what we can dream of what we will be able to realize 只要是我们能够梦想的我们都能实现" This is the western spirit which was built by the foundation of heroism and devotion With it just 200 years history could creat the splendid civilization in humans history the productive forces it have created highly more than all the productivity that all the past generation had created this is western charm What makes different of etiquette between Chinese and western is the eastern and western culture different environment and it is the root cause It makes the people of all countries have a totally different moral standards system and valuesThe difference between Chinese and western ideasEastern culture value collective and teamly spirit peoples dependence is very strong While western culture advocating independence and individual freedom For example China focus on cultivating individual moral characterrunning the family unisonmanage the nation in orderand peace will prevail throughout the universe 修身齐家治国平天下The personality is vital and this kind of personality is built on caring about the country love the collective harmonious family interpersonal harmony and so on basic thingsWhile people in the west their concept of legal system is stronger In this premise they advocate personal freedom and dont wish to be disturb from the government the church or other organizations they all like persist themselves old ways 我行我素In the family children were taught by concept that a infusion of self-reliance Young people are always hoped themselves can independent early and try to get rid of parents bundle they dont want to rely on family and parents otherwise they will lose freedom and lose others respect for them On this point Chinese culture is differentFamily is the most attentional collective life in China Parents cherish their children more than themselves lives and extremely want to ready everything and whatever they thought of for the children When children grew up and married parents would held a big wedding feast for theirchildren when the child has their own baby who is their grandson they will sacrifice their old ages to take care of her grandson namely they give all hope on their childrenand take care of the children over care is proved their children self-dependence ability is poor even in todays China which a planned economy to a market economy In the transition state-owned company worker extremely unwilling to loss the so called "iron rice bowl" 铁饭碗the dependence is the heritage of traditional Chinese culture The cultural differences between Chinese and western ideas which result in great difference between Chinese and western etiquette and there is a big foundamental differenceChinese and western to privacy different viewsIn the conversations remembering not to talk about personal business such as age marriage income religion etc Seeing that others buy things cannot ask its price If you see others return also cannot ask where he gone or where he is from otherwise they will disgust at you usually western use the sentence of "nose come into the somebodys private life " to express their disparagement to the people who askedWhile in China people take littal attention to boundaries of privacy people would not care about others in their own lives and not take any behavior to people who want to get a general understanding But between Chinese and American people Chinese always take very common words to ask each other familys life Americans might think you violated hisprivacy having a hidden purpose and a business would probably have be killedWhen Chinese people meet we often like noding heads and shaking hands or to salute with the hands folded 拱手致礼or slightly take a bow欠身then shake hands while the Westerners think the bow seemed inferior In the West especially in European and American countries hugging ritual is very common manners when you meet and leave kissing faces and kiss the hand ritual are also very common manners among westerners Shake hands date from western human half-barbaric half civilized period Today this habit gradually is regarded as meet and leaves shaking riyual and it have been accepted by most countries in the word In our country the handshake ritual not only it is often used when people meet and leave but also it is as a common behavior in congratulations and appreciate or encourage each other and so on some occasions So it is the most widely used etiquette in social communication The etiquette of meeting and leaving grandually evolve to today is "hello" and "goodbye" two phrases If we want to give more polite behavior we will shake hands again with each other In the disease popular today this habits of shaking hands which shows to us is more concise health and decent However in western countries meet will first touch the face kissing ritual and kiss the hand ritual this let us very uncomfortable and also cannot accept itDifferences in educationEtiquette education in China is deeply influenced by cultural and moral decency in the prominent position etiquette education in China emphasizes the moral law of etiquette education and the integration of practice etiquette education in China shows characteristics of a strong state intervention While