Comment on A landscape theory of aggregation
嘉绒藏族传统聚落景观特征与适应性发展策略研究——以色尔古藏寨为例
1研究对象嘉绒藏族，因嘉绒藏区群山之首“夏秀斯巴嘉尔木穆多”得名。
其分布于四川省阿坝州金川、小金、马尔康、理县、黑水，以及甘孜州丹巴、雅安市天全、泸定等地区，其地理位置范围包括横断山脉东部、邛崃山以西的大小金川河流域和大渡河、岷江沿岸等地。
由于气候条件恶劣以及地理地貌的限制，人类活动范围较小，交通极其不便，地区经济落后，社会处于相对封闭的状态，客观上导致该地区经济生活、社会变更、文化发展凝固化的倾向，也是造成该地区聚落景观长期稳定而缺少变化的原因。
色尔古藏寨（意为"盛产黄金的地方"）地处嘉绒藏族与羌族的聚居地的过渡地带，西北是嘉绒藏族分布的腹心区域，东南与茂汶相邻，号称“嘉绒藏族第一寨”（见图1）。
色尔古藏寨地处川西北高原，山高谷深，耕地面积极为有限，聚落选址严格遵循“地形与神论”，忌讳对原有地形地貌大修大改。
整体景观格局至今保存较好，原始风貌犹存，体现出嘉绒藏族传统聚落浓郁的地域特色、民俗风情和宗教色彩。
2色尔古藏寨景观特征解读2.1聚落形态特征地域自然生态是人类赖以生存的基本空间，既为聚落提供了生长的基本功能和物质需求，又构成了对聚落发展的最基本的限制因素[1]。
色尔古藏寨聚落的整体形态以自然山川地势为依托，背山面水，顺应山势而彼此错落，巧妙地利用地形高差灵活布局。
在聚落形成之初，朴实的藏民为谋求生计又不触犯神灵，直接的生存体悟促使藏民形成了生态环境保护观念中的“约束”与“禁忌”意识并世世代代遵循。
藏民以逐水而居的生活方式和因地制宜的生摘要 嘉绒藏区是我国西南少数民族历史悠久、遗存雄厚、文化典型的聚居地，在其独特的地理环境和民族文化影响下形成的聚落景观极具地域特色和景观价值。
本文以国家级传统村落——阿坝州色尔古藏寨为例，通过文献查阅、实地调研、场景感知，从聚落形态、空间结构、细部景观三要素解读其极具地域性和可识别性的景观特征，探寻传统聚落景观的文化内涵和生态智慧，并结合现状问题，提出适应性发展策略，以保持聚落活力、适应时代及文化发展。
tpo32三篇托福阅读TOEFL原文译文题目答案译文背景知识
tpo32三篇托福阅读TOEFL原文译文题目答案译文背景知识阅读-1 (2)原文 (2)译文 (5)题目 (7)答案 (16)背景知识 (16)阅读-2 (25)原文 (25)译文 (28)题目 (31)答案 (40)背景知识 (41)阅读-3 (49)原文 (49)译文 (53)题目 (55)答案 (63)背景知识 (64)阅读-1原文Plant Colonization①Colonization is one way in which plants can change the ecology of a site.Colonization is a process with two components:invasion and survival.The rate at which a site is colonized by plants depends on both the rate at which individual organisms(seeds,spores,immature or mature individuals)arrive at the site and their success at becoming established and surviving.Success in colonization depends to a great extent on there being a site available for colonization–a safe site where disturbance by fire or by cutting down of trees has either removed competing species or reduced levels of competition and other negative interactions to a level at which the invading species can become established.For a given rate of invasion,colonization of a moist,fertile site is likely to be much more rapid than that of a dry, infertile site because of poor survival on the latter.A fertile,plowed field is rapidly invaded by a large variety of weeds,whereas a neighboring construction site from which the soil has been compacted or removed to expose a coarse,infertile parent material may remain virtually free of vegetation for many months or even years despite receiving the same input of seeds as the plowed field.②Both the rate of invasion and the rate of extinction vary greatly among different plant species.Pioneer species-those that occur only in the earliest stages of colonization-tend to have high rates of invasion because they produce very large numbers of reproductive propagules(seeds,spores,and so on)and because they have an efficient means of dispersal(normally,wind).③If colonizers produce short-lived reproductive propagules,they must produce very large numbers unless they have an efficient means of dispersal to suitable new habitats.Many plants depend on wind for dispersal and produce abundant quantities of small,relatively short-lived seeds to compensate for the fact that wind is not always a reliable means If reaching the appropriate type of habitat.Alternative strategies have evolved in some plants,such as those that produce fewer but larger seeds that are dispersed to suitable sites by birds or small mammals or those that produce long-lived seeds.Many forest plants seem to exhibit the latter adaptation,and viable seeds of pioneer species can be found in large numbers on some forest floors. For example,as many as1,125viable seeds per square meter were found in a100-year-old Douglas fir/western hemlock forest in coastal British Columbia.Nearly all the seeds that had germinated from this seed bank were from pioneer species.The rapid colonization of such sites after disturbance is undoubtedly in part a reflection of the largeseed band on the forest floor.④An adaptation that is well developed in colonizing species is a high degree of variation in germination(the beginning of a seed’s growth). Seeds of a given species exhibit a wide range of germination dates, increasing the probability that at least some of the seeds will germinate during a period of favorable environmental conditions.This is particularly important for species that colonize an environment where there is no existing vegetation to ameliorate climatic extremes and in which there may be great climatic diversity.⑤Species succession in plant communities,i.e.,the temporal sequence of appearance and disappearance of species is dependent on events occurring at different stages in the life history of a species. Variation in rates of invasion and growth plays an important role in determining patterns of succession,especially secondary succession. The species that are first to colonize a site are those that produce abundant seed that is distributed successfully to new sites.Such species generally grow rapidly and quickly dominate new sites, excluding other species with lower invasion and growth rates.The first community that occupies a disturbed area therefore may be composed of specie with the highest rate of invasion,whereas the community of the subsequent stage may consist of plants with similar survival ratesbut lower invasion rates.译文植物定居①定居是植物改变一个地点生态环境的一种方式。
2023年高考英语外刊时文精读专题14气候变化与珊瑚礁(含答案)
2023年高考英语外刊时文精读精练(14)Climate change and coral reefs气候变化与珊瑚礁主题语境：人与自然主题语境内容：自然生态【外刊原文】（斜体单词为超纲词汇，认识即可；下划线单词为课标词汇，需熟记。
）Human beings have been altering habitats—sometimes deliberately andsometimes accidentall y—at least since the end of the last Ice Age. Now, though, that change is happening on a grand scale. Global warming is a growing factor. Fortunately, the human wisdom that is destroying nature can also be brought to bear on trying to save it.Some interventions to save ecosystems are hard to imagine andsucceed. Consider a project to reintroducesomething similar to a mammoth(猛犸象)to Siberiaby gene-editing Asian elephants. Their feeding habits could restore the grassland habitat that was around before mammoths died out, increasing the sunlight reflected into space and helping keep carbon compounds(碳化合物)trapped in the soil. But other projects have a bigger chance of making an impact quickly. As we report, one example involves coral reefs.These are the rainforests of the ocean. They exist on vast scales: half a trillion corals line the Pacific from Indonesia to French Polynesia, roughly the same as the number of trees that fill the Amazon. They are equally important harbor of biodiversity. Rainforests cover18% of the land’s surface and offer a home to more than half its vertebrate(脊椎动物的)species. Reefs occupy0.1% of the oceans and host a quarter of marine(海洋的)species.And corals are useful to people, too. Without the protection which reefs afford from crashing waves, low-lying islands such as the Maldives would have flooded long ago, and a billion people would lose food or income. One team of economists has estimated that coral’s global ecosystem services are worth up to $10trn a year. reefs are, however, under threat from rising sea temperatures. Heat causesthe algae（海藻） with which corals co-exist, and on which they depend for food and colour, to generate toxins（毒素）that lead to those algae’s expulsion（排出）. This is known as “bleaching（白化）”, and can cause a coral’s death. As temperatures continue to rise, research groups around the world are coming up with plansof action. Their ideas include identifying naturally heat-resistant（耐热的）corals and moving themaround the world; crossbreeding（杂交）such corals to create strains that are yet-more heat-resistant; employing genetic editing to add heat resistance artificially; transplantingheat-resistant symbiotic（共生的）algae; and even repairing with the bacteria and other micro-organismswith which corals co-exist—to see if that will help.The assisted evolution of corals does not meet with universal enthusiasm. Without carbon reduction and decline in coral-killing pollution, even resistant corals will not survive the century. Some doubt whetherhumans will get its act together in time to make much difference. Few of these techniques are ready for action in the wild. Some, such as gene editing, are so controversial that it is doubtful they will be approved any time soon. scale is also an issue.But there are grounds for optimism. Carbon targets are being set and ocean pollution is being dealt with. Countries that share responsibilities for reefs are starting to act together. Scientific methods can also be found. Natural currents can be used to facilitate mass breeding. Sites of the greatest ecological and economical importance can be identified to maximise benefits.This mix of natural activity and human intervention could serve as a blueprint （蓝图）for other ecosystems. Those who think that all habitats should be kept original may not approve. But when entire ecosystems are facing destruction, the cost of doing nothing is too great to bear. For coral reefs, at least, if any are to survive at all, it will be those that humans have re-engineered to handle the future.【课标词汇精讲】1.alter （通常指轻微地）改动，修改；改变，（使）变化We've had to alter some of our plans.我们不得不对一些计划作出改动。
公民自由主义的政治科学序言史蒂夫·富勒
作者简介：史蒂夫·富勒（Steve Fuller ），英国华威大学社会学系教授，主要从事STS 和社会认识论研究。
彭家锋，中国人民大学哲学院2020级博士研究生，主要从事科技哲学、STS 研究。
E-mail:****************公民自由主义的政治科学序言史蒂夫·富勒彭家锋译由于新冠病毒在第一年就演变为全球性疫情，人们对病毒传播过程中真正的科学不确定性与有效的政治沟通和政策制定的需要之间的笨拙应对（awkward fit ）已经引起了广泛的关注。
实际上，世界已经变成了一个活生生的实验室，每个国家的人民都在相当不同的实验中充当小白鼠，这些实验基于大致相同的科学，只是被应用于不同的地理、政治和文化条件下。
此外，虽然各国政府采取的行动显然会对其正式管辖范围之外的人产生影响，但并没有商定的标准来对应对此次疫情的“成功”作出跨国性判断。
事实上，世界卫生组织的每一次宣布（如果假设存在这种普遍标准），最后都会让世界上的一个或几个地区感到恼火，认为这是一种指手画脚（backseat driving ）。
在20世纪初的德国，关于Volkswirstschaft （国民经济）中“Volk ”含义的争论是一个有用的参考，尽管有些新奇。
一方是维尔纳·桑巴特（Werner Sombart ）和韦伯兄弟（Max and Alfred ），他们以各自不同的方式将“Volk ”视为一个大致相当于国家文化的概念，被理解为一种随时间演变的有机体，任何时候，它都从与实际生活在国境内的民众那里获得其半自主式（semi-au-tonomously ）存在。
另一方是现代经济地理学的创始人伯恩哈德·哈姆斯（Bernhard Harms ），他将费迪南德·唐尼斯（Ferdinand Tönnies ）招入他在基尔的世界经济研究所。
哈姆斯对“Volk ”的定义是：在某一特定时间内民族国家的实际居民，以及他们为促进国家利益所带来的能力①。
银川海派英语【托福阅读】文章的结构类型你了解吗
