1.Grammatical_hierarchy_&_sentence_structure

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Grammatical Hierarchy & Sentence Structure

1.1 Morphemes
Free morphemes:
Having a complete meaning Being able to stand by itself as a simple word Acting as a complete utterance in connected speech
1.4.3 Main vs. subordinate clauses
Main clause: taking another clause as its direct element.
e.g. He said that it was a lie.
Subordinate clause: forming part of the main clause or part of a phrase in the main clause;
books, (He) drinks (heavily), postwar, employer, taller, children’s (book), waited (for him), working, embody Derivational: postwar, employer, embody
Inflectional: books, drinks, taller, children’s
1.3.2 VPs
Having a main verb as its head; Simple vs. complex:
Simple VP: (modifier) + main verb
e.g. She looks pale. We utterly detested him.
Complex VP: auxiliary (auxiliaries) (+ modifier) + main verb

2011功能语言学课程Chapter 1 and 2 课件PPT

Trochaic : iambic – 2 syllables
Trochaic（扬抑拍）: strong + weak e.g. better butter Iambic（抑扬拍）：weak +strong If all the world was ap--ple pie foot
Poem structure in two systems
Questions:
How many words consist of a sentence? ____one? two? Several? (maybe) E.g. “yes”, “ok”, “I did”, “I did it” How many letters consist of a word? ____one? Two? Several? (maybe) E.g. “I”, “no”, “and” ......
教材及主要参考书目
An Introduction to Functional Grammar Second edition by M. A.
K. Halliday.Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press and Edward Arnold (Publishers) Limited (外语教学与研究出版社，爱德华阿诺德出版社）. 2000. Introducing Functional Grammar. London: Edward Arnold. By Thompson, Geoff. 1996. Working with Discourse: Meaning beyond the clause. London: continuum. By Martin, J. R.and David Rose. 2003. The Functional Analysis of English: A Hallidayan Approach. London: Edward Arnold. By Bloor, Thomas and Meriel Bloor. 1995. 《系统功能语法概论》胡壮麟，朱永生，张德禄，李占子，北京：北京大学出版社. 2005.

grammarhierarchy

OverviewGrammar is no doubt very critical in learning a language. However, it is not only about a set of rules,but I would rather say, is governed by a set of rules. Grammar is systematic, organized and dynamic at the same time. As language is a living fluid entity that changes in response to changes in society, grammar is not absolute and fixed. Be ware of the different styles of language, regional differences and changing nature of grammar when we start to study it.Before digging into the complicated structure of grammar, first have an overview of what is required of us English majors to learn for grammar, what is grammar, how it is structured and make clear some most commonly refered concepts and terms appearing afterwards.Grammar HierarchyGrammar is the structural system of a language. The grammar of the English languages is organized in to five ranks: the sentence, the clause, the phrase, the word and the morpheme. Each rank is composed of one or more than one grammatical unit of the immediate lower rank. A full sentence can generally be segmented rank by rank down to its smallest constituents—the morphemes.1. Morphemes(词素)The morpheme is the minimum or smallest grammatical unit, also the smallest meaningful element of speech. Morphemes fall into two categories: free morphemes (自由词素) and bound morphemes (粘附词素).Free morphemes: a free morpheme has a complete meaning and can stand by itself as a simple word. It can sometimes act as a complete utterance in connected speech.本身具有完整意义并能作为“简单词”而单独使用的词素Examples: boy girl deskkind give takeBound morphemes: bound morphemes are mostly affixes. They are also meaningful, but the meaning is not complete in itself unless it is attached to some other form. Therefore, a bound morpheme cannot stand by itself: it only exists as an inflectional(曲折变化的) or derivational(派生的) affix.本身没有完整意义，不能单独使用，必须粘附在自由词素或其他形式上才能表示出意义的词素。

tggrammar语言学名词解释

tggrammar是一种语言学名词，它是指“Transformational-generative grammar”（转换生成语法）的简称。

这一术语通常用于描述由美国语言学家诺姆·乔姆斯基提出的一种语言学理论。

tggrammar是一种旨在解释语言结构和生成规则的理论，它对于理解语言的本质和方式具有重要意义。

1. tggrammar的基本原理tggrammar最基本的原理是：语言的结构和规则可以被认为是一种“生成”的过程，即语言是通过一系列转换规则和产生规则来生成的。

这一理论将语言视为一种具有递归特性的系统，通过递归规则的应用，可以生成无穷的句子。

2. tggrammar的核心概念在tggrammar中，有一些核心概念是必须要理解的。

句子的结构是如何被生成的？句子有哪些成分组成？词汇和句法之间是如何相互作用的？这些问题都是tggrammar所关注的核心内容。

3. tggrammar的在语言学研究中的价值tggrammar理论为语言学研究提供了一个全新的视角，它使得我们能够更加深入地理解语言的本质和结构。

通过对语言生成规则的研究，可以解释为什么一些句子是合乎语法规则的，而另一些句子则是不合乎语法规则的。

4. 个人观点和理解从我个人的观点来看，tggrammar理论是一种非常有用的理论框架，它为我们提供了一种新的思考方式和研究语言的工具。

通过深入研究tggrammar理论，我相信我们可以更好地理解各种不同语言之间的共性和差异，从而为跨文化交流和语言教育提供更好的理论基础。

总结回顾：tggrammar理论是一种旨在解释语言结构和生成规则的理论，它强调语言生成的过程和递归规则的应用。

通过深入研究tggrammar理论，我们可以更好地理解语言的生成和语法规则，为语言学研究和语言教育提供更好的理论基础。

tggrammar理论是一种语言学理论，它的基本原理是语言的结构和规则可以被认为是一种“生成”的过程。

gensim计算词语相似度原理

gensim计算词语相似度原理
gensim的词语相似度计算，是基于潜在语义分析（Latent Semantic Analysis, LSA）的原理来实现的。

基本原理是，将词语映射到多维空间中，然后计算每个词语之间的相似度。

gensim的LSA算法，采用TF-IDF模型，将文档中出现的单词映射到潜在的多维空间中。

TF-IDF模型是一种用来评价某一语料库中某一文档对该语料库中其他文档的重要程度的指标。

它由两部分组成：
1、Term Frequency(TF): 即词频，是指某一个词在文档中出现的频率。

2、Inverse Document Frequency(IDF): 即逆文档频率，是指在语料库中，一个词在一个或多个文档中出现的概率，也就是该词在文档中出现的频率越高，就越不重要；而文档中出现的频率越低，就越重要。

使用TF-IDF模型将单词映射到一个n维空间后，每个单词都可以看做是一个n维矢量，那么两个单词的相似度，就可以用他们之间空间距离来衡量，比如余弦相似度：
cos(vectorA, vectorB) = vectorA · vectorB / (||vectorA|| * ||vectorB||)
即两个词语的相似度为他们的空间向量相乘再除以他们的向量
长度的乘积。

通过以上方法，gensim可以计算出文档中不同单词之间的相似
度，从而推断出文档等同语句的内容。

grammaticality 名词解释(一)

grammaticality 名词解释(一)Grammaticality 名词解释什么是 Grammaticality？Grammaticality（语法正确性）是指一个句子或短语是否符合语法规则，能否被接受为语言的有效表达形式。

在句法学和语言学领域中，Grammaticality 是一个重要的概念，用于研究和评估句子的合理性和正确性。

相关名词以下是与 Grammaticality 相关的一些名词解释及举例说明：1. 语法规则 (Grammar rules)语法规则是指语言中一系列设定的规范，规定了句子如何构成、单词如何组合以及句子的结构和意义。