in the west the combination of Etiquette Education and Moral Education of School Ceremonies can be found in moral education of the Western countries that etiquette is the major subject of moral education On the moral lesson in many countries people often teach students the etiquette knowledge in direct way The Western countries pay attention to comprehensive permeability of moral education rather than forcefully indoctrinate Etiquette education is not accepted They are generally not allowed to insist on instilling certain values They think the values of education can not be limited to a few hours teaching in a day but they pay attention to diversifying the form of moral education in schoolsIn educational culture there are many differences in various educational level between Chinese and western developed countries and responesd in different forms Untill today higher education of the differences between two countries is more and more wide In American universities according to the individual elective subjects the students can imply credit system 学分制Different subjects its credits is different as long as a student fufill enough credits who can graduate and get diplomasand degrees Previously we can see from relevant newspapers in the United States the student obtained several degrees this is normal Now we can understand American university system is very flexible college students studying at the college can learns a few professional course and just take enough credits they would be able to obtain the professional degreeWhile in Chinese universities where just confirmed professional direction a persons life his only lifetime is engaged in a profession it is possible to ignore his potentials in other respects And some aspects of language in Chinese education also different with westerns In China there are "差学生" but in America it is not this word they think it is considered bad mannersthis is a form of discriminationIn the thinking mode the Chinese thinking are abstract westerners is more specific The Chinese way of thinking from is from large to small such as address from a national provincial municipal and county township and village etc which embodies the overall thinking of the Chinese orders namely nature and human in a whole coexsitence of human and nature 天人合一world On the contrary westerners are from small to large from point to surface they think the whole is made up by parts The same way but not the same content and results which allows us to ponder Different of religionBuddhism佛教was introduced into China for more than a thousand years people believe in that there is "the Lord Buddha" 佛祖in the world and this related to many languages suchas 借花献佛"平时不烧香急来抱佛脚" etc The influence of religion in the western society is profound it involves in political economic social and all aspects of life especially of Christian cultures influence on English countries is more deep and rooted In in many western countries especially in Britain people believe in Christianity 基督教and they always says"God help me" They always get marrige in church Chapter three Theoritical Foundations1 Important Symbol of Human CivilizationProtocol is the product of the historical development of social etiquette It has distinctive characteristics of the times People have different understanding of the content of the protocol in different ages for different ethnic awareness The definition which is the origin of the earliest civilization culture is generally not in doubt Etiquette is the standard of human civilization It is also an important part of the community A nation which has a good quality of the nation is a polite and compliant one The formation of educational attainments is a gradual process Therefore every country in the world considers doing things properly as a symbol of civilization2 The Immortal Essence of the Western CivilizationModern etiquette is evolved from the traditional rituals The ceremony combines with criteria and become immoral essence of the Western civilization Along with the development of the times the nations and the。
英语历史发展历程
英语历史发展历程The history of human civilization is a fascinating journey that spans thousands of years. From the earliest civilizations to the modern era, humans have undergone significant changes and developments in various aspects of life. In this essay, we will explore the major milestones and turning points in the history of human development.The journey of human history begins in ancient times, around 3000 BCE, when the first known civilizations emerged. The Sumerians in Mesopotamia developed a system of writing known as cuneiform, which marked a significant leap in human communication and record-keeping. Around the same period, ancient Egypt flourished along the banks of the Nile River, with the majestic pyramids as a testament to their advanced architectural and engineering skills.Fast forward to the classical age of Greece and Rome in 5th century BCE. This era is often hailed as the birthplace of democracy and philosophy. The Greeks, led by philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, explored the realms of knowledge and ethics, laying the foundation for modern Western thought. Meanwhile, the Romans, renowned