银川海派英语【托福阅读】文章的结构类型你了解吗当一篇文章对话题进行分类讨论，文章总体结构就属于分类。
官方指南《Aggression》这篇文章就是典型的分类文章。
文章的话题是“攻击性行为”。
文章从第二段开始分成了三大类，分别是三种理解“攻击性行为”的方法：The Biological Approach(生物学方法)，The Psychodynamic Approach(心理动力学方法)和The Cognitive Approach(认知方法)。
不仅如此，生物学方法里面还讨论一个分支：Sociobiology(社会生物学)。
这篇文章的结构一目了然，因为文章本身就把每种方法用粗体字的方式标示出来。
除了《Aggression》之外，我们会发现官方指南的《Geology and Landscape》、TPO13的《Types of Social Groups》、TPO16的《Planets of Our Solar Systems》、TPO17的《Symbiotic Relationships》还有TPO20的《Fossil Preservation》，文章的大体结构都是分类。
其实当我们把上面的文章读完之后，就会发现《Types of Social Groups》和《Planets of Our Solar Systems》这两篇文章只分出两类，结构更接近比较，因为文章内容对分出的两种类型在很多方面都做了不同的比较。
当一篇文章有两个话题，并且对两个话题在诸多方面做了比较，文章的总体结构属于比较。
官方指南的《Applied Arts and Fine Arts》是典型的比较文章。
文章的话题分别是“应用艺术”和“精细艺术”，主要的内容就是对这种两种艺术在不同方面进行比较。
《Artisan and Industrialization》是比较文章，比较的是工业化之前技工(artisan)的工作状况和工业化之后工人(worker/laborer)的工作状况。
托福阅读OG Geology and Landscape
Geology and Landscape1. 核心词汇总结dynamic 动态的principal 主要的terrain 地形epitome 象征，缩影permanence 永久relic 遗迹，废墟comparatively 比较地altitude 高度sedimentary rocks 沉积岩fracture 折断，破裂lava 火山熔岩 extinct volcanoes 死火山 be subjected to 遭受，受...的影响 fragment 碎片 penetrate 渗透，穿透 seep 渗出 shatter 打碎，削弱 glacier 冰川 bombard 轰炸，炮击 wear 磨损2. 长难句总结(1) Hills and mountains are often regarded as the epitome of permanence, successfully resisting the destructive forces of nature, but in fact they tend to be relatively short -lived in geological terms.(2) Some mountains were formed as a result of these plates crashing into each other and forcing up the rock at the plate margins.(3) Carbon dioxide in the air reacts with the rainwater, forming a weak acid (carbonic acid) that may chemically attack the rocks.(4) Glaciers may form in permanently cold areas, and these slowly moving masses of ice cut out valleys, carrying with them huge quantities of eroded rock debris.P1: two influencesMost people consider the landscape to be unchanging, but Earth is a dynamic(动态的) body, and its surface is continually altering -slowly on the human time scale, but relatively rapidly when4,500 billion constructive processes such as uplift, which create new landscape features, and destructive forces such as erosion, which gradually wear away exposed landforms.P2: relatively short -livedHills and mountains are often regarded as the epitome(象征，缩影) of permanence(永久), successfully resisting the destructive forces of nature, but in fact they tend to be relatively short-lived in geological terms(从地质学的角度来讲). As a general rule(一般来说), the higher a mountain is, the more recently it was formed; for example, the high mountains of the Himalayas are only about 50 million years old. Lower mountains tend to be older, and are often the eroded relics(遗迹，废墟) of much higher mountain chains. About 400 million years ago, when the present-day continents of North America and Europe were joined, the Caledonian mountain chain was the same size as the modern Himalayas. Today, however, the relics of the Caledonian orogeny (mountain-building period) exist as the comparatively(比较地) low mountains of Greenland, the northern Appalachians in the United States, the Scottish Highlands, and the Norwegian coastal plateau.P3: Constructive force：plate crashing；earthquake；volcanic activityThe Earth's crust is thought to be divided into huge, movable segments, called plates, which float on a soft plastic layer of rock. 1. Some mountains were formed as a result of these plates crashing into each other and forcing up the rock at the plate margins. In this process, sedimentary rocks (沉积岩)that originally formed on the seabed may be folded upwards to altitudes(高度) of more than 26,000 feet. 2. Other mountains may be raised by earthquakes, which fracture(破裂，折断) the Earth's crust and can displace enough rock to produce block mountains. 3. A third type of mountain may be formed as a result of volcanic activity which occurs in regions of active fold mountain belts, such as in the Cascade Range of western North America. The Cascades are made up of lavas(火山熔岩) and volcanic materials. Many of the peaks are extinct volcanoes(死火山).P4: Destructive force：various weather processWhatever the reason for mountain formation, as soon as land rises above sea level it is subjected to (遭受，受...的影响)destructive forces. The exposed rocks are attacked by the various weather processes and gradually broken down into fragments(碎片), which are then carried away and later deposited as sediments. Thus, any landscape represents only a temporary stage in the continuous battle between the forces of uplift and those of erosion.P5: Destructive force：erosion-rainThe weather, in its many forms, is the main agent of erosion. Rain washes away loose soil and penetrates (渗透，穿透)cracks in the rocks. Carbon dioxide in the air reacts with the rainwater, forming a weak acid (carbonic acid) that may chemically attack the rocks. The rain seeps(渗出) underground and the water may reappear later as springs. These springs are the sources of streams and rivers, which cut through the rocks and carry away debris from the mountains to the lowlands.P6: Destructive force：erosion-windUnder very cold conditions, rocks can be shattered(打碎，削弱) by ice and frost. Glaciers(冰河，冰川) may form in permanently cold areas, and these slowly moving masses of ice cut out valleys, carrying with them huge quantities of eroded rock debris. In dry areas the wind is the principal agent of erosion. It carries fine particles of sand, which bombard(轰炸，炮击) exposed rock surfaces, thereby wearing(磨损) them into yet more sand. Even living things contribute to theformation of landscapes. Tree roots force their way into cracks in rocks and, in so doing, speed their splitting. In contrast, the roots of grasses and other small plants may help to hold loose soil fragments together, thereby helping to prevent erosion by the wind.Paragraph 1: Most people consider the landscape to be unchanging, but Earth is a dynamic body, and its surface is continually altering--slowly on the human time scale, but relatively rapidly when compared to the great age of Earth (about 4,500 billion years). There are two principal influences that shape the terrain: constructive processes such as uplift, which create new landscape features, and destructive forces such as erosion, which gradually wear away exposed landforms.1. According to paragraph 1, which of the following statements is true of changes in Earth's landscape? 细节题○They occur more often by uplift than by erosion.○They occur only at special times.○They occur less frequently now than they once did.○They occur quickly in geological terms.2. The word “relatively” in the passage is closest in meaning to 词汇题○ unusually○ comparatively○ occasionally○ naturallyParagraph 2: Hills and mountains are often regarded as the epitome of permanence, successfully resisting the destructive forces of nature, but in fact they tend to be relatively short-lived in geological terms. As a general rule, the higher a mountain is, the more recently it was formed; for example, the high mountains of the Himalayas are only about 50 million years old. Lower mountains tend to be older, and are often the eroded relics of much higher mountain chains. About 400 million years ago, when the present-day continents of North America and Europe were joined, the Caledonian mountain chain was the same size as the modern Himalayas. Today, however, the relics of the Caledonian orogeny (mountain-building period) exist as the comparatively low mountains of Greenland, the northern Appalachians in the United States, the Scottish Highlands, and the Norwegian coastal plateau.3. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 2 about the mountains of the Himalayas? 推断题○Their current height is not an indication of their age.○At present, they are much higher than the mountains of the Caledonian range.○They were a uniform height about 400 million years ago.○They are not as high as the Caledonian mountains were 400 million years ago.4. The word “relics” in the passage is closest in meaning to词汇题○ resemblances○ regions○ remains○ restorationsParagraph 3: The Earth's crust is thought to be divided into huge, movable segments, called plates, which float on a soft plastic layer of rock. Some mountains were formed as a result ofIn this process, sedimentary rocks that originally formed on the seabed may be folded upwards to altitudes of more than 26,000 feet. Other mountains may be raised by earthquakes, which fracture the Earth's crust and can displace enough rock to produce block mountains. A third type of mountain may be formed as a result of volcanic activity which occurs in regions of active fold mountain belts, such as in the Cascade Range of western North America. The Cascades are made up of lavas and volcanic materials. Many of the peaks are extinct volcanoes.5. According to paragraph 3, one cause of mountain formation is the细节题○ effect of climatic change on sea level○ slowing down of volcanic activity○ force of Earth's crustal plates hitting each other○ replacement of sedimentary rock with volcanic rockParagraph 5: The weather, in its many forms, is the main agent of erosion. Rain washes away loose soil and penetrates cracks in the rocks. Carbon dioxide in the air reacts with the rainwater,The rain seeps underground and the water may reappear later as springs. These springs are the sources of streams and rivers, which cut through the rocks and carry away debris from the mountains to the lowlands.6. Why does the author mention Carbon dioxide in the passage? 