语言学教程Chapter2

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语言学教程02Chapter 2_sound(2)

If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamb, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation先期协同发音. If the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is perseverative coarticulation后滞协同发音, as is the case of map.
In phonetic terms, phonemic transcriptions represent the „broad‟ transcriptions.
3.3 Allophones 音位变体

Allophones---- the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic contexts.

Velarization: clear l and dark l // [] / _____ V [] / V _____

Think about tell and telling!

Phonetic similarity发音近似性: the allophones of a phoneme must bear some phonetic resemblance.

The word „phoneme‟音位 simply refers to a „unit of explicit sound contrast‟: the existence of a minimal pair automatically grants phonemic status to the sounds responsible for the contrasts.

语言学教程 chapter2

Chapter 2 Speech SoundsPhonetics and PhonologyPhonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.Three main areas: Articulatory phonetics is the study of the production ofspeech sounds.Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical propertiesof speech sounds.Perceptual or auditory phonetics is concerned with theperception of speech sounds.Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. Begin by analyzing an individual language, then discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages.1, how speech sounds are made?1, Speech organs: vocal tract-- pharynx, mouth, noseoral cavity-- mouthnasal cavity-- noseUpper part of the pharynx:Contents of the mouth: upper part-- the upper lip, the upper teeth, thealveolar ridge, the hard palate, thesoft palate, and the uvulaBottom part-- the lower lip, the lower teeth, thetongue, and the mandibleTongue: the tip, the blade, thefront ,the back, andthe rootThe vocal folds: apart-- the air can pass through easily and the soundproduced is said to be voicelessclose together-- the airstream causes them to vibrateagainst each other and the resultantsound is said to be voicedtotally closed-- no air can pass between them 2, the IPA The International Phonetic AssociationMain principles: there should be a separate letter for each distinctive sound,and the same symbol should be used for that sound in anylanguage in which it appears.The diacritics are additional symbols or marks used together with theconsonant and vowel symbols to indicate nuances of changein their pronunciation.2, consonants and vowelsConsonants are produced by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction.V owels is produced without such stricture so that air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way though the mouth or nose.The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream.1, ConsonantsManner of Articulation: the way in which the air passes through certainparts of the vocal tract. It refers ways in which articulation can beaccomplished1, stop(or plosive)-- [p, b, t, d, k, g]2, nasal-- [m, n, etc.]3, fricative-- [f, v, s, z etc.]4, approximant-- [w, j etc.]5, lateral-- [l]6, trill-- [r]7, tap and flap8, affricateThe Place of Articulation: where in the vocal tract there is approximation,narrowing, or the obstruction of air1, bilabial-- made with two lips2, labiodental-- made with the lower lip and the upper front teeth3, dental-- made by the tongue tip or blade and the upper front teeth4, alveolar-- made with the tongue tip or blade and the alveolar ridge5, postalveolar-- made with the tongue tip and the back of thealveolar ridge6, petroflex-- made with the front of the tongue tip or blade curledback so that the underside of the tongue tip or bladeforms a stricture with the back of the alveolar ridgeor the hard palate7, palatal-- made with the front of the tongue and the hard palate8, velar-- made with the back of the tongue and the soft palate9, uvular-- made with the back of the tongue and the uvula10, pharyngeal-- made with the root of the tongue and the walls ofthe pharynx11, glottal-- made with the two pieces of vocal folds pushed towardseach other2, V owels[ i: ]-- high front tensed unrounded vowel[ə: ]-- mid central tensed unrounded vowel[a: ]-- low back tensed rounded vowel[ɔ: ]-- mid back tensed rounded vowel[u: ]-- high back tensed rounded vowel[i ]-- high front lax unrounded vowel[e ]-- mid front lax unrounded vowel[æ ]-- low front lax unrounded vowel[ə]-- mid central lax unrounded vowel[ʌ]-- low back lax rounded vowel[ɔ]-- mid back lax rounded vowel[u ]-- high back lax rounded vowel3, the sounds of EnglishRP-- R eceived P ronunciationGA-- G eneral A merican3, from phonetics to phonology1, coarticulation and phonetic transcriptionsCoarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of twosuccessive phonological units.Anticipatory coarticulation-- the sound becomes more like the followingsound (lamb)Perseverative coarticulation-- the sound shows the influence of theproceeding sound (map)Broad transcription-- the use of a simple set of symbols in ourtranscriptionNarrow transcription-- the use of more specific symbols to show morephonetic detail2, phonemesThe smallest unit that distinguishes meaning of words. a unit of explicitsound contrastMinimal pair-- a pair of words with different meanings which differ in onlyone sound.E.g. “pill” and “bill”Phonetics transcriptions are placed between slant lines(/ /), whilephonetic transcriptions are placed between squarebrackets([ ]).3, allophonesThe aspirated /p/ and the unaspirated /p/ have phonetic differece, but theyboth belong to the same phoneme /p/. Such variants are called allophones ofthe same phoneme. In this case the allophones are said to be incomplementary distribution because they never occur in the same context.This phenomenon of variation in the pronunciation is called allophony orallophonic variation.To be allophones of the same phoneme, the phones must be phoneticallysimilar. Phonetic similarity means that the allophones of a phoneme mustbear some resemblance.If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast; namely, ifthe substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form butmerely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds then aresaid to be in “free variation”.4, phonological process, phonological rules and distinctive features 1, AssimilationInstances: nasalization, dentalization, velarizationTwo possibilities-- 1, if a following sound is influencing a precedingsound, we call it regressive assimilation2, the converse process, in which a preceding soundis influencing a following sound, is known asprogressive assimilationPhonological process-- three aspects: 1, a set of sounds to undergo theprocess2, a set of sounds produced bythe processs3, a set of situations in which theprocess appliesPhonological rules2, epenthesis, rule ordering and the elsewhere conditionA boyAn appleWe treat the change of a to an as an insertion of a nasal sound.Technically, this process of insertion is known as epenthesis.3, distinctive featuresFirstly developed by Roman Jacobson as a means of working out a set ofphonological contrasts or oppositions to capture particular aspects oflanguage sounds.Some major distinctions-- consonantal, sonorant, nasal, voiced.5, suprasegmentals1, the syllable structureMonosyllabic-- with one syllablePolysyllabic-- with more than one syllableA syllable must have a nucleus or peak.Open syllable-- a syllable which ends in a vowel.Closed syllable-- a syllable which ends in a consonant.Maximal onset principle-- the principle which states that when there is achoice as to where to place a consonant, it isput into the onset rather than the coda.2, stressStress Stress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable.3, intonationIntonation involves the occurrence of recurring fall- rise patterns, each ofwhich is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either onsingle words or on groups of words of varying length.4, toneIn Chinese tone changes are made in a different way, affecting themeanings of individual words.Languages like Chinese are known as tone languages.。