for their military prowess, established one of the largest empires in history, encompassing vast territories and leaving a lasting impact on politics, law, and engineering.The Middle Ages, spanning from the 5th to the 15th centuries, marked a period of significant upheaval and transformation. The fall of the Roman Empire led to the rise of feudalism, a system ofsocial hierarchy where the monarchs held power, and peasants worked the land. This era also witnessed the spread of Christianity throughout Europe, with the Catholic Church playing a dominant role in cultural and political affairs.The Renaissance, which began in 14th-century Italy, signaled a rebirth of art, science, and learning. Innovators like Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Galileo Galilei pushed the boundaries of their respective fields, contributing to a renewed interest in human individuality and understanding of the natural world. This period also saw significant advancements in maritime exploration, with the likes of Christopher Columbus and Vasco da Gama navigating previously uncharted territories.The 18th and 19th centuries witnessed the Industrial Revolution, a turning point in human history that transformed societies from agrarian to industrial. With the invention of steam engines and the mechanization of production, factories sprung up, and cities expanded rapidly. This shift from rural to urban living had profound social and economic consequences, and it laid the groundwork for modern capitalism and urbanization.The 20th century brought immense global changes with the rise of technology and the two World Wars. Inventions like the telephone, electricity, and the internet revolutionized communication and connected people across the globe. However, the devastating consequences of the two global conflicts reminded humanity of the destructive power of war and led to the formation of international organizations like the United Nations, aiming to promote peace and prevent future conflicts.In recent decades, globalization has become a dominant force in human history. Advances in transportation and communication technology have brought people closer together than ever before. The exchange of ideas, goods, and services across borders has transformed the world into a global village.In conclusion, the history of human development is a long and complex journey marked by significant milestones and turning points. From the ancient civilizations to the modern era, humans have made progress in various fields, shaping the world we live in today. As we gaze into the future, it is essential to remember and learn from the lessons of the past to create a better tomorrow.。
tpo54三篇阅读原文译文题目答案译文背景知识
托福阅读tpo54全套解析阅读-1 (2)原文 (2)译文 (4)题目 (5)答案 (9)背景知识 (10)阅读-2 (10)原文 (10)译文 (12)题目 (13)答案 (18)背景知识 (20)阅读-3 (25)原文 (26)译文 (27)题目 (28)答案 (33)背景知识 (35)阅读-1原文The Commercialization of Lumber①In nineteenth-century America, practically everything that was built involved wood.Pine was especially attractive for building purposes.It is durable and strong, yet soft enough to be easily worked with even the simplest of hand tools.It also floats nicely on water, which allowed it to be transported to distant markets across the nation.The central and northern reaches of the Great Lakes states—Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota—all contained extensive pine forests as well as many large rivers for floating logs into the Great Lakes, from where they were transported nationwide.②By 1860, the settlement of the American West along with timber shortages in the East converged with ever-widening impact on the pine forests of the Great Lakes states. Over the next 30 years, lumbering became a full-fledged enterprise in Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. Newly formed lumbering corporations bought up huge tracts of pineland and set about systematically cutting the trees. Both the colonists and the later industrialists saw timber as a commodity, but the latter group adopted a far more thorough and calculating approach to removing trees. In this sense, what happened between 1860 and 1890 represented a significant break with the past. No longer were farmers in search of extra income the main source for shingles, firewood, and other wood products. By the 1870s, farmers and city dwellers alike purchased forest products from large manufacturingcompanies located in the Great Lakes states rather than chopping wood themselves or buying it locally.③The commercialization of lumbering was in part the product of technological change. The early, thick saw blades tended to waste a large quantity of wood, with perhaps as much as a third of the log left behind on the floor as sawdust or scrap. In the 1870s, however, the British-invented band saw, with its thinner blade, became standard issue in the Great Lakes states' lumber factories.Meanwhile, the rise of steam-powered mills streamlined production by allowing for the more efficient, centralized, and continuous cutting of lumber. Steam helped to automate a variety of tasks, from cutting to the carrying away of waste. Mills also employed steam to heat log ponds, preventing them from freezing and making possible year-round lumber production.