它们是语言学习和语法分析的基础。

•例子：在英语中，语法规则要求主语和谓语之间要有一致性。

比如句子“She go to the store.” 就违反了英语语法规则，正确的形式应该是“She goes to the store.”2. 句法结构 (Syntax structure)句法结构是指句子中的成分之间的关系和组织方式。

它描述了句子中各个成分的语法功能和句子的语法正确性。

•例子：在英语中，一个基本的句法结构是主语-谓语-宾语。

比如句子“I eat an apple.” 符合这个结构，其中”I”是主语，“eat”是谓语，“an apple”是宾语。

3. 语法错误 (Grammatical errors)语法错误指的是句子或短语中违反了语言的语法规则的部分。

这些错误可能导致句子不通顺或无法理解。

•例子：句子“He don’t like ice cream.” 中的错误是使用了错误的谓语形式。

正确的形式应该是“He doesn’t likeice cream.”4. 语言判断 (Linguistic judgments)语言判断是指对句子中的语法正确与否进行评估和判断的能力。

通过语言判断，人们可以确定一个句子是否符合语法规则，即是否具有Grammaticality。

语言模型的分词算法

语言模型的分词算法一、引言在自然语言处理领域中，分词是一项重要的任务，它将连续的文本序列切割成有意义的词语，为后续的文本处理和分析提供基础。

语言模型的分词算法是一种常用的分词方法，它通过建立语言模型来实现分词的目的。

本文将介绍语言模型的分词算法的原理和应用。

二、语言模型的基本概念语言模型是指对语言中的词序列进行建模的过程，其目的是计算一个词序列出现的概率。

语言模型可以通过统计方法或基于神经网络的方法进行建模。

在分词任务中，语言模型的目标是找到最可能出现的词序列，从而实现文本的分词。

三、语言模型的分词算法1. 基于统计的语言模型分词算法基于统计的语言模型分词算法通过统计每个词在语料库中的出现频率来计算词序列的概率。

常用的统计方法包括n-gram模型和隐马尔可夫模型。

n-gram模型假设当前词的出现只与前n-1个词有关，通过计算n-gram的概率来进行分词。

隐马尔可夫模型则将分词问题转化为一个序列标注问题，通过计算词序列的标签概率来进行分词。

2. 基于神经网络的语言模型分词算法近年来，基于神经网络的语言模型在自然语言处理领域取得了重要的突破，其在分词任务中也得到了广泛应用。

基于神经网络的语言模型通过建立深度神经网络模型来学习词序列的概率分布，从而实现分词。

常见的神经网络模型包括循环神经网络和Transformer模型。

四、语言模型的分词算法的应用语言模型的分词算法在自然语言处理领域有着广泛的应用。

在信息检索、机器翻译、文本分类等任务中，分词是必不可少的预处理步骤。

语言模型的分词算法能够提高这些任务的准确性和效率，从而提升自然语言处理系统的性能。

五、总结语言模型的分词算法是自然语言处理领域中重要的任务之一。

通过建立语言模型来计算词序列的概率，实现文本的分词。

基于统计的语言模型和基于神经网络的语言模型是常用的分词方法。

语言模型的分词算法在信息检索、机器翻译、文本分类等任务中有着广泛的应用。

随着深度学习的发展，语言模型的分词算法将会得到进一步的改进和应用。

中国文化(英文版)(第二版)课后习题答案

练习答案Unit 1Before You Read2. Give the name of the following myths according to the pictures.1) Houyi Shot the Suns 2) Chang’e Flying to the Moon3) the Eight Immortals4) Kua Fu Chasing the SunKnowledge Focus2.Fill in the blanks according to the knowledge you’ve learned about Chinese mythology.1)myths 2)religion 3)myth, legend 4)encyclopedia 5) Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism 6) Reverence 7) Pangu3.Match the information in Column A with the time period in Column B according to Chinese culture.1) C 2) E 3) A4) B5) D4.Tell whether the following statements are true or false. Write T if the statement is true and F if it is false.1) F 2) F 3) F 4) F 5) T 6) F7) TLanguage Focus1. Write the correct word next to its definition.1)potion 2)extol 3)worship 4)chaos 5)intertwine 6)cult 7)gigantic 8)stifle 9)tenet 10)tapestry 11)deity 12)prophecy 13)reverence 14)reincarnation15)hierarchy 2. Fill in the blanks with the words or expressions taken from Exercise 1 andtranslate the sentences into Chinese.1)tenets: 他是信奉自然主义信条的作家之一。

混合词汇特征和lda的语义相关度计算方法

混合词汇特征和LDA的语义相关度计算方法一、背景简介在自然语言处理和文本挖掘领域，语义相关度计算是一个重要而复杂的问题。

传统的基于词袋模型的相似度计算往往无法很好地捕捉词语之间的语义关联，因此引入了深度学习和主题模型等方法来提高语义相关度的计算精度。

混合词汇特征和LDA的语义相关度计算方法就是其中之一，它结合了词汇特征和主题模型的优势，能够更准确地评估文本之间的语义相关性。

二、混合词汇特征和LDA的基本原理混合词汇特征和LDA的语义相关度计算方法的基本原理是将词汇特征和LDA主题模型结合起来，利用它们各自的优势来计算文本之间的语义相关度。

通过词袋模型和词嵌入模型等方法提取文本的词汇特征，将文本表示为向量；利用LDA主题模型来挖掘文本的主题分布，将文本表示为主题分布的向量；将词汇特征向量和主题分布向量进行融合，通过一定的计算方法得到文本之间的语义相关度。