《语言学教程》第 2 章语音学与音位学1(课堂PPT)

语音学研究的是语音，即语音如何发出、传递和感知，以及对语音、词语和连续性口语等的（语音学性质的）描写和分类。
7
Phonetics studies speech sounds,
made,
how speech sounds transmitted are actually
that
and received,
is,
speech sounds,
the description and classification of
words
and connected speech，
etc.
8
语音学研究的是语音，
发出、
传递语音如何
和感知
即
语音
以及对
词连续性语音
的描写和分类。
9
Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.
的规则。
以及音节的形式音位学以音位为起点来研究语言的语音系统。
13
音位学的定义
Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to “discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.” （Crystal, 1997: 162）
第 1 学期第6 讲第 2 章语音学与音位学（1）

语言学教程第三版 Chapter 2-Speech Soundppt课件

■We can analyze speech sounds from various perspectives and the two major areas of study are phonetics and phonology.
■Phonetics studuced, transmitted, and perceived.
Chapter 2
Speech Sounds
主讲人史宝辉
.
2.0 Brief introduction 2.1 How speech sounds are made?
2.1.1 Speech organs 2.1.2 The IPA 2.2 Consonants and vowels 2.2.1 Consonants 2.2.2 Vowels 2.2.3 The sounds of English 2.3 From phonetics to phonology 2.3.1 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription 2.3.2 Phonemes 2.3.3 Allophones 2.4 Phonological processes, phonological rules and distinctive features 2.4.1 Assimilation 2.4.2 Epenthesis, rule ordering and the Elsewhere Condition 2.4.3 Distinctive features 2.5 Suprasegmentals 2.5.1 The syllable structure 2.5.2 Stress 2.5.3 Intonation 2.5.4 Tone
.
英语专业考研真题精选

语言学教程第二章

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Chapter 1 Introduction1.1研究问题...................................................................................................................错误！未定义书签。

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《语言学教程》Chapter-2-ics

语法
语法
语法是语言中词和句子的结构规律和规则，是语言的组织原则。语法包括词法和句法两部分。词法研究词的内部结构和变化规律；句法研究短语和句子的结构规律和规则。
语法的特点
语法具有抽象性、生成性、层次性和系统性等特点。抽象性是指语法规则是对语言中具体实例的抽象概括；生成性是指语法能够生成无限多的合乎语法的句子；层次性是指语法结构分为若干层次，不同层次之间存在递归关系；系统性是指语法规则相互联系、相互制约，形成一个完整的系统。
新的词汇、表达方式和语法结构等可能会随着时间的推移而出现，丰富和发展语言的表达和沟通功能。
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语言与社会文化的关系
语言与文化的关系
语言是文化的重要组成部分，是文化传承和发展的载体。语言中蕴含着丰富的文化信息，反映了特定民族的历史、传统、信仰、价值观等。
语言与文化相互影响，语言使用中的词汇、语法、表达方式等都受到文化的影响，同时语言也影响了人们对世界的认知和表达方式。
语音的生理属性
语音的生理属性包括发音机制和听觉机制。发音机制包括呼吸系统、声源系统、调制系统和共鸣系统；听觉机制包括听觉接收器和大脑处理声音信息的过程。
词汇
词汇
词汇是语言中所有词的总和，是语言的建筑材料。词汇由词和固定词组构成，包括实词和虚词两大类。实词表示事物、概念、动作等具体内容；虚词表示语法关系和语气等抽象内容。
语法的作用
语法在语言中起着非常重要的作用。首先，语法保证语言的正确性和规范性，使人们能够准确地表达思想、传递信息。其次，语法使语言具有生成性，能够生成无限多的合乎语法的句子。最后，语法使语言具有开放性，能够吸收外来文化和方言的影响，不断丰富言演变的原因

《语言学教程》Chapter 2 phonetics

Main contents in Chapter 2
Phonetics Speech sounds Sounds Phonology Sound systems 1. Phoneme, phone, allophone ClickPhonological 2. to add Title processes
2.2 Consonants and vowels
Preview questions: 1. What are consonants and vowels? 2. What is the major difference between consonants and vowels? 3. In what ways can we describe consonants and vowels respectively?
Chapter Two Speech Sounds
What is Phonetics?
Phonetics (语音学) studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. It is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.

Performance
Performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors; it is not stable.
A speaker’s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.