④For industrial lumbering to succeed, a way had to be found to neutralize the effects of the seasons on production. Traditionally, cutting took place in the winter, when snow and ice made it easier to drag logs on sleds or sleighs to the banks of streams. Once the streams and lakes thawed, workers rafted the logs to mills, where they were cut into lumber in the summer. If nature did not cooperate—if the winter proved dry and warm, if the spring thaw was delayed—production would suffer. To counter the effects of climate on lumber production, loggers experimented with a variety of techniques for transporting trees out of the woods. In the 1870s, loggers in the Great Lakes states began sprinkling water on sleigh roads, giving them an artificial ice coating to facilitate travel. The ice reduced the friction and allowed workers to move larger and heavier loads.⑤But all the sprinkling in the world would not save a logger from the threat of a warm winter. Without snow the sleigh roads turned to mud. In the 1870s, a set of snowless winters left lumber companies to ponder ways of liberating themselves from the seasons. Railroads were one possibility.At first, the remoteness of the pine forests discouraged common carriers from laying track.But increasing lumber prices in the late 1870s combined with periodic warm, dry winters compelled loggers to turn to iron rails. By 1887, 89 logging railroads crisscrossed Michigan, transforming logging from a winter activity into a year-round one.⑥Once the logs arrived at a river, the trip downstream to a mill could be a long and tortuous one.Logjams (buildups of logs that prevent logs from moving downstream) were common—at times stretching for 10 miles—and became even more frequent as pressure on the northern Midwest pinelands increased in the 1860s. To help keep the logs moving efficiently, barriers called booms (essentially a chain of floating logs) were constructed to control the direction of the timber. By the 1870s, lumber companies existed in all the major logging areas of the northern Midwest.译文木材的商业化①在19世纪的美国，几乎所有建筑材料都含有木材。
中世纪 英文简介
The medieval period, commonly referred to as the Middle Ages, spans approximately from the 5th to the late 15th century. This era represents a crucial transitional phase in European history, marked by distinctive cultural, social, and political developments. The medieval period is often divided into three subperiods: the Early Middle Ages, the High Middle Ages, and the Late Middle Ages.### Early Middle Ages (5th to 10th Century):#### **Historical Context:**The Early Middle Ages began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD, a pivotal event that led to the fragmentation of political and social structures. Barbarian invasions, economic decline, and the disintegration of centralized authority characterized this tumultuous period.#### **Feudalism:**Feudalism emerged as a dominant social and economic system during this time. The feudal structure was based on a hierarchical relationship between lords, who owned land, and vassals, who pledged loyalty and military service in exchange for protection. This decentralized system provided a semblance of order in a time of political instability.#### **Role of the Church:**The Catholic Church played a significant role in shaping the social fabric of the Early Middle Ages. Monasteries and convents became centers of learning and culture, preserving classical knowledge and contributing to the spread of Christianity.### High Middle Ages (11th to 13th Century):#### **Economic Revival and Urbanization:**The High Middle Ages witnessed an economic revival, marked by increased agricultural productivity and the growth of trade and commerce. This prosperity contributed to the rise of towns and cities, leading to the development of a nascent urban culture.#### **The Crusades:**The Church's influence extended beyond Europe through the Crusades, a series of religious wars aimed at reclaiming the Holy Land from Muslim control. Although the Crusades had political and economic motivations, they also had profound cultural implications, facilitating the exchange of ideas and goods between the East and West.#### **Scholasticism and Intellectual Revival:**The High Middle Ages saw a resurgence of intellectual activity with the rise of scholasticism. Scholars like Thomas Aquinas sought to reconcile faith and reason, fostering an environment conducive to academic pursuits.#### **Gothic Architecture:**One of the most enduring legacies of the High Middle Ages is the development of Gothic architecture. Cathedrals such as Chartres and Notre-Dame de Paris showcase the innovative use of pointed arches, ribbed vaults, and flying buttresses, reflecting both technological and aesthetic advancements.### Late Middle Ages (14th to 15th Century):#### **Challenges and Crisis:**The Late Middle Ages brought a series of challenges, including the Black Death, a devastating pandemic that swept through Europe and caused significant demographic and economic disruptions. This period also witnessed political instability, social upheavals, and the Hundred Years' War between England and France.