Categorical Semantics as a Basis for Program Transformation
系统功能语言学英汉对照术语表
系统功能语言学英汉术语对照表作者：翁素贤提供 转贴自：摘自《系统功能语言学多维思考》您要打印的文件是：系统功能语言学英汉术语对照表打印本文系统功能语言学英汉术语对照表―――摘自《系统功能语言学多维思考》AAbitliy 能力 Actor 施动者Addressee 受话者 Addresser 发话者 Agent 施事Anaphoric 指前的 Antonym 反义词 Antonymy 反义意义 Autonomy 自治性 BBehavior 行为Behavioral process 行为过程 Beneficiary 受益者 CCataphoric 指后的 Categorical 绝对的 Categorization 范畴化 Central token 中心标志 Chain 链Channel 渠道 Choice 选择 Clause 小句Clause as theme 句项主位 Cleft sentence 分裂句 Closed system 封闭系统 Coclassisfication 相互区分Coextension相互扩展Coherence连贯Cohesion链接Cohesive chain链接链Cohesive tie链接纽带Cohyponym共同下义词Collocation搭配Collocational chain搭配链Comeronym共同局部关系词Command命令Comment述题Competence（语言）能力Complementarity互补性Congruence一致性Conjunction连接，连词Consonant辅音Consonant grammar协和语法Constructivism构建主义Context语境，上下文Context of culture文化语境Context of situation情境语境Continuity连续体Continuum连续体Conventional meaning常规意义Coocurrence同现Cooperative principle合作原则Coordination并列Coreference相互对应Correspondence对应Critical linguistics批评语言学Cross-coupling交互匹配DDecategorization非范畴化Declarative陈述的Delicacy精密度Dialect方言Dialectal variety方言变体Diatypic variety功能变体Didactic教导性的Direct speech act直接言语行为Discontinuity脱节，间断性Discourse话语Discourse analysis话语分析Distribution分布Dynamic动态的EElegance雅致Ellipsis省略Endophoric指内的Entry condition入列条件Exchange交换Exclusive排他的Exhaustiveness有尽性Existential clause存在句Existential process存在过程Exophoric 指外的Experiential function经验功能Experiential meaning经验意义Explicitness明晰性的Expository说明性的External text外在语篇Extragrammartical语法外的FFalling tone降调Falling-rising tone降升调Falsifiability可反证性Family resemblance家族相似性Feature特征Field of discourse话语范围Finiteness限定性，有限性First-order一级的Formal 形式的，形式主义的，正式的Formal linguistics形式主义语言学Formality正式化Formalization形式化Frozen僵化Function功能Functional linguistics功能主义语言学Functional sentence perspective功能句子观Functional tenor功能基调GGenerative semantics生成语义学Generic structure语类结构，体裁结构，类型结构Genre语类，体裁，类型Gestalt psychology格式塔心理学，完形心理学Given information已知信息Global coherence整体连贯Goal目标，对象Goods & services物品与服务Grammar语法Grammatical metaphor语法比喻Group词组HHearer受话者Heuristic function启发功能Hyponym下义词Hyponymy下义关系Hypotactic从属关系的Hypotaxis从属关系Hypothesis假说，假设IIdeational function概念功能Ideational meaning概念意义Identity chain同一链Ideology思想，意识形态Illocutionary act言外行为Illocutionary function言外功能Imaginative function想象功能Immediate situation直接情景Imperative 祈使的Iimplicature含义，蕴含Inclination意愿Inclusive内包的Incongruence不一致性Indicative直陈的Indirect speech act间接言语行为Inference推理Informal非正式的Information信息Information focus信息中心Information structure信息结构Information unit信息单位Informative function告知功能Instantiation例示Instrumental function工具功能Instrumentality工具性Intention意图Interactional function交流功能Interactionism互动主义Interface接面Internal structure内部结构Inter-organism机体之间Interpersonal function人际功能Interpersonal meaning人际意义Interpersonal theme人际主位Interpretative semantics解释语义学Interrogative疑问的Intonation语调Intra-organism机体内部KKey口吻，调式LLanguage acquisition device语言习得机制Language语言Level(of language)（语言的）层次Lexical词汇的Lexical cohesion词汇链接Lexis词汇Linguistic determinism语言决定论Linguistic relativity语言相对论Local coherence局部连贯Locutionary act言内行为Logical function逻辑功能Logical meaning逻辑意义London School伦敦学派MMacrofunction宏观功能Macrorule宏观规则Macrostructure宏观结构Marked有标记的Material process物质过程Meaning potential意义潜能Mental process心理过程Mental text内在语篇，心理语篇Meronym局部关系词Meronymy局部关系Metafunction纯理功能Metalingual元语言的Metaphor比喻Microfunction微观功能Missing link脱节Modality情态Mode of discourse话语方式Modifier修饰成分Modular system模块系统Modulation意态Monosystem单系统Mood语气Multiple theme复项主位NNarrative陈述性的Network网络New information新信息Nominal group名词词组Non-constructivism非构建主义Non-structural非结构的OObligation义务Obligatory element必备成分Offer提供Old information旧信息，已知信息Open system开放系统Opposition对立，对立体Option选择Optional element非必备成分PParadigmatic纵聚合的Paratactic并列关系的Parataxis并列关系Parole言语Participant参与者Patterns of thematic progression主位推进模式Performance（语言）运用Peripheral token外围标记Perlocutionary act言后行为Person人称Personal function个体功能Personal tenor个人基调Persuasive说服性的Phatic communion寒暄语Phatic function寒暄功能Phonological 音系层的Pitch音高，音调Pitch contour音调曲线Point of departure起点Polarity极性Politeness principle礼貌原则Polysystemic多系统的Pragmatic function实用功能Pragmatics语用学Prague school布拉格学派Predicator预设Presupposition假设Probability盖然性，或然性Process过程Proposal提议，建议Proposition命题Protolanguage原型语言Prototype原型Pseudo-cleft sentence假分裂句QQualifier（名次词组中心词后面的）修饰成分Question问题，提问RRank级Rankshift 级变Realization体现Register语域Regulatory function控制功能Relational process关系过程Relevance相关Repetition重复Residue剩余部分Resource源泉Restriction制约Rheme述位Rising升调Rising-falling tone升降调Role角色Role relationship角色关系Rule规则SSapir-Whorf hypothesis萨丕尔－沃尔夫假说Scale-and-category grammar阶与范畴语法Schema theory图示理论Second-order二级的Selectional restriction选择性限制Semantic anomaly语义异常Semantic configuaration语义组合，语义配置Semiotic符号Semiotics符号学Semogenesis创义Similarity chain相似链Simple theme单项主位Situation情景Slot空位Social function社会功能Speaker讲话者Speech act言语行为Speech function言语功能Speech role言语角色Statement陈述Static静态的Stratificational grammar层次语法Structural结构的Structural operation结构运作Structure结构Style风格Subject主语Subordination从属Substitution替代Sub-system子系统Superordinate上义词Synonym同义词Synonymy同义关系Syntagmatic横组合的System系统Systemic-functional grammar系统功能语法Systemic-functional linguistics系统功能语言学TTagmemics法位学Tenor of discourse话语基调Tense时态Term(in a system)（系统中的）项目Text语篇Textual function语篇功能Textual meaning语篇意义Textual theme语篇主位Texture语篇特征，谋篇机制Thematic progression主位推进Thematic structure主位结构Theme主位Token标记Topic话题Topical sentence主题句Topical theme话题主位Transference转义Transformation转换Transformational-generative grammar转换生成语法Transitivity及物性Truth condition真值条件UUnit单位Unmarked无标记的VValidity可信度Value值，价值Variety变体Verbal event言语事件Verbal group动词词组verbal process言语过程Voice语态Vowel元音W Word词Page 11of 11系统功能语言学英汉术语对照表2014-2-14 /Article_Print.asp?ArticleID=214。
新意频添创新无限的英语作文
Innovation is the lifeblood of progress,and it is a concept that permeates every aspect of our lives.From the latest technological advancements to the subtle shifts in societal norms,innovation is the driving force behind the evolution of human society. Here is a detailed exploration of the endless possibilities that innovation brings to the realm of English composition.The Power of Creativity in Language UseInnovation in English composition is not just about using new words or phrases its about employing creativity in the way language is used to express ideas.This can be achieved through various means such as:1.Metaphorical Language:Using metaphors to describe abstract concepts in a tangible way can add depth and richness to writing.For example,The idea was a seed that needed nurturing to grow into a towering tree of success.2.Alliteration and Assonance:These literary devices can make sentences more memorable and pleasing to the ear.For instance,The sun set slowly,scattering shimmering shadows on the serene sea.3.Innovative Sentence Structures:Breaking away from the standard subjectverbobject structure can create a more engaging narrative.For example,On the table,lay a letter, unopened,its secrets waiting to be unveiled.Exploring Unconventional ThemesThe content of an English composition can also be innovative by exploring themes that are not commonly discussed or by approaching familiar topics from a new perspective:1.CrossCultural Perspectives:Incorporating insights from different cultures can providea fresh outlook on various issues,fostering a global understanding.2.Environmental Awareness:Addressing the impact of human activities on the environment and proposing innovative solutions can be both enlightening and persuasive.3.Technological Advancements:Discussing the implications of new technologies and their potential to shape the future can be both fascinating and thoughtprovoking.Utilizing Multimedia ElementsIn the digital age,the traditional boundaries of written composition are being pushed. Integrating multimedia elements can enhance the readers experience:graphics:Visual representations of data or concepts can make complex information more accessible.2.Embedded Videos or Podcasts:These can provide additional context or perspectives that complement the written content.3.Interactive Elements:Such as hyperlinks or quizzes,can engage readers and encourage them to explore topics further.Adopting a Diverse Range of Writing StylesExperimenting with different writing styles can also bring innovation to English composition:1.Narrative:Telling a story can make an argument more relatable and memorable.2.Descriptive:Painting a vivid picture with words can immerse readers in the subject matter.3.Expository:Clearly explaining concepts or processes can educate and inform readers.4.Persuasive:Using logical arguments and emotional appeals can influence readers opinions.Incorporating Interdisciplinary KnowledgeDrawing from various fields of study can add depth and credibility to an English composition:1.Science:Incorporating scientific findings can support arguments or provide a factual basis for discussions.2.Art:Analyzing works of art can offer unique insights into human emotions and societal values.3.Philosophy:Engaging with philosophical concepts can provoke deeper thinking and ethical considerations.In conclusion,innovation in English composition is about pushing the boundaries of what is considered traditional.It involves exploring new ways of expression,tackling unconventional themes,and integrating diverse elements to create a rich and engaging piece of writing.By doing so,writers can captivate their audience and contribute to the ongoing dialogue of ideas that shapes our world.。
心理语言学名词解释_注释版
名词解释1. Mutual exclusivity bias相互排斥倾向A cognitive constraint in which children assume that an object is ordinarily not given two different names.2. Motherese 母式语言A form of adult-to-child speech characterized by relatively simple utterances,concrete referents指示物, exaggerated intonation patterns夸张的语调模式, and a high proportion of directive utterances指示话语.3. Critical period hypothesis临界期假设The view that there is a period early in life in which we are especially prepared to acquire a language.4. Language bioprogram hypothesis语言生物程序假设The hypothesis that children whose environmental exposure to language is limited use a backup linguistic system.5. Pidgin混杂语An auxiliary辅助的language that is created when speakers of mutually unintelligible 无法理解的languages are in close contact.6. Language transfer 语言迁移In second-language acquisition, the process in which the first language influences the acquisition of a subsequent后来的language.7. Overregularization规则泛化When a child a pplies a linguisitic rule to cases that ar e exceptions to the rule--for example, saying goed instead of went.8. Holophrase 表句词单词句A one-word utterance used by a child to express more than the meaning attributed to the word by adults.9. Idiomorph ？A sound or sound sequence音序used consistently by a child to refer to someone or something even though it is not the sound sequence conventionally used in the language for that purpose.10. Coalescence合并A phonological音位学的，音韵学的process in which phonemes音位，音素（the smallest unit of significant sound in a language）from different syllables音节are combined into a single syllable.11. Reduction减少cluster reduction音群删略A phonological process in child language in which one or more phonemes are deleted. Also called cluster reduction音群删略because consonant clusters辅音群，两个或两个以上的辅音连在一起are often reduced, such as saying take for steak.12. Assimilation 同化A phonological process in which one speech sound replaced by another that is similar sounds elsewhere in the utterance.13. Common ground共识The shared understanding of those involved in the conversation.14.Semantic bootstrapping语义引导She spent years bootstrapping herself through university.她靠自己多年奋斗念完大学The process of using semantics to acquire syntax.15. Accommodation顺应A phonological process in which elements that are shifted or deleted are adapted to their error-induced environments.20. Psycholinguistics心理语言学The study of the comprehension, production, and acquisition of language.21. Aphasia失语症A language or speech disorder caused by brain damage.A mental condition in which people are unable to remember simple words or communicate.22. Behaviorism行为主义The doctrine that states that the proper concern of psychology should be the objective study of behavior rather than the study of the mind.23. Distinctive features显著特征The specification详述of the differences between speech sounds in terms of individual contrasts.24. Observational adequacy观察充分性The extent to which a grammar can distinguish betw een acceptable and unacceptable strings of words.The grammar must specify what is and what is not acceptable sequence in the language.语法能对原始的语言材料做出正确的选择25.Descriptive adequacy描写充分性The grammar must specify the relationships between various sequences in the language. The extent to which a grammar can provide a structural description of a sentence.语法不仅应该能解释原始的语言材料，而且要正确解释说话人和听话人内在的语言能力。