语言学教程Chapter 2

Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas:1. Articulatory phonetics – the study of the production of speech sounds2. Acoustic phonetics –the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced inspeech3. Auditory phonetics – the study of perception of speech soundsMost phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.2.2 Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription2.3.1 Segments and divergencesAs there are more sounds in English than its letters, each letter must represent more than one sound.2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptionInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the InternationalPhonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics. Some letters aretaken from the Roman alphabet, some are special symbols.2.4 Consonants2.4.1 Consonants and vowelsA consonant is produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at someplaces to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.A vowel is produced without obstruction so no turbulence or a total stopping of theair can be perceived.2.4.2 ConsonantsThe categories of consonant are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are:1. the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which theair passes through certain parts of the vocal tract (manner of articulation);2. where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstructionof the air (place of articulation).2.4.3 Manners of articulation1. Stop/plosive: A speech sound which is produced by stopping the air streamfrom the lungs and then suddenly releasing it. In English,[☐ ♌ ♦ ♎  ♑] are stops and [❍ ⏹ ☠]are nasal stops.2. Fricative: A speech sound which is produced by allowing the air stream fromthe lungs to escape with friction. This is caused by bringing the twoarticulators, e.g. the upper teeth and the lower lip, close together but notcloses enough to stop the airstreams completely. In English,[♐   ❆ ♦  ☞ ✞ ♒] are fricatives.3. (Median) approximant: An articulation in which one articulator is close toanother, but without the vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that aturbulent airstream is produced. In English this class of sounds includes[♦ ❑ ].4. Lateral (approximant): A speech sound which is produced by partiallyblocking the airstream from the lungs, usually by the tongue, but letting itescape at one or both sides of the blockage. [●] is the only lateral in English.Other consonantal articulations include trill, tap or flap, and affricate.2.4.4 Places of articulation1. Bilabial: A speech sound which is made with the two lips.2. Labiodental: A speech sound which is made with the lower lip and the upperfront teeth.3. Dental: A speech sound which is made by the tongue tip or blade and theupper front teeth.4. Alveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade and thealveolar ridge.5. Postalveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip and the backof the alveolar ridge.6. Retroflex: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade curledback so that the underside of the tongue tip or blade forms a stricture with theback of the alveolar ridge or the hard palate.7. Palatal: A speech sound which is made with the front of the tongue and thehard palate.8. V elar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the softpalate.9. Uvular: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and theuvula, the short projection of the soft tissue and muscle at the posterior end ofthe velum.10. Pharyngeal: A speech sound which is made with the root of the tongue and thewalls of the pharynx.11. Glottal: A speech sound which is made with the two pieces of vocal foldspushed towards each other.2.4.5 The consonants of EnglishReceived Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation.It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English” or “Oxford English” because itis widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by mostnewsreaders of the BBC network.In many cases there are two sounds that share the same place and manner of articulation. These pairs of consonants are distinguished by voicing, the one appearingon the left is voiceless and the one on the right is voiced.Therefore, the consonants of English can be described in the following way:[p] voiceless bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative[z] voiced alveolar fricative[m] bilabial nasal[n] alveolar nasal[l] alveolar lateral[j] palatal approximant[h] glottal fricative[r] alveolar approximant2.5 Vowels2.5.1 The criteria of vowel description1. The part of the tongue that is raised – front, center, or back.2. The extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate. Normally,three or four degrees are recognized: high, mid (often divided into mid-highand mid-low) and low.3. The kind of opening made at the lips –various degrees of lip rounding orspreading.4. The position of the soft palate –raised for oral vowels, and lowered forvowels which have been nasalized.2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowels[Icywarmtea doesn’t quite understand this theory.]Cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intending to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actualvowels of existing languages.By convention, the eight primary cardinal vowels are numbered from one to eight as follows: CV1[♓], CV2[♏], CV3[☪], CV4[♋], CV5[ ], CV6[ ], CV7[☐],CV8[◆].A set of secondary cardinal vowels is obtained by reversing the lip-rounding for agive position: CV9 – CV16. [I am sorry I cannot type out many of these. If you want toknow, you may consult the textbook p. 47. – icywarmtea]2.5.3 Vowel glidesPure (monophthong) vowels: vowels which are produced without any noticeable change in vowel quality.V owel glides: V owels where there is an audible change of quality.Diphthong: A vowel which is usually considered as one distinctive vowel of a particular language but really involves two vowels, with one vowel gliding to the other.2.5.4 The vowels of RP[♓] high front tense unrounded vowel[◆] high back lax rounded vowel[☜] central lax unrounded vowel[ ] low back lax rounded vowel2.6 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription2.6.1 CoarticulationCoarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of two successive phonological units.Anticipatory coarticulation: If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamp, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation.Perseverative coarticulation: If the sound displays the influence of the preceding sound, as in the case of map, it is perseverative coarticulation.Nasalization: Change or process by which vowels or consonants become nasal.Diacritics: Any mark in writing additional to a letter or other basic elements.2.6.2 Broad and narrow transcriptionsThe use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription is called a broad transcription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referredto as a narrow transcription. The former was meant to indicate only these soundscapable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language while the latterwas meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the minutestshades of pronunciation.2.7 Phonological analysisPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. On the other hand, phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. There is a fair degree of overlap in what concerns the two subjects, so sometimes it is hard to draw the boundary between them. Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds while phonology studies the way in which speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning. That is to say, phonology is concerned with the linguistic patterning of sounds in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. 2.8 Phonemes and allophones2.8.1 Minimal pairsMinimal pairs are two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning. E.g. the English words tie anddie are minimal pairs as they differ in meaning and in their initial phonemes /t/ and /d/.By identifying the minimal pairs of a language, a phonologist can find out which soundsubstitutions cause differences of meaning.2.8.2 The phoneme theory2.8.3 AllophonesA phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference inmeaning. Any of the different forms of a phoneme is called its allophones. E.g. inEnglish, when the phoneme /☐/ occurs at the beginning of the word like peak/☐♓/, it is said with a little puff of air, it is aspirated. But when /☐/ occurs in theword like speak /♦☐♓/, it is said without the puff of the air, it is unaspirated. Boththe aspirated [☐♒] in peak and the unaspirated [☐=] in speak have the same phonemicfunction, i.e. they are both heard and identified as /☐/ and not as /♌/; they are bothallophones of the phoneme /☐/.2.9 Phonological processes2.9.1 AssimilationAssimilation: A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Regressive assimilation: If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation.Progressive assimilation: If a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, we call it progressive assimilation.Devoicing: A process by which voiced sounds become voiceless. Devoicing of voiced consonants often occurs in English when they are at the end of a word.2.9.2 Phonological processes and phonological rulesThe changes in assimilation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all phonological processes in which a target or affected segment undergoes a structuralchange in certain environments or contexts. In each process the change is conditioned ortriggered by a following sound or, in the case of progressive assimilation, a precedingsound. Consequently, we can say that any phonological process must have three aspectsto it: a set of sounds to undergo the process; a set of sounds produced by the process; aset of situations in which the process applies.We can represent the process by mans of an arrow: voiced fricative →voiceless / __________ voiceless. This is a phonological rule. The slash (/) specifies theenvironment in which the change takes place. The bar (called the focus bar) indicatesthe position of the target segment. So the rule reads: a voiced fricative is transformedinto the corresponding voiceless sound when it appears before a voiceless sound.2.9.3 Rule ordering[No much to say, so omitted – icywarmtea]2.10 Distinctive featuresDistinctive feature: A particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group.Binary feature: A property of a phoneme or a word which can be used to describe the phoneme or word. A binary feature is either present or absent. Binary features are also used to describe the semantic properties of words.2.11 SyllablesSuprasegmental features: Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllables, stress, tone, and intonation.Syllable: A unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.Open syllable: A syllable which ends in a vowel.Closed syllable: A syllable which ends in a consonant.Maximal onset principle: The principle which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. E.g. The correct syllabification of the word country should be / ✈⏹♦❑♓/. It shouldn’t be / ✈⏹♦❑♓/ or / ✈⏹♦❑♓/ according to this principle.2.12 StressStress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. In transcription, a raised vertical line [ ] is used just before the syllable it relates to.。