目的题○To explain the origin of a chemical that can erode rocks○To contrast carbon dioxide with carbonic acid○To give an example of how rainwater penetrates soil○To argue for the desirability of preventing erosion7. The word “seeps” in the passage is closest in meaning to 词汇题○ dries gradually○ flows slowly○ freezes quickly○ warms slightlyParagraph 6: Under very cold conditions, rocks can be shattered by ice and frost. Glaciers may form in permanently cold areas, and these slowly moving masses of ice cut out valleys, carryingerosion. It carries fine particles of sand, which bombard exposed rock surfaces, thereby wearingthem into yet more sand. Even living things contribute to the formation of landscapes. Tree roots force their way into cracks in rocks and, in so doing, speed their splitting. In contrast, the roots of grasses and other small plants may help to hold loose soil fragments together, thereby helping to prevent erosion by the wind.8. The word them in the passage refers to 指代题○cold areas○masses of ice○valleys○rock debrisParagraph 2: Hills and mountains are often regarded as the epitome of permanence, successfully resisting the destructive forces of nature, but in fact they tend to be relatively short-lived in geological terms. As a general rule, the higher a mountain is, the more recently it was formed; for example, the high mountains of the Himalayas are only about 50 million years old. Lower mountains tend to be older, and are often the eroded relics of much higher mountain chains. About 400 million years ago, when the present-day continents of North America and Europe were joined, the Caledonian mountain chain was the same size as the modern Himalayas. Today, however, the relics of the Caledonian orogeny (mountain-building period) exist as the comparatively low mountains of Greenland, the northern Appalachians in the United States, the Scottish Highlands, and the Norwegian coastal plateau.9. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. 句子简化题○When they are relatively young, hills and mountains successfully resist the destructive forces of nature.○Although they seem permanent, hills and mountains exist for a relatively short period of geological time.○Hills and mountains successfully resist the destructive forces of nature, but only for a short time.○Hills and mountains resist the destructive forces of nature better than other types of landforms.Paragraph 6: Under very cold conditions, rocks can be shattered by ice and frost. Glaciers may form in permanently cold areas, and these slowly moving masses of ice cut out valleys, carrying with them huge quantities of eroded rock debris. █In dry areas the wind is the principal agent of erosion. █It carries fine particles of sand, which bombard exposed rock surfaces, thereby wearingroots force their way into cracks in rocks and, in so doing, speed their splitting. In contrast, the roots of grasses and other small plants may help to hold loose soil fragments together, thereby helping to prevent erosion by the wind.10. According to paragraph 6, which of the following is both a cause and result of erosion?细节题○glacial activity○rock debris○tree roots○sand11. Look at the four squares [█] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.Under different climatic conditions, another type of destructive force contributes to erosion. Where would the sentence best fit? 句子插入题12. Directions: Three of the answer choices below are used in the passage to illustrate constructive processes and two are used to illustrate destructive processes. Complete the table by matching appropriate answer choices to the processes they are used to illustrate. This question is worth 3 points. 配对题CONSTRUCTIVE PROCESSES DESTRUCTIVE PROCESSSESAnswer ChoicesA Collision of Earth's crustal platesB Separation of continentsC Wind-driven sandD Formation of grass roots in soilE EarthquakesF Volcanic activityG Weather processesKey: D B B C C A B B B D A AEF CG。
tpo54三篇阅读原文译文题目答案译文背景知识
托福阅读tpo54全套解析阅读-1 (2)原文 (2)译文 (4)题目 (5)答案 (9)背景知识 (10)阅读-2 (10)原文 (10)译文 (12)题目 (13)答案 (18)背景知识 (20)阅读-3 (25)原文 (26)译文 (27)题目 (28)答案 (33)背景知识 (35)阅读-1原文The Commercialization of Lumber①In nineteenth-century America, practically everything that was built involved wood.Pine was especially attractive for building purposes.It is durable and strong, yet soft enough to be easily worked with even the simplest of hand tools.It also floats nicely on water, which allowed it to be transported to distant markets across the nation.The central and northern reaches of the Great Lakes states—Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota—all contained extensive pine forests as well as many large rivers for floating logs into the Great Lakes, from where they were transported nationwide.②By 1860, the settlement of the American West along with timber shortages in the East converged with ever-widening impact on the pine forests of the Great Lakes states. Over the next 30 years, lumbering became a full-fledged enterprise in Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. Newly formed lumbering corporations bought up huge tracts of pineland and set about systematically cutting the trees. Both the colonists and the later industrialists saw timber as a commodity, but the latter group adopted a far more thorough and calculating approach to removing trees. In this sense, what happened between 1860 and 1890 represented a significant break with the past. No longer were farmers in search of extra income the main source for shingles, firewood, and other wood products. By the 1870s, farmers and city dwellers alike purchased forest products from large manufacturingcompanies located in the Great Lakes states rather than chopping wood themselves or buying it locally.③The commercialization of lumbering was in part the product of technological change. The early, thick saw blades tended to waste a large quantity of wood, with perhaps as much as a third of the log left behind on the floor as sawdust or scrap. In the 1870s, however, the British-invented band saw, with its thinner blade, became standard issue in the Great Lakes states' lumber factories.Meanwhile, the rise of steam-powered mills streamlined production by allowing for the more efficient, centralized, and continuous cutting of lumber. Steam helped to automate a variety of tasks, from cutting to the carrying away of waste. Mills also employed steam to heat log ponds, preventing them from freezing and making possible year-round lumber production.④For industrial lumbering to succeed, a way had to be found to neutralize the effects of the seasons on production. Traditionally, cutting took place in the winter, when snow and ice made it easier to drag logs on sleds or sleighs to the banks of streams. Once the streams and lakes thawed, workers rafted the logs to mills, where they were cut into lumber in the summer. If nature did not cooperate—if the winter proved dry and warm, if the spring thaw was delayed—production would suffer. To counter the effects of climate on lumber production, loggers experimented with a variety of techniques for transporting trees out of the woods. In the 1870s, loggers in the Great Lakes states began sprinkling water on sleigh roads, giving them an artificial ice coating to facilitate travel. The ice reduced the friction and allowed workers to move larger and heavier loads.⑤But all the sprinkling in the world would not save a logger from the threat of a warm winter. Without snow the sleigh roads turned to mud. In the 1870s, a set of snowless winters left lumber companies to ponder ways of liberating themselves from the seasons. Railroads were one possibility.At first, the remoteness of the pine forests discouraged common carriers from laying track.But increasing lumber prices in the late 1870s combined with periodic warm, dry winters compelled loggers to turn to iron rails. By 1887, 89 logging railroads crisscrossed Michigan, transforming logging from a winter activity into a year-round one.⑥Once the logs arrived at a river, the trip downstream to a mill could be a long and tortuous one.Logjams (buildups of logs that prevent logs from moving downstream) were common—at times stretching for 10 miles—and became even more frequent as pressure on the northern Midwest pinelands increased in the 1860s. To help keep the logs moving efficiently, barriers called booms (essentially a chain of floating logs) were constructed to control the direction of the timber. By the 1870s, lumber companies existed in all the major logging areas of the northern Midwest.译文木材的商业化①在19世纪的美国，几乎所有建筑材料都含有木材。
ARES1989-Landscape ecology the effects of pattern on process
of
Monica Goigel
Turner
Environmental Sciences Division, OakRidgeNational Laboratory, OakRidge, TN 37831 INTRODUCTION A Historical Perspective Ecologyand natural history have a long tradition of interest in the spatial patterning and geographic distribution of organisms. The latitudinal and altitudinal distribution of vegetative zones was described by VonHumboldt (154), whose work provided a major impetus to studies of the geographic distribution of plants and animals (74). Throughoutthe nineteenth century, botanists and zoologists described the spatial distributions of various taxa, particularly as they related to macroclimaticfactors such as temperature and precipitation (e.g. 21, 82, 83, 156). The emerging view was that strong interdependenciesamong climate, biota, and soil lead to long-term stability of the landscape in the absence of climatic changes (95). The early biogeographical studies also influenced Clements’theory of successional dynamics, in which a stable endpoint, the climax vegetation, was determined by macroclimate over a broad region (14, 15). Clementsstressed temporal dynamics did not emphasize but spatial patterning. Gleason (36-38) argued that spatially heterogeneous patterns were important and should be interpreted as individualistic responses to spatial gradients in the environment. The developmentof gradient analysis (e.g. 17, 164) allowed description of the continuous distribution of species along environmentalgradients. Abrupt discontinuities in vegetation patterns were believed to be associated with abrupt discontinuities in the physical environmerit (165), and the spatial patterns of climax vegetation were thought reflect localized intersections of species respondingto complex environmental gradients.