三、混合词汇特征和LDA的计算方法1. 词汇特征提取词汇特征提取是语义相关度计算的基础，包括词袋模型、TF-IDF、词嵌入等方法。

在混合词汇特征和LDA的计算方法中，可以使用词袋模型将文本表示为词频向量，也可以利用词嵌入模型将词语转换为稠密的向量表示。

这些词汇特征能够捕捉文本中词语的语义信息，为后续的语义相关度计算奠定了基础。

2. LDA主题模型LDA主题模型是一种用于挖掘文本主题分布的概率生成模型，能够将文本表示为主题分布的向量。

在混合词汇特征和LDA的计算方法中，利用LDA主题模型可以发现文本隐含的语义主题，从而更好地表征文本的语义信息。

3. 混合计算方法混合词汇特征和LDA的计算方法采用了词汇特征向量和主题分布向量的融合策略，常见的计算方法包括余弦相似度、欧氏距离等。

这些方法能够将词汇特征和主题信息进行有效地整合，得到文本之间的语义相关度。

四、实际应用与案例分析混合词汇特征和LDA的语义相关度计算方法在文本相似度计算、信息检索、推荐系统等领域有着广泛的应用。

章振邦英语语法教程--Lecture 1 Grammatical Hierarchy

Lecture 1 Grammatical HierarchyHierarchy is one of the basic properties of a language. On the grammatical level, the structure of the English language can be divided into five ranks: morpheme, word, phrase, clause, and sentence, while on the textual level, into three ranks: sentence, sentence group, and text. Sentence is the highest rank in grammatical hierarchy, and the lowest rank on the textual level. The following is a brief description of the grammatical hierarchy of the English language.1.1 MorphemesA morpheme is the smallest meaning-carrying grammatical unit. It falls into two categories: free morphemes and bound morphemes.1) Free morphemesA free morpheme has a complete meaning and can stand by itself as a simple word. It can sometimes act as a complete utterance in connected speech. Chair, boy, desk, and cruelare free morphemes. A free morpheme can be the root of a derivative, such as kindly, friendliness.2) Bound morphemesBound morphemes are mostly affixes. They are also meaningful, but the meaning is not complete in itself unless it is attached to some other form. Therefore, a bound morpheme cannot stand by itself: it only exists as an affix or a combining form.The affix can be divided into two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional affixes include: plural –s/-es, possessive –’s, third person singular-s/-es, past –ed, participle –ing, participle –ed, comparative –er, and superlative –est. Derivational affixes can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes, such as anti-war, co-exist, movement, and careless. The use of an inflectional affix does not change the identity of a word, but that of a derivational affix usually results in a new lexeme.Bound morphemes can also be combining forms, which can act as bound root to form primitive derivatives, such as receive, conceive, and perceive. They can also be used together with other combining forms or words to form compound words or neo-classical compounds, such as minibus, miniskirt, biology, telescope, and electrocardiogram.1.2 WordsThe word is composed of one or more than one morpheme. Words can be classified in two ways:1) Simple words, derivatives & compoundsWords that are composed of one morpheme only are called simple words. art, joy, kind, up, down, hand, foot and able, for example, are simple words.Words that are formed by adding an affix to an existing word are called derivatives. For example, interference, unhelpful, driver, management, unfair, disloyal, and nonviolent are derivatives.A word formed by combining two or more bases is called a compound. For example, whichever, snowfall, downfall, bookcase, home-made, tax-free and babysitting.2) Closed-class words & open-class wordsIn terms of syntactic function, words can be classified into closed-class words and open-class words. Closed-class words refer to those sets of words whose items are “closed” or limited in number and are only exceptionally extended by the creation of additional numbers. In English, function words such as auxiliaries, conjunctions and prepositions are closed-class words.Open-class words refer to those sets of words whose items are indefinitely extendable. New items are constantly being created and old items are giving place to new ones. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs form open-class words.1.3 PhrasesThe phrase is composed of one or morethan one word. Generally, the phrase is a group of words organized in a specific way with a key word as its head. The head determines the class of the phrase and the way in which the words are organized.1) The noun phraseThe noun phrase is a phrase with a noun as its head. The general pattern of a noun phrase is :(determiner+) (premodifier+) noun (+ postmodifier)a pretty little girl standing at the doorall the wooden cottages that have survived the earthquake2) The verb phraseThe verb phrase which is a phrase with a main verb as its head can be simple or complex. A simple verb phrase is just a main verb or “modifier + main verb”. A complex verb phrase is a main verb preceded by an auxiliary (or auxiliaries) (+modifier). For example:He works hard.He has been working on the project for two weeks.In the first example, “works” is a simple verb phrase; and in the second example, “has been working” is a complex verb phrase.In terms of grammatical form, a verb phrase can be finite or non-finite. A finite verb phrase is initiated by a finite form, that is, a verb that bears tense distinction. A non-finite verb phrase is a phrase initiated by a non-finite form, that is, a verb that does not change its form according to tense or subject.3) The adjective phraseThe adjective phrase is a phrase with an adjective as its head. The general pattern of an adjective phrase is:(modifier+) adjective (+postmodifier/complementation)The course is not very difficult.You are not careful enough.The weather is too hot to be enjoyable.4) The adverb phraseThe adverb phrase is a phrase with an adverb as its head. The general pattern of an adverb phrase is:(modifier+) adverb (+postmodifier)Be a man. Don’t act so slowly.She spoke very clearly indeed.He lives very far from the station.5) The prepositional phraseThe prepositional phrase is a phrase with a preposition as its head. The general pattern of a prepositional phrase is:(modifier+) preposition + complementation That story is based on an incident in his own life.Food had been scarce since before the war.He has been working in the lab all through the night.I could hear their footsteps directly above my head.1.4 ClausesThe clause is composed of one or morethan one phrase. A full-fledged clause is structurally a sequence of phrases and logically a construction of “subject + predicate”.1) Independent and dependent clausesIn terms of grammatical function, a clause can be independent or dependent. An independent clause is a clause that can stand by itself and act as a complete utterance, as distinguished from a dependent clause, which forms only part of another clause or of a phrase.He knows everything about it. (independent)I am sure he knows everything about it. (dependent)2) Simple and complex clausesWhen a clause consists of only one construction of “subject + predicate”, it is a simple clause. An independent simple clause is at the same time a simple sentence. When a clause comprises another clause or otherclauses as its element or elements, it is a complex clause. An independent complex clause is at the same time a complex sentence.It was not true. (simple)What he said was not true. (complex) 3) Main and subordinate clausesIn a complex clause, the clause that takes another clause as its element is the main clause, while the clause that is embedded in a large clause, either as a clause element or as part of a phrase which realizes a clause element, is a subordinate clause, e.g.:She wouldn’t believe it (m ain) though it was true (subordinate).If winter comes(subordinate), can Spring be far behind (main)?4) Finite, non-finite and verbless clausesA clause can be finite or non-finite. A finite clause is one with a finite verb phrase as its predicate verb or predicator; a non-finite clause is one with a non-finite verb as its predicator. For example:He barely ate or slept that night. (finite clause)He began paging through old newspapers, hoping to find some valuable information. (non-finite clause)When a clause is marked by the absence of any form of verb element, it is a verbless clause. A verbless clause is a “subject + predicate” construction with the verb element omitted, e.g.:When in Rome, do as the Romans do.1.5 SentencesThe sentence is the highest rank of grammatical unit. Based on one or more than one clause, the sentence is also the basic linguistic unit of connected discourse; it can stand alone and perform a function in social communication. Thus, a sentence can be defined as a grammatical unit that can stand by itself and perform a communicative function.1) Full and minor sentencesA full sentence is a sentence with anexpressed subject and predicate. It is mostly used in formal speech and writing. A minor sentence is only a sentence fragment which, in some specific contexts and situations, can stand by itself and perform a communicative function. Minor sentences, which are extensively used in informal discourse, can also be used to emphasize an idea, add force to an emotion or help build up to a climax at the beginning or the end of a paragraph. For example:Charlie Chaplin was the great comedian of silent films. (full)Where does Joan begin a mystery story? On the last page. Always. (minor)2) Simple, compound, complex and compound-complex sentencesA simple sentence is a sentence that comprises only one independent clause. Two or more coordinated independent clauses make a compound sentence. An independent clause that comprises one or more dependent clausesas its element(s) makes a complex sentence. Two or more coordinated independent clauses with at least one complex clause make a compound-complex sentence. For example: The bull charged straight at the man. (simple)She is a funny girl, yet you can’t help liking her. (compound)How it all happened is a mystery to me. (complex)As I had limited time, I didn’t read the last chapter, yet I still enjoy the book. (compound-complex)。

lexico-grammatical feature 含义

lexico-grammatical feature 含义
"Lexico-grammatical feature" 是一个语言学术语，可以拆分为两个部分来理解：
1.Lexical feature：词法特征，主要涉及词汇的特性，例如词类、词义、词形变化等。

2.Grammatical feature：语法特征，涉及到句子或更大语言单位的特性，例如时态、语态、语气等。

因此，"lexico-grammatical feature" 可以被理解为同时涉及到词汇和语法的语言特征。

这种特征可能涵盖了词汇的语义、语法结构、语用等多个方面。

在语言学和自然语言处理中，这样的特征通常用于描述或分类语言数据，以便更好地理解和处理语言现象。

乔姆斯基的转换生成语法理论（Ch...