语言学chapter 2

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⑤教后感是对本次教学过程中自我感觉成功的地方以及存在的不足和学生反馈的信息情况进行总结。

课程名称：课程类型：第次课 3 学时：上课日期：1、Contents：Chapter 2: Phonetics: the study of speech soundsT eaching aims: let the students have the general idea about phonetics and phonology.Focal points: description of consonants and vowels; basic knowledge about phonologyT eaching difficulties: phoneme; allophone; minimal pair; complementary distribution2、Teaching Objectives: let the students have the general idea about phoneticsLet the students understand the system of the articulatory apparatusLet the students know how to describe consonants and vowels3、Teaching importances: description of consonants and vowels;Teaching difficulties: manners and places of articulation:I.Phonetics: is the scientific study of speech sound. It is mainly concerned with how each speech sounds is articulated and what phonetic features it has.II.Speech organs:①The oral cavity②The nasal cavity③The pharynxSee the Figure 2.1 the articulatory apparatus( page 15)课程名称：课程类型：第4次课学时：上课日期：1、Contents：Chapter 2: Phonetics: the study of speech soundsT eaching aims: let the students have the general idea about phonetics and phonology.Focal points: description of consonants and vowels; basic knowledge about phonologyT eaching difficulties: phoneme; allophone; minimal pair; complementary distribution2、Teaching Objectives: let the students have the general idea about phoneticsLet the students understand the system of the articulatory apparatusLet the students know how to describe consonants and vowels3、Teaching importances: description of consonants and vowels;Teaching difficulties: manners and places of articulationIII.Classification of speech soundsEgressive sounds: produced by pushing the air stream out of the glottis, all English sounds and Chinese sounds.Ingressive sounds: by sucking the air in.A consonant is a sound produced by an obstruction or blocking of the airflow coming out from the two lungs and then going out through the oral or nasal cavity.A vowel is produced with the vibration of the two vocal cords but with no closure or obstruction when the air stream passes through the mouth.. Classification of consonants:1. V oicing2. Places of articulation (position or place of the obstruction of the air flow)3. Manners of articulation.1.Voiceless consonants:are those that are produced when the vocal cords are apart and the airflow passes freely through the vocal tract.Voiced consonants:are those that are produced when the vocal cords are together and the airstream forces its way through the two vocal cords and caused the vibrate.Whispering is invariably voiceless.* The binary system of description:[+voiced]: [b][d][g][-voiced]: [p][t][k]2.Places of articulationLabials:Bilabials :[p] [b] [m]Labiodentals: [f][v]Labiovelars: [w][M] [ ]Interdentals: [][]Alveolars: [t][d][n][s][z][l][r]Palatals: [ ][ ][ ][ ][j]Velars: [k][g][]Glottal: [h]3.Manners of articulationStopsBilabial stopsAlveolar stopsVelar stopsAspirationpin spin怕爸他搭喀嘎fricativesLabiodental fricativesInterdental fricativesAlveolar fricativesPalatal fricativesGlottal fricativeAffricates:Liquids:[l] The front of the tongue makes contact with the alveolar ridge, but the sidesof the tongue are down and the air can escape laterally through the two sides of the tongue. It is called a lateral.[r] It is formed with the tongue tip raised and curled back behind the alveolar ridge, it is called a retroflex.Glides:Nasals:Classification of vowelsmonophthongs diphthongs triphthongsDescription of simple vowels1.The part of the tongue involvedhat hut heart2.The height of the tongueFeet fit fetch fat3.The state of the musclesTense vowels: long vowels and diphthongsLax vowels: short vowels4.The shape of lipsRounded vowels:Unrounded vowels:DiphthongsCentering diphthongs: (from the front or back to the center)Rising /closing diphthongs: ( from a lower vowel to a higher one)IV Phonetic features and natural classesSounds can be analyzed into their phonetic features[u] has the features: [+high] [-back] [+round] [-tense]Classes of sounds that share a feature or features are called natural classes. [+anterior] (a feature to specify consonants) bilabials, labiodentals, interdentals and alveolar, but not labiovelars.[+continuant] : fricatives, liquids, glides.[+sibilant]( [+strident]): are produced with a hissing noise, and they are called sibilants.[+sonorant]: vowels, glides, liquids and nasals[+syllabic]: vowels and [m] [ n] [l ]V. The IPADid he believe that Caesar could see the people seize the seas? 1888, The International Phonetic AssociationThe latest version revised in 1993 and updated in 1996The broad phonetic transcription transcribes only the sounds that contrast words in meaning.The narrow phonetic transcription provides minute differences in producing sounds.Symbols in IPA and those in American EnglishExercises:1.Fill in the following blanks1).Human communication usually takes place in the form of __________-communication and ___________communication.2).The medium of spoken language is __________.3).___________phonetics is the primary concern in linguistics.4).___________phonetics focuses on the perception of speech sounds.5).Speech organs are composed of three parts, the pharyngeal cavity, the________cavity, and __________cavity.6).The International Phonetic Transcription was devised in the year_______and has undergone several revisions.2. Write the sound which corresponds to each of the following phonetic descriptions.1).Lateral liquid2).Lax high back vowel3).V oice bilabial oral stop4).Mid central lax vowel5).V oiceless labiodental fricative6).Low front vowel7).Palatal glide8).V oice interdental fricative9).V oiced affricate10).V elar nasal consonant11).V oiceless alveolar fricative12).Aspirated bilabial stop13).High front tense unrounded vowel14).Low back vowel15).High back tense vowel16).Mid back lax vowe5、References: 《语言学概论》杨忠高等教育出版社;《新编简明英语语言学教程》戴伟栋何兆熊上海外语教育出版社;《语言学导论论》陈林华吉林大学出版社;《语言学教程》胡壮麟北京大学出版社( 必读书籍)6、Summary after teaching: It is difficult for the students to understand the meta functions of language. I should make a further study for this part.一、双音节词一般地说，一个单词中有几个发音的元音字母，就有几个音节。