#### **Rise of Nation-States:**Amidst the turmoil, the Late Middle Ages saw the emergence of powerful nation-states. Monarchs began to consolidate power, centralize authority, and diminish the influence of feudal lords. This marked a shift toward more centralized forms of governance.#### **Cultural and Artistic Developments:**Despite the challenges, the Late Middle Ages fostered remarkable cultural and artistic achievements. The Renaissance, characterized by renewed interest in classical art and humanism, began to take root, paving the way for the cultural transformations of the following centuries.#### **Decline of Feudalism:**The Late Middle Ages also witnessed the gradual decline of feudalism. Economic changes, technological advancements, and shifts in political power contributed to the erosion of the feudal system, setting the stage for the societal transformations of the Renaissance and the early modern period.### Conclusion:The medieval period, with its distinct phases and multifaceted developments, laid the groundwork for the subsequent evolution of European civilization. From the fragmentation and decentralization of the Early Middle Ages to the economic prosperity and intellectual flourishing of the High Middle Ages, and finally, to the challenges and transformations of the Late Middle Ages, this era was characterized by a complex interplay of social, political, and cultural forces. The legacy of the medieval period endures in the institutions, art, and ideas that shaped the course of European history and influenced subsequent epochs.。
新视野大学英语 unit1-4课 translation +taxta翻译
Unit1苏格拉底是古希腊哲学家，被誉为现代西方哲学的奠基人。
他是一个谜一般的人物，人们主要通过后来的一些古典作家的叙述，尤其是他最著名的学生柏拉图的作品去了解他。
苏格拉底以他对伦理学的贡献而闻名。
他的教学法亦称为苏格拉底法，即通过提问和回答来激发批判性思维以及阐述观点。
该方法在各种讨论中仍被普遍使用。
他还在认识论和逻辑领域作出了重大而深远的贡献。
他的思想和方法所带来的影响一直是后来的西方哲学的坚实基础。
苏格拉底是古代哲学史上最丰富多彩的人物。
他在他那个时代已威名远扬。
虽然他未曾建立什么哲学体系，未曾设立什么学派，也未曾创立什么宗派，但他的名字很快就变得家喻户晓了。
Confucius was a great thinker and educator in Chinese history. He was the founder of Confucianism and was respectfully referred to as an ancient "sage". His words and life story were recorded in The Analects. An enduring classic of ancient Chinese culture, The Analects has had a great influence on the thinkers, writers, and statesmen that came after Confucius. Without studying this book, one could hardly truly understand the thousands-of-years traditional Chinese culture. Much of Confucius' thought, especially his thought on education, has had a profound influence on Chinese society. In the 21st century,Confucian thought not only retains the attention of the Chinese, but it also wins an increasing attention from the international community.Unit2Structured writingParents may get disappointed when you fail to meet their expectations. They may strongly object to your lifestyle and complain that you are wasting time on unimportant things. To solve this problem, you may try to make them understand that you are a responsible person. First tell them that you have inherited many of their merits. Then remind them that you have your own thoughts and life goals as an individual. You can also explain how your lifestyle will help you in a positive way. You may not be able to change your parents’ opinions overnight, but if you keep trying, it will eventually work.英译汉圣诞节是一个被广泛庆祝的文化节日，全世界有许许多多的人在12月25日庆祝这一节日。
Chapter 2 The development of the English Vocabulary
By the end of the 13th century, English gradually came back into schools, the law courts, and the government and regained social status.
It made the final step back to a position of importance when it emerged once again as a respected literary medium with the Wycliff translation of the Bible and the writings of
Chapter 2
The Development of the English Vocabulary
1 The Indo-European Language Family 2 Three Phases of the Historical Development 3 General Characteristics 4 Foreign Elements in the English Vocabulary 5 Growth of Comtemporary English
Features of Old English (50000-60000 words): 1) monogeneous vocabulary with only a few
borrowings from Latin and Scandinavian.
Latin words are borrowed because of Christianity in the 6th century;
The Scandinavian words entered the English language with the invasion by Norwegian and Danish vikings in the 9th century.
chapter 3 the Development of the English Vocabulary
Among them, the Germanic family is our chief concern as Modern English is derived from a collection of Germanic dialects, that were first brought to the British Islands in the fourth and fifth centuries. English and its nearest relations are all members of this family. First, we have the four Northern European Languages: Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, which are generally known as Scandinavian languages. Then come German, Dutch, Flemish and English.
印欧语系 Indo-European
凯尔特语族 Celtic 盖尔语 Gallic
日耳曼语族 Germanic
意大利语族 Italic
北部语支 North 不列颠语支 Brittanic 古诺尔斯语 Old Norse
东部语支 East 哥特语 Gothic
奥斯干语支 Oscan
拉丁语支 Iatin
现代标准德语 Modern German
佛兰芒语 Flemish
肯特方言 Kentish
默西亚方言 Mercian
诺森布里亚方言 Northumbrian
西撒克逊方言 West Saxon
中部方言 Midland Dialect
2.1 Development of the English vocabulary
The world has nearly 5,000 languages, which can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar. The Indo-European is made up of most of the languages of Europe, the near East, and India.