国外Advanced Cognitive Psychology课程课件-Concepts and Categories
People abstract common elements of a formed category and use a common representation to stand for that category How is the category updated? Family Resemblance
Doesn’t take into account category size or variability in examples Context
What may be more typical in one setting may not be elsewhere
Correlations among attributes
Similarity based retrieval
Since the exemplar approach retains more information about the category itself it gets around some of the problems faced by the prototype theory (e.g. context effects), but also how a prototype could be recognized at test when wasn’t presented previously
Overlap of common attributes Classification is made based on overlap between prototype and exemplar
Prototype
The prototype view can explain both typicality effects and the fact that prototypes that had not been previously presented are correctly classified (even more accurately) Problems with prototype explanation
semantics知识点总结
semantics知识点总结Semantics is the study of meaning in language. It is concerned with how words and sentences are interpreted, how meaning is assigned to linguistic expressions, and how meaning is inferred from language. In this summary, we will explore some key concepts and topics in semantics, including the following:1. Meaning and reference2. Sense and reference3. Truth-conditional semantics4. Lexical semantics5. Compositional semantics6. Pragmatics and semantics7. Ambiguity and vagueness8. Semantic changeMeaning and referenceMeaning is a fundamental concept in semantics. It refers to the content or interpretation that is associated with a linguistic expression. The study of meaning in linguistics is concerned with understanding how meaning is established and conveyed in language. Reference, on the other hand, is the relationship between a linguistic expression and the real world entities to which it refers. For example, the word "dog" refers to the concept of a four-legged animal that is commonly kept as a pet. The study of reference in semantics is concerned with understanding how words and sentences refer to objects and entities in the world.Sense and referenceThe distinction between sense and reference is an important concept in semantics. Sense refers to the meaning or concept associated with a linguistic expression, while reference refers to the real world entities to which a linguistic expression refers. For example, the words "morning star" and "evening star" have the same reference - the planet Venus - but different senses, as they are used to describe the planet at different times of the day. Frege, a prominent philosopher of language, introduced this important distinction in his work on semantics.Truth-conditional semanticsTruth-conditional semantics is an approach to semantics that seeks to understand meaning in terms of truth conditions. According to this view, the meaning of a sentence isdetermined by the conditions under which it would be true or false. For example, the meaning of the sentence "The cat is on the mat" is determined by the conditions under which this statement would be true - i.e. if there is a cat on the mat. Truth-conditional semantics has been influential in the development of formal semantics, and it provides a formal framework for analyzing meaning in natural language.Lexical semanticsLexical semantics is the study of meaning at the level of words and lexical items. It is concerned with understanding the meanings of individual words, as well as the relationships between words in a language. Lexical semantics examines how words are related to each other in terms of synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, and other semantic relationships. It also explores the different senses and meanings that a word can have, and how these meanings are related to each other. Lexical semantics plays a crucial role in understanding the meaning of sentences and discourse.Compositional semanticsCompositional semantics is the study of how the meanings of words and sentences are combined to create complex meanings. It seeks to understand how the meanings of individual words are combined in sentences to produce the overall meaning of a sentence or utterance. Compositional semantics is concerned with understanding the rules and principles that govern the composition of meaning in natural language. It also explores the relationship between syntax and semantics, and how the structure of sentences contributes to the interpretation of meaning.Pragmatics and semanticsPragmatics is the study of how language is used in context, and how meaning is influenced by the context of language use. Pragmatics is closely related to semantics, but it focuses on the use of language in communication, and how meaning is affected by factors such as the speaker's intentions, the hearer's inferences, and the context in which the language is used. While semantics is concerned with the literal meaning of linguistic expressions, pragmatics is concerned with the implied meaning that arises from the use of language in context.Ambiguity and vaguenessAmbiguity and vagueness are common phenomena in natural language, and they pose challenges for semantic analysis. Ambiguity refers to situations where a linguistic expression has multiple possible meanings, and it is unclear which meaning is intended. For example, the word "bank" can refer to a financial institution or the edge of a river. Vagueness, on the other hand, refers to situations where the boundaries of a linguistic expression are unclear or indistinct. For example, the word "tall" is vague because it is not always clear what height qualifies as "tall". Semantics seeks to understand how ambiguity and vagueness arise in language, and how they can be resolved or managed in communication.Semantic changeSemantic change refers to the process by which the meanings of words and linguistic expressions evolve over time. Over the course of history, languages undergo semantic change, as words acquire new meanings, lose old meanings, or change in their semantic associations. Semantic change can occur through processes such as metaphor, metonymy, broadening, narrowing, and generalization. Understanding semantic change is important for the study of historical linguistics and the diachronic analysis of language.ConclusionSemantics is a rich and complex area of study that plays a fundamental role in understanding the meaning of language. It encompasses a wide range of topics and concepts, and it has important implications for fields such as philosophy of language, cognitive science, and natural language processing. By exploring the key concepts and topics in semantics, we can gain valuable insights into how meaning is established and conveyed in language, and how we can analyze and understand the rich complexity of linguistic expressions.。
2023年自考00832英语词汇学考试重点精华整理
English Lexicology(英语词汇学)1.English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.英语词汇学意在调查和研究英语单词和单词旳等价物旳形态构造,其语义构造、关系、历史发展、形成和使用方法。
2.English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics（文体论）and lexicography(词典学) Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabulary1.Word（词旳定义）: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentence词语是语言最小旳自由形式，拥有固定旳声音和意义以及句法作用。
2.Sound and meaning（声音与意义）: almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”3.Sound and form（读音和形式）:不统一旳四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other （2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years（3）some of the difference were created by the early scribes（4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary （5）printing、standardization、dictionary—Old English,The speech of the time was represented very much more faithfully in writing than itis today. 古代英语中旳口语比今天更忠实旳代表书面语—The written form of English is an imperfect representation of the spoken form。
semantic features举例
semantic features举例Semantic features are the distinctive attributes or characteristics of words that contribute to their meaning. These features are essential for understanding the relationships between words and for organizing information in our minds. In this article, we will explore several examples of semantic features to illustrate how they play a crucial role in language comprehension.One common semantic feature is animacy, which refers to whether a word represents a living being or an inanimate object. For example, the words "dog" and "tree" have different animacy levels, with "dog" being animate and "tree" being inanimate. This feature helps us categorize and make sense of the world around us based on whether things are living or non-living.Another important semantic feature is concreteness, which indicates whether a word refers to something tangible or abstract. Words like "table" and "apple" are concrete, as they represent physical objects that can be seen and touched. In contrast, words like "love" and "happiness" are abstract, as they represent emotions or concepts that are not tangible. Concreteness helps us distinguish between physical objects and ideas in our language.One more semantic feature is spatial relations, which describe the position or location of objects in relation to each other. Words like "above," "below," "beside," and "inside" convey spatial relationships and help us understand the physical orientation of objects. This feature is crucial for describing the spatial layout of our environment and for navigating through space effectively.Additionally, semantic features can also include concepts like shape, size, color, and texture, which help us differentiate and identify objects based on their physical attributes. For instance, words like "round," "small," "red," and "smooth" provide specific details about the characteristics of objects, allowing us to form mental images and representations of them.Furthermore, semantic features can involve temporal aspects, such as words that indicate time, duration, or sequence. Words like "yesterday," "hour," "later," and "first" convey temporal relationships and help us organize events in chronological order. This feature is essential for understanding and expressing time-related concepts in our language.In conclusion, semantic features are essential components of language that contribute to the meaning and interpretation of words. By examining examples like animacy, concreteness, spatial relations, physical attributes, and temporal aspects, we can see how these features shape our understanding of the world and enable us to communicate effectively. Understanding semantic features is crucial for developing language skills, enhancing communication, and facilitating comprehension in various contexts.。
语言学Categorization
subordinate level
a composite form typically combines two or more words that signify basis level categories,like rain coat, apple juice, and wheel chair.
subordinate categories are less good categories than basic
1
categories, because although their members have high
mutual resemblance, they have low distinctiveness from
Categorization
definition:
is the process in which ideas and objects are recognized, differentiated, and understood. is a major ingredient in the creation of human knowledge.