tpo62三篇托福阅读TOEFL原文译文题目答案译文背景知识
tpo62三篇托福阅读TOEFL原文译文题目答案译文背景知识阅读-1 (2)原文 (2)译文 (5)题目 (7)答案 (15)背景知识 (16)阅读-2 (23)原文 (23)译文 (27)题目 (30)答案 (36)背景知识 (37)阅读-3 (39)原文 (39)译文 (43)题目 (46)答案 (53)背景知识 (54)阅读-1原文Plant Adaptations to Cool Environments①There are many interesting adaptations that allow plants to survive in cool environments.One obvious strategy is dormancy(a suspension of activity)during the cold season.Most of the common trees in the forests of northeastern North America,western Europe,and eastern Asia,such as the maples,oaks,beech,birches,and ashes,are deciduous trees that lose their frost-sensitive leaves during the cold winter season.In most of these trees,the leaves suffer damage at temperatures of freezing or just below.The new leaves arise in the spring from winter buds that can remain viable at colder temperatures.②Most of the needle-leaved conifers of the northern and alpine forests,such as pines,spruces,and firs,do not lose their leaves during the winter.How do such evergreen plants escape intracellular freezing (freezing within cells)and tissue destruction when temperatures may drop to-40℃or colder?In these plants,the onset of cool temperatures causes physiological changes that allow plant tissue to either avoid freezing or restrict freezing to extracellular areas(thoseoutside of cells).For plants to avoid freezing,they must chemically alter their liquids into a form that is analogous to antifreeze in automobiles.The liquids in these plants can be cooled far below0℃and will not freeze.This process is called supercooling and is achieved by the metabolic synthesis of sugars and other molecules which,when in solution in the plant's tissue,lower the temperature for ice formation to far below0℃.Supercooling seems to be the prevalent mechanism of frost resistance in herbs.For woody plants,supercooling is augmented by declines of cellular water content,greater cellular accommodation to deformation,and processes that allow water to accumulate and freeze in extracellular spaces.The loss of water from the cells to extracellular areas increases the solute content(the quantity of dissolved substances)of the remaining cell water,making it more resistant to freezing.The cell walls can accommodate the deformations caused by water freezing on the exterior of the cell.For northern and alpine evergreens such as pines and spruces,both supercooling and extracellular ice formation play a part in allowing the plants to withstand extremely cold temperatures.One interesting facet of these physiological adaptations to freezing is that most of these plants will still be damaged by cold temperatures if they do not have a period of cooling in which to adjust to the onset of winter.This process of physiological preparation for the onset of winter cold is called frosthardening.③Some members of the cactus family appear to resist freezing during cool nights by radiating heat stored during the day in their thick,moist tissue.The greater the mass of the cactus,the more heat it can store and the less prone it will be to freezing damage during the night.How is it then that these cacti can survive cold temperatures when they are young and small?The giant saguaro cactus is perhaps the best-known symbol of the southwestern desert of North America.In the popular lore of North America,the distinctive shape of the multistemmed saguaro is a universally recognized icon that is used to represent deserts in movies,television,and comics.Yet,this distinctive and widely recognized plant is actually found only in the Sonoran Desert of California,Arizona,and adjacent Mexico.The saguaro cactus is damaged or killed if exposed to prolonged freezing temperatures. Desert climates in the northern Sonoran Desert are typified by warm days but sometimes experience nighttime temperatures that are below freezing in the winter.Young saguaros that survive are found sheltered beneath more frost-tolerant desert shrubs.The cover of these shrubs acts as a thermal blanket,capturing heat radiated from the ground and keeping the microclimate of the small saguaro warm at night.As thecactus grows,it eventually rises above the cover of the protective shrub.The radiation of heat from the stalk of the large mature cactus prevents freezing.This strategy works up to a point.The range of the saguaro is restricted to areas that do not experience more than about 12to24continuous hours of air temperatures below0℃.It appears that after24hours of freezing air temperatures,not enough heat reserve is left in the saguaro to keep the tissue from freezing.译文植物适应寒冷环境①有许多有趣的适应性可以让植物在凉爽的环境中生存。
景观价值的探索
景观价值的探讨（英语）Endency of Values of Modern Landscape ArchitectureAs an integrated whole, landscape is realized under a certain economy conditions. It should meet the need of the society, coincide with the rule of nature, follow the principle of ecology, and as the same time, it also belongs to the category of art. If landscape works have lasting vitality, they must be those which can balance these factors. They are closely linked with the times soul, absorb the historical spirit, but not imitate the existing style. They accord with the principle of science, and reflect the demands of society, the development of technology, the new ideas of aesthetics and tendency of values.In today's social life of people, in fact, difficult to judge the value of today's works, after all, from us the more recent things, the more difficult it will determine which is sustained brilliance, and what are only the short-term Guoyanyunyan fashion. We have enthusiastic about the many ideas, it seems very one-sided, and some people have to stay away from the eye works, has undergone the test of time, but flashing a lovely light. Although it is difficult to fully and objectively analyze the development trend of landscape design, but in the past, modern or future, every designer in the process of practice can not be avoided some of the most basic issues, the treatment of these issues with the attitude, Different times depending on the context of landscape designer of the concept and ideas, will determine the performance of the works form, thereby affecting the vitality of the works.Traditional and modernAlmost every designer had been the face of the relationship between traditional and modern confusion. Early Modernism tends to be more antagonism between the two, but today, more and more people are aware of the inevitable link between the two. And cultural transformation, development and change the landscape, but also in the past accompanied by the denial of inheritance and carried out in a new form of a landscape, always on the garden and its history is inextricably linked to culture . Any designers are in certainsocial soil to grow up, even if their billed as the most avant-garde designer, can not evade their works in the sediments of a specific culture traces.However, the value of traditional values, is not to ignore the social progress and the development of technology, blindly imitating the past. The best imitation can only have a fake, not authentic. Good design is not the traditional shallow imitation, but rather a long garden where traditional and modern life needs and aesthetic value of a good combination, and on this basis to increase refining works. This is all outstanding contemporary works in the landscape can be deeply appreciate. These works, no matter how modern form, we have a little taste, is easy to see that they are the traditional transmission of information. Citroen park in Paris (Parc Andrē-Citroën, 1992 for completion, G. Clement, P. Berger, A. Provost, JP Viguier, JF Jodry design), the Atlantic Ocean Park (Le Jardin Atlantique, 1994 completed, Franois Brun, Michel Péan design) layout of the plane and the 17th century Le Notre (Andre Le Ntre) of the garden a considerable number of links. Even from La Villette Park (Parc de la Villette, 1991 for completion, Bernard Tschumi designed) so hung Deconstruction label inthe works, can also see the impact of the traditional French garden. - Profile flower bed garden is a traditional Western elements, today, in the hands of different designers, after re-interpretation of modern design practices, can have completely different version.Kempinski Hotel Airport Munich Garden (Garden of Kempinski Hotel, 1993 completed, Peter Walker design), the classical garden flower bed with the minimalist designre-mix composition, created a green, pleasant venues. Utrecht, the Netherlands VSB headquarters Garden (1995 built, Adriaan Geuze design), the 200-meter-long red ribbon Cyclovirobuxine Lei of rubble and form a narrow strip of ground subsidence of the garden. Yake Bo Ya Weici Plaza, New York (Jacob Javits, 1996 built, Martha Schwartz design) to the French Baroque garden flower bed for the creation of the prototype, benches and grass Qiu, street lights, shop, railings and other elements of the unexpected Way combination, by a simple form of access to a wealth of the square space.Inthese works, landscape designers in the past not to pursue the form of copy, but the history of the garden will be the spirit of cultural absorption over, they converted to adapt to new conditions on the appropriate means of expression. These landscapes are a product of society today, modern science and technology and thinking, modern art, gardening and the level of people's way of life in the environment are fully displayed. Only those who represent the cultural essence of the contemporary era works, it has a lasting charm and vitality.Will combine traditional and modern another layer of meaning lies in the fact that the new landscape design should not only show the contemporary social needs and protect their re-creation of a city or historical value of the lot is also playing an increasingly important role. Bali Bei Seoul park (Parc Berce, 1997 for completion, Bernard Huet, Marylène Ferrand, Jean-pierre Feugas, Bernard Le Roy, Ian le Caisne, Philippe Raguin, such as design), retained the original brewery on the site of the Argyle Street area network consisting of Grid system, wine cellar and 500 old trees, and other traces of history, and these historical information and modern design elements superimposed coincidence,A historical and practical dialogue. Park awareness of past life memory, so that this regional development of the city's historical continuity. Venice Fretto Plaza (Plaza Feretto, 2000 built, Guido Zordan design) through the fine stone pavement, rich ground elevation changes, and the square surrounding the church and cultural center, shops and houses new and old building of a harmonious Relations, and maintain the standard of the old city centre, then a change in plastic rich and full of human touch of the Italian tradition of urban space.And social landscapeThe visual and social development is closely linked to the development. The political, economic and cultural development of the situation on the landscape have a profound impact. Looking back at history, is the industrial revolution brought about by social progress, so that the content and form of landscapehas undergone enormous changes, prompted the formation of the modern landscape. Socio-economic development, social progress and cultural awareness, and promote the development of the landscape andever-expanding field of design. Serious energy crisis and environmental pollution without restraint for the production and way of life is a heavy blow to people's living environment of their own growing sense of crisis, and therefore become a universal awareness of environmental protection.The adjustment of industrial structure and social changes, making completely different from the traditional sense of the industrial park after the landscape emergin g…… social development is changing the face of today's landscape design, landscape development of social factors is the most deep-seated reasons.Landscape of social significance is that the landscape should also must meet the social and human needs. Today, the landscape to people involved in all aspects of life, the modern landscape to the use of, this is the function of the target. Although for a variety of purposes of design, landscape design but ultimately related to the use of human beings in order to create outdoor venues. For ordinary people to provide practical, comfortable, well-designed landscape designer should be pursued by the state. This is, the Nordic countries and Germany have been the designer of the world set an example, where the social landscape is the first one, the needs of daily life is an important landscape design starting point, the designer of comfort and always apply The pursuit of first place, not the pursuit of design in the form of surface, not the pursuit of avant-garde, the elite of the visual impact and effect, but rather focus on the pursuit of intrinsic value and use features. Such functional, simple style of landscape design should win people's respect.In turn, the social landscape may have more than a positive role in the history of any period. Today, the landscape designer of the site facing the growing number of those who seem worthless waste, garbage dump or any other human being and lives destroyed the region, which our predecessors of the situation is entirely different, Have more chance to choose those with goodpotential plots, with gardeners value of the land, the icing on the cake, theso-called "phase in appropriate and decent garden structure." Today, however, the landscape designer is more in the treatment of scar city, with urban landscape the way repair the skin, promoting urban various systems of healthy development. In this process, the first need is not created, but to solve various problems. This landscape of the positive significance lies not in what it has created the forms and landscapes, but in its positive role in social development. The landscape construction, can stimulate and improve the social aspects of development and progress. Germany's Ruhr area International Architecture Exhibition Park homes promising (IBA Emscher Park, 1992 started the construction) is a good example. Promising homes River