Indo2.1 The Indo-European Language Family
Indo-European Language Family
Eastern Set Western Set
Celtic Italic Hellenic Germanic
Indo-Iranian Balto-Slavic
Indo2.1 The Indo-European Language Family
the Celts ① ________ were driven west and north; the three tribes ② _______________ took permanent control of the land, which was later called ________ (the land England of Angles);
Indo2.1 The Indo-European Language Family
新视野第三版读写教程 第二册 U5 课后题答案
Unit 5 – Section A●Language Focus – Words in Use1.The "discipline" message asks people to save, while the "enjoy yourself" message asks people to spend; therefore, they (contradict) each other.2.It is a(n) (paradox) that in some odd way world peace appears to depend on our spending millions of pounds on weapons that can kill us all.3.It is far more effective for parents to allow for the child's (perspective) and let him make his own choice rather than make a decision for him.4.When you are writing any directions for people, you've got to be direct and (explicit) to make everything rightly understood.5.The new teaching program was (suspended) last semester because the teachers in the department protested its demand for more intense work.6.He is a very considerate and generous person, and he is also one of those who can often (derive) pleasure from helping others.7.Many children are addicted to computers, so they often (defy) their parents and play the computer games for hours every day.8.My roommate is always very optimistic, and that's why he still (retains) his good humor after all the setbacks.9.There is a widely held suspicion that the politician, though retired, still has great power and is (manipulating) events behind the scenes.10.The organization has been working with local authorities as well as regional government and officials to (tackle) the problem of climate.●Word Building1.browse2.message3.consumer4.negotiate5.object6.react7.constitute8.cultivate9.define10.expand11.concentration12.civilization1.browser2.messenger3.consume4.negotiation5.objection6.reaction7.constitution8.cultivation9.definition10.expansion11.concentrate12.civilize1.Public opinion was becoming more (concentrated) on environmental pollution problems; more and more people were discussing and arguing about them.2.Martin Luther King is a(n) (messenger) who worked for peace; he has shown the Western world that a struggle can be waged without violence.3.Every man ought not to steal, cheat, or destroy the property of others. There is no place for this sort of behavior in a(n) (civilized) society.4.The right to pursue happiness is promised to Americans by the US (Constitution) , but nowadays no one seems quite sure what exactly is meant by happiness.5.You will need to replace your old (browser) and install a new one. You will need this new software to view web pages.6.Rock music appealed to Sandy so much that she turned up the volume on her player, paying no attention to her father's (objection) .7.As a college student, you should learn things extensively and aim for a(n) (expansion) of knowledge well beyond your area of specialization.8.Because women care much about their appearance and restrict their diet in an effort to control weight, they may not (consume) enough iron-rich food.9.The problem is that most students don't really know the exact (definition) of plagiarism (剽窃) or its consequences, so they don't consider it a serious crime.10.Garden (cultivation) of roses began about 5,000 years ago. They were used at celebrations, for medical purposes, and as a source of perfume.11.The talks next week will focus one economic development of the region and our immediate (reaction) to the ever-worsening condition of the environment.12.The (negotiation) on the trade disputes between the two super large companies went on for years as neither side would give in.●Banked ClozeTo spend or save is a question which many people have. There is always a(n) (1) (dilemma) whether one should spend the money that he has earned or save that money for the future. Well, there is no (2) (explicit) answer to the question as different people have different (3) (perspectives) on their life, and that is the reason why some people tend to spend all the money earned while others (4) (retain) control over their money. People who spend all the money do not think much about the future. The only thing that they enjoy doing most is to (5) (derive) pleasure from spending money. For example, if they like a particular car, mobile phone or laptop, they will buy it without giving it a thought. For them, the most important thing is to satisfy their material (6) (appetite). People who have their first job or who haven't married often fall in this category. In the long run, saving is a good (7) (option) for one's life as saving helps an individual to plan for future (8) (urgent) needs. That is also the reason why many people save money for a rainy day. Individuals who can (9) (suspend) their spending save money successfully. Instead of buying on impulse, they delay their purchasing decision and won't be easily (10) (manipulated) by commercial ads. Individuals who have responsibility for their family belong to this category.●Language Focus – Expressions in Use1.People who work in offices are (referred to) as "white-collar workers" for the simple reason that they traditionally wear a white shirt with a collar and a tie to go to work.2.When the police arrived, he had already destroyed the evidence that was (at odds with) his earlier statement made a few hours ago.3.In order to persuade his daughter to (put off) the marriage, the father quoted statistics showing mixed-race couples had higher divorce rates than same-race couples.4.The mother made the decision to give cough medicine and Aspirin to her sick child without (consulting with) the child's doctor.5.Both professional experts and school teachers say that children tend to (do their utmost) when they see their parents making similar efforts.6.As she entered the most dynamic period of her career, Kylie (took stock of) her success andtried to analyze the strong impact of her college education.7.The chief executive George Grey is confident that current growth levels can be maintained since all the group's development projects stay (on track) .8.It is very important for students to understand and (take in) new information. Besides, they should examine and judge information carefully and then make the right decisions.●Translation●➢英译汉The Age of Discovery, also called the Age of Exploration, is a historical period of European global exploration that started in the early 15th century and continued until the 18th century. It is usually regarded as a bridge between the Middle Ages and the Modern era, in the context of emerging western imperialism and economic competition between European kingdoms seeking wealth through the establishment of trade routes and colonies. Among many great explorers during this period, the most outstanding one was Christopher Columbus since he discovered the New World. European overseas expansion led to the rise of colonial empires, with the contact between the Old and New Worlds producing the exchange: a wide transfer of plants, animals, foods, culture, and so forth. This represented one of the most significant global events concerning ecology, agriculture, and culture in history. European exploration allowed the global mapping of the world, resulting in a new world-view and distant civilizations acknowledging each other.大发现年代，也被称为大勘探年代，是欧洲进行全球勘查的一个历史时期，始于15世纪初并一直持续到18世纪。
《英语专业系列》课件
Research and Academic Writing
Discover strategies for conducting research and producing academic papers.