1
the basic level
2
Lorem
the superordinate level
ipsum
3
the subordinate level
The characteristic can be summed up under Croft and Cruse’s four points :
重要哲学术语英汉对照
重要哲学术语英汉对照——转载自《当代英美哲学概论》a priori瞐 posteriori distinction 先验-后验的区分abstract ideas 抽象理念abstract objects 抽象客体ad hominem argument 谬误论证alienation/estrangement 异化，疏离altruism 利他主义analysis 分析analytic瞫ynthetic distinction 分析-综合的区分aporia 困惑argument from design 来自设计的论证artificial intelligence (AI) 人工智能association of ideas 理念的联想autonomy 自律axioms 公理Categorical Imperative 绝对命令categories 范畴Category mistake 范畴错误causal theory of reference 指称的因果论causation 因果关系certainty 确定性chaos theory 混沌理论class 总纲、类clearness and distinctness 清楚与明晰cogito ergo sum 我思故我在concept 概念consciousness 意识consent 同意consequentialism 效果论conservative 保守的consistency 一致性，相容性constructivism 建构主义contents of consciousness 意识的内容contingent瞡ecessary distinction 偶然-必然的区分 continuum 连续体continuum hypothesis 连续性假说contradiction 矛盾（律）conventionalism 约定论counterfactual conditional 反事实的条件句criterion 准则，标准critique 批判，批评Dasein 此在，定在deconstruction 解构主义defeasible 可以废除的definite description 限定摹状词deontology 义务论dialectic 辩证法didactic 说教的dualism 二元论egoism 自我主义、利己主义eliminative materialism 消除性的唯物主义 empiricism 经验主义Enlightenment 启蒙运动（思想）entailment 蕴含essence 本质ethical intuition 伦理直观ethical naturalism 伦理的自然主义eudaimonia 幸福主义event 事件、事变evolutionary epistemology 进化认识论expert system 专门体系explanation 解释fallibilism 谬误论family resemblance 家族相似fictional entities 虚构的实体first philosophy 第一哲学form of life 生活形式formal 形式的foundationalism 基础主义free will and determinism 自由意志和决定论 function 函项（功能）function explanation 功能解释good 善happiness 幸福hedonism 享乐主义hermeneutics 解释学（诠释学，释义学）historicism 历史论（历史主义）holism 整体论iconographic 绘画idealism 理念论ideas 理念identity 同一性illocutionary act 以言行事的行为imagination 想象力immaterical substance 非物质实体immutable 不变的、永恒的individualism 个人主义（个体主义）induction 归纳inference 推断infinite regress 无限回归intensionality 内涵性intentionality 意向性irreducible 不可还原的Leibniz餾 Law 莱布尼茨法则logical atomism 逻辑原子主义logical positivism 逻辑实证主义logomachy 玩弄词藻的争论material biconditional 物质的双向制约materialism 唯物论（唯物主义）maxim 箴言，格言method 方法methodologica 方法论的model 样式modern 现代的modus ponens and modus tollens 肯定前件和否定后件 natural selection 自然选择necessary 必然的neutral monism 中立一无论nominalism 唯名论non睧uclidean geometry 非欧几里德几何non瞞onotonic logics 非单一逻辑Ockham餜azor 奥卡姆剃刀omnipotence and omniscience 全能和全知ontology 本体论（存有学）operator 算符(或算子)paradox 悖论perception 知觉phenomenology 现象学picture theory of meaning 意义的图像说pluralism 多元论polis 城邦possible world 可能世界postmodernism 后现代主义prescriptive statement 规定性陈述presupposition 预设primary and secondary qualities 第一性的质和第二性的质 principle of non瞔ontradiction 不矛盾律proposition 命题quantifier 量词quantum mechanics 量子力学rational numbers 有理数real number 实数realism 实在论reason 理性，理智recursive function 循环函数reflective equilibrium 反思的均衡relativity (theory of) 相对（论）rights 权利rigid designator严格的指称词Rorschach test 相对性（相对论）rule 规则rule utilitarianism 功利主义规则Russell餾 paradox 罗素悖论sanctions 制发scope 范围，限界semantics 语义学sense data 感觉材料，感觉资料set 集solipsism 唯我论social contract 社会契约subjective瞣bjective distinction 主客区分 sublation 扬弃substance 实体，本体sui generis 特殊的，独特性supervenience 偶然性syllogism 三段论things瞚n瞭hemselves 物自体thought 思想thought experiment 思想实验three瞯alued logic 三值逻辑transcendental 先验的truth 真理truth function 真值函项understanding 理解universals 共相，一般，普遍verfication principle 证实原则versimilitude 逼真性vicious regress 恶性回归Vienna Circle 维也纳学派virtue 美德注释计量经济学中英对照词汇(continuous)2007年8月23日，22:02:47 | mindreader计量经济学中英对照词汇(continuous)K-Means Cluster逐步聚类分析K means method, 逐步聚类法Kaplan-Meier, 评估事件的时间长度Kaplan-Merier chart, Kaplan-Merier图Kendall's rank correlation, Kendall等级相关Kinetic, 动力学Kolmogorov-Smirnove test, 柯尔莫哥洛夫-斯米尔诺夫检验Kruskal and Wallis test, Kruskal及Wallis检验/多样本的秩和检验/H检验Kurtosis, 峰度Lack of fit, 失拟Ladder of powers, 幂阶梯Lag, 滞后Large sample, 大样本Large sample test, 大样本检验Latin square, 拉丁方Latin square design, 拉丁方设计Leakage, 泄漏Least favorable configuration, 最不利构形Least favorable distribution, 最不利分布Least significant difference, 最小显著差法Least square method, 最小二乘法Least Squared Criterion，最小二乘方准则Least-absolute-residuals estimates, 最小绝对残差估计Least-absolute-residuals fit, 最小绝对残差拟合Least-absolute-residuals line, 最小绝对残差线Legend, 图例L-estimator, L估计量L-estimator of location, 位置L估计量L-estimator of scale, 尺度L估计量Level, 水平Leveage Correction，杠杆率校正Life expectance, 预期期望寿命Life table, 寿命表Life table method, 生命表法Light-tailed distribution, 轻尾分布Likelihood function, 似然函数Likelihood ratio, 似然比line graph, 线图Linear correlation, 直线相关Linear equation, 线性方程Linear programming, 线性规划Linear regression, 直线回归Linear Regression, 线性回归Linear trend, 线性趋势Loading, 载荷Location and scale equivariance, 位置尺度同变性Location equivariance, 位置同变性Location invariance, 位置不变性Location scale family, 位置尺度族Log rank test, 时序检验Logarithmic curve, 对数曲线Logarithmic normal distribution, 对数正态分布Logarithmic scale, 对数尺度Logarithmic transformation, 对数变换Logic check, 逻辑检查Logistic distribution, 逻辑斯特分布Logit transformation, Logit转换LOGLINEAR, 多维列联表通用模型Lognormal distribution, 对数正态分布Lost function, 损失函数Low correlation, 低度相关Lower limit, 下限Lowest-attained variance, 最小可达方差LSD, 最小显著差法的简称Lurking variable, 潜在变量Main effect, 主效应Major heading, 主辞标目Marginal density function, 边缘密度函数Marginal probability, 边缘概率Marginal probability distribution, 边缘概率分布Matched data, 配对资料Matched distribution, 匹配过分布Matching of distribution, 分布的匹配Matching of transformation, 变换的匹配Mathematical expectation, 数学期望Mathematical model, 数学模型Maximum L-estimator, 极大极小L 估计量Maximum likelihood method, 最大似然法Mean, 均数Mean squares between groups, 组间均方Mean squares within group, 组内均方Means (Compare means), 均值-均值比较Median, 中位数Median effective dose, 半数效量Median lethal dose, 半数致死量Median polish, 中位数平滑Median test, 中位数检验Minimal sufficient statistic, 最小充分统计量Minimum distance estimation, 最小距离估计Minimum effective dose, 最小有效量Minimum lethal dose, 最小致死量Minimum variance estimator, 最小方差估计量MINITAB, 统计软件包Minor heading, 宾词标目Missing data, 缺失值Model specification, 模型的确定Modeling Statistics , 模型统计Models for outliers, 离群值模型Modifying the model, 模型的修正Modulus of continuity, 连续性模Morbidity, 发病率Most favorable configuration, 最有利构形MSC（多元散射校正）Multidimensional Scaling (ASCAL), 多维尺度/多维标度Multinomial Logistic Regression , 多项逻辑斯蒂回归Multiple comparison, 多重比较Multiple correlation , 复相关Multiple covariance, 多元协方差Multiple linear regression, 多元线性回归Multiple response , 多重选项Multiple solutions, 多解Multiplication theorem, 乘法定理Multiresponse, 多元响应Multi-stage sampling, 多阶段抽样Multivariate T distribution, 多元T分布Mutual exclusive, 互不相容Mutual independence, 互相独立Natural boundary, 自然边界Natural dead, 自然死亡Natural zero, 自然零Negative correlation, 负相关Negative linear correlation, 负线性相关Negatively skewed, 负偏Newman-Keuls method, q检验NK method, q检验No statistical significance, 无统计意义Nominal variable, 名义变量Nonconstancy of variability, 变异的非定常性Nonlinear regression, 非线性相关Nonparametric statistics, 非参数统计Nonparametric test, 非参数检验Nonparametric tests, 非参数检验Normal deviate, 正态离差Normal distribution, 正态分布Normal equation, 正规方程组Normal P-P, 正态概率分布图Normal Q-Q, 正态概率单位分布图Normal ranges, 正常范围Normal value, 正常值Normalization 归一化Nuisance parameter, 多余参数/讨厌参数Null hypothesis, 无效假设Numerical variable, 数值变量Objective function, 目标函数Observation unit, 观察单位Observed value, 观察值One sided test, 单侧检验One-way analysis of variance, 单因素方差分析Oneway ANOVA , 单因素方差分析Open sequential trial, 开放型序贯设计Optrim, 优切尾Optrim efficiency, 优切尾效率Order statistics, 顺序统计量Ordered categories, 有序分类Ordinal logistic regression , 序数逻辑斯蒂回归Ordinal variable, 有序变量Orthogonal basis, 正交基Orthogonal design, 正交试验设计Orthogonality conditions, 正交条件ORTHOPLAN, 正交设计Outlier cutoffs, 离群值截断点Outliers, 极端值OVERALS , 多组变量的非线性正规相关Overshoot, 迭代过度Paired design, 配对设计Paired sample, 配对样本Pairwise slopes, 成对斜率Parabola, 抛物线Parallel tests, 平行试验Parameter, 参数Parametric statistics, 参数统计Parametric test, 参数检验Pareto, 直条构成线图（又称佩尔托图）Partial correlation, 偏相关Partial regression, 偏回归Partial sorting, 偏排序Partials residuals, 偏残差Pattern, 模式PCA（主成分分析）Pearson curves, 皮尔逊曲线Peeling, 退层Percent bar graph, 百分条形图Percentage, 百分比Percentile, 百分位数Percentile curves, 百分位曲线Periodicity, 周期性Permutation, 排列P-estimator, P估计量Pie graph, 构成图,饼图Pitman estimator, 皮特曼估计量Pivot, 枢轴量Planar, 平坦Planar assumption, 平面的假设PLANCARDS, 生成试验的计划卡PLS（偏最小二乘法）Point estimation, 点估计Poisson distribution, 泊松分布Polishing, 平滑Polled standard deviation, 合并标准差Polled variance, 合并方差Polygon, 多边图Polynomial, 多项式Polynomial curve, 多项式曲线Population, 总体Population attributable risk, 人群归因危险度Positive correlation, 正相关Positively skewed, 正偏Posterior distribution, 后验分布Power of a test, 检验效能Precision, 精密度Predicted value, 预测值Preliminary analysis, 预备性分析Principal axis factoring,主轴因子法Principal component analysis, 主成分分析Prior distribution, 先验分布Prior probability, 先验概率Probabilistic model, 概率模型probability, 概率Probability density, 概率密度Product moment, 乘积矩/协方差Pro, 截面迹图Proportion, 比/构成比Proportion allocation in stratified random sampling, 按比例分层随机抽样Proportionate, 成比例Proportionate sub-class numbers, 成比例次级组含量Prospective study, 前瞻性调查Proximities, 亲近性Pseudo F test, 近似F检验Pseudo model, 近似模型Pseudosigma, 伪标准差Purposive sampling, 有目的抽样QR decomposition, QR分解Quadratic approximation, 二次近似Qualitative classification, 属性分类Qualitative method, 定性方法Quantile-quantile plot, 分位数-分位数图/Q-Q图Quantitative analysis, 定量分析Quartile, 四分位数Quick Cluster, 快速聚类Radix sort, 基数排序Random allocation, 随机化分组Random blocks design, 随机区组设计Random event, 随机事件Randomization, 随机化Range, 极差/全距Rank correlation, 等级相关Rank sum test, 秩和检验Rank test, 秩检验Ranked data, 等级资料Rate, 比率Ratio, 比例Raw data, 原始资料Raw residual, 原始残差Rayleigh's test, 雷氏检验Rayleigh's Z, 雷氏Z值Reciprocal, 倒数Reciprocal transformation, 倒数变换Recording, 记录Redescending estimators, 回降估计量Reducing dimensions, 降维Re-expression, 重新表达Reference set, 标准组Region of acceptance, 接受域Regression coefficient, 回归系数Regression sum of square, 回归平方和Rejection point, 拒绝点Relative dispersion, 相对离散度Relative number, 相对数Reliability, 可靠性Reparametrization, 重新设置参数Replication, 重复Report Summaries, 报告摘要Residual sum of square, 剩余平方和residual variance (剩余方差)Resistance, 耐抗性Resistant line, 耐抗线Resistant technique, 耐抗技术R-estimator of location, 位置R估计量R-estimator of scale, 尺度R估计量Retrospective study, 回顾性调查Ridge trace, 岭迹Ridit analysis, Ridit分析Rotation, 旋转Rounding, 舍入Row, 行Row effects, 行效应Row factor, 行因素RXC table, RXC表Sample, 样本Sample regression coefficient, 样本回归系数Sample size, 样本量Sample standard deviation, 样本标准差Sampling error, 抽样误差SAS(Statistical analysis system , SAS统计软件包Scale, 尺度/量表Scatter diagram, 散点图Schematic plot, 示意图/简图Score test, 计分检验Screening, 筛检SEASON, 季节分析Second derivative, 二阶导数Second principal component, 第二主成分SEM (Structural equation modeling), 结构化方程模型Semi-logarithmic graph, 半对数图Semi-logarithmic paper, 半对数格纸Sensitivity curve, 敏感度曲线Sequential analysis, 贯序分析Sequence, 普通序列图Sequential data set, 顺序数据集Sequential design, 贯序设计Sequential method, 贯序法Sequential test, 贯序检验法Serial tests, 系列试验Short-cut method, 简捷法Sigmoid curve, S形曲线Sign function, 正负号函数Sign test, 符号检验Signed rank, 符号秩Significant Level, 显著水平Significance test, 显著性检验Significant figure, 有效数字Simple cluster sampling, 简单整群抽样Simple correlation, 简单相关Simple random sampling, 简单随机抽样Simple regression, 简单回归simple table, 简单表Sine estimator, 正弦估计量Single-valued estimate, 单值估计Singular matrix, 奇异矩阵Skewed distribution, 偏斜分布Skewness, 偏度Slash distribution, 斜线分布Slope, 斜率Smirnov test, 斯米尔诺夫检验Source of variation, 变异来源Spearman rank correlation, 斯皮尔曼等级相关Specific factor, 特殊因子Specific factor variance, 特殊因子方差Spectra , 频谱Spherical distribution, 球型正态分布Spread, 展布SPSS(Statistical package for the social science), SPSS统计软件包Spurious correlation, 假性相关Square root transformation, 平方根变换Stabilizing variance, 稳定方差Standard deviation, 标准差Standard error, 标准误Standard error of difference, 差别的标准误Standard error of estimate, 标准估计误差Standard error of rate, 率的标准误Standard normal distribution, 标准正态分布Standardization, 标准化Starting value, 起始值Statistic, 统计量Statistical control, 统计控制Statistical graph, 统计图Statistical inference, 统计推断Statistical table, 统计表Steepest descent, 最速下降法Stem and leaf display, 茎叶图Step factor, 步长因子Stepwise regression, 逐步回归Storage, 存Strata, 层（复数）Stratified sampling, 分层抽样Stratified sampling, 分层抽样Strength, 强度Stringency, 严密性Structural relationship, 结构关系Studentized residual, 学生化残差/t化残差Sub-class numbers, 次级组含量Subdividing, 分割Sufficient statistic, 充分统计量Sum of products, 积和Sum of squares, 离差平方和Sum of squares about regression, 回归平方和Sum of squares between groups, 组间平方和Sum of squares of partial regression, 偏回归平方和Sure event, 必然事件Survey, 调查Survival, 生存分析Survival rate, 生存率Suspended root gram, 悬吊根图Symmetry, 对称Systematic error, 系统误差Systematic sampling, 系统抽样Tags, 标签Tail area, 尾部面积Tail length, 尾长Tail weight, 尾重Tangent line, 切线Target distribution, 目标分布Taylor series, 泰勒级数Test(检验)Test of linearity, 线性检验Tendency of dispersion, 离散趋势Testing of hypotheses, 假设检验Theoretical frequency, 理论频数Time series, 时间序列Tolerance interval, 容忍区间Tolerance lower limit, 容忍下限Tolerance upper limit, 容忍上限Torsion, 扰率Total sum of square, 总平方和Total variation, 总变异Transformation, 转换Treatment, 处理Trend, 趋势Trend of percentage, 百分比趋势Trial, 试验Trial and error method, 试错法Tuning constant, 细调常数Two sided test, 双向检验Two-stage least squares, 二阶最小平方Two-stage sampling, 二阶段抽样Two-tailed test, 双侧检验Two-way analysis of variance, 双因素方差分析Two-way table, 双向表Type I error, 一类错误/α错误Type II error, 二类错误/β错误UMVU, 方差一致最小无偏估计简称Unbiased estimate, 无偏估计Unconstrained nonlinear regression , 无约束非线性回归Unequal subclass number, 不等次级组含量Ungrouped data, 不分组资料Uniform coordinate, 均匀坐标Uniform distribution, 均匀分布Uniformly minimum variance unbiased estimate, 方差一致最小无偏估计Unit, 单元Unordered categories, 无序分类Unweighted least squares, 未加权最小平方法Upper limit, 上限Upward rank, 升秩Vague concept, 模糊概念Validity, 有效性VARCOMP (Variance component estimation), 方差元素估计Variability, 变异性Variable, 变量Variance, 方差Variation, 变异Varimax orthogonal rotation, 方差最大正交旋转Volume of distribution, 容积W test, W检验Weibull distribution, 威布尔分布Weight, 权数Weighted Chi-square test, 加权卡方检验/Cochran检验Weighted linear regression method, 加权直线回归Weighted mean, 加权平均数Weighted mean square, 加权平均方差Weighted sum of square, 加权平方和Weighting coefficient, 权重系数Weighting method, 加权法W-estimation, W估计量W-estimation of location, 位置W估计量Width, 宽度Wilcoxon paired test, 威斯康星配对法/配对符号秩和检验Wild point, 野点/狂点Wild value, 野值/狂值Winsorized mean, 缩尾均值Withdraw, 失访Youden's index, 尤登指数Z test, Z检验Zero correlation, 零相关Z-transformation, Z变换注释。
考博英语词汇应该从阅读中记忆