乔姆斯基的转换生成语法理论（Chomsky's transformationalgenerative grammar）Both analytical philosophy and continental philosophy pay attention to the study of language, which is an important feature of contemporary western philosophy. Language can not be divorced from the world. Language can only exist in the world. Chomsky, a contemporary American language master, pioneered the transformational generative grammar theory, which was a revolution in language. It indicates that the study of western linguistics, especially the linguistic research in the United States, has entered a new era, namely, the Chomsky period.I. Chomsky's revolution"The study of Chomsky's generative grammar is not the language phenomenon, nor is it the use of language, but people's language ability, this is the negative structural linguistics of America was dominated by Bloomfield. The creation of transformational generative grammar is regarded as a revolution in linguistics, and Chomsky's language theory quickly becomes the most influential and vigorous theory of modern linguistics. Those who wish to keep up with the development of linguistics experts of linguistics, attach great importance to Joe's theory. A group of vibrant young people around Chomsky, the formation of generative grammar school. These schools, as a result of the novelty of basic theories and methods, have been recognized as another important branch of modern western philosophy of language, which is juxtaposed with logical positivism and everyday linguistics.Not only that, this "Chomsky revolution" is also very fast and many other disciplines to linguistics, philosophy, psychology, logic, for artificial intelligence, communications engineering, which had a great impact. Because people realize that the obvious difference between human beings and other kinds of animals is not so much a kind of thinking function or intelligence as language ability. Chomsky's transformational generative grammar is designed to explore human language abilities. The aim is to give a mathematically accurate description of some of the most striking features of human language.Two. The theoretical framework of transformational generative grammar.Transformational generative grammar describes grammatical structures purely from a formal point of view, and uses formal methods such as mathematical and logical notations and formulas to study grammar in research. Chomsky in the process of grammar study using the deductive method and the method of introspection, fully explain the theory of goal is through the description and analysis of the language structure and language of the language users' ability to find universal grammar, and further exploration of the internal mechanism of language acquisition of human beings, explaining the creative production and language problems.This article talks only about the GB model and the MP model.GB model is a sign of Chomsky's mature theory model, this model he distinguished the phonetic form of PF (Phonetic Form) andMP (Logic Form) logical form, which is a sound system and cognitive system of human brain and our pronunciation interface module called language model. In the PF interface on the system output language phonetic or phonemic expression, is a structural description of a sentence sound; output on the LF interface is an expression about the meaning of a sentence, is a structural description of sentence meaning. Grammatical sentences only exist when and when a qualified PF expression is generated at the same time as a qualified LF expression. The basic contents of GB theory contains provisions of the deep structure form of "X X-order theory"; language determines the type of "center parameter theory"; "PRO shedding parameters"; "constraint theory"; describe the structural components of the structural relationship between the "jurisdiction theory"; "the core grammar" and "around" the distinction of grammar.The MP model is put forward by Chomsky in 1992, MP universal grammar system model consists of a data type thesaurus and a computing system, computing system without any expression level, directly in a place called "sound system" and a cognitive system called "thinking system" cognitive subsystem associated, respectively. Generate PF and LF expression in the interface and the two cognitive subsystem. The MP model emphasizes the generative grammar model of terminal is not a sentence, a sentence sound form of "structure description" as PF expression but generated in the PF interface, a PF expression and a LF expression match, have the common sense of the sentence. The PF expression is the instruction given to the cognitive subsystem of the competent voice, and the LF expression is the instruction to the cognitive system of the competent mind. The overall task of a language computing system is to derive asuccessful PF expression and derive a successful LF expression. MP theory has made great progress compared with GB theory, eliminating the difference between the parameters and the deep surface structure, and at the same time increasing the verification theory".Three, the talent and internality of language abilityChomsky's theory of language derives from his study of children's language. Chomsky believed that language was a kind of gift, and that children were born with the ability to learn a language,It is called the language acquisition mechanism (LAD). This is a unique knowledge that suits their language learning. In Chomsky's view, children are born with a unique talent. They not only have general tendencies and potentials, but also have knowledge about the nature of the world, especially about the nature of language. In his view, the study of language or the structure of language reveals the essence of human thought. No matter what he believes that children living in the language environment, he can quickly learn the language environment, he can not only understand the speech of others, but also learn to use the language, not only is he heard, can speak out, and he can create a lot of new effective sentence according to the the syntax of this language. According to Chomsky, the acquisition of linguistic knowledge by children is an act of structural theory, and he is not the only one who learns the language by experience alone. Language needs imitation, imitation is the basis of language, but language is not merely imitation, but mainly not imitation. It is mainly the creationof new words, which is the creativeness of language. Chomsky believes that this ability to create and produce new languages is a natural gift of man and an inner function. Every man has a natural dictionary, and he has the ability to distinguish between words. Through a series of structural rules, the speaker can form the deep structure of the sentence in the language, that is, the conceptual structure existing in the brain before each sentence is expressed. Having formed the deep structure of the sentence, he had a correct sentence in his mind. In Chomsky's view, before people speak, there is a deep linguistic structure or thinking ability in his mind, and an inner correct sentence is formed. It seems to be the line when people talk. Chomsky believes that the "deep structure by converting part can be converted into surface structure, which is through the voice, when expressed in the sentence, the sentence is in the form of surface structure, deep structure representing the sentence meaning. Thus, Chomsky pays great attention to the transformation of the two language structures, but in the two structure, he emphasizes the deep structure.Four, the limitations of transformational generative grammarChomsky himself does not admit that his linguistics is structural linguistics, but many people believe that he is still related to structuralism, mainly in relation to his linguistic methods of Saussure. No matter how he opposed Saussure's linguistic method, he inherited the structuralism method after Saussure, or is it a fact?. But his view of the deep structure and surface structure etc. and structuralism has many similarities, such as deep structure surface is a myth, is a myth; the deep structure is relative, the surface is themarriage and family relationship and kinship; focus on these claims is a priori deep structure. Chomsky's linguistic method has both structural and philosophical factors. It is an organic combination of the two. The philosophical view of rationalism is mainly that Descartes's "natural sense" is a kind of "thinking ability", "natural ability", "potential", "tendency", "habit", and the views of philosophers such as Leibniz.The mistake of Chomsky's linguistic view in philosophy is that the relation between perceptual knowledge and rational knowledge is separated and opposed, and the function of Dali cognition is exaggerated. He divides language into deep structure and surface structure, which is caused by this separation. Whether deep structure or surface structure is involved in language meaning, deep structure is a kind of language meaning. To correctly understand the deep structure is to analyze the meaning of the sentence in depth. The deep structure is by no means the product of a priori ability. The linguistic theories of Chomsky's deep structure and surface structure have an important influence on structuralism. Structuralism's theory of division of different structures has been inspired by Chomsky.Another limitation is the study of language conversion: Chomsky emphasizes the form, content delivery. He regards the creativeness of language as a formalized system, denies the relationship between language learning and experience and habits, and denies that language forms are content. He is on the creativity of language, the essence of the theory of generative and formal language is the language material intothe formal framework, then the framework of language to create new sentences, which is reflected in the view of transcendental philosophy in linguistics.If from the philosophical point of view, only from the language itself, we must admit that the study of language structure is not formal, but in essence, it is the understanding of the language, marks the development of linguistics. Everything has a structure, and language is no exception. Structuralism holds that there is a two element structure in language, and in Saussure there is a structural relation between signifier and signified,In Jo Mskiy, there is the relationship between the deep structure and the surface structure. To understand the language is to recognize its structure. Structural linguistics for us to study the language (especially language), learning languages (including dialogue language) translation, distinguish between signifier and signified, understand the surface meaning and the deep meaning of the language, has an important role.Five summaryChomsky's transformational generative linguistics is of great significance in modern linguistics. Although there are many problems in his theory, but regardless of the merits and demerits, right and wrong, Chomsky's theory of grammar is undoubtedly the most dynamic and most influential; a linguist, as long as he didn't want to fall behind in their discipline, did not dare to ignore Chomsky's theory. Today, every othergenre of linguistics must define Chomsky's position in the light of his views on certain issues." (Lyons, 1991 self introduction, quoted the letter, 2006:134), and Chomsky's life are constantly revised and improved his theory, constantly self transcendence, which itself is worthy of our admiration and learning.。