region was an important industrial base in Germany, since the 1960s, as major industries, coal and iron ore mining, has been the point of no return towards decline, the closure of a large number of very good quality of construction no longer use, population Reduce, hundreds of thousands of jobs lost. Economic, social and environmental issues to the local government for the rehabilitation to take effective measures, namely the construction of the International Architecture Exhibition Park homes promising, this massive project involves 800 square kilometers of area, 17 cities, 2.5 million population, which includes rivers The ecological regeneration,Regional natural landscape restoration, green parks, residential areas, science and technology, business center construction, ecological environment improvement, the original construction industry training and re-use. Decades, the International Architecture Exhibition Park homes promising the construction effective in improving the region's ecological environment, stimulate urban economic and social development, and Qiaomiaodijiang the old industrial area into a public leisure and entertainment establishments, not only as far as possible To retain the original industrial facilities, as a regional historical continuity and effective conservation of resources, but also to create a unique industrial landscape. The environment and ecology of training works, to some extent, solve the industry in this regiondue to the decline and the environment, employment, housing and economic development, and many other aspects of the problem, giving the old industrial base with new vigor, The rest of the world the transformation of old industrial areas has set a good example.The landscape construction and economic development should be a benign interaction, in fact building in the landscape today is also part ofsocio-economic activities. Promote the economic development of the visual development, in turn, the landscape is also promoting the socio-economic prosperity. Bali Bei Seoul Park for the construction of the development of the surrounding areas to create a good ecological environment interaction and leisure venues. While maintaining the region's historical characteristics, enhance the value of land and the region's competitiveness. Many areas of economic development through the landscape for the construction of the pilot, the first visual environment, a further business, towns and utilities, some large-scale expositions, sports event will be held, often in urban areas or the development of backward areas revitalization And development opportunities. The venue and the park's reasonable planning, especially after the region's development blueprint for the Expo or sports event is an important guarantee for success.Generally speaking, each time after the end of the Expo, most of the exhibition hall, exhibition park were removed, the left is a skeleton of the landscape have a good future urban District. The exhibition is temporary, regional development is permanent. 1992 completed the Dutch Horticultural Exposition Park for the development of cities and towns Zoetermeer laid a solid foundation, today, the original Garden Expo has become the town's leisure park, some regional or natural forest areas into wilderness, in some areas as nature conservation, and parks The core regions, namely, the original exhibition area has become a residential area. Park for the construction of Zoetermeer region of the far-reaching implications. Hanover World Expo 2000 "transform Garden" (Grten in Wandel, 2000 completed, Kamel Louafi design) to the exhibition after the end of the economic and time considerations into the"evolution will replace the maintenance of parks," Park will become the future New public space and urban centres.Landscape and ArtBeyond doubt, landscape design is an art. It and other art forms, have a causal link. Modern landscape design from the very beginning, from the lessons of modern art in the form of a rich language. To find expression for the current science, technology and human awareness activities in the form of words and designers, art provides the most direct undoubtedly the most abundant source. Modern art from the early Cubism, Surrealism, style camp, constitute, and later to the minimalist art, Pop Art, every kind of artistic ideas and art forms are provided for landscape designers can draw on the art of thinking and Form of language. Today, the concept of art have taken place in a large change, "the United States" is no longer the purpose of art and the art of evaluation standards.Art forms, endless, pure art and other disciplines of the arts increasingly blurred the line between, artists learn from the film, television, drama, music, architecture, landscape and other creative tactics, such as the creation of the media arts, performance art, art optical effects, Land Art, and so on a series of new art forms, which in turn gave the other arts industry practitioners to great inspiration.Because of its painting lines, and blocks of color seem to be easily translated into the design of some elements of the floor plan, which has been affecting the development of landscape design, innovative landscape designers have access to modern painting in a lot of inspiration. Carrasquel Square, Amsterdam, the Netherlands (Carrascoplein, 1998 completed, Adriaan Geuze design), to grass, asphalt pavement and the white dots on the array of elements on the ground designed a two-dimensional super-realism of the screen, With the singular scene of light, sound and movement of trains, so that this space is a surrealistic mysterious atmosphere.In pursuit of minimalist style of the American designer known for Peter Walker, in his works on the basis of modern and contemporary art lessons nutrition,both avant-garde novel, yet elegant and generous. In Bailinsuoni Centre (Sony Center, 2000 completed, Peter Walker design), the wealth of indoor and outdoor space for transformation and change is the mysterious landscape designer with a simple plant cultivation and a number of industrial materials such as stainless steel and glass in a simple, repetitive In the form of the mold. Walker and the many works, not only here-in lighting and played the lead role, but also as an art form there. This can be seen clearly in the works of contemporary art such as the minimalist art, art-effects of the impact.In the second half of the 20th century, the landscape changes and development in the form of the most influential art forms, perhaps the "Land Art." Land Art will be because of the natural environment as a creative place, the use of large-scale, abstract forms and natural materials, and landscape works increasingly close and thus become a landscape designer from the many forms of language, at the same time, artists have also set foot in the area of landscape design, Many works are often landscape division and complete cooperation of artists, this is more of the landscape and promoting the art of sculpture both integration and development, which is now many of the works of landscape design also be considered works of art reasons.Germany Saarbruecken Port Island Park (Bürgpark Hafeninsel, 1989 for completion, Peter Latz design) in World War II were destroyed in the coal transport on the construction of the terminal, designers used on the site of the ruins of rubble, in the park Construction of a large grid network, as the park's skeleton, in order to arouse people's history of the 19th century urban landscape fragments memories. In the bushes in the barren, with rubble piled out of simple geometric shapes, these are some people think of artists such as Richard Long and Robert Smithson's earth works of art.Land Art of Landscape Design is an important impact on the arts has brought the concept design of terrain. Netherlands Zoetermeer Horticulture Expo Garden in the triangular series conical shape of the terrain is no doubt from the earth to seek inspiration in the arts. International Architecture Exhibition inGermany promising homes in the park, under the old industrial legacy of the many great Waste Dump are retained, as the earth works of art, or as an industrial look at the monument. International Architecture Exhibition in the Park homes promising an integral part of the North Star Park (Nordstern, 1997 completed, Wedig Pridik, Andreas Freese, such as design), the scrap heap original Mine was repaired for the neat rows of the pyramid-shaped, and Was to review the plant to form the visual focus of attention.Modern Art's thinking and expressions of landscape design have far-reaching impact, making the landscape design ideas and means to enrich. And the difference is pure art, landscape design face a more complicated social problems and the use of the challenge, landscape designers can not ignore these and immersed in the art world of their own. But since we can understand "the United States" is no longer judge the arts standards, we should be able to understand landscape is no longer means "the picturesque," can become a landscape art thinking of the carrier, it can show a variety of forms, We also can give some of us do not understand the landscape works of a more tolerant.。
Evidence on the nature and sources of agglomeration economics
Evidence on the Nature and Sources of Agglomeration EconomiesStuart S. RosenthalDepartment of Economicsand Center for Policy Research,Syracuse University,Syracuse, NY 13244-1020, USAPhone: 315-443-3809; Email: ssrosent@Web: /faculty/rosenthal/andWilliam C. StrangeRIOCAN Real Estate Investment Trust Professor of Real Estate and Urban EconomicsRotman School of Management105 St. George St.University of TorontoToronto, ON M5S 3E6, CanadaPhone: (416) 978-1949; Email: wstrange@rotman.utoronto.caWeb: www.rotman.utoronto.ca/~wstrange/Prepared for the Handbook of Urban And Regional Economics, Volume 4November 4, 2002Revised: August 24, 2003*We are grateful to Gilles Duranton, Vernon Henderson, Jacques Thisse and the participants of a presentation at the North American Regional Science Association Meetings in November, 2002. Any errors are ours alone. We are also grateful for the financial support of the National Institute of Aging, the Connaught Fund at the University of Toronto, and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada.AbstractThis paper considers the empirical literature on the nature and sources of urban increasing returns, also known as agglomeration economies. An important aspect of these externalities that has not been previously emphasized is that the effects of agglomeration extend over at least three different dimensions. These are the industrial, geographic, and temporal scope of economic agglomeration economies. In each case, the literature suggests that agglomeration economies attenuate with distance.Recently, the literature has also begun to provide evidence on the microfoundations of external economies of scale. The best known of these sources are those attributed to Marshall (1920): labor market pooling, input sharing, and knowledge spillovers. Evidence to date supports the presence of all three of these forces. In addition, there is also evidence that natural advantage, home market effects, consumption opportunities, and rent-seeking all contribute to agglomeration.JEL Codes: R0 (Urban, Rural, and Regional Economics: General), O4 (Economic Growth and Aggregate Productivity), D2 (Production and Organizations), C1 (Econometric and Statistical Methods: General)Keywords: agglomeration economies, productivity, external economies, microfoundations, urban growth1. IntroductionThe degree of concentration of economic activity is striking. Roughly 75% of Americans live in cities as defined by the Census Department, and yet cities occupy only 2% of the land area of the lower 48 states. A similar story could be told for any other developed county: labor and capital are both heavily concentrated in cities.It is not just aggregate activity that is agglomerated. Individual industries are concentrated too. Figure 1, for instance, presents the density of employment in the furniture industry (SIC). Most of the country has almost no employment in the industry, as the map shows. The map also shows that the counties that do have employment are not randomly scattered across the U.S. They are disproportionately located in the western part of North Carolina and in other nearby locations. Clearly, furniture is an industry that makes use of particular raw materials, especially wood. Forestry is an important industry in North Carolina and elsewhere in the Southeast, so the location is sensible because of the access it offers to raw materials. But there are a lot of other equally sensible locations elsewhere in the county, from Maine to Oregon. Clearly, something beyond locating near raw materials sources is taking place.The macro pattern of Figure 1 repeats itself in Figure 2, a map of the location of software producers (SIC 7371-7373 and 7375) in the vicinity of San Francisco. The map reports both the locations of existing establishments and the locations where new establishments are created (births). As can readily be seen, both are concentrated. In this case, there is no material input that is analogous to trees. Despite this, activity is highly concentrated in what is known as the Silicon Valley north of San Jose and in San Jose itself. Again, something is going on that is leading to this kind of geographic concentration.This chapter will survey empirical work on the forces that lead to concentration, both of industries in clusters and of aggregate activity in cities. These forces are known variously as agglomeration economies or external economies of scale. In surveying the empirical work, the chapter will be concerned with two related questions: what is the nature and what are the sources of the increasing returns that produce agglomeration? In considering the nature of agglomeration economies we will be concerned with a number of smaller questions. Are they local, as seems to be the case in software, or do they operate at a regional scale, as