Media and Communication
1
The Power of Media
Explore the influence of media on language, culture, and society in the age of digital communication.
《英语专业系列》PPT课 件
An engaging and comprehensive presentation on the English major, covering topics such as Language and Linguistics, Literature and Culture, and more.
Sociolinguistics
Language Variation
Investigate how language varies across different speech communities and social contexts.
Attitudes and Perceptions Language Planning
Building Linguistic Skills
Learn about the fundamental linguistic concepts and skills necessary for an indepth understanding of English.
English Literature Overview
全新版大英综合第二册TextA课文翻译(中英逐段对照版)
Unit 1 Learning Styles学习风格Howard Gardner, a professor of education at Harvard University, reflects on a visit to China and gives his thoughts on different approaches to learning in China and the West.哈佛大学教育学教授霍华德·加德纳回忆其中国之行，阐述他对中西方不同的学习方式的看法。
Learning, Chinese-StyleHoward Gardner中国式的学习风格霍华德·加德纳1 For a month in the spring of 1987, my wife Ellen and I lived in the bustling eastern Chinese city of Nanjing with our 18-month-old son Benjamin while studying arts education in Chinese kindergartens and elementary schools. But one of the most telling lessons Ellen and I got in the difference between Chinese and American ideas of education came not in the classroom but in the lobby of the Jinling Hotel where we stayed in Nanjing.1987年春，我和妻子埃伦带着我们18个月的儿子本杰明在繁忙的中国东部城市南京住了一个月，同时考察中国幼儿园和小学的艺术教育情况。
然而，我和埃伦获得的有关中美教育观念差异的最难忘的体验并非来自课堂，而是来自我们在南京期间寓居的金陵饭店的大堂。
the_historical_development_of_quantum_theory__概述说明
the historical development of quantum theory 概述说明1. 引言1.1 概述量子理论是现代物理学中的一项重要学科，它描述了微观世界中的粒子行为和能量传递机制。
自从19世纪末以来，人们对物质本质的认识逐渐深入，并通过对光的波粒二象性以及原子内部结构的研究，揭开了一个个科学谜团。
量子力学的形成和发展使得我们对微观世界有了更准确和全面的认识，同时也带来了许多新颖而令人惊叹的应用领域。
1.2 文章结构本文将按照时间顺序，详细介绍量子理论的历史发展。
首先，我们将回顾古代人们对物质本质的认识，并探讨光的波粒二象性启示了何种突破。
接着我们将深入探索揭开原子内部结构之谜所进行的关键实验和发现。
随后，我们会详细介绍20世纪初波动力学和矩阵力学之间激烈竞争所导致的薛定谔方程产生以及其重要意义。
然后我们会讨论量子理论中的不确定性原理，揭示微观世界的局限性。
最后，我们将探讨量子力学在原子物理学、分子物理学、核物理学以及高能物理学等领域中的重要应用，并展望了量子信息科学和量子计算机的崛起。
1.3 目的本文旨在对量子理论的历史发展进行系列概述，并突出其在现代物理学中的重要性和广泛应用。
通过深入了解和思考过去的里程碑事件，我们可以更好地认识到科学研究发展的脉络，并有助于对未来量子理论发展和应用前景进行展望和思考。
2. 量子理论的历史发展2.1 古代对物质本质的认识在远古时代，人们对物质本质有着一些基本的认识。
早期的哲学家和科学家相信自然界由离散的、不可再分割的微粒组成，这种理论被称为原子论。
然而，在缺乏实验证据的情况下，这一观点往往只是纯粹的哲学推断。
2.2 光的波粒二象性的启示到了17世纪末，牛顿提出了光是由微小粒子组成并按直线传播的粒子理论。
但是，随后哈耳发现了光具有干涉和衍射等波动现象，这引起了人们对光性质的重新思考。
19世纪初期，杨振宁实验证明了光波动性质，并进一步证明了光在传播过程中存在干涉现象。
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Table 1 A Chronology of Recent Definitions of Strategy Date 1947 1954 Contributor and Source Von Neumann & Morgenstern, Theory of Games and Economic Behavior [pp. 79-84] Drucker, The Practice of /Management [p. 17] Definition Strategy is a series of actions by a firm that are decided on according to the particular s/fuaf/on. Strategy is analyzing the present situation and changing it if necessary. Incorporated in this is finding out what one's resources are or what they should be. Strategy is the determinator of the basic long-term goals of an enterprise, and the adoption of courses of action and the allocation of resources necessary for carrying out these goals. Strategy is a rule for making decisions determined by product/market scope, growth vector, competitive advantage, and synergy. Strategies are the directional action decisions which are required competitively to achieve the company's purpose. Strategy is the pattern of objectives, purposes, or goals and major policies