sentence_structure

Structure: Free Morpheme + Free Morpheme Classification: Compound Noun Compound Adjective Compound Verb Compound Adverb Compound Pronoun Compound Conjunction Compound Preposition
irirrational irregular irrelevant
/s/
/z/
/iz/
Discussion: identify the following bound morphemes
books, (He) teaches (heavily), postwar, employer, taller, children’s (book), waited (for him), working, embody
Examples:
In Orthography: inimil inactive immature illegal incoherent immortal illogical inexperienced imperfect illegible In phonology: -s cats dogs houses
2) Bound Morphemes
are mostly affixes also meaningful, but the meaning is not complete in itself unless it is attached to some other forms cannot stand by itself: it only exists
Prepositional Phrase Non-finite His new book on phonology Verb Phrase Milton lived in the 17th century The author’s new novel novel that will soon come out Clause

生成回文自然语言处理

生成回文自然语言处理一、引言回文是指从左往右和从右往左读都一样的字符串，如“level”、“racecar”等。

生成回文是自然语言处理中的一个重要问题，它涉及到了语言模型、序列生成、文本分类等多个领域。

本文将详细介绍生成回文的方法和技术。

二、生成回文的方法1. 基于规则的方法基于规则的方法是指根据一定的规则来生成回文。

例如，可以将输入字符串分成两半，然后将后半部分翻转并拼接在前半部分后面，得到一个回文字符串。

这种方法简单易懂，但只适用于某些特定情况下。

2. 基于统计模型的方法基于统计模型的方法是指根据已有数据训练出一个模型，并利用该模型来生成新的回文字符串。

例如，可以使用n-gram模型来预测下一个字符，并不断迭代直到生成一个完整的回文字符串。

3. 基于神经网络的方法基于神经网络的方法是指利用深度学习技术训练出一个神经网络模型，并利用该模型来生成新的回文字符串。

例如，可以使用循环神经网络(RNN)或变换器(Transformer)等模型来进行序列生成。

三、生成回文的技术1. 语言模型语言模型是指对自然语言的概率分布进行建模的技术。

在生成回文中，语言模型可以用来预测下一个字符或单词，并根据预测结果生成新的回文字符串。

2. 序列生成序列生成是指根据已有数据生成新的序列数据的技术。

在生成回文中，序列生成可以用来根据输入字符串生成一个新的回文字符串。

3. 文本分类文本分类是指将一段文本分为不同类别的技术。

在生成回文中，文本分类可以用来判断一个字符串是否为回文，并根据判断结果进行后续处理。

四、应用场景1. 文字游戏在文字游戏中，经常需要玩家输入一些特定规则下的回文字符串。

利用自然语言处理技术可以快速地生成满足要求的回文字符串，提高游戏体验。

2. 文章标题在撰写文章时，一个好的标题可以吸引读者眼球并提高阅读量。

利用自然语言处理技术可以快速地生成有趣、富有创意且符合规范的文章标题。

3. 机器翻译在机器翻译中，经常需要将源语言翻译成目标语言，并保持原始语言的语法、结构和意思。

Grammaticalization语法化

Sweetster (1990:27, 148) 认为语法化就是从实意词项状态变为语法词素状态, 是语义向更加抽象方向变化的一种常见结果.
Heine 等(1991:2) 认为语法化是要表明词项在哪里起到语法作用.
Traugott (1993:1)指出”语法化”这一术语有两层意思:
(1) 研究语法形式和构造是如何出现的,它们是如何被使用的, 又是如何影响语言形成的;
(2)研究词项如何随着时间的推移成为语法形式的过程．
Taylor (2019: 349) 认为语法化是以往的词项） erstwhile lexical item)逐步图式化，逐渐失去原有丰富的概念内容的过程．
Langacker 认为在一个“力量-动态”事件中会发生一系列的能量交互过程，一个接一个地向下传递。可图示为：
head
tail
2. 舞台模型(stage model)
观察者(viewer)如同在台下观看演员表演的观众，目光前视时形成了一个视觉注意区，可称为舞台表演区（onstage region)，舞台道具和背景都在这一区域之中，但观众的注意力常常集中在舞台上表演的演员身上。
首先语法化是基于人们的认知能力,与人的主观性有关, 主要是指从实到虚的演变,隐喻也主要是从具体到抽象的映射,因此从认知规律的角度来说,两者是共通的.
当今国外研究语法化的认知语言学家主要有: Langacker, Lakoff, Taylor, Heine,
Hopper, Traugott, Ungerer&Schimid, Sweetster, Dirven & Verspoor等.他们对语法化表示出浓厚的兴趣, 且将其研究范围从
在典型事件模型中，主要有两个参与者(participants)：施事者和受事者。这一模型主要包含以下两个模型：

chapter2 The Parts of a Sentences

Let’s Practice!
Three monkeys played in the tree.
WHO? Three monkeys SUBJECT
WHAT DID THEY DO? PREDICATE played in the tree.
Can you find the subject in each sentence below? 1. My little brother broke his finger. 2. His Uncle Bob asked for directions. 3. Those soldiers carried guns. 4. Our babysitter arrived late.
For example: Jane likes swimming very much. The sentence is about ―Jane‖, and ―likes swimming very much‖ tells us something about Jane. The furniture is expensive.
1. Subject and predicate
Every complete sentence contains two parts: a subject and a predicate. Subject —— what (or whom) the sentence is about Predicate —— tells something about the subject. (p34)
Unit 2
The Parts of a Sentence
Grammatical hierarchy:
sentence clause phrase word morpheme

Lecture 1 英语语法导论

1) Classification in terms of word-formation
• （根据构词法分类）
2) Classification in terms of grammatical function （根据语法功能分类）
2009-9
9
1）简单词、派生词、复合词 In terms of word-formation, words
e.g. He spoke loudly and clearly. Be a man. Do not act so slowly. She spoke very clearly indeed.
21
• 5) The prepositional phrase （介词词组）
The prepositional phrase is a phrase with a preposition as its head. The general pattern of a prepositional phrase is: (modifier+) preposition + complementation
• 词： Paul, one, schoolboys, I, of, nicest, know, is, the
• 词素：Paul, one, school, boy, -s, I, is, know, the, nice,
-est
3
Sentence
Clause
NP
VP
Prep P
Det
N
Aux Adv MV Prep Det N
• （分为两大类） • free morphemes and • bound morphemes.
5