语言学教程chapter2 sound

[p] voiceless bilabial stop [b] voiced bilabial stop [s] voiceless alveolar fricative [z] voiced alveolar fricative

English vowels

The description of English vowels needs to fulfill 4 basic requirements:
2.3 The sounds of English

Received Pronunciation (RP) General American (GA) English consonants

The consonants of English can be described in the following manner:
Diphthongs

Vowel glides

Centering
closing
ending in [ə]
ending in [i]
ending in [ʊ]
iə εə ʊə
ei ai ͻi
əʊ aʊ

Triphthong – double movement, a glide from one vowel to another and then to a third, all produced rapidly and without interruption - they are diphthongs followed by schwa - in English, there are 5 triphthongs eiə aiə ͻiə əʊə aʊə

语言学教程第四版第二章胡壮麟主编

Chapter 2Speech soundsContents•How sounds are made?•Consonants and vowels•Phonological processes, phonological rules and distinctive features•Suprasegmentals 超音段•Two major areas for studying speech sounds:phonetics and phonology•Phonetics: it studies how speech sounds are made, transmitted and perceived.•Three branches of phonetics:•Articulatory phonetics发声语音学 is the study of the production of speech sounds.•Acoustic phonetics声学语音学 is the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech.Auditory phonetics听觉语音学 is concerned with the perception of speech sounds•Phonology：it deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme 音素 as the point of departure.•It studies the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.•Ultimately it aims to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages.How speech sounds are made?• speech organs 言语器官•Speech organs are also known as vocal organs（发音器官）.•Parts of human body involved in the production of speech sounds: lungs, trachea (windpipe) 气管, throat, nose, mouth• organs of speech (Figure 2.2, p.26 on our books)•Three cavities: oral cavity, nasal cavity 鼻腔, pharyngeal cavity (pharynx) 咽腔•Inside the oral cavity: tongue, hard palate 硬腭, soft palate (velum) 软腭, teeth, teeth ridge (alveolus) 齿龈•Inside the pharyngeal cavity: pharynx 咽, larynx喉, vocal folds 声带•Positions of vocal folds 声带••(a) apart•speech sounds which are produced without vibration of the vocal cords are called voiceless 清音.• [p,t,k,f,s]•(b) close together•Speech sounds which are produced with the vocal cords vibrating are called voiced浊音.• [b,d,g,v,z]•When a speech sound which is normally voiced is produced without vibration or only slight vibration, this is called devoicing(清音化).Devoicing of voiced consonants often occurs in English when they areat the end of a word, e.g.• Lid word crab bag• five past has to•(c) totally closed [ ʔ ]• Fatten button packIPA•IPA: International Phonetic Alphabet 国际音标•Principles:• A separate letter for each distinctive sound, and the same symbol should be used for that sound in any language in which it appears. Roman alphabet, new letters and diacritics 语音符号 only necessary•Diacritics 音符:•They are additional symbols or marks used together with the consonant and vowel symbols to indicate nuances of change in their pronunciation.Consonants and vowels•Distinction between consonants and vowels: the obstruction 阻塞 of airstream•Consonants 辅音: obstruction of airstreams; voiced or voiceless •Vowels 元音: no obstruction; voiced•semi-vowel or semi-consonant ：[j] [w]Consonants•consonants are speech sounds where the airstream is blocked somewhere in the mouth or throat to different degrees.•At least 2 articulators are involved：mouth and vocal tract (声道)•Classification of consonants:• Manners of articulation• Places of articulation• Voiced or voicelessManners of articulation•The relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract •Seven manners of articulation:•1) Stop 塞音 (plosive) 爆破音•three phases in the production of a stop :•the closing phase;•the hold phase;•the release phase•nasal stop (nasal) [n, m, ŋ ]•oral stop (stop) [p, b, t, d, k, g]•2) Fricative (Audible friction) 摩擦音•Close approximation of two articulators, the airstream partially obstructed, turbulent airflow is produced.• [f, v, s, z, h, , ð,∫, ʒ ]•3) (Median) Approximant 近音:•one articulator is close to another, but without the vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that a turbulent airstream is produced.• Features:•larger gap; no turbulence• Ex. [w, j]•) Lateral (Approximant) 边音:•Obstruction of the airstream at a point along the center of the oral tract, with incomplete closure between one or both sides of the tongue and the roof of the mouth.•Features:• a stricture of open approximation; no noise of friction•Ex. [ l ]: leaf, lead;feel, real, build•5) Trill [r] 颤音： red•6) Tap or flap 触音/ 闪音： [ Ր ]• city letter (Am.)»7) Affricates塞擦音 [ʧʤ] : •involve more than one of these manners of articulation in that they consist of a stop followed immediately afterwards by a fricative at thesame place of articulation.•Ex. [ʧ]: church[ʤ]: jetPlaces of articulation•The places where there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of air.•eleven places of articulation•1) Bilabial 双唇音•Made with two lips•[p, b, m],•[w] (a little different, IPA refers it as labial-velar approximant 唇颚近音) •2) Labiodental 唇齿音•made with the lower lip and the upper front teeth.•[f, v], as in fire and via•3) dental/ interdental齿音•the tongue tip or blade and the upper front teeth•[ , ð]•4) alveolar齿龈音（7个）•the tongue tip or blade and the alveolar ridge•[t, d, n, s, z, ɹ, l]•5) postalveolar (palato-alveolar)后齿龈音: the tongue tip and the back of the alveolar ridge•[∫, ʒ, ʧ, ʤ]•wash garage watch•6) retroflex 卷舌音•the tip or blade curled back (retroflex) so that the underside of the tongue tip or blade forms a stricture with the back of the alveolar ridge or the hard palate•“r” of daughter•7) palatal (only 1) 硬腭音•the front of the tongue and the hard palate•[ j ], as in yes and yet.•8) velar 软腭音•the back of the tongue and the soft palate. (touched)•[k, g]: velar stops, cat, get•[ŋ]: velar nasal, sing•9) uvular 小舌音•10) Pharyngeal 咽音•11) glottal 声门音•the two pieces of vocal folds pushed towards each other•[ h ]: glottal fricative, as in hat, hold•[ ʔ ]: glottal stop, in fat [fæʔt], pack [pæʔk],•Analyze consonants of English•Description of consonants:• 1. voiced or voiceless• 2. place of articulation• 3. manner of articulation• e.g. [p] Voiceless bilabial stop• [b] Voiced bilabial stop• [f] Voiceless labio-dental fricative• [m] Bilabial nasal•Vowels 元音•Vowel: a speech sound in which the airstream from the lungs is not blocked in any way in the mouth or throat, and which is usuallypronounced with vibration of the vocal cords, too.