考博英语词汇应该从阅读中记忆Specialization can be seen as a response to the problem of an increasing accumulation of scientific knowledge.By splitting up the subject matter into smaller units,one man could continue to handle the information and use it as the basis for further research.But specialization was only one of a series of related developments in science affecting the process of communication.Another was the growing professionalization of scientific activity.No clear-cut distinction can be drawn between professionals and amateurs in science:exception can be found to any rule.Nevertheless, the word“amateur”does carry a connotation that the person Xu yao quan guo ge da yuan xiao kao bo ying yu zhen ti shi juan qing jia qq：qi qi er liu qi ba wu san qi,huo er ba jiu ling ling liu si san wu yi.ye ke yi bo da quan guo mian fei zi xun dian hua:si ling ling liu liu ba liu jiu qi ba xiang shou kao bo fu dao ti yan concerned is not fully integrated into the scientific community and,in particular,may not fully share its values.The growth of specialization in the nineteenth century,with itsconsequent requirement of a longer,more complex training,implied greater problems for amateur participation in science.The trend was naturally most obvious in those areas of science based especially on a mathematical or laboratory training,and can be illustrated in terms of the development of geology in the United Kingdom.A comparison of British geological publications over the lastcentury and a half reveals not simply an increasing emphasis on the primacy of research,but also a changing definition of what constitutes an acceptable research paper.Thus,in the nineteenth century,local geological studies represented worthwhile research in their own right;but,in the twentieth century,local studies have increasingly become acceptable to professionals only if they incorporate,and reflect on,the wider geological picture.Amateurs, on the other hand,have continued to pursue local studies in the old way.The overall result has been to make entrance to professional geological journals harder for amateurs,a result that has been reinforced by the widespread introduction of refereeing,first by national journals in the nineteenth century and then by several local geological journals in the twentieth century.As a logical consequence of this development,separate journals have now appeared aimed mainly towards either professional or amateur readership.A rather similar process of differentiation has led to professional geologists coming together nationally within one or two specific societies,whereasthe amateurs have tended either to remain in local societies or to come together nationally in a different way.Although the process of professionalization and specialization was already well under way in British geology during the nineteenth century,its full consequences were thus delayed until the twentieth century.In science generally,however,the nineteenth century must be reckoned as the crucial period for this change in the structureof science.译文专业化是随着科学知识不断增长和积累形成的。
自考00830现代语言学 自考核心考点笔记 自考重点资料
自考00830现代语言学自考核心考点笔记自考重点资料0830 - 现代语言学 2.1 The naming theory 2.2 Dichotic listening research of time. e.g. a study of the changes English has 3. The language centers 2.2 The conceptualist view undergone since Shakespeare’s time is a 完整版9.5页 3.1 Broca’s area 2.3 Contextualism diachronic study. 笔记依据教材 3.2 Wernicke’s area ompetence: The ideal user’s 2.4 Behaviorism 6).Language c《现代语言学》3. Lexical meaning 3.3 The angular gyrus knowledge of the rules of his language. A 何兆熊、梅德明主编外语教学与研究出版社 3.1 Sense and reference 3.4 Language perception, comprehension and transformational-generative grammar(转化生成语笔记依据目录 3.2 Major sense relations production 法)is a model of language competence. Chapter 1 Introduction 4. The critical period for language acquisition 3.2.1 Synonymy7).Language performance: performance is the 1. What is linguistics? 4.1 The critical period hypothesis 3.2.2 Polysemy actual realization of the ideal language user’s 1.1 Definition 4.2 The case of Genie and the degeneration of 3.2.3 Homonymy knowledge of the rules in linguistic communication. 1.2 The scope of linguistics 3.2.4 Hyponymy language faculty with age 8).Langue : Langue refers to the abstract linguistic 1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics 3.2.5 Antonymy 5. Language and thought system shared by all the members of a speech 1.3.1 Prescriptive vs. descriptive 4. Sense relations between sentences 5.1 Early views on language and thought community; Langue is the set ofconventions and 1.3.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic 5. Analysis of meaning 5.2 The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis rules which language users all have to follow; 1.3.3 Speech and writing 5.1 Componential analysis—a way to analyze 5.3 Arguments against the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis Langue is relatively stable, it does not change 1.3.4 Langue and parole lexical meaning 5.3.1 Words and meaning frequently. 1.3.5 Competence and performance 5.2 Predication analysis—a way to analyze 5.3.2 Grammatical structure 9).Parole: Parole refers to the realization of langue 2. What is language? sentence meaning 5.3.3 Translation in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the 2.1 Definitions of language Study questions5.3.4 Second language acquisition conventions and the application of the rules; parole 2.2 Design features Chapter 6 Pragmatics 5.3.5 Language and world views varies from person to person, and from situation to Study questions 1. What is pragmatics? 5.4 Understanding the relation of language and situation. Chapter 2 Phonology 1.1 Definition thought 10).Language: Language is a system of arbitrary 1. The phonic medium of language 1.2 Pragmatics vs. semantics 5.4.1 Major functions of language vocal symbols used for human communication. 2. Phonetics 1.3 Context5.4.2 The development and blending of language 11).Arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of 2.1 What is phonetics? 1.4 Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning 5.4.3 Thinking without language language. It means that there is no logical 2.2 Organs of speech 2. Speech act theory 5.4.4 Language as a conventional coding system connection between meanings and sounds. A good 2.3 Orthographic representation of speech 3.Principle of conversation to express thought example is the fact that different sounds are used sounds—broad and narrow transcriptions 5.4.5 The ways in which language affects thought Study questions to refer to the same object in different languages. 2.4 Classification of English speech sounds Study questions Chapter 7 Historical Linguistics12).Productivity: Language is productive or 2.4.1 Classification of English consonants Chapter 10 Language Acquisition 1. The purpose and significance of the historical creative in that it makes possible the construction 2.4.2 Classification of English vowels 1. First language acquisition study of language and interpretation of new signals by its users. 3. Phonology 2. The nature of language change 1.1 The biological basis of language acquisition 13).Duality: Language is a system, which consists 3.1 Phonology and phonetics 3. The historical development of English 1.2 Language acquisition as the acquisition of of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of 3.2 Phone, phoneme, and allophone 3.1 Major periods in the history of English grammatical rules sounds at the lower or basic level, and the other of 3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, 3.1.1 Old English 1.3 The role of input and interaction meanings at the higher level. and minimal pair 3.1.2 Middle English 1.4 The role of instruction 14).Displacement: language can be used to refer 3.4 Some rules in phonology 3.1.3 Modern English 1.5 The role of correction and reinforcement to things which are present or not present, real or 3.4.1 Sequential rules 3.2 linguistic change of English 1.6 The role of imitation imagined matters in the past, present, orfuture, or 3.4.2 Assimilation rules 3.2.1 Sound change 2. Stages offirst language acquisition in far-away places. In other words, language can 3.4.3 Deletion rule 3.2.2 Morphological change 2.1 The prelinguistic stage be used to refer to contexts removed from the 3.5 Suprasegmental features—stress, tone, 3.2.3 Syntactic change 2.2 The one-word stage immediate situations of the speaker. intonation 2.3 The two-word stage 3.2.4 Lexical change 15).Cultural transmission: While we are born 3.5.1 Stress 2.4 The multiword stage 3.2.5 Semantic change with the ability to acquire language, the details of 3.5.2 Tone 3. The development of the grammatical system 4. Language family any language are not genetically transmitted, but 3.5.3 Intonation 4.1 Classifying genetically related languages 3.1 The development of phonology instead have to be taught and learned. Study questions 4.2 The Indo-English language family 3.2 The development of syntax 16).Design features: It refers to the defining Chapter 3 Morphology 5. The causes of language change 3.3 The development of morphology properties of human language that distinguishit 1. Definition 5.1 Sound assimilation 3.4 The development ofvocabulary and semantics from any animal system of communication 2. Morpheme 5.2 Rule simplification and regularization 4. Second language acquisition 2.Explain the following definition of linguistics: 2.1 Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of 5.3 Internal borrowing 4.1 Acquisition vs. learning Linguistics is the scientific study of language. language 4.2 Transfer and interference 5.4 Elaboration Linguistics investigates not any particular language, 2.2 Types of morphemes 5.5Sociological triggers 4.3 Error Analysis and the natural route of SLA but languages in general. 2.2.1 Free morphemes 5.6 Cultural transmission development Linguistic study is scientific because it is based on 2.2.2 Bound morphemes 5.7 Children’s approximation toward the adult 4.4 Interlanguage and fossilization the systematic investigation of authentic(可靠的，2.2.3 Morphological rules grammar 4.5 The role of input 真实的) language data. No serious linguistic 3. Compounding Study questions 4.6 The role of formal instruction conclusion is reached until after the linguist has 3.1 Types of compound words Chapter 8 Sociolinguistics 4.7 Individual learner factors done the following three things: observing the way 3.2 Features of compounds 1. Languagevariation 4.7.1 The optimum age for second language Study questions language is actually used, formulating some 1.1 Speech community acquisition Chapter 4 Syntax hypotheses, and testing these hypotheses against 1.2 Speech variety 4.7.2 Motivation 1.Syntax as a system of rules linguistic facts to prove their validity. 1.3 Regional variation 4.7.3 Acculturation 2. Sentence structure 3.What are the branches of linguistics? What 1.4 Social variation 4.7.4 Personality 2.1 The basic components of a sentence 1.5 Stylistic variation …does each of them study? (语言学的主要分支是… (中间部分略) 2.2 Types of sentences 1.6 Idiolectal variation 完整版请——什么每个分支的研究对象是什么,) 2.2.1 The simple sentence 2. Standard and nonstandard language QQ:1273114568 索取 Linguistics mainly involves the following branches: 2.2.2 The coordinate sentence 2.1 Standard and nonstandard language 1)Generallinguistics, which is the study of 2.2.3 The complex sentence Study questions 2.2 Lingua francas language as a whole and which deals with the 2.3 The linear and hierarchical structures of Suggested Answers to Study Questions 2.3 Pidgins basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and sentences An English-Chinese Glossary 2.4 Creoles methods applicable in any linguistic study 2.3.1 The linear word order of a sentence A Detailed Note for Modern Linguistics 3. Diglossia and bilingualism 2)Phonetics, which studies the sounds that are 2.3.2 The hierarchical structure of a sentence 3.1 Diglossia Chapter 1: Introduction used in linguistic communication 2.3.3 Tree diagrams of sentence structure 3.2 Bilingualism 1.Define the following terms:3)Phonology, which studies how sounds are put 3. Syntactic categories 4. Ethnic dialect 1).Linguistics:It is generally defined as the together and used to convey meaning in 3.1 Lexical categories 4.1 Black English, a case study of ethnic dialect scientific study of language. communication 3.2 Phrasal categories 4.2 The social environment of Black English 2).General linguistics: The study of language as 4)Morphology, which studies the way in which 4. Grammatical relations 5. Socialdialect a whole is called general linguistics. morphemes are arranged to form words 5. Combinational rules 5.1 Education varieties 3).Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied 5)Syntax, which studies how morphemes and 5.1 Phrase structure rules 5.2 Age varieties linguistics refers to the application of linguistic words are combined to form sentences 5.2 The recursiveness of phrase structure rules 5.3 Gendervarieties principles and theories to language teaching and 6)Semantics, which is the study of meaning in 5.3 X-bar theory 5.4 Register varieties learning, especially the teaching of foreign and lan?guage. 6. Syntactic movement and movement rules 5.5 Address terms second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to 7)Pragmatics, which is the study of meaning not in 6.1 NP- movement and WH- movement 5.6 Slang the application of linguistic findings to the solution isolation, but in the context of use 6.2 Other types of movement 5.7 Linguistic taboo of practical problems such as the recovery of 8)Sociolinguistics, which is the study of language 6.3 D-structure and S-structure 5.8 Euphemism speech ability. with reference to society 6.4 M ove α—a general movement rule Study questions 4).Synchronic study: The study of a language9)Psycholinguistics, which is the study of language 7. Toward a theory of universal grammar Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics at some point in time.e.g. A study of the features of with reference to the workings of mind.7.1 General principles of Universal Grammar 1. The biological foundations of language the English used in Shakespeare’s time is a 10)Applied linguistics, which is concerned about 7.2 The parameters of Universal Grammar 1.1 The case of Phineas Gage synchronic study. the application of linguistic findings in linguistic Study questions 1.2 The human brain 5).Diachronic study: The study of a language as studies; in a nar?row sense, applied linguistics Chapter 5 Semantics 1.3 Brain lateralization it changes through time. A diachronic study of refers to the application of linguistic principles and 1. What is semantics? 