(完整版)英语语言学概论--整理

Chapter 1 Language语言1. Design feature (识别特征) refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.2. Productivity(能产性) refers to the ability that people have in making and comprehending indefinitely large quantities of sentences in theirnative language.3. arbitrariness (任意性) Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon that there is no motivated relationship between a linguistic form and itsmeaning.4. symbol (符号) Symbol refers to something such as an object, word, or sound that represents something else by association or convention.5. discreteness (离散性) Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfully distinct.6. displacement (不受时空限制的特性) Displacement refers to the fact that human language can be used to talk about things that are not in theimmediate situations of its users.7. duality of structure (结构二重性) The organization of language into two levels, one of sounds, the other of meaning, is known as duality ofstructure.8. culture transmission (文化传播) Culture transmission refers to the fact that language is passed on from one generation to the next throughteaching and learning, rather than by inheritance.9. interchangeability (互换性) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.1. ★What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has captured the main features of language.First, language is a system.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense.The third feature of language is symbolic nature.2. ★What are the design features of language?Language has seven design features as following:1) Productivity.2) Discreteness.3) Displacement4) Arbitrariness.5) Cultural transmission6) Duality of structure.7) Interchangeability.3. Why do we say language is a system?Because elements of language are combined according to rules, and every language contains a set of rules. By system, the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates. And the sounds, the words and the sentences are used in fixed patterns that speaker of a language can understand each other.4. ★ (Function of language.) According to Halliday, what are the initial functions of children’s language? And what are the threefunctional components of adult language?I. Halliday uses the following terms to refer to the initial functions of children’s language:1) Instrumental function. 工具功能2) Regulatory function. 调节功能3) Representational function. 表现功能4) Interactional function. 互动功能5) Personal function. 自指性功能6) Heuristic function. 启发功能[osbQtq`kf`h]7) Imaginative function. 想象功能II. Adult language has three functional components as following:1) Interpersonal components. 人际2) Ideational components.概念3) Textual components.语篇1. general linguistics and descriptive linguistics (普通语言学与描写语言学) The former deals with language in general whereas the latter isconcerned with one particular language.2. synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics (共时语言学与历时语言学) Diachronic linguistics traces the historical development of thelanguage and records the changes that have taken place in it between successive points in time. And synchronic linguistics presents an account of language as it is at some particular point in time.3. theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics (理论语言学与应用语言学) The former copes with languages with a view to establishing atheory of their structures and functions whereas the latter is concerned with the application of the concepts and findings of linguistics to all sorts of practical tasks.4. microlinguistics and macrolinguistics(微观语言学与宏观语言学) The former studies only the structure of language system whereas thelatter deals with everything that is related to languages.5. langue and parole (语言与言语) The former refers to the abstract linguistics system shared by all the members of a speech communitywhereas the latter refers to the concrete act of speaking in actual situation by an individual speaker.6. competence and performance (语言能力与语言运用) The former is one’s knowledge of all the linguistic regulation systems whereas the latteris the use of language in concrete situation.7. speech and writing (口头语与书面语) Speech is the spoken form of language whereas writing is written codes, gives language new scope.8. linguistics behavior potential and actual linguistic behavior (语言行为潜势与实际语言行为) People actually says on a certain occasion to acertain person is actual linguistics behavior. And each of possible linguistic items that he could have said is linguistic behavior potential.9. syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relation(横组合关系与纵聚合关系) The former describes the horizontal dimension of a languagewhile the latter describes the vertical dimension of a language.10. verbal communication and non-verbal communication(言语交际与非言语交际) Usual use of language as a means of transmittinginformation is called verbal communication. The ways we convey meaning without using language is called non-verbal communication.1. ★How does John Lyons classify linguistics?According to John Lyons, the field of linguistics as a whole can be divided into several subfields as following:1) General linguistics and descriptive linguistics.2) Synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics.3) Theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics.4) Microlinguistics and macrolinguistics.2. Explain the three principles by which the linguist is guided: consistency, adequacy and simplicity.1) Consistency means that there should be no contradictions between different parts of the theory and the description.2) Adequacy means that the theory must be broad enough in scope to offer significant generalizations.3) Simplicity requires us to be as brief and economic as possible.3. ★What are the sub-branches of linguistics within the language system?Within the language system there are six sub-branches as following:1) Phonetics. 语音学is a study of speech sounds of all human languages.2) Phonology. 音位学studies about the sounds and sound patterns of a speaker’s native language.3) Morphology. 形态学studies about how a word is formed.4) Syntax. 句法学studies about whether a sentence is grammatical or not.5) Semantics. 语义学studies about the meaning of language, including meaning of words and meaning of sentences.6) Pragmatics. 语用学★The scope of language: Linguistics is referred to as a scientific study of language.★The scientific process of linguistic study: It involves four stages: collecting data, forming a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis and drawing conclusions.1. articulatory phonetics(发音语音学) The study of how speech organs produce the sounds is called articulatory phonetics.2. acoustic phonetics (声学语音学) The study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.3. auditory phonetics (听觉语音学) The study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is called auditory phonetics.4. consonant (辅音) Consonant is a speech sound where the air form the language is either completely blocked, or partially blocked, or where theopening between the speech organs is so narrow that the air escapes with audible friction.5. vowel (元音) is defined as a speech sound in which the air from the lungs is not blocked in any way and is pronounced with vocal-cord vibration.6. bilabials (双唇音) Bilabials means that consonants for which the flow of air is stopped or restricted by the two lips. [p][b] [m] [w]7. affricates (塞擦音) The sound produced by stopping the airstream and then immediately releasing it slowly is called affricates. [t X] [d Y] [tr] [dr]8. glottis (声门) Glottis is the space between the vocal cords.9. rounded vowel (圆唇元音) Rounded vowel is defined as the vowel sound pronounced by the lips forming a circular opening. [u:] [u] [OB] [O]10. diphthongs (双元音) Diphthongs are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.[ei][ai][O i] [Q u][au]11. triphthongs(三合元音) Triphthongs are those which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another and then rapidly andcontinuously to a third one. [ei Q][ai Q][O i Q] [Q u Q][au Q]12. lax vowels (松元音) According to distinction of long and short vowels, vowels are classified tense vowels and lax vowels. All the long vowelsare tense vowels but of the short vowels,[e] is a tense vowel as well, and the rest short vowels are lax vowels.1. ★How are consonants classified in terms of different criteria?The consonants in English can be described in terms of four dimensions.1) The position of the soft palate.2) The presence or the absence of vocal-cord vibration.3) The place of articulation.4) The manner of articulation.2. ★How are vowels classified in terms of different criteria?Vowel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors.1) The state of the velum2) The position of the tongue.3) The openness of the mouth.4) The shape of the lips.5) The length of the vowels.6) The tension of the muscles at pharynx.3. ★What are the three sub-branches of phonetics? How do they differ from each other?Phonetics has three sub-branches as following:1) Articulatory phonetics is the study of how speech organs produce the sounds is called articulatory phonetics.2) Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.3) Auditory phonetics is the study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is called auditory phonetics.4. ★What are the commonly used phonetic features for consonants and vowels respectively?I. The frequently used phonetic features for consonants include the following:1) Voiced.2) Nasal.3) Consonantal.4) Vocalic.5) Continuant.6) Anterior.7) Coronal.8) Aspirated.II. The most common phonetic features for vowels include the following:1) High.2) Low.3) Front.4) Back.5) Rounded.6) Tense.1. phonemes (音位) Phonemes are minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.2. allophones (音位变体) Allophones are the phonetic variants and realizations of a particular phoneme.3. phones (单音) The smallest identifiable phonetic unit found in a stream of speech is called a phone.4. minimal pair (最小对立体) Minimal pair means words which differ from each other only by one sound.5. contrastive distribution (对比分布) If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of one sound for anotherbrings about a change of meaning, they are said to be in contrastive distribution.6. complementary distribution(互补分布) If two or more sounds never appear in the same environment ,then they are said to be incomplementary distribution.7. free variation (自由变异) When two sounds can appear in the same environment and the substitution of one for the other does not cause anychange in meaning, then they are said to be in free variation.8. distinctive features (区别性特征) A distinctive feature is a feature which distinguishes one phoneme from another.9. suprasegmental features (超切分特征) The distinctive (phonological) features which apply to groups larger than the single segment are knownas suprasegmental features.10. tone languages (声调语言) Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word level.11. intonation languages (语调语言) Intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level.12. juncture (连音) Juncture refers to the phonetic boundary features which may demarcate grammatical units.1. ★What are the differences between English phonetics and English phonology?1) Phonetics is the study of the production, perception, and physical properties of speech sounds, while phonology attempts to account forhow they are combined, organized, and convey meaning in particular languages.2) Phonetics is the study of the actual sounds while phonology is concerned with a more abstract description of speech sounds and tries todescribe the regularities of sound patterns.2. Give examples to illustrate the relationship between phonemes, phones and allophones.When we hear [pit],[tip],[spit],etc, the similar phones we have heard are /p/. And /p/ and /b/ are separate phonemes in English, while [ph] and [p] are allophones.3. How can we decide a minimal pair or a minimal set?A minimal pair should meet three conditions:1) The two forms are different in meaning.2) The two forms are different in one sound segment.3) The different sounds occur in the same position of the two strings.4. ★Use examples to explain the three types of distribution.1) Contrastive distribution. Sounds [m] in met and [n] in net are in contrastive distribution because substituting [m] for [n] will result in achange of meaning.2) Complementary distribution. The aspirated plosive [ph] and the unaspirated plosive [p] are in complementary distribution because theformer occurs either initially in a word or initially in a stressed syllable while the latter never occurs in such environments.3) Free variation. In English, the word “direct” may be pronounce in two ways: /di’rekt/ and /dia’rekt/, and the two different sounds /i/ and /ai/can be said to be in free variation.5. What’s the difference between segmental features and suprasegmental features? What are the suprasegmental features in English?I. 1) Distinctive features, which are used to distinguish one phoneme from another and thus have effect on one sound segment, are referred toas segmental features.2) The distinctive (phonological) features which apply to groups larger than the single segment are known as suprasegmental features.3) Suprasegmental features may have effect on more than one sound segment. They may apply to a string of several sounds.II.The main suprasegmental features include stress, tone, intonation and juncture.6. What’s the difference between tone languages and intonation language?Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word level while intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level7. ★What’s the difference between phonetic transcriptions and phonemic transcriptions?The former was meant to symbolize all possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation, while the latter was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.1. morphemes (语素) Morphemes are the minimal meaningful units in the grammatical system of a language.allomorphs (语素变体) Allomorphs are the realizations of a particular morpheme.morphs (形素) Morphs are the realizations of morphemes in general and are the actual forms used to realize morphemes.2. roots (词根) Roots is defined as the most important part of a word that carries the principal meaning.affixes (词缀) Affixes are morphemes that lexically depend on roots and do not convey the fundamental meaning of words.free morphemes (自由语素) Free morphemes are those which can exist as individual words.bound morphemes (粘着语素) Bound morphemes are those which cannot occur on their own as separate words.3. inflectional affixes (屈折词缀) refer to affixes that serve to indicate grammatical relations, but do not change its part of speech.derivational affixes (派生词缀) refer to affixes that are added to words in order to change its grammatical category or its meaning.4. empty morph (空语子) Empty morph means a morph which has form but no meaning.zero morph (零语子) Zero morph refers to a morph which has meaning but no form.5. IC Analysis (直接成分分析) IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression (both a word and a sentence) into a hierarchicallydefined series of constituents.6. immediate constituents(直接成分) A immediate constituent is any one of the largest grammatical units that constitute a construction.Immediate constituents are often further reducible.ultimate constituents (最后成分) Ultimate constituents are those grammatically irreducible units that constitute constructions.7. morphological rules (形态学规则) The principles that determine how morphemes are combined into new words are said to be morphologicalrules.8. word-formation process (构词法) Word-formation process mean the rule-governed processes of forming new words on the basis of alreadyexisting linguistic resources.1. ★What is IC Analysis?IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression (both a word and a sentence) into a hierarchically defined series of constituents.2. How are morphemes classified?1) Semantically speaking, morphemes are grouped into two categories: root morphemes and affixational morphemes.2) Structurally speaking, they are divided into two types: free morphemes and bound morphemes.3. ★Explain the interrelations between semantic and structural classifications of morphemes.a) All free morphemes are roots but not all roots are free morphemes.b) All affixes are bound morphemes, but not all bound morphemes are affixes.4. What’s the difference between an empty morph and a zero mor ph?a) Empty morph means a morph that has form but no meaning.b) Zero morph refers to a morph that has meaning but no form.5. Explain the differences between inflectional and derivational affixes in term of both function and position.a) Functionally:i.Inflectional affixes sever to mark grammatical relations and never create new words while derivational affixes can create new words.ii.Inflectional affixes do not cause a change in grammatical class while derivational affixes very often but not always cause a change in grammatical class.b) In term of position:i.Inflectional affixes are suffixes while derivational affixes can be suffixes or prefixes.ii.Inflectional affixes are always after derivational affixes if both are present. And derivational affixes are always before inflectional suffixes if both are present.6. What are morphological rules? Give at least four rules with examples.The principles that determine how morphemes are combined into new words are said to be morphological rules.For example:a) un- + adj. ->adj.b) Adj./n. + -ify ->v.c) V. + -able -> adj.d) Adj. + -ly -> adv.1. syntagmatic relations (横组关系) refer to the relationships between constituents in a construction.paradigmatic relations (纵聚合关系) refer to the relations between the linguistic elements within a sentence and those outside the sentence.hierarchical relations (等级关系) refer to relationships between any classification of linguistic units which recognizes a series of successively subordinate levels.2. IC Analysis (直接成分分析) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction.labeled IC Analysis(标记法直接成分分析) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction and label each constituent.phrase markers (短语标记法) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction, and label each constituent while remove all the linguistic forms.labeled bracketing (方括号标记法) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which is applied in representing the hierarchical structure of sentences by using brackets.3. constituency (成分关系)dependency (依存关系)4. surface structures (表层结构)refers to the mental representation of a linguistic expression, derived from deep structure by transformationalrules.deep structures (深层结构) deep structure of a linguistic expression is a theoretical construct that seeks to unify several related structures. 5. phrase structure rules (短语结构规则)are a way to describe a given language's syntax. They are used to break a natural language sentencedown into its constituent parts.6. transformational rules (转换规则)7. structural ambiguity (结构歧义)1. What are the differences between surface structure and deep structure?They are different from each other in four aspects:1) Surface structures correspond directly to the linear arrangements of sentences while deep structures correspond to the meaningful groupingof sentences.2) Surface structures are more concrete while deep structures are more abstract.3) Surface structures give the forms of sentences whereas deep structures give the meanings of sentences.4) Surface structures are pronounceable but deep structures are not.2. Illustrate the differences between PS rules and T-rules.1) PS rules frequently applied in generating deep structures.2) T-rules are used to transform deep structure into surface structures.3. What’s the order of generating sentences? Do we st art with surface structures or with deep structures? How differently are theygenerated?To generate a sentence, we always start with its deep structure, and then transform it into its corresponding surface structure.Deep structures are generated by phrase structure rules (PS rules) while surface structures are derived from their deep structures by transformational rules (T-rules).4. What’s the difference between a compulsory constituent and an optional one?Optional constituents may be present or absent while compulsory constituents must be present.5. What are the three syntactic relations? Illustrate them with examples.1) Syntagmatic relations2) Paradigmatic relations.3) Hierarchical relations.1. Lexical semantics (词汇语义学) is defined as the study of word meaning in language.2. Sense (意义) refers to the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.3. Reference (所指) means what a linguistic form refers to in the real world.4. Concept (概念) is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.5. Denotation (外延) is defined as the constant ,abstract, and basic meaning of a linguistic expression independent of context and situation.6. Connotation (内涵) refers to the emotional associations which are suggested by, or are part of the meaning of, a linguistic unit.7. Componential analysis (成分分析法) is the way to decompose the meaning of a word into its components.8. Semantic field (语义场) The vocabulary of a language is not simply a listing of independent items, but is organized into areas, within whichwords interrelate and define each other in various ways. The areas are semantic fields.9. Hyponymy (上下义关系) refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.10. Synonymy (同义关系) refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.11. Antonymy (反义关系) refers to the oppositeness of meaning.12. Lexical ambiguity (词汇歧义)13. Polysemy (多义性) refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.14. Homonymy (同音(同形)异义关系) refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.15. Sentence semantics (句子语义学) refers to the study of sentence meaning in language.1. What’s the criterion of John Lyons in classifying semantics into its sub-branches? And how does he classify semantics?In terms of whether it falls within the scope of linguistics, John Lyons distinguishes between linguistic semantics and non-linguistic semantics.According John Lyons, semantics is one of the sub-branches of linguistics; it is generally defined as the study of meaning.2. What are the essential factors for determining sentence meaning?1) Object, 2) concept, 3) symbol, 4) user, 5) context.3. What is the difference between the theory of componential analysis and the theory of semantic theory in defining meaning of words?4. What are the sense relations between sentences?1) S1 is synonymous with S2.2) S1 entails S2.3) S1 contradicts S2.4) S1 presupposes S2.5) S1 is a tautology, and therefore invariably true.6) S1 is a contradiction, and therefore invariably false.7) S1 is semantically anomalous.1. Speech act theory (言语行为理论)2. Cooperative principle and its maxims (合作原则及其准则)3. Politeness principle and its maxims (礼貌原则及其准则)4. Conversational implicature (会话含义)5. Indirect speech act (间接言语行为)6. Pragmatic presupposition (语用学预设)7. Relevance theory (关联理论)8. Illocutionary act (言外行为)9. (Horn’s) Q-Principle and R-Principle10. Perfrmative verbs (施为句动词)1. Make comments on the different definitions of pragmatics.2. What are the main types of deixis?3. Explain the statement: context is so indispen sable in fully understanding interpreting the speaker’s meaning.4. How are Austin’s and Searle’s speech act theories related to each other?5. What’s the relationship between CP and PP?6. What do you know about presupposition triggers in English? Explain them briefly with examples.7. What is ostensive-referential communication?8. Explain the obvious presupposition of speaker who say each of the following:1) When did you stop beating your wife?2) Where did Tom buy the watch?3) Your car is broken.9. What do you think of the fol lowing statement? “Tom participated in spreading rumors” entails “Tom engaged in spreading rumors”.Chapter 9 话语分析1. text(语篇) = discourse 语篇是指实际使用的语言单位，是一次交际过程中的一系列连续的话段或句子所构成的语言整体。