seems to be the case for furniture? Are they restricted to individual industries like software and furniture, or are their effects comprehensive, extending across all activities? What is the dynamic nature of agglomeration economies? Are the effects of proximity felt immediately or does agglomeration have its positive effect on productivity only with a lag? Finally, are the effects dependent simply on the amount of activity that takes place somewhere, or is the nature of local interactionsimportant to the process of agglomeration? All of these questions relate to what we will define as the scope of agglomeration economies. The empirical answers to these questions will be discussed together in Section 2.The second broad question concerns the sources of agglomeration economies. Marshall (1920) suggests three. The first of these is the sharing of inputs whose production involves internal increasing returns to scale. The second is labor market pooling, where agglomeration allows a better match between an employer's needs and a worker's skills and reduces risk for both. The third source is spillovers in knowledge that take place when an industry is localized, allowing workers to learn from each other.1 Other sources have been suggested more recently. These include home market effects, where the concentration of demand encourages agglomeration, and economies in consumption, where cities exist because people like the bright lights. On the negative side, it has also been suggested that agglomeration is related to rent-seeking, with inefficient mega-cities arising more frequently in undemocratic countries. This so-called urban primacy has many effects, with one being to redistribute the government's expropriated resources among the urban mob. Section 3 considers the empirical work that has addressed these issues.Sections 2 and 3 review an econometric literature that is only about thirty years old. This literature has made substantial progress, especially in recent years as more refined data have become available. This has allowed researchers to ask questions that could not have been asked with more aggregate data. For example, evaluating the geographic extent of agglomeration economies is not possible without geographically refined data. Access to better data has also enabled researchers to answer old questions with greater precision, such as whether agglomeration economies are industry-specific or extend to the entire city. Despite the impressive record of progress of this program of formal econometric work, we believe there is much to be learned from less formal research. In Section 4, we consider some representative case studies. This is obviously a much older way to understand the facts that bear on agglomeration than through regression analysis. Even so, we believe it is an important part of the entire empirical story, both confirming and placing in context the formal empirical work and identifying important details in the big picture of agglomeration that the formal work misses.We now turn to the scope of agglomeration economies.1 In another chapter in this volume, Duranton and Puga (2004) propose a different taxonomy: matching, sharing, and learning.2. The scope of urban increasing returns2.1 IntroductionExternal economies exist when the scale of the urban environment adds to productivity. There are at least three dimensions over which these externalities may extend. We refer to the extent of the externality as its scope. The first and most familiar is the industrial scope. This is the degree to which agglomeration economies extend across industries, possibly even across all industries in a city, rather than being confined within industry boundaries. This distinction is well known, with the economies of scale that arise from spatial concentration of activity within a given industry being known as localization economies. The externalities that arise from the concentration of all economic activity, or from city size itself, are known as urbanization economies. As will become apparent, empirical evidence in the literature suggests that as agents become closer in industrial space (i.e., their production processes become more similar), then there is greater potential for interaction.The second kind of scope is geographic. Nearly every textbook in urban economics begins by explaining why cities exist. The answer is that proximity is advantageous. Thus, the discussion of agglomeration begins with the idea that geographic distance is crucial to understanding cites. The aspect of geographic distance that will matter most here is the attenuation of agglomeration economies with distance: if agents are physically closer, then there is more potential for interaction.The third kind of scope is temporal. It is possible that one agent's interaction with another agent at a point in the past continues to have an effect on productivity in the present. For example, learning may take place only gradually, and awareness of a location's supply chain possibilities may take time to develop. Of course, such knowledge can decay over time. This means that in addition to the fairly well-known static agglomeration economies, there may also be dynamic agglomeration economies. That two agents who are separated temporally continue to affect each other is logically similar to the way that agents who are separated in physical or industrial space interact. The degree to which these time-separated interactions continue to be potent defines the temporal scope of agglomeration economies.This section will examine recent empirical studies that shed light on each of these three aspects of the scope of external economies of scale. Table 1 provides a selective overview of the literature. We will begin by characterizing how one might proceed given a hypothetical “perfect” data set, free of measurement error, with no omitted variables, and including instruments that resolve all issues related to endogenous regressors. Against the backdrop of this ideal, we will discuss estimation strategies have been pursued in the presence of the imperfect data sets that actually are available. We then examine the evidence on the industrial, geographic,and temporal scope of agglomeration. Finally, we conclude the section by discussing empirical literature that sheds light on the manner in which the industrial organization and business "culture” of the local economy affects the generation and reception of external economies of scale.2.2 Strategies for evaluating the scope of agglomeration economies2.2.1 ContextExternal economies are by definition shifters of an establishment's production function. The first issue that must be confronted is whether the effect is Hicks neutral, or whether it augments labor or some other input in the production function. We will suppose the change to be neutral, consistent with empirical evidence from Henderson (1986). Given the Hicks neutrality assumption, an establishment's production function may be written as g(A)f(x), where x is a vector of the usual inputs (land, labor, capital, and materials) and A characterizes the establishment's environment. The latter allows for the influence of agglomeration.A general specification of agglomeration economies is that the aggregate urban external effect arises as the sum of a large number of individual externalities. We will treat the externalities as being between establishments, although they could instead be between individuals. Consider two establishments, j and k. The effect of establishment k on establishment j depends on the scale of activity at both establishments. In addition, the impact of k on j also depends on the distance between the two establishments, where distance is measured over three different dimensions. First, the influence of j on k depends on the geographic distance between the two establishments, d G jk. Second, it also depends on the type of industrial activity that takes place at the two establishments. It is natural to refer to this as the industrial distance between j and k, denoted here as d I jk. Two establishments carrying out the same kind of production would have d I jk, = 0, and d I jk would increase as the production processes become more dissimilar. Third, the impact of the interaction may extend temporally. At any point in time, establishment j may currently benefit from interaction with establishment k at some point in the past. This temporal dimension of distance is denoted d T jk. For example, for an interaction two years ago, d T jk would equal two.An increase in any of these kinds of distance --spatial, industrial, or temporal-- presumably leads to the attenuation of the agglomerative effect of establishment k on establishment j's production function. Formally, let the set of establishments with which establishment j might possibly benefit from interacting with be defined as K. Assume that all benefits to j from interaction with establishment k∈K equal q(x j, x k)a(d G jk, d I jk, d T jk). The first expression, q(x j, x k), reflects benefits from interaction that depend on the scales of j's and k's activities, denoted by their input vectors x j and x k. For example, it is common to suppose that thestrength of the interaction is captured by the size of establishment k's workforce, with othercharacteristics of establishment k having no effect. The second expression captures theattenuation of the interaction as establishments become more distant from each other.Specifically, holding the scale of the interaction constant, the benefit of an interaction withestablishment k ∈ K at geographic distance d G jk, industrial distance d I jk, and temporal distanced T jk is defined as a(d G jk, d I jk, d T jk). The total benefit of agglomeration enjoyed by establishment jis then equal to the sum over interaction partners of the agglomerative effect as a function ofgeographic, industrial, and temporal distance:A j = ∑k ∈ K q(x j, x k)a(d G jk, d I jk, d T jk). (2.1)The construction of (2.1) immediately suggests some issues that bear on the estimation ofagglomeration economies. The first is that A varies across establishments because each belongsto a given industry and is situated at a unique location over a particular period of time. Thesecond issue is that each dimension of agglomeration economies could in principle be measuredcontinuously. This would require some attempt to capture the attenuation of agglomerationeconomies as establishments move farther apart, both in the standard sense of physical space butalso in the more novel sense of industrial and temporal space.It is fair to say that relatively little of the empirical work on the scope of agglomerationeconomies has addressed the issues of establishment uniqueness and continuity. Instead, withregard to geography, most studies have grouped industries and plants into politically definedregions such as Metropolitan Statistical Areas (MSAs) or counties. Activity in neighboringregions is then typically assumed, usually implicitly, to have no effect on the region in question,and all activity within the specified region is treated as being situated at exactly the same spot.With regard to the type of industrial activity, most studies have collapsed industrial activity intojust two broad categories: activity within an establishment's industry (i.e., SIC code) and activityoutside of the establishment's industry. This, of course, does not capture the possibility thatsome industries belonging to different industry categories are close cousins, while others arehardly related at all.2 With regard to temporal dimensions of agglomeration, several studies haveconsidered the influence of time, but most have not.Assuming that A j could be fully specified and measured without error, the equation to beestimated is2Ellison and Glaeser (1997) examine exactly this issue when they construct measures of co-agglomeration.y j = g(A j)f(x j). (2.2)y j is establishment j's output, x j represents j's traditional inputs and A j is given in (2.1). Inprinciple, estimates of equation (2.2) would provide measures of the productivity effects of theindustrial, spatial, and temporal dimensions of agglomeration. In practice, attempts to estimate(2.2) face many challenges. We will now set out the challenges in detail.2.2.2 Measuring the scope of agglomerationIn order to estimate an approximation to equation (2.2), measures of A must first beconstructed that correspond to the three dimensions of the scope of agglomeration economies.Thus, for a given geographic distance from establishment j, measures of A should ideally includethe amount of economic activity present in a variety of different industries at different distancesin industrial space from j. This would allow one to determine the industries that benefit fromproximity. Including measures of physical distance would allow one to determine how closeestablishments need to be in order to benefit from their agglomeration. Finally, it would also bedesirable to allow for dynamic externalities and consider the impacts of historic activity.Obtaining all these controls is a daunting challenge. Thus, most models of agglomeration bearon one or perhaps two of the key aspects of scope, but never all three.2.2.3 Estimating the production function: omitted variables and simultaneityThe most natural way to understand agglomeration economies is to directly estimate theproduction function, (2.2). In carrying out this estimation, it is necessary to have measures of thevarious elements of x j, including employment, land, capital, and materials. Labor inputs areperhaps the easiest to measure, since many data sets provide counts of workers, hours worked,and on occasion, proxies for skill level (e.g. education). Data on purchased materials areavailable in some data sets, but data on materials produced internally typically are not. SeeCiccone and Hall (1996) and Henderson (2003a) for discussions of this issue. Few data setsmake available measures of land use and information on the stock of capital, informationessential to estimating (2.2). Thus, a fundamental challenge that must be faced in estimating