2.Linguistic lateralization language is a historical study, which studies the theories to language teaching, especially the 2. Some views concerning the study of meaning 2.1 Left hemispheric dominance for language historical development of language over a period teaching of foreign and second languages. matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks languages communication. Speech is considered primary 11)Other related branches are anthropological at language from a psychological point of view and 2).auditory phonetics:It studies the speech over writing. The reasons are: speech is prior to linguistics(人类语言学), neurological linguistics(神to him competenceis a property of the mind of sounds from the hearer’s point of view. It studies writing in language evolution, speech plays a each individual. how the sounds are perceived by the hearer. greater role in daily communications, and speech 经语言学), mathematical linguistics(数学语言学), 10.What characteristics of language do you 3).acoustic phonetics:It studies the speech sounds is the way in which people acquire their native and computational linguistics(计算机语言学). by looking at the sound waves. It studies the language. think should be included in a good, 4.What makes modern linguistics different physical means by which speech sounds are 3.What are the three branches of phonetics? comprehensive definition of language? from traditional grammar? (现代语言学与传统语transmitted through the air from one person to How do they contribute to the study of speech Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols 法有什么区别,) another. sounds? 语音学的三个分支是什么它们是如何研used forhuman communication. 4).international phonetic alphabet [IPA]: It is a Traditional grammar is prescriptive(规定性); it is First of all, language is a system, i.e. elements of 究语言学的, (可参照一下课文原话，可能更容易standardized and internationally accepted system based on "high "(religious, literary) written language are combined according to rules. of phonetic transcription. 理解) language. It sets models for language users to Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that5).Broad transcription: the transcription with 1)Articulatory phonetics describes the way our follow. But Modern linguistics is descriptive(描述there is no intrinsic connection between the word letter-symbols only, i.e. one letter-symbol for one speech organs work to produce the speech sounds 性); its investigations are based on authentic and and the thing it refers to. sound. This is the transcription normally used in and how they differ. Third, language is vocal because the primary mainly spoken language data. It is supposed to be dictionaries and teaching textbooks.2)Auditory phonetics studies the physical medium is sound for all languages. scientific and objective and the task of linguists is6).Narrow transcription: is the transcription with properties of the speech sounds, and reaches The term “human” is meant to specify that supposed to describe the language people actually letter-symbols together with the diacritics. This is important conclusion that phonetic identity is only a language is human-specific. use, whether it is "correct" or not. the transcription used by the phoneticians in their theoretical ideal. 11.What features of human language have 5.Is modernlinguistics mainly synchronic(共study of speech sounds. 3)Acoustic phonetics studies the physical been specified by Charles Hockett to show that 时性) or diachronic(历时性)? Why? 7).diacritics: is a set of symbols which can be properties of the speech sounds, the way sounds it is essentially different from any animal (The description of language at some point in time added to the letter-symbols to make finer travel from the speaker to the hearer; it deals with communication system? 人类语言的甄别性特征is a synchronic study; the description of a language distinctions than the letters alone make possible. the sound waves through the use of such as it changes through time is a diachronic study.) 8).Voiceless(清音): when the vocal cords are machines as a spectrograph(声谱仪). 是什么, Modern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing drawn wide apart, letting air go through without 4.Where are the articulatory apparatus of 1.Arbitrariness(任意性): (课本答案:a sign of on the present-day language. Unless the various causing vibration, the sounds produced in such a human being contained? sophistication only humans are capable of) It states of a language are successfully studied, it will condition are called voiceless sounds. means that there is no logical connection between Pharyngeal cavity, oral cavity and nasal cavity. not be possible to describe language from a 9).Voicing (浊音): Sounds produced while the meanings and sounds. Although language is5.What is voicing and how is it caused? 什么叫diachronic point of view. vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds. arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary. 浊音化,它是如何形成的,6.Which enjoyspriority in modern linguistics, 10).Vowel: the sounds in production of which no Non-arbitrary words make up only a small Voicing is the result of the vibration of the vocal speech or writing? Why? articulators come very close together and the air percentage of the total number. The arbitrary cords. When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, Modern linguistics gives priority to the spoken stream passes through the vocal tract without nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it letting air go through without causing vibration, the language for the following reasons: obstruction are called vowels. makes it possible for language to have an sounds produced in such a way are voiceless. First, speech precedes writing. The writing system 11).Consonants: the sounds in the production of unlimited source of expressions. When vocal cords are held together tautly so that is always a later invention used to record the which there is an obstruction of the air stream at2.Productivity(创造性): (课本答案:creativity: the air stream vibrates them, the sounds produced some point of the vocal tract are called speech. There are still some languages that only animals are quite limited in the messages they are in this way are voiced. consonants. have the spoken form. able to send)Language is productive or creative in 6.What is the function of nasal cavity? How 12).phonology: Phonology studies the system of Then, a larger amount of communication is carried that it makes possible the con?struction and sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover does it perform this function? out in speech than in writing. interpretation of an infinitely large number ofhow speech sounds in a language form patterns Third, speech is the form in which infants acquire The function of nasal cavity is to nasalize the sentences, including those they have never said or and how these sounds are used to convey their native language. sounds that are produced. It does this by closing heard before. meaning in linguistic communication.7.Saussure 是如何区分语言langue和言语the air passage connecting the oral and nasal 3.Duality(二重性): (课本答案:a feature totally 13).phone: Phones can be simply defined as the cavities so that the air stream can only go through parole的, lacking in any animal communication)It means that speech sounds we use when speaking a language. the nasal cavity. (The distinction between langue and parole was language is a system, which consists of two sets of A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not 7.Describe the various parts in the oral cavity made by the famous Swiss linguist Ferdinand de structure, or two levels, one of sounds at the lower necessarily distinguish meaning. which are involved in the production of speech Saussure early this century. Langue and parole are level and the other of meanings at the higher level.14).phoneme: a collection of abstract phonetic sounds? French words.) At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure features, it is a basic unit in phonology. It is Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system The various pats of the tongue: the tip, the front, of individual and meaningless sounds, which can represented or realized as a certain phone by a shared by all the members of a speech community, the blade, and the back; the uvula; the soft palate; be grouped into meaningfulunits at the higher level. certain phonetic context. and parole refers to the realization of langue in the hard palate; the teeth ridge (alveolar); the This duality of structure or dou?ble articulation of 15).allophone: The different phones which can actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and upper and lower teeth; the lips. language enables its users to talk about anything represent a phoneme in different phonetic rules which language users all have to follow while 8.How broad transcription and narrow within their knowledge. environments are called the allophones of that parole is the concrete use of the conventions and transcription differ? 宽式标音和严式标音有什4.Displacement(移位性): (课本答案:no animal phoneme. For example [l] and [l] the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is can “talk” about things remov ed from the 16).phonemic contrast: Phonemic contrast refers 么区别, not the language people actually use, but parole is immediate situation)Language can be used to to the relation between two phonemes. If two The broad transcription is the transcription of concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring phonemes can occur in the same environment and refer to things which are present or not present, sounds by using one letter to represent one sound. language events. Langue is relatively stable, it distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic real or imagined matters in the past, present, or The narrow transcription is the transcription with does not change frequently; while parole varies contrast. future, orfar-away places. In other words, diacritics (变音符号) to show detailed articulatory from person to person, and from situation to17).Complementary distribution: refers to the language can be used to refer to contexts removed features of sounds. situation. relation between two similar phones which are from the immediate situations of the speaker. In broad transcription, the symbol [l] in used for the8.Chomsky的语言能力competence和语言使用allophones of the same phoneme, and they occur 5. Cultural transmission(文化传递性): (课本sound [l] in words like leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], performance各指什么, in different environments. 答案:details of human language system are taught and health [helθ]. The sound [l] in all these words is18).minimal pair: When two different forms are (American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s and lear ned while animals are born with the differ slightly. The [l] in [li:f], occurring before a identical in every way except for one sound proposed the distinction between competence and capacity to send out certain signals as a means of vowel, is called a clear [l], and no diacritic is segment which occurs in the same place in the performance.) limited communication)While we are born with the needed to indicate it; the [l] in [fi:l] and [bild], strings, the two words are said to form a minimal Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s occurring before another consonant, is called dark ability to acquire language, the details of any pair. For example: bin and pin. knowledge of the rules of his language. This [l], indicated in narrow transcription as [l]. Then in language are not genetically transmitted, but 19).suprasegmental features: the phonemic internalized set of rules enables the language user [helθ], the sound [l] isfollowed by the dental sound instead have to be taught and learned. features that occur above the level of the segments to produce and understand an infinitely large [θ], it is thus called a dental [l], and transcribed as 12.Do you think human language is entirely are called suprasegmental features. The main number of sentences and recognize sentences [helθ](注:l下有一个向下的框，无法打印) in narrow arbitrary? Why? suprasegmental features include stress, tone and that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According transcription. Language is arbitrary in nature, it is not entirely intonation. to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization 9.How are the English consonants classified? arbitrary, because there are a limited number of 20).tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are of this knowledge in linguistic communication. words whose connections between forms and 英语的辅音是如何分类的, caused by the differing rates of vibration of the Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother meanings can be logically explained to a certain 1)by manner of articulation. vocal cords. Pitch variation can distinguish tongue is perfect, his performances may have extent, for example, the onomatopoeia, words a.stops(plosive爆破音):[p],[b],[t],[d],[k],[g] meaning just like phonemes. The mistakes because of social and psychological which are coined on the basis of imitation of meaning-distinctive function of the tone is b.fricatives(磨擦音): [f],[v],[s],[z],[ θ],[,ð], [? ], [?], [h] factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc… sounds by sounds such as bang, crash, etc.. especially important in tone languages, for Chomsky believes that whatlinguists should study c.affricates(破擦音): [ t?], [d?] Take compounds for another example. The two example, in Chinese. is the competence, which is systematic, not the d.liquids(lateral边音，流音): [l], [r] elements “photo” and “copy” in “photocopy” are 21).intonati on: When pitch, stress and sound performance, which is too haphazard (偶然的). e.nasals(鼻音): [m],[ n],[,, ?] non-motivated, but the compound is not length are tied to the sentence rather than the word 9.How is Saussure’s distinction between arbitrary. f.glide s (semivowels半元音): [w], [ j] in isolation, they are collectively known as langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s … … (中间部分略) 2)by place of articulation : intonation. For example, English has four basic 完整版请—— distinction between competence and a.bilabial(双唇音): [p],[b],[m],[w] types of intonation: the falling tone, the rising tone, QQ:1273114568 索取performance? And what is their difference? biodental(唇齿音): [f],[v] the fall-rise tone and the rise-fall tone. Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction c.dental(舌齿音): [θ],[,, ð] 2.What are the two major media of Chapter 2: Phonology between the abstract language system and the d.alveolar(齿龈音): [t],[d],[s],[z],[n],[l],[r] communication?Of the two, which one is 1.Define the terms: actual use of language. Their purpose is to single e.palatal(腭音): [?], [?],[ t? ], [d?], [j] primary and why? 语言交际的两大媒介是什么,1).phonetics: Phonetics is defined as the study of out one aspect of language for serious study.f.velar(软腭音): [k], [g], [? ] the phonic medium of language; it is concerned 哪一个是基本的交际媒介,为什么, They differ in that Saussuretakes a sociological with all the sounds that occur in the world’ sg.glottal(喉音，声门单): [h] view of language and his notion of langueis a Speech and writing are the major media of10.What criteria are used to classify the Assimilation rule: rule assimilating one sound similar to the following one by copying one ofits English vowels? 