and plans for achieving these goals, stated in such a way as to define what business the company is in or is to be in and the kind of company it is or is to be. Strategies are for/vard-looking plans that anticipate change and initiate action to take advantage o^opportunities that are integrated into the concepts or mission of the company. Strategy is defined as the basic goals and objectives of the organization, the majorprograms of action chosen to reach these goals and objectives, and the major pattern of resource aiiocation used to relate the organization to its environment. Strategy provides both direction and cohesion to the enterprise and is composed of several steps: strategic profile, strategic forecast, resource audit, strategic alternatives explored, tests for consistency and, finally, strategic choice. Strategy is concerned with long-range objectives and ways of pursuing them that affect the system as a whole. Strategies are specific major actions or patterns of actions for the attainment of the firm's objectives. Strategy is an analysis of the environment and selection of economic alternatives that will match the corporate resources and objectives at a risk commensurate with the profit and viability which the alternatives offer. Strategy is a unified, comprehensive, and integratedp/an designed to assure that the basic objectives of the enterprise are achieved. Strategy Is embedded in policy formulation: it comprises a series of decisions reflecting the determination of basic business objectives and the utilization oiskiiis and resources to attain these goals.
in this article, I examine how the concept of strategy has evolved into the field of strategic management, A definition of strategic management is developed from commonalities of past definitions and a selected overview of approaches to operationalizing strategic management is presented. Since its first mention In the Old Testament, the concept of strategy has been largely a semantic issue. Numerous authors have focused their attention on the concept of strategy but have failed to comprehensively investigate its historical evolution. This omission, in favor of an exclusively contemporaneous approach, has led to confusion among professionals and students alike. My objective in this paper is to develop a definition of strategic management from commonalities of past definitions, and to provide a useful departure point for the classroom study of strategic management. The underlying principles of strategy were discussed by Homer, Euripides, and many other early writers. Our word strategy comes from the Greek strategos, "a general," which in turn comes from roots meaning "army" and "lead." The Greek verb stratego means to "plan the destruction of one's enemies through effective use of resources." The concept of strategy in a military or political context has remained prominent throughout history, and has been discussed by such major writers as Shakespeare, Montesquieu, Kant, Mill, Hegel, Clausewitz, Liddell Hart, and Tolstoy. The strategic concepts developed by these writers have been used by numerous militarists and political theorists, such as Machiavelli, Napoleon, Bismarck, Yamamoto, and Hitler. One of the first known applications of strategy to business occurred when Socrates consoled Nichomachides, a Greek militarist who lost an election to the position of general to Antisthenes, a Greek businessman. Socrates compared the duties of a