大学英语六级阅读理解试题解析

大学英语六级阅读理解试题解析大学英语六级阅读理解试题解析没有风浪，便没有勇敢的弄潮儿;没有荆棘，也没有不屈的开拓者。

以下是店铺为大家整理的大学英语六级阅读理解试题解析，仅供参考，大家一起来看看吧。

Culture is the total sum of all the traditions, customs, beliefs, and ways of life of a given group og human beings. In this sense, every group has a culture, however savage, undeveloped, or uncivilized it may seem to us.To the professional anthropologist, there is no intrinsic superiority of one culture over another, just as to the professional linguist there is no intrinsic hierarchy among languages.People once thought of the languages of backward groups as savage, undeveloped forms of speech, consisting largely of grunts and groans. While it is possible that language in general began as a series of grunts and groans, it is a fact established by the study of “backward” languages that no spoken tongue answers that description today. Most languages of uncivilized groups are, by our most severe standards, extremely complex, delicate, and ingenious pieces of machinery for the transfer of ideas. They fall behind our Western languages not in their sound patterns or grammatical structures, which usually fully adequate for all language needs, but only in their vocabularies, which reflects the objects and activities known to their speakers. Even in this department, however, two things are to be noted: 1. All languages seem to possess the machinery for vocabulary expansion, either by putting together words already in existence or by borrowing them from other languages and adapting them to their own system. 2. The objects and activities requiring namesand distinctions in “backward” languages, while different from ours, are often surprisingly numerous and complicated. An accidental language distinguishes merely between two degrees of remoteness (“this” and “that”); some languages of the American Indians distinguish between what is close to the speaker, or to the person addressed, or removed from both, or out of sight, or in the past, or in the future.This study of language, in turn, casts a new light upon the claim of the anthropologists that all culture are to be viewed independently, and without ideas of rank or hierarchy.1.the language of uncivilized groups as compared to Western languages are limited in ___.A.sound patternsB.vocabulariesC.grammatical structuresD.both A and B2.The author says that professional linguists recognize that ___.A.Western languages are superior to Eastern languagesB.All languages came from grunts and groansC.The hierarchy of languages is difficult to understandD.There is no hierarchy of languages3.The article states that grunt-and-groan forms of speech are found ___.A.nowhere todayB.among the Australian aboriginesC.among Eastern culturesD.among people speaking “backward” languages4.According to the author, languages, whether civilized or not, have ___.A.the potential for expanding vocabularyB.their own sound patternsC.an ability to transfer ideasD.grammatical structures5.Which of the following is implied but not articulated in the passage?A.The study of languages has discredited anthropological studies.B.The study of language has reinforced anthropologists in their view that there is no hierarchy among cultures.C.The study of language is the same as the study of anthropologists.D.The study of languages casts a new light upon the claim of anthropologists.答案：BDAAB【大学英语六级阅读理解试题解析】。

01_grammatical hierachy

1.3 Phrases 词组

The phrase is composed of one or more than one word. Head/ headword determines the class of the phrase and the way in which the words are organized. 中心词决定词组的词类和内部结合方式 Noun phrase Verb phrase Adjective phrase Adverb phrase Preposition phrase
1.2 Words 词

A word is composed of one or more than one morpheme. Classification in terms of word-formation 根据词法分类 Simple word 简单词 / morpheme word 单词素词 e.g. in, near, take, make, get, down, far Derivative 派生词 e.g. unfold, counterattack, supermarket, international, enable e.g. worker, diversity, modernize, foolish, idealism, childhood Compound 复合词 e.g. handbook, mass-produce, world-famous, nevertheless, moreover, whoever, outside Classification … grammatical functions 根据语法功能分类
Clause classification