英语的元音是如何分类的, phonetic features. 1) According to the position of the tongue, vowels Deletion rule: rule governing the deletion of a may be distinguished as front vowels such as [i:] [i] sound in a certain phonetic context although it is [e] [æ] [a], central vowels such as [?:] [?] [?], and represented in spelling. back vowels such as [u:] [? ] [?:] [? ] [ɑ:] 17.What are supresegmental features? How do 2) According to the openness of the mouth, we the major suprasegmental features of English classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels function in conveying meaning? 什么是超音位such as [i:] [i] [u:] [? ], semi-close vowels such as [e] [?:], semi-open vowels such as [?] [?:], and 特征,它是如何影响语义的, (p40) open vowels such as [æ] [a] [? ] [? ] and [ɑ:]. Suprasegmental features are phonological 3) According to the shape of the lips, vowels are features above the sound segment level. divided into rounded vowels and unrounded The major suprasegmental features in English are vowels. In English all the front and central vowels word stress, sentence stress and intonation. are unrounded vowels, all the back vowels, with 1)The location of stress in English distinguishes exception of [ɑ:], are rounded. meaning, such as`import and im`port. The similar 4) According to the length of thevowels, the alternation of stress also occurs between a English vowels can also be classified into long compound noun and a phrase consisting of the vowels and short vowels. The long vowels include same elements. A phonological feature of the [i:] [?:] [?: ] [u:] [ɑ:]，while the rest are short vowels. English compounds is that the stress of the word11.What is the difference between a always falls on the first element and the second monophthong and a diphthong? element receives secondary stress, for example: `blackbird is a particular kind of bird, which is not A monophthong is one for which the organs of speech remain in a given position for a period of necessarily black, but a black `bird is a bird that is time. A diphthong is a vowel sound consisting of a black. deliberate glide. The organs of speech starting in 2) Sentence stress refers to the relative force the position of one vowel and immediately moving which is given to the words in a sentence. The more important words such as nouns, main verbs, in the direction of another vowel, for example: [i:], [i] adjectives, adverbs, and demonstrative pronouns, are monophthongs, and [a? ], [e? ] are are pronounced with greater force and made more diphthongs. 12.How do phonetics and phonology differ in prominent. And the other categories of words (articles, personal pronouns, auxiliary verbs, their focus of study? Who do you think will be prepositions, and conjunctions) are usually not more interested in the difference between stressed. But to give special emphasis to a certain [l]and [l], [p] and [ph], a phonetician or a notion, a word in sentence that is usually phonologist? Why? unstressed can be stressed to。
The Viewpoint of Categorization Theory on the Natu
Sino-US English Teaching, ISSN 1539-8072August 2014, Vol. 11, No. 8, 615-619The Viewpoint of Categorization Theory on the Nature ofReading Comprehension∗LV Shao-quan, HU Lan-yingJiaxing University, Jiaxing, ChinaThis paper is intended to reveal the likelihood that conceptual categorization can be used to understand a text byreconstructing the semantic categories through which the author’s meaning is conveyed, and proposes analternative way to look into reading comprehension. It is proposed that categorization can be taken as analternative approach to second/foreign language reading instruction. That is, while reading comprehension isdefined in terms of the ability to recognize the inclusion and membership properties of contextually determinedsemantic categories in a text, the learner needs to arrange the events, actions, or concepts into a structured unit, bothhorizontally and vertically. Categorization theory will be introduced in relation to Rosch famous studies (1973,1975), examples taken from a graded reader will be illustrated as how to identify items with category structure, andfinally issues that are not addressed in this paper will be discussed.Keywords: cognitive linguistics, categorization, schema theory, reading comprehension, graded readersAll Rights Reserved.IntroductionIn her ground-breaking research into perceptual domains, Eleanor Rosch (1973) earlier revealed new insights regarding the structure of categories. One of her earliest and best known experiments wasconducted on Dani people whose language contained only two color terms. Dani people were trained tolearn colors, which were paired with Dani clan names. These names were chosen because they constituted arecognizable set of words unassociated with perceptual phenomena. Focal colors, i.e., the perceptuallysalient colors, were learned faster, even when hues with longer or shorter wavelengths were centrally placedby the researchers. It was demonstrated that the focal colors, or the prototypes of the category color, weremore salient in our perception.Research of this kind extended to semantic categories (Rosch, 1975). Fifty to sixty items for each category were chosen for the experiment. American subjects were required to rate each item within its category and werespecifically asked to think about how good an example of a category these items could be. A scale of 7-pointwas used, in which 1 indicated that an item could be a very good example of a category, while 7 meant that thisitem was considered a very poor example. For instance, in the category furniture, items such as chair, sofa, bed,∗ This paper is in a project sponsored by The Reform and Research of Foreign language Talents’ Education Approach in LocalColleges (NO. FEB 110147).LV Shao-quan, professor, master, Pinghu Campus of Jiaxing University.HU Lan-ying, associate professor, master, Pinghu Campus of Jiaxing University.616CATEGORIZATION THEORY ON THE NATURE OF READING COMPREHENSION end table, cabinet, lamp, piano, telephone, and so on, were presented and the subjects needed to make ajudgment as to the goodness of each item as a member of the category furniture. The results were surprisinglyconsistent in that a high degree of agreement among the subjects was found regarding the very good example(s)of a category and this effect of “best examples” (Rosch, 1975, p. 193) existed across all 10 categories.An experiment was also conducted to reveal that category members present various degrees of membership (Rosch, 1973). Subjects were asked to make a true/false judgment on sentences constructed withthe formula “A is a B” when A was a member and B was a category name. Twelve categories were chosen, andboth typical and peripheral members were selected for each category. For example, in the category vegetable,spinach (more typical vegetable) and mushroom (more peripheral member) was paired with the category namevegetable and subjects were required to verify the sentences “A spinach is a vegetable” and “A mushroom is avegetable”. The reaction times to these sentences were measured and recorded. It was found that the reactiontime was faster when A was a central or prototypical member than when it was a peripheral member and thusconfirmed the researcher’s prediction. This research proved that members of a category do not have an equalstatus in cognition. Rather, some members are more typical and others are less good members with a peripheralstatus within the category.Furthermore, studies demonstrated the characteristics of each level of categories. A most prominent study presented reliable evidence that subjects behaved differently toward different levels of categories (Rosch,Mervis, Gray, Johnson, & Boyes-Braem, 1976). First, when asked to list attributes for all three levels ofcategories, the subjects listed significantly more properties of basic level categories. Superordinate categorieshad few attributes in common; subordinate categories had more properties (but not significantly more) than All Rights Reserved.basic level categories. The conclusion was arrived that the basic level was said to be more informative, whilesuperordinate categories are distinct but not informative because of their generalities, and subordinatecategories are said to be informative but not distinct because of their specificity.Simply put, the principles of categorization are manifest both in horizontal and vertical aspects (Rosch, 1978). Horizontally, the internal structure of categories displays prototypical members in the center of thecategory surrounded by other members of decreasing similarity. Vertically, categories occur at different “levelsof abstraction” or generality (Rosch, 1978, p. 30). Class inclusion is most readily perceived as a relation amongthree levels: superordinate, basic, and subordinate. The superordinate level is said to be the most generalabstraction, while the subordinate level contains items denoting the most particular meanings. The conceptualhierarchy representing categorical relations is arranged in such a way that, when we encounter an instance, itenables us to access a concept and retrieve related properties of the instance. The inclusion properties ofcategories allow us to transit the properties or features of a higher level to a lower level, and categorymembership enables us to determine the relationship between parallel concepts.The MethodIn this section, the proposed method will be described by illustrating a number of real examples adopted from a graded reader. Three essential characteristics of categorization are taken into account: inclusionproperties, membership properties, and the degree of membership. Inclusion refers to the ability ofhierarchically higher-level categories to contain lower-level categories, what Rosch terms “the vertical structureCATEGORIZATION THEORY ON THE NATURE OF READING COMPREHENSION617of categories” (Rosch, 1978, p. 30). Membership, on the other hand, is horizontally presented by the set of moreor less prototypical members which constitute the internal structure of a category, and accordingly the notion ofdegree of membership implies that members of a category do not share an equal status within the category butare differentiated on such a basis as the degree of similarity to the prototype(s) or measured weight andsignificance in the category.Items for Inclusion PropertiesThe following example is used to stimulate the ability to recognize the inclusion properties of contextually determined semantic categories occurring in a text.Example (1)Ken, a Nigerian, wasn’t very keen on the music we played but he was a magician with the hat. He almost ran around the crowds that were listening to us, smiling at them, laughing and joking, telling them we were poor refugees, anythingto make them put their hands in their pockets. (Harmer, 1999, p. 22)The paragraph where this example is embedded depicts the scene where the unmarried violinist protagonist (Derek) and his musician friends were busking on the street in one summer with unexpected helpfrom his roommate. Actually, this may activate a schema as how a magician usually acts in our concept andprobably interacts with the present context describing what the buskers seek for while performing in the street.So it can be understood that the category name is, “he was a magician with the hat”, and the category membersunder this name are: “He almost ran around the crowds that were listening to us, smiling at them, laughing andjoking, and telling them we were poor refugees”. All these instances are ordinary actions or behaviors for All Rights Reserved.magicians and buskers.A suggested way to use this item in a real classroom is to explicitly indicate the category name and directthe learner to think about the casual links of event as in Example (1), and then ask him/her to point out theirmembers according to the particular context. It needs to be emphasized that the indication of the categorynames is indispensable because the purpose of these exercises is to understand whether or not an instance canbe included in a specific category.Items for Membership PropertiesThe following item is intended to foster the ability to recognize the membership properties of contextually determined semantic categories. Note that category names are not present because they are able to provideclues for inclusion properties, based on which correct members still can be spotted, and consequently confusethis type of items with previous one. This type of items requires the learner to make a judgement purely on thebasis of the similarities of candidate members within a text. That is to say, this type of items requires the learnerto identify parallel concepts.Example (2)It took a bit of time for his words to sink in. It took me time to realise that Malgosia couldn’t hear me in there. It took me time to realise that after all my journeying I had finally found her and it wouldn’t do me any good at all. (Harmer,1999, p. 76)This item appears when Derek watched the dead body of his wife and his father-in-law was wrongly accusing him of his ignorance about the loss. Similarly, category members are parallel concepts and possess618CATEGORIZATION THEORY ON THE NATURE OF READING COMPREHENSION stronger semantic similarities. Three instances, (1) “for his words to sink in”, (2) “to realise that Malgosiacouldn’t hear me in there”, and (3) “to realise that after all my journeying I had finally found her”, all express akind of mental functioning, and hence these three instances belong to the same category. In addition, astructural parallel can be detected in these instances since they are constructed with the same pattern.During classroom instruction, membership or parallel concepts should be fully explained to the learner, as opposed to inclusion properties. The absence of category names is intentional, and without the aid of categorynames, semantic similarities are always appealed to as a key to locate category members; but sometimes astructural parallel can also be helpful as in Example (2).Degrees of MembershipThe purpose of this type of items is to make a distinction between more prototypical members from peripheral ones. Put it plainly, the learner is required to make a judgement about which instance is moreconsequential for a certain situation. Nevertheless, since the degree of prototypicality of category members mayvary in different contexts, the responses to this type of items can be varied to a greater extent. As has beenmentioned, the notion of context needs to include the