aproduction function is in finding data on inputs.The issue of measurement error has been central to the literature since the outset.Because this is an old issue and one that has already been surveyed with considerable care(Eberts and McMillen (1999)), our treatment will be relatively brief. First, it is clear that theabsence of data on capital can affect the estimates. For instance, Sveikauskas (1975) lacks dataon capital. As Moomaw (1983) points out, however, if capital is used more intensively in largecities, then the error terms will be positively correlated with the city size terms, leading toupward bias in coefficient estimates. In fact, Moomaw shows that this can inflate estimates by a factor of four.3 Second, land is also an important input, and its contribution to production is also difficult to measure. Land will be used less intensively in large cities, so presumably this omission would lead to downward bias in the estimates.A more recent effort to estimate (2.2) directly is Henderson (2003a). We believe that this paper is a model of a productivity-based study of agglomeration, coming closest to the ideal that we discussed at the beginning of the section. In this paper, Henderson constructs a panel of plant-level data from the Longitudinal Research Database (LRD) including measures of the capital stock, materials and labor. Using the LRD's micro-data, Henderson controls for industrial scope in the usual way by dividing activities into those that take place within a given industry and those that do not. Henderson also draws on the panel structure of the data to address issues related to the temporal scope of agglomeration. For the most part, Henderson considers county and MSA-level indicators, rather than using variables that directly reflect proximity. An exception to this is some analysis of neighboring counties. While Henderson’s work is also noteworthy for the careful treatment of the data, the strength of the empirical work rests primarily with the use of plant-level information and detail on purchased factor inputs available from the confidential LRD files. While these data appear to offer some of the best opportunities for making contributions to the understanding of agglomeration, access to them is tightly guarded. This means that many researchers choose to work with other less ideal data.4 Even when plant-level data are available, direct estimation of equations such as (2.2) requires that the analyst address challenging endogeneity problems. Agglomeration economies enhance plant productivity, but successful entrepreneurs also seek out productive locations. If overachieving entrepreneurs were disproportionately found in agglomerated areas, this would cause one to overestimate the relationship between agglomeration and output. Henderson initially attempts to address this problem through two-stage least squares (2SLS) using local environment measures as instruments. The instrument list includes cross-sectional MSA attributes such as the market potential of the MSA, county air quality attainment status and other variables thought to be strictly exogenous. However, Henderson notes that these regressors make weak instruments, rendering the 2SLS approach ineffective.53A related literature considers the impact of public infrastructure (i.e., roads and bridges) on productivity. See Holtz-Eakin (1994). These studies also wrestle with measuring private capital.4In order to gain access to the LRD data researchers must become sworn “employees” of the U.S. Census and conduct their research in a secure room at one of the Census research stations set up for such purposes. Census research stations are currently found in Washington D.C., Boston, Pittsburgh, and San Francisco. In addition, access to the confidential Census files is costly and requires a level of funding typically only available from a major grant.5 See Hanson (2001) for more on the endogeneity issue.Next, Henderson (2003a) estimates a version of (2.2) drawing on the panel structure of his data and imposing constant slope coefficients over time. Time-differencing the data, he estimates this system by generalized method of moments (GMM) using predetermined industry environment variables as instruments (e.g. lagged levels of different types of local employment). Once more, however, Henderson finds that the instruments are weak, though not as weak as the cross-sectional instruments for the 2SLS model. In addition, by using predetermined data for instruments in conjunction to differencing the data over time, he is forced to dramatically reduce the sample over which the estimation is conducted.After experimenting with both 2SLS and GMM, Henderson concludes that controlling for endogeneity through the use of fixed effects is superior. Specifically, he estimates his productivity equation including MSA-time specific fixed effects in addition to plant fixed effects. By adding the MSA-time fixed effects the hope is that this will capture the influence of unobserved attributes that might have drawn a given entrepreneur to the area and that might otherwise be correlated with the error term in the estimating equation. Including MSA-time specific fixed effects is appealing and may well be one of the most effective ways to address the endogenous nature of the local industrial environment. Nevertheless, even this approach may still be exposed to endogeneity problems because the presence of a plant in a given MSA and time period represents the outcome of a profit-maximizing choice.2.2.4 Indirect strategies for measuring the influence of agglomeration on productivityEstimating the production function directly is not the only way to look for evidence of the scope of agglomeration economies. Because of the challenges associated with that approach, many recent studies have begun to favor one of four indirect approaches.The first of these is to consider growth. Glaeser et al (1992) and Henderson et al (1995), for example, examine the impact of MSA-level agglomeration on employment growth. In the case of Glaeser et al (1992), growth is measured using data from the County Business Patterns while Henderson et al (1995) rely on the Census of Manufactures. The idea here is that agglomeration economies enhance productivity and productive regions (e.g. MSAs) grow more rapidly as a result.Studying the growth of total employment presents different challenges than estimating productivity directly. Data on total employment are often readily available and the analysis lends itself to linear regressions. However, existing employers are constrained by prior choices, most importantly the level and kind of capital previously installed. Those fixed factors affect how the employer values the marginal worker, and consequently how it changes its employment level in response to a change in its environment. In principle, this difficulty can be overcome by looking at changes in total employment over a sufficiently long time frame so that there are nofixed factors and all establishments are effectively new. Even then, one still has to address endogeneity problems: not only is the growth of total employment in a given area sensitive to the composition of employment in the area (an agglomeration effect), but growth affects the level and composition of employment. Implementing this approach, therefore, ideally requires a long panel and effective instruments to control for endogenous variables. The primary approach used to address this problem in the Glaeser et al (1992) and Henderson et al (1995) papers, is to use deeply lagged levels of past conditions of the MSAs as regressors.6A different approach to studying the scope and effect of agglomeration on productivity has been to focus on births of new establishments and their employment. This approach was taken by Carlton (1983) and by Rosenthal and Strange (2003). The idea here is that entrepreneurs seek out profit-maximizing locations and are disproportionately drawn to the most productive regions. As with the other approaches, focusing on births has both advantages and disadvantages. On the positive side, data on purchased factor inputs (e.g. capital stock, labor, materials, and land) are not required, new establishments are largely unconstrained by previous decisions, and new establishments make their location and employment decisions taking the existing economic environment as exogenously given.Studying plant births also presents difficulties. The principal drawback is that many locations do not receive any births in a given period which can lead to technical challenges on the econometric side. In addition, births are more likely to occur in areas where there is already an existing concentration of industrial activity as spinoffs. Rosenthal and Strange (2003) control the zeros problem by using Tobit models and comparing results to those from probit models that look for positive versus zero births. In addition, Rosenthal and Strange (2003) control for “churning” effects by studying zipcode level employment data and including MSA fixed effects as control variables. Even if an entrepreneur is tied to the local MSA because of past employment and other factors, the entrepreneur will still seek out the profit maximizing location within the MSA.The third approach used to examine the scope and influence of agglomeration is to study wages. This approach rests on the assumption that in competitive markets labor is paid the value of its marginal product. Even without perfect competition, in more productive locations, wages will therefore be higher. Recent examples of this approach include Glaeser and Mare (2001) and Wheaton and Lewis (2002). An advantage of this approach is that wage data are readily available. Moreover, by focusing on wages this makes feasible the use of a variety of widely available datasets, such as the public access version of the Census, the Consumer Population6Glaeser et al (1992) use 1956 employment levels to help explain growth over the 1956 to 1987 period. Henderson et al (1995) use 1970 employment levels to help explain growth over the 1970 to 1987 period.。
2024高三九省联考英语试卷及答案解析
2024高三九省联考英语试卷及答案解析2024高三九省联考英语试卷及答案文字版注意事项：1. 答卷前，考生务必将自己的考生号、姓名、考点学校、考场号及座位号填写在答题卡上。
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1. What will Chris do next?A. Drink some coffee.B. Watch the World Cup.C. Go to sleep.2. What is the probable relationship between the speakers?A. Strangers.B. Classmates.C. Relatives.3. What is the woman’s attitude to the man’s suggestion?A. Favorable.B. Tolerant.C. Negative.4. What can we learn about Tom?A. He’s smart for his age.B. He’s unwilling to study.C. He’s difficult to get along with.5. What did Kevin do yesterday?A. He went swimming.B. He cleaned up his house.C. He talked with his grandparents.第二节(共15小题;每小题1. 5分，满分22. 5 分)听下面5段对话或独白。
关于树的英语作文开头
Trees are an integral part of our ecosystem,providing a myriad of benefits that contribute to the wellbeing of the environment and humanity.They stand tall,their roots firmly anchored in the earth,while their branches reach out to the sky,symbolizing the connection between the heavens and the earth.In the beginning of any essay about trees, its important to capture the essence of these magnificent beings.To start an essay on trees,one might consider the following opening sentences:1.Since the dawn of time,trees have stood as silent sentinels,guardians of the earth, offering shade,shelter,and sustenance to countless species.2.The first trees emerged on our planet millions of years ago,and since then,they have played a pivotal role in shaping the landscapes and the lives of organisms that inhabit them.3.In the hush of the forest,where the whispers of the wind dance among the leaves,one can find solace and inspiration,for trees are not just living organisms,but also poets of the natural world.4.As I walked beneath the canopy of a towering oak,I was struck by the profound sense of history and continuity that trees represent,their rings telling stories of ages past.5.The tree,with its complex network of roots and branches,is a metaphor for life itself interconnected,resilient,and evergrowing.These openings set the stage for a deeper exploration of the various aspects of trees,from their biological functions and ecological importance to their cultural and emotional significance in human societies.Whether the essay delves into the scientific,the aesthetic, or the philosophical,the opening lines should invite the reader to appreciate the grandeur and the multifaceted roles that trees play in our world.。
landscape theory in design书评
landscape theory in design书评"Landscape Theory in Design" is an insightful and comprehensive book that delves into the various aspects of landscape design theory. Written by experts in the field, the book offers a well-rounded understanding of the principles, concepts, and methods behind landscape design.One of the strengths of this book is its integration of both theoretical concepts and practical applications. The authors provide a solid theoretical foundation by discussing various theories, such as ecological design, cultural landscape theory, and postmodern design theory. They then go on to showcase real-world examples and case studies that illustrate how these theories can be applied in actual design projects.The book also impresses with its clear and concise writing style. The authors aptly explain complex concepts and theories in a manner that is easy to grasp for readers, regardless of their prior knowledge on the subject. The use of diagrams, illustrations, and photographs further enhances the understanding of the content.Another commendable aspect of this book is its multidisciplinary approach. The authors draw on insights from fields such as ecology, geography, architecture, and urban planning to provide a holistic and comprehensive perspective on landscape design. This interdisciplinary approach not only enriches the content but also highlights the interconnectedness of various disciplines in the design process.Additionally, the book emphasizes the importance of sustainabilityand environmental consciousness in landscape design. It highlights the role of landscape professionals in creating designs that promote biodiversity, conserve resources, and mitigate the impacts of climate change. This focus on sustainable practices makes the book highly relevant and timely.In conclusion, "Landscape Theory in Design" is a must-read for landscape design enthusiasts, professionals, and students alike. It offers a comprehensive exploration of landscape design theory, blending theoretical concepts with practical applications. With its clear writing style, multidisciplinary approach, and emphasis on sustainability, this book is a valuable resource for anyone interested in enhancing their understanding of landscape design.。