•cardinal vowels 基本元音•The idea of a system of CARDINAL VOWELS was first suggested by A.J. Ellis in 1844 and was taken up by A.M. Bell in his VisibleSpeech(1867)• A set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed, and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of theactual vowels of exiting language.•[i] [e] [ ] [a] [α] [ ɔ ] [Օ] [u]•Schwa（非重读央元音•neutral vowel [ə], neither high nor low and neither front nor back•The description of vowels :• 1. The height of tongue raising (high, mid, low)• 2. The position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back) • 3. The length or tenseness of the vowel( tense vs. lax or long vs. short) • 4. Lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded).••Description of some vowels•[i:] high front tense unrounded vowel•[u] high back lax rounded vowel•[a:] low back tense unrounded vowel•[e] mid front lax unrounded vowel•Vowel glides（元音音渡）•Vowels where the quality remains constant throughout the articulation are called pure or monophthong vowels（纯元音/单元音）.•Vowels where there is an audible change of quality are called vowel glides.•Diphthong（双元音）: a speech sound which is usually considered as one distinctive vowel of a particular language but really involves twovowels, with one vowel gliding to the other.•Triphthong (三合元音）:a term sometimes used for a combination of three vowels.•The sounds of English•Received Pronunciation (RP)标准英语is the type of British STANDARD ENGLISH pronunciation which has been regarded as theprestige variety and which shows no REGIONAL VARIATY.•It is also called by many people as BBC English, Oxford English, King’s English or Queen’s English•General American (GA) 普通美语: the widely accepted accent used by most educated speaker in the USA•Syllable 音节It is defined as the unit which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.The most common type of syllable in language has a consonant before a vowel (CV). The basic elements of a syllable are the onset (one or more consonants) and the rime/ rhyme 韵音.The rime consists of vowel, which is treated as the nucleus or peak, plus the following consonant, treated as coda 尾音.• syllable structure:• syllable•╱╲• onset rhyme•╱╲• nucleus codaMinimal pairs and minimal setsWhen two words are identical in every way except for a contrast in one sound segment occurring in the same position in the string, the two words are called a minimal pair 最小对立体.E.g: pit and bit junk and chunkban and bin bet and batA minimal pair should follow three conditions: 1) they are different in meaning; 2) they differ only in one sound segment; 3) the different sounds occur in the same position in the strings.E.g:Two pronunciations of the word economicsseed and sit leaf and vealWhen a group of words meet all the above three conditions, they are called a minimal set最小集合 . E.g.:1) bit beat bat bate boot bite bought2) pit bit kit sit fit knit hit3) tin fin thin sin chin gin winFree variation 自由变异When two or more different sounds occur in the same position without any change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation.E.g.: economics, direct, either, neitherPhone, phoneme, allophone•Phone语音: individual sounds as they occur in speech. It appears in square brackets.•Phoneme音素: the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words. It appears in two slanting lines.•The allophones音素变体 of a phoneme are the different versions ofa phoneme in actual speech. It appears in square brackets.• A B C• Key ski dictation• Cat scan factory• Ken skeptic deckchair•Sounds [k] are described differently in three columns:•Column A: aspirated• B: unaspirated• C: unreleasedPhonological processesPhonological process: a process in which a target or affected segment undergoes a structural change in certain environments or contexts.Sounds of change: assimilation and elisionAssimilation（同化）:When a speech sound changes, and becomes more like another sound which follows it or precedes it, this is called assimilationE.g.met --- bilabial nasalcomfort --- labiodental nasalElision 省略: the process of not pronouncing a sound segmentE.g.: you and mefriendshiphe must be•Dbinary features:two values denoted by + and –Major distinctive features:voicing,place of articulation,manner of articulationistinctive featuresSuprasegmentals (超音段) or suprasegmental feature (超音段特征) Suprasegmental features:the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments such as syllables, words and sentences.The main suprasegmental features:stress, tone and intonationStress （重音）It is the pronunciation of a word or syllable with more force than the surrounding words or syllables.1. At the word levelThe location of stress in English distinguishes meaning1) A shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word.'import im'port 'increase in'crease2) Alteration of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements.• a 'blackboard a black 'board• a 'greenhouse a green 'house• 2. At the sentence level•Notional words 实义词 are normally stressed while structural words are unstressed.• a. 'John 'bought a 'red 'bicycle.• b. 'JOHN bought a red bicycle.• c. John 'BOUGHT a red bicycle.• d. John bought a 'RED bicycle.• e. John bought a red 'BICYCLE.Tone 声调Height of pitch and change of pitch which is associated with the pronunciation of syllables or words and which affects the meaning of the words.A tone language is a language in which the meaning of a word depends on the tone used when pronouncing it.Mandarin Chinese, a tone language.妈mā high level tone麻 má high rising tone马mǎ fall-rise tone骂 mà high falling toneIntonation语调Intonation involves the occurrence of recurring 循环的 fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on the level of phrase or sentence.E.g.: What did you put in my drink, Jane?What did you put in my drink, Jane?What did you put in my drink, Jane。

英语语言学教程Chapter_2_PPT

Place of articulation (发音部位p. 31-32)

The point where a consonant is made Consonants may be produced at practically any place between the lips and the vocal folds.
（肺，气管，喉，鼻，口）
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)
1.2 The IPA

In 1886, the Phonetic Teachers’ Association was inaugurated by a small group of language teachers in France who had found the practice of phonetics useful in their teaching and wished to popularize their methods. It was changed to its present title of the International Phonetic Association (IPA) in 1897.

The international phonetic alphabet (P.28)
2.2 Consonants and vowels (p. 29-37)
Consonants are sounds made by a closure or narrowing in the vocal tract so that the airflow is either completely blocked, or so restricted that audible friction is produced. A vowel is produced without such “stricture” so that „air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth and nose.” (Crystal, 1997: 154)

语言学chapter2课后练习答案

Chapter 2Revision exercises reference1.What are the two major media of communication? Of the two, which one isprimary and why?Refer to section 2.1The two major media of communication are speech and writing. Of the two, speech is considered primary for the following reasons: 1) from the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always a later invention. 2) In everyday communication, speech conveys a greater amount of information than writing. 3) Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later as part of formal education.2.What is voicing and how is it caused?Refer to section 2.2.2 (1)V oicing is a phonetic feature of some speech sounds. It is caused by the vibration of the speaker's vocal cords when he produces a certain sound. If a sound bears this feature, it is voiced. If such a feature is absent in the pronunciation of a sound, it is voiceless. All vowels in English are voiced; and some consonants in English are voiced such as [d] and [v] while others are voiceless such as [p] and [s].3.Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcriptiondiffer.Both broad and narrow transcriptions are ways to transcribe speech sounds, i.e.ways of using written symbols to represent speech sounds. In broad transcription, only the letter symbols are used, and the principle is to use one letter for onesound, such as [P] and [I]. In narrow transcription, a set of symbols calleddiacritics are added to the letter symbols to show the finer differences between similar sounds, such as[P h] and [ɫ].4.How are the English consonants classified?As in the pronunciation of consonants the air stream coming from the lungs is somehow obstructed, it is possible and also necessary to classify them in terms of manner of articulation and place of articulation. In terms of manner of obstruction, the consonants are classified into the following groups: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place of obstruction, the consonants are classified into the following groups: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar, and glottal.5.What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?To classify the English vowels, the following criteria can be applied: position of the tongue, openness of the mouth, length of the vowels, and the shape of the lips.According to the position of the tongue, the vowels are classified into front, central and back vowels; according to the openness of the mouth, the vowels are classified into close, semi-close, semi-open, and open vowels; and according to the length of the vowels, they are classified into long vowels and short vowels;and according to the shape of the lips, and the vowels are classified into rounded and unrounded vowels.6.Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1)voiced palatal affricate--- [dʒ]2)voiceless labiodental fricative---[f]3)voiced alveolar stop---[d]4)front, close, short---[i]5)back ,semi-open, long ---[ɔ:]6)voiceless bilabial stop---[p]Given the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1)[d]---voiced alveolar stop2)[l]---voiced alveolar liquid3)[tʃ]---voiceless palatal/alveolar affricate4)[w]---voiced bilabial glide5)[u]---back,close,short(rounded)6)[æ]---front,short,open(unrounded)7.How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do youthink will be more interested in the difference between, say, [l]and[ɫ], [pʰ]and[P],a phonetician or a phonologist? Why?Refer to section 2.3.1Though both dealing with speech sounds, phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study in that the former focuses on the speech sounds themselves, their ways of pronunciation, their differences, their classifications, etc., while the latter focuses on the sound system of particular languages and the role sounds play in conveying meaning. Therefore, a phonetician will be more interested in the difference between two sounds.8.What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophonesrelated to a phoneme?Refer to section 2.3.2A phone is simply a speech sound, every actual sound we use or hear inmeaningful linguistic communication. For example, in pronouncing the two words “feel” and “leaf”, we actually use or hear four phones:[f][i:][l]and[~l].A phone differs from a phoneme in that the former is an actual sound we hear andit is the unit of study in phonetics, and the latter is not an audible sound, but an abstract entity, a collection of phonetic features, used as a unit of study in phonology. Take the “feel” and “leaf” example again. While four phones are used or heard in the pronunciation of these two words, only three phonemes are involved, i.e. /f/ /i: / and /l/.A phoneme, though as an abstract entity, is realized as different phones indifferent phonetic contexts. All these different phones are called the allophones of the same one phoneme. For example, the aspirated [pʰ] and the unaspirated [p] are allophones of the same phoneme/p/.9.Explain with examples the sequential rules, the assimilation rule, and thedeletion rule.Sequential rules are rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. For exam ple, why “klib” is a permissible combination of the four sounds in English and why “kbli” is not can only be accounted for by a sequential rule.