content of a text and the schemata existing in the learner’sconcept.Example (3)“I feel terrible, all right?” I replied angrily. “My wife’s run off with someone else, I’ve been questioned by the police, I’ve travelled halfway round the world, I’ve been shot at and nearly killed. Now my wife’s supposed to be very ill and Idon’t know why, or where she is, but I know it’s pretty damn serious.” (Harmer, 1999, p. 74)All Rights Reserved.Derek travelled a long way to his parents-in-law’s house but annoyed by the insane question of his sister-in-law when he arrived (see Example (3)). This category actually centers on the reasons why the Derekfelt terrible. Accordingly, the category name is, “I feel terrible, all right?” and all the five reasons are categorymembers, including (1) “My wife’s run off with someone else”, (2) “I’ve been questioned by the police”, (3)“I’ve travelled halfway round the world”, (4) “I’ve been shot at and nearly killed”, and (5) “Now my wife’ssupposed to be very ill and I don’t know why, or where she is, but I know it’s pretty damn serious”. To make adecision about which is more prototypical needs to consider both local context and cultural background. Localcontext refers to the text in which the factors that cause Derek’s miserable situation and need to be inferred, andcultural background refers to the knowledge that brings forth the learner’s understanding. It is very likely thathe/she will draw on his/her own cultural background knowledge so as to consider (1), (2), or others as moreresponsible for the terrible feeling.This type of items is able to lead classroom tasks or activities to a vigorous discussion, during which cultural or even personal variations can be revealed and in fact, no fixed answer should be expected. With clearindication of the category name and members, a reading task or activity can be constructed so as to require thelearner to find the most prototypical member, which represents the most influential event within the category,or to rank these members according to their understanding of the causes and consequences of the whole matter.One pedagogic motivation of this type of tasks or activities is that, while making such a decision, the learnerneeds to reflect the whole context where the category names and their members appear. This can be consideredas a good practice for reviewing the content of the text.CATEGORIZATION THEORY ON THE NATURE OF READING COMPREHENSION619ConclusionUp to this point, a number of problematic issues need to be addressed. First and foremost, the nature of a text may affect the liabilities to find useable items in terms of the ability to recognize category structure. Thesecharacteristics of text nature require a consideration on the part of the language teacher before implementingthe proposed method.Second, the construction of certain kinds of reading comprehension tasks or activities, such as the kind of reading comprehension checks, cannot be considered, in a strict sense, as a kind of assessments to test theability to recognize the inclusion and membership properties of semantic categories in a text becauseassessments always require absolute answers for evaluation (Nuttall, 1996). Rather, they should be taken asuseful exercises or trainings to help the learner organize the information his/her encounter in a more structuredway and enhance the understanding and absorption of reading texts. In so doing, comprehension checks can beconsidered as a special kind of tasks that will attract the learner in reading instruction.Despite the above issues, the author still regards the proposed method a useful approach as to provide an opportunity for the language teacher to look into the understanding of reading texts for her/his learners, andmeanwhile offer more dynamic discussion in language classroom. Last but not least, empirical research isdesperately needed to prove the effect of this method.ReferencesBarsalou, L. W. (1983). Ad hoc categories. Memory & Cognition, 11(3), 211-277.Carrell, P. L. (1984). Schema theory and ESL reading: Classroom implications and applications. The Modern Language Journal, All Rights Reserved.68(4), 332-343.Gentner, D., & Namy, L. L. (1999). Comparison in the development of categories. Cognitive Development, 14, 487-513.Gilliland, J. (1972). Readability. London: Hodder and Stoughton Educational.Harmer, J. (1999). Trumpet voluntary. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (CUP).Lakoff, G. (1987). Women, fire, and dangerous things. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.Langer, J. A. (1981). From theory to practice: A pre-reading plan. Journal of Reading, 25, 152-156.Nuttall, C. (1996). Teaching reading skills in a foreign language (2nd ed.). Oxford: Hinmann.Pearson, D., & Johnson, D. D. (1978). Teaching reading comprehension. New York: Holt, Rinehart.Rosch, E. (1973). On the internal structure of perceptual and semantic categories. In T. E. Moore (Ed.), Cognitive development and the acquisition of language (pp. 111-114). New York: Academic press.Rosch, E. (1975). Cognitive representations of semantic categories. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 104(3), 192-233.Rosch, E. (1978). Principles of categorization. In E. H. Rosch & B. B. Lloyd (Eds.), Cognition and categorization (pp. 27-48).Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Rosch, E., Mervis, C. B., Gray, W. D., Johnson, D. M., & Boyes-Braem, P. (1976). Basic objects in natural categories. Cognitive Psychology, 8, 382-439.Taylor, J. R. (1995). Linguistic categorization: Prototypes in linguistic theory (2nd ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press.Ungerer, F., & Schmid, H.-J. (1996). An introduction to cognitive linguistics. New York: Addison Wesley Longman.。
The Social Stratification of Theatre, Dance and Cinema Attendance
The Social Stratification of Theatre,Dance and Cinema AttendanceTak Wing Chan &John H.GoldthorpeIn current sociological literature the relationship between social inequality and patterns of cultural taste and consumption is the subject of a large and complex debate.In this paper the primary aim is to examine,in the light of empirical results from a research project in which the authors are presently engaged,three main,and rival,positions that have been taken up in this debate,here labelled as the ‘homology’,the ‘individualization’and the ‘omnivore–univore’arguments.Elsewhere,we have concentrated on musical consumption in England,and find evidence that is broadly supportive of the omnivore–univore argument.Here we ask whether such findings are confirmed in the case of theatre,dance and cinema attendance.A secondary aim of the paper is to bring to the attention of practitioners in the field of cultural policy and administration the need to address the issues that arise through the use of more powerful methods of data analysis than those often applied in the past.We explain how indicators of theatre,dance and cinema attendance derived from the Arts in England survey of 2001can be subject to analysis so as to reveal two distinctive patterns of attendance and,in turn,two distinctive types of consumer—who can,it turns out,be regarded as omnivores and univores,even if with some qualification.The former have relatively high rates of attendance at all kinds of the events covered,including musicals and pantomimes as well as plays and ballet,while the latter tend to be cinema-goers only,that is,non-consumers of theatre and dance.A range of measures of social inequality are then introduced into the authors’analyses,including separate measures of social class and social status and also of educational level and income,and it is further shown that,again in conformity with the omnivore–univore argument,these two types of consumer are socially stratified.Omnivores are of generally higher social status than univores and also have usually higher levels of education and higher income than do univores (the latter finding marking the main difference with musical consumption,which was unaffected by income once other stratification variables were controlled).In sum,our results for theatre,dance and cinema attendance lend,overall,further support to the omnivore–univore argument as against its rivals,but also indicate that differentCultural TrendsVol.14(3),No.55,September 2005,pp.193–212Correspondence to:Tak Wing Chan,Department of Sociology,University of Oxford,Manor Road,Oxford OX13UQ,UK.Email:tw.chan@ISSN 0954-8963(print)/ISSN 1469-3690(online)#2005Taylor &Francis DOI:10.1080/09548960500436774194Tak Wing Chan&J.H.Goldthorpeaspects of social inequality impact on different forms of cultural consumption in varying degrees and probably through largely separate processes.Keywords:Social Stratification;Cultural Consumption;Performing ArtsIntroductionIn current sociological literature the relationship between social inequality and patterns of cultural taste and consumption is the subject of a large and complex debate.This paper starts by outlining the leading positions that have been taken up in this debate,and then presents some illustrativefindings from a research programme in which the authors are currently engaged.Thesefindings are used chiefly as the basis for a critical evaluation of the rival positions that have been set out,although they may also be of interest in their own right.In addition,attention is drawn to the methodology on which the paper rests. Although this may appear somewhat daunting,at least to readers who lack a statistical background,it is,we would argue,only by following such an approach that the issues with which we are concerned can be adequately addressed.In the sociological literature referred to,it is possible to identify three main lines of argument.In their essentials,these arguments can be stated as follows,although each has variant forms.(1)The homology argument:this claims that social stratification—that is,the prevail-ing structure of inequality within a society—and cultural stratification map onto each other very closely.Individuals in higher social strata are those who prefer and predominantly consume‘high’or‘elite’culture,and individuals in lower social strata are those who prefer and predominantly consume‘popular’or‘mass’culture—with,usually,various intermediate situations being also recognized.In some versions of the argument(e.g.Bourdieu,1984)it is further claimed that the arrogation of‘distinction’in cultural taste and,conversely,processes of‘aes-thetic distancing’are actively used by members of dominant social classes as means of symbolically demonstrating and confirming their superiority.(2)The individualization argument:this seeks in effect to relegate the homology argu-ment to the past.In modern,relatively affluent and highly commercialized societies,it is held that differences in cultural taste and consumption are rapidly losing any clear grounding in social stratification:age,gender,ethnicity or sexuality,for example,all can,and do,serve as alternative social bases of cul-tural differentiation.And in more radical forms of the argument(e.g.Bauman, 1988;Featherstone,1987),emphasis is placed on the growing ability of individuals to free themselves from social conditioning and influence of any kind and to choose and form their own distinctive identities and lifestyles—patterns of cultural consumption included.(3)The omnivore–univore argument:this in effect challenges both the homology andindividualization arguments(see especially Peterson&Kern,1996;Peterson& Simkus,1992).As against the latter,it sees cultural differentiation as stillCultural Trends195 mapping closely onto social stratification;but,as against the former,it does not see this mapping as being on‘elite-to-mass’lines.Rather,it claims that the cul-tural consumption of individuals in higher social strata differs from that of indi-viduals in lower social strata in that it is greater and much wider in its range.It comprises not only more‘high-brow’culture,but also more‘middle-brow’and more‘low-brow’culture as well,while the consumption of individuals in lower social strata tends to be largely restricted to more popular cultural forms.Thus, the crucial distinction is not between elite and mass but rather between cultural omnivores and cultural univores.In other work(Chan&Goldthorpe,2005),we seek to evaluate these three arguments by analysing data on musical consumption.Far stronger,even if still somewhat qualified,support is found for the omnivore–univore argument than for either the homology or individualization argument,as explained further below.However,it has to be noted that the omnivore–univore argument was initially developed with specific reference to musical consumption(Peterson&Simkus,1992);and while,in this context,it has in fact received support additional to that of the present authors (see e.g.Coulangeon,2003;Van Eijck,2001),its wider application has been rather little studied.The present paper,therefore,aims to examine how well it fares in another domain of cultural consumption,that of theatre,dance and cinema.1This differs from music in several ways,but perhaps most obviously for present purposes in that consumption generally requires attendance at some venue and,with the main exception of videofilm(which is discounted in what follows),there is no equiv-alent to the home consumption via various media that is of major importance in the domain of music.Part1:Data and ConceptsAs in the authors’work on musical consumption,data is used from the Arts in England survey which was carried out by the Office for National Statistics on behalf of Arts Council England.The survey was based on a stratified probability sample of individuals aged over16and living in private households in England in2001.In all, 6,042interviews were completed,representing a response rate of64per cent(for further details,see Skelton et al.,2002).However,here attention is restricted to respon-dents aged20to64.2With this limitation,and after deleting all cases with missing values on variables of interest here,there is an effective sample of N¼3,819.As regards theatre and cinema attendance,attention is concentrated on the results obtained in the survey from six questions.Respondents were asked whether or not,in the last12months,they had attended a performance of a play/drama,a musical,a pantomime,a ballet,some other form of dance(including contemporary dance, African People’s dance and South Asian dance),or had seen afilm at a cinema(or other venue rather than at home).3It should be stressed that interest in these results lies not primarily in the answers given to each question taken separately, but rather in the possibility that the