回盼的风景
Landscape photography probably does not only belong to, but also is a totally different kind of photography, or the totality of it. In his famous Landscape into Art, Kenneth Clark makes the theme clear at the beginning, “landscape is not an art style, but a medium”, in which sense photography serves almost as the best carrier of landscape subjects. The silver-print can present the illusion of nature, which is so intriguing and amazing, because the “appearance” of the world does not need the reflected light outside the cave according to Plato. The arrangement of tiny grey and black granules perfectly “presents” rather than “represents” the skylight and the shadow of the trees to us. In other words, landscape photography does not make photography, but shapes landscape itself. The light that shines into landscape photography is not from the secret chamber, nor does it come from God, for God is in the world.We will further our theme in this issue. Similar as the train of thoughts discussed above, some of the modern landscape photography that appears to be “old” is not just one subject of landscape photography. The photographers employ the wet-plate photography used by the foreign missionaries and biologists one century ago to shoot the photos of hills, sky and rivers observed with their camera lens, which is not just occasionally overlap of time and space. To brush up the situations dealt with by “early photography” intentionally or unintentionally, or to employ its techniques seems to make an oriental journey again in the East Indiaman Gotheborg not navigated by modern power. Looking back upon the history of photography, it actually proposes the question to the art traditions of mankind: the attribute of “earliness” repeatedly mentioned in this article in fact does not belong to the early photography, but is made by the looking back by us in the modern times, so is the same with the fragile physical quality of those “old photos” or those that “imitate old photos”. Thus, this fragility derives not from “the imitation of the antiques”, but from the certainty that they symbolize the object which was dead, and which “existed”—isn’t this exactly the quality that photography should possess if we think thoroughly?Compared with interior photography, landscape photography draws itself nearer to the special quality of photography, for it destroys the bridge between the truth and the appearance and combines them together—it being absent often, the ruin always stays there. Landscape with this typical quality usually exposes its wildness and wilderness instead of sincerity and humanity, so does the landscape photography that “imitates the antiques” in modern China. There usually emerges a drifting and muddling state of mind as if it were the end of time and the whole world faded away, which is so ineffable—perhaps, it is because the distance between this kind of landscape and Ma Yuan and Xia Gui is much farther than that between Joseph Stiglitz and the paintings of Poussin and Lorraine. Assiduously pursuing the clarity of the image and the amount of information, modern techniques for photography seems to return to its old way of the reproduction of “vividness”. In fact, this kind of photography seeks a “tradition” with side branches; the “earliness” embodied refers to the future. The “early photography” of China can be traced back to the beginning of twentieth century. In 1906, appointed to a teacher in Shaanxi Institute of Higher Learning, a Japanese, Adachi Kiroku, who was born in Shizuoka and who used to teach science came to China. Enlightened by a predecessor scholar Kuwabara,The Landscape in Glancing Back回盼的风景学术主持：唐克扬 Academic Host : Tang Keyang风景摄影也许不仅仅是摄影的一种，它或者是一种完全不同的摄影，或者是摄影的全部。
解读GRE阅读句子作用题
解读GRE阅读句子作用题为了帮助大家高效备考GRE，为大家带来解读GRE阅读句子作用题，希望对大家GRE备考有所帮助。
更多精彩尽请关注!解读GRE阅读句子作用题Human impacts on the natural environment during the later part of the Holocene (beginning about 4,000 years ago) complicate investigations into environmental change during that period because the signals produced by human- and climate-induced change are sometimes difficult to separate. For example, in the later Holocene, one indicator of increased aridity due to climate change is an increase in pollen from grasses, as forest vegetation gives way to grassland. Such a change in vegetation could alternatively be attributed to human impact in the form of agricultural development. Examples of such human impact from 4,000 years ago would be small-scale, however, since the broad ecosystem changes brought about by the widespread adoption of agricultural technologies occurred later.Which of the following best describes the function of the highlighted sentence in the context of the passage as a whole?A. It provides an example of the kind of problems that often complicate investigations into environmental change.B. It call into question the reliability of the established dates for later Holocene agricultural development.C. It describes the nature of localized agricultural developments during the later Holocene.D. It outlines a hypothesis that draws on evidence discussed earlier in the passage.E. It limits the scope of a particular complication mentioned earlier in the passage.题目形式非常固定，高亮文中的某一个句子，询问在文章中整体充当什么功能或者作用;我们理一下这篇短文章：第一句：作者提出自己观点：人类影响因素使得对4000年前开始，环境变化的调查研究复杂化(complicate into)，因为人类和气候诱发的环境变化的signal经常难以区分开第二句：作者举例支持自己观点：森林植被变成草地，使得植物花粉增加，既可以理解为自然气候越来越干燥，也可以归因于人类农业发展的影响第三句：然而，这种4000年前人类影响的例子是比较少的哦(small-scale),因为广泛采用农业技术导致的环境变化后来才大规模的发生(changes occurred later)虽然有However这个词，但是作者并不是在否定自己的观点和例子，而是想表达：他所指出的人类因素和气候因素难以区分的例子，在4000年前比较少，并不是他的观点有误，而是那时候农业技术还不普遍，所以人类因素complicates调查研究的例子少。
风景园林专业英语试题
1 Why Pagodas Don't Fall DownIn a land swept by typhoons and shaken by earthquakes, how have Japan's tallest and seemingly flimsiest old buildings - 500 or so wooden pagodas - remained standing for centuries? Records show that only two have collapsed during the past 1400 years. Those that have disappeared were destroyed by fire as a result of lightning or civil war. The disastrous Hanshin earthquake in 1995 killed 6,400 people, toppled elevated highways, flattened office blocks and devastated the port area of Kobe. Yet it left the magnificent five-storey pagoda at the Toji temple in nearby Kyoto unscathed, though it levelled a number of buildings in the neighbourhood.Japanese scholars have been mystified for ages about why these tall, slender buildings are so stable. It was only thirty years ago that the building industry felt confident enough to erect office blocks of steel and reinforced concrete that had more than a dozen floors. With its special shock absorbers to dampen the effect of sudden sideways movements from an earthquake, the thirty-six-storey Kasumigaseki building in central Tokyo - Japan's first skyscraper - was considered a masterpiece of modern engineering when it was built in 1968.Yet in 826, with only pegs and wedges to keep his wooden structure upright, the master builder Kobodaishi had no hesitation in sending his majestic Toji pagoda soaring fifty-five metres into the sky - nearly half as high as the Kasumigaseki skyscraper built some eleven centuries later. Clearly, Japanese carpenters of the day knew a few tricks about allowing a building to sway and settle itself rather than fight nature's forces. But what sort of tricks?The multi-storey pagoda came to Japan from China in the sixth century. As in China, they were first introduced with Buddhism and were attached to important temples. The Chinese built their pagodas in brick or stone, with inner staircases, and used them in later centuries mainly as watchtowers. When the pagoda reached Japan, however, its architecture was freely adapted to local conditions - they were built less high, typically five rather than nine storeys, made mainly of wood and the staircase was dispensed with because the Japanese pagoda did not have any practical use but became more of an art object. Because of the typhoons that batter Japan in the summer, Japanese builders learned to extend the eaves of buildings further beyond the walls. This prevents rainwater gushing down the walls. Pagodas in China and Korea have nothing like the overhang that is found on pagodas in Japan.为什么宝塔不会倒塌在这片被台风席卷、地震撼动的土地上，日本最高、看起来最脆弱的老建筑——500多座木制宝塔——是如何屹立了几个世纪的?记录显示，在过去的1400年里，只有两处坍塌。
扬盖尔的主要学术观点总结及其评价
扬·盖尔（Jan Gehl）个人简介扬·盖尔（丹麦语：Jan Gehl，1936年9月17日出生）。
建筑师、城市规划与设计师。
丹麦皇家艺术学院的建筑学院城市设计系高级讲师（现已退休），致力于通过重新设计都市空间来提升人们的生活品质。
扬·盖尔先生曾在爱丁堡、维尔纽斯、奥斯陆、多伦多、卡尔加里、墨尔本、珀斯、伯克利、圣何塞、瓜达拉哈拉、北京、长沙、东京等地的大学讲学，并在欧洲、北美、澳大利亚和远东地区进行设计咨询。
并获伊德拉（Edra）场地研究奖。
为表彰他对城镇规划的杰出贡献，国际建筑师联盟向扬·盖尔先生颁发了帕特里克·阿伯克罗姆比（sir Patrick Abercrombie）奖，爱丁堡的海里亚特一瓦特大学（Heriot-Watt University）授予他荣誉博士学位。
RIBA\AIA\RAIC\PIA的荣誉会员。
研究关键词城市设计-公共空间和公共生活及二者的相互作用城市公共空间设计理论贡献1.空间中人的感知与行为-“人本主义”人是城市中最具吸引力的一道景观，公共空间中人的感知与行为-行为心理学通过长时间观察、调查、访问，并从心理学角度剖析人的行为特征2.场所设计理论-对必要性、自发性、社交性活动极其所需空间的关注和研究3.公共空间设计方法-“城市为人而造”，回归中世纪宜人的城市尺度，遵循“生活、空间、建筑”的城市设计序列城市公共空间理论1.他对良好城市社交生活的设想——从中对其推崇的城市设计方法可见一斑“我时常憧憬着这样的一个城市的广场，在一个风和日历的下午，我和几个朋友坐在广场的一边，手里拿着从小贩那买的珍珠奶茶，无聊的扯着闲段子，听着街头艺人跑掉的音乐和周围人流的嘈杂……”“有吸引力的城市公共空间，就像一个成功的聚会，人们在这里逗留时间总是比预期更长一些，因为这里有吸引人们可以逗留的有趣的事情正在发生。
”1)空间中人的感知与行为设计人性化公共空间出发点的实质，就是把握人的移动和人的感官，二者为空间中的活动、行为与交流提供了生物学上的基础。
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a rX iv:c ond-ma t/99162v1[c ond-m at.dis-nn]8Ja n1999Comment on “A landscape theory of aggregation”Serge Galam Laboratoire des Milieux D´e sordonn´e s et H´e t´e rog`e nes ∗Tour 13-Case 86,4place Jussieu,75252Paris Cedex 05,France B.J.Pol.S.28,174-188,1996).Two models are presented and discussed in that paper.First the energy landscape model proposed by Axelrod and Bennett (B.J.Pol.S.23∗Laboratoire associ´e au CNRS (URA n ◦800)et `a l’Universit´e P.et M.Curie -Paris 6Mathematical tools and physical concepts might be a promising way to describe social collective phenomena.Several attempts along these lines have been made,in particular to study political organisations[1],voting systems[2], and group decision making[3].However,such an approach should be carefully controlled.A straightforward mapping of a physical theory built for a physical reality onto a social reality could be rather misleading.In their work Axelrod and Bennett(AB)used the physical concept of minimum energy to build a landscape model of aggregation[4].On this basis, they study the coalitions which countries orfirms could make to optimize their respective relationship,which is certainly an interesting problem.To achieve their purpose,they constructed a model of magnetic disorder from the available data for propensities of countries orfirms to co-operate or to confling their model,they drewn several conclusions based on the existence of local frustration between the interacting parties[5].However,there was some confusion in their use of physics,and they did not stick to their equations.In their model,unfortunately,the disorder is only apparent in the existence of just two energy minima.It is called the Mattis spin glass model[5].It has been shown that performing an appropriate change of variables,removes the disorder and the model then becomes identical to a well ordered system,the zero temperaturefinite size ferromagnetic Ising model [6].In contrast,most AB comments and conclusions are based,on the ex-istence of frustration in the countries orfirms interactions[5].Such local frustration would produce a degeneracy of the energy landscape which in turn would yield instabilities in the global system.However,there is no frustration in the model they derived from their data.In fact they are confusing two models associated with disordered mag-netic systems:one without frustration,the Mattis spin glass model,and one with frustration,the Edwards-Anderson spin glass model[5].The AB model turns out to be of the Mattis spin glass type,while all their comments are drawn from the physics associated with an Edwards-Anderson spin glass model.Most of Axelrod and Bennett’s conclusions cannot be drawn from their model.To demonstrate our statement requires the use of some mathematical technicalities which are lenghty and not appropriate to the present journal. Therefore our demonstration has been published in a Physics journal[7],where first,the AB model is analysed within thefield of Statistical Physics[6]and then the conclusions mentioned above are demonstrated.Furthermore,we are able to build up a new coalition model to describe alignment and competitionamong a group of actors[7].Our model does embody the main properties claimed in the AB model.Morevover it also predicts new behavior related to the dynamics of bimodal coalitions.In particular the stability of the cold war period and the East European fragmentation process induced by the collapse of the Warsaw pact are given an explanation.References[1]S.J.Brams,Measuring the concentration of power in political systems,American Political Sciences Rev.62,461(1969).[2]S.Galam,Paradoxes of majority rule voting,Int.J.General Systems18,191(1991)[3]S.Galam and S.Moscovici,Towards a theory of collective phenomena:consensus and attitude changes in groups,European J.Soc.Psy.21,49 (1991).[4]R.Axelrod and Bennett,A landscape theory of aggregation,B.J.Pol.S.23,(1993).[5]K.Binder and A.P.Young,Spin glasses:experimental facts,theoreticalconcepts,and open questions,Review of Modern Physics58,801(1986).[6]R.K.Pathria,Statistical Mechanics,Pergamon Press45,(1977).[7]S.Galam,Fragmentation versus stability in bimodal coalitions,PhysicaA230。