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. For example, the actual pronunciation of the letter “n” in the word “ incorrect” is not the alveolar [n] but the velar nasal [ŋ] is a manifestation of the assimilation rule at work.The deletion tells us when a sound is deleted although it is orthographically represented. For example, in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letterg. But in their corresponding noun forms signature, designation and paradigmatic,the [g] represented by the letter g is pronounced.10.What are Suprasegmental features? How do the major Suprasegmentalfeatures of English function in conveying meaning?Suprasegmental features refer to those phonological features occurring above the sound segment level. The major Suprasegmental features in English are stress and intonation. The shift of word stress may change the part of speech of words of the same spelling, such as “'progress n.” and “pro'gress v.” , and different stress may cause difference in the meaning of some compound nouns and noun phrases with the same components, such as “'hotdog” and “hot 'dog”. Stressing words that are normally unstressed in a sentence may convey some extra meaning by the speaker.For exam ple, by stressing the pronoun “my” in the sentence “He is driving 'my car” the speaker is emphasizing the fact that the car he is driving is no one else`s but the speaker`s.The three often-used intonations in English are the falling tone, the rising tone, and the fall-rise tone. The basic role they each play is that the falling tone states a fact, the rising tone raises a question, and the fall-raise tone implies some meaning not literally expressed. For example, the same sentence “That`s not the book he w ants” said in the three different intonations convey three different meanings.Supplementary ExercisesI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1.If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguishmeaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution.2. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.3.English is a tone language while Chinese is not.4.In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.5.In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amountof information conveyed.6.Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds whicha speaker issues with the help of a machine called spectrograph.7.The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the throat,the mouth and the chest.8.Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing.9.English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the part of thetongue that is raised the highest.10.According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the consonants can beclassified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar.11.Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme.12.Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over a sequence of two or morephonemic segments.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:13. A ____ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds.14.The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, i.e., they are all b_______sounds.15.S_________ features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments.They include stress, tone, intonation, etc.16.The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called s ____rules.17.P___________ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular language andhow sounds are combined into meaningful units to effect linguistic communication.18.Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: wordstress and s_________ stress.III. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:19.Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/ are the most flexible.A. mouthB. lipsC. tongueD. vocal cords20.__________ is a voiced alveolar stop.A. /z/B. /d/C. /k/D. /b/21.Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and they candistinguish meaning, they are said to be ___________.A. in phonemic contrastB. in complementary distributionC. the allophonesD. minimal pair22. A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highestposition.A. backB. centralC. frontD. middle23.Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemicsegments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called ____________.A. phonetic componentsB. immediate constituentsC. Suprasegmental featuresD. semantic features24.A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, a collection ofdistinctive phonetic features.A. phoneB. soundC. allophoneD. phoneme。

胡壮麟语言学教程Chapter 2

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Chapter 2 Speech Sounds

Three main factors that decide a sound of consonant: 1) the participation of vocal cords (voiced or voiceless) 2) the place of articulation (bilabial, alveolar, dental, etc.) 3) the manner of articulation (stop, fricative, approximant, nasal, etc.)
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Chapter 2 Speech Sounds
Hale Waihona Puke 2.2 Speech organs voiceless sound: when the vocal folds are apart and the air can pass through easily. voiced sound: when the vocal folds are close together and the air stream causes them to vibrate.
（音位学） Phonological processes Phonology Distinctive features
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Chapter 2 Speech Sounds

2.1 Speech production and perception
A speech sound goes through a three-step process as shown below. Speaker A Speaker B speech speech speech production ---transmission ---perception Articulatory (acoustic) (auditory) the study of | the study of the physical | concerned with production of | properties of the sounds | the perception speech sounds | produced in speech | of speech sounds