answers to the six questions taken together can reveal patterns of theatre and cinema consumption and in turn serve to identify196Tak Wing Chan&J.H.Goldthorpetypes of consumer in this domain.As will be seen,this interest is reflected in the way in which the data are analysed.As regards social stratification,we believe it important to do more than treat this through some single classification or scale of an essentially ad hoc kind—such as, say,the Market Research Society categories(AB,C1,C2,D)or the old Registrar General’s Social Classes.Therefore information collected in the Arts in England survey on respondents’employment and occupation is drawn on in order to allocate them by both social class and social status,which are viewed,following a long-established tradition in sociology,as conceptually separate forms of stratification.4 The class structure overall,and likewise individuals’positions within it,are seen as being defined in a quite objective way by economic relations or,more precisely,by relations in labour markets and production units.To allocate individuals by class, the new National Statistics Socio-Economic Classification(NS-SEC)is used—in its seven-category version—which is specifically designed to capture differences in employment relations(Rose&Pevalin,2003).The categories of the classification are shown in Table4.In contrast,the status order is seen as reflecting inter-subjective assessments of individuals’social superiority,equality and inferiority as expressed most directly in relations of social intimacy.Such relations,where present among members of different social groupings,imply a basic equality of status and,where absent,a recognition of inequality.To allocate individuals by status,a31-category occupationally based scale developed by the authors from analyses of patterns of close friendship in contemporary British society is used(Chan&Goldthorpe, 2004).The categories of this scale are shown in rank order,from high to low status, in Table5.The closer together any two categories in the scale are,the more similar, occupationally,are their members’friends;the further apart they are,the less similar are their members’friends.In any society,the positions of individuals within the class structure and the status order will tend to be correlated—but not perfectly so.Instances of discrepancy between class and status position are always likely to occur.For example,the authors’own results indicate that in present-day Britain salaried professionals and associate professionals tend to have higher status than do salaried managers,and especially managers in manufacturing,construction or transport,despite holding similar class positions as defined in terms of employment relations;or again that routine wage workers in services,especially personal services,tend to have higher status than even skilled manual workers.5Since class and status are only imperfectly correlated,it is possible to ask whether it is the one or the other that exerts the greater influence on individuals’experience and action across different areas of social life.There is,for example,evidence that class is the dominant influence so far as individuals’economic life-chances are concerned—i.e.in determining their degree of economic security and their prospects—and also in shaping their political orientations and affiliations.But,in contrast,the expectation would be that in regard to cultural consumption it is status that will carry the greater weight.This is because differences in status are typically expressed in lifestyles,and cultural consumption is one important aspect of lifestyle through which status‘markers’canCultural Trends197 be readily laid down.In order to test whether this expectation holds good,it is of course essential that one should be able to distinguish class and status,conceptually and operationally.In addition to treating class and status separately,we also draw on information available from the Arts in England Survey on respondents’incomes and on their educational qualifications.The latter are coded to the six National Vocational Quali-fication levels shown in Table6that range from‘no qualifications’to‘degree-level qualification or higher’.In sociological analyses of cultural consumption,income and education are often taken as substitutes or proxies for more direct measures of class or status of the kind to be used in the present study.However,income and education are here considered along with such measures of class and status,so that their independent effects,if any,can be established.Finally,also included in the present analyses is socio-demographic information collected in the Arts in England survey,in particular regarding respondents’sex, age,marital status,family composition and region of residence.Given that the primary concern is with the social stratification of theatre,dance and cinema attend-ance,these socio-demographic variables are intended to serve primarily as‘controls’: that is to say,they are brought into analyses chiefly in order to remove the possibility of any hidden confounding of their effects with those of class,status,income and education on which present interest centres.Analytical StrategyIn Table1we show the percentage of respondents who in the last year had attended a theatre,for performances of the kinds previously indicated,or a cinema.6As can be seen,there is some wide variation in the probabilities of attendance,although much on lines that might be expected.Cinema attendance is by far the most frequently reported,while,at the other extreme,going to the theatre for a ballet performance is at a very low level.As earlier remarked,we wish to treat the data in question primarily as basis for obtaining an understanding of individuals’patterns of theatre and cinema attendance and of the different types of consumer in this cultural domain.To this end,a statistical technique known as latent class analysis is employed,which can be intuitively understood as follows.Table1Percentage of Respondents Who HaveVisited a Cinema or a Theatre for VariousKinds of Performance in the Past12MonthsBallet 1.9Other dance12.7Pantomime14.6Musical25.4Play/drama29.0Cinema62.7198Tak Wing Chan&J.H.GoldthorpeThere are six questions that serve as indicators of theatre or cinema attendance. Since each question has a two-option(yes/no)answer,there are in fact26or64differ-ent possible response sets.The overall pattern of individuals’responses will therefore be complex.But the answers given by respondents to the six questions can be expected to show some degree of association.Thus,for example,those who say that they have been to a play are also likely to report having been to a cinema.Conversely,those who say that they have not been to a ballet are also likely to report that they have not been to other dance events,and so on.7What the technique of latent class analysis aims to do is to simplify matters by exploiting this association among the six indicators.It seeks to identify a limited number of discrete classes,or categories,of respondents such that,conditional on their belonging to one or other of these classes,individuals’responses on the indicator items become independent of each other—i.e.there is no longer any association between them.Insofar as this can be done,it can be said that it is individuals’membership of the latent classes that is the source of the association initially found among their responses,and each latent class can be taken as representing a quite distinctive pattern of response.8Part2:ResultsLatent Class Analysis of Theatre and Cinema AttendanceIt turns out in fact that,as is shown in Table2,a very simple latent class solution can be obtained for our data on theatre and cinema attendance.With the minor technical modification that is noted in Table2,a model proposing just two latent classesfits the data satisfactorily:that is,just two latent classes prove sufficient to capture virtually all of the association that exists among responses on the six indicator items.9Or,one could say,it emerges that underlying the results previously reported in Table1on these six different kinds of attendance,a clear,essentially dichotomous,patterning prevails. On the basis of this solution we can then go on to assign each individual in the sample to one or other of the two latent classes that are identified—that is,to which-ever he or she has the highest probability of belonging to,given his or her own set of responses on the six indicator items;in this way the respondents are divided into two types of consumer of theatre,dance and cinema.In Table3it is shown,first of all,that this process of assignment does not result in any major change in the relative size of the latent classes from that initially estimated under the model;or,in other words,no Table2Latent Class Models Fitted to Data on CulturalParticipation in the Domain of Theatre,Dance and CinemaModel Number of classes G2df p111583.64570.0022268.16500.0032a53.22490.31Note:a A local dependence term is included in this model to allow for an associationbetween attendance at ballet and other dance events.Cultural Trends199 Table3Estimated Size of the Latent Classes and ConditionalProbabilities(Percent)of Attendance under our Preferred ModelLatent class12Relative size(%),initial62.537.5Relative size(%),post-assignment64.235.8Probabilities of attendance(%)Ballet0.1 5.0Other dance 5.624.6Pantomime 6.727.9Musical 6.956.2Play/drama 6.167.1Cinema48.087.1great degree of uncertainty appears to arise about the latent class with which particular respondents should be affiliated.Second,the probabilities of individuals reporting each of the six different kinds of attendance considered are shown,given their latent class membership.What,then,can be discovered about the two types of consumer that are derived from the latent class analysis?Ourfindings are in fact rather clear cut.As can be seen,latent class1,which accounts for almost two-thirds of the sample,comprises individuals who have a very low probability—less than10per cent—of having attended a theatre in the year before the interview for any of the kinds of performance distinguished,and whose consumption is effectively limited to a fairly modest—48per cent—probability of having visited a tent class2,in contrast,which accounts for somewhat over one-third of the sample,comprises individuals who have a relatively high probability(i.e.as compared to the overall rates shown in Table1)10of having attended a theatre for each of the kinds of performance covered and of having been to the cinema as well.Thesefindings would then,so far as they go,appear highly consistent with the omnivore–univore argument initially referred to.The latent Class2represents the theatre and cinema omnivores,and latent Class1the univores,whose consumption is in fact more or less restricted to the cinema.11Certainly,wefind no evidence of the kind that might be expected from the homology argument of a cultural elite who,in pursuit of‘distinction’,attend the theatre for,say,drama and ballet perform-ances but who at the same time display‘aesthetic distancing’in shunning musicals and pantomime.Members of latent Class2have the highest probability of attendance at not only drama and ballet but also all other kinds of theatre performance covered and the cinema.Furthermore,the very fact that the sample divides so readily into just two types of consumer is in itself sufficient to throw serious doubt on the indivi-dualization argument.There is no evidence here of the kind of individual diversity in cultural consumption that would,were it present,effectively defy latent class analysis or at all events require that an unmanageably large number of latent classes be distin-guished,and ones to which individuals could be assigned only with great uncertainty.200Tak Wing Chan&J.H.GoldthorpeHowever,one qualification still needs to be entered.The results of our latent class analysis lend support to the omnivore–univore argument only because of our decision,which is obviously somewhat arbitrary,to treat theatre attendance and cinema attendance together.If attention were to be focused on theatre attendance alone,then the typology of consumers suggested would not be that of omnivore versus univore but rather that of omnivore versus virtual non-consumer—or,that is,non-participant in the cultural domain of theatre and dance.We have in fact repeated our analyses excluding the item on cinema attendance,and the results remain on much the same lines as those already reported,except that now latent Class1,while still amounting to almost two-thirds of the sample,represents non-consumers.12This point needs to be kept in mind,even though as we move on to our ultimate concern with the relationship between theatre and cinema attendance and social stratification,latent Class1will in fact be referred to as that of univores and latent Class2as that of omnivores.Theatre,Dance and Cinema Attendance and Social StratificationAs already noted,in our work on musical consumption(Chan&Goldthorpe,2005), we alsofind,with some qualification,support for the omnivore–univore argument. Our latent class analyses in this case point in fact to three types of musical consumer: univores,whose consumption is largely restricted to pop and rock,and then two kinds of omnivore—‘true’omnivores and omnivore listeners.The former have a high prob-ability both of attending musical events and of listening to music across all the genres distinguished,while the latter are omnivorous only in their listening to broadcast or recorded music.Further analysis then reveals that the chances of being an omnivore, and especially a true omnivore,rather than a univore,increase with status,although—following the expectations earlier mentioned—the effects of class are negligible once status is included in the analysis.In addition,it is shown that even when the effects of status(and class)are controlled,the chances of being a musical omnivore rather than a univore still increase fairly steadily with level of educational qualifications, but that,in contrast,these chances do not appear to be affected by income when other stratification variables are controlled.How far,then,are similar results obtained in regard to cultural consumption in the form of theatre and cinema attendance? To begin with,we may examine the simple two-way relationships that exist between the chances of being in this regard an omnivore or a cinema-only univore(according to the previous analyses)and class and status respectively.In Table4we show the dis-tribution of univores(latent Class1)and omnivores(latent Class2)within the seven classes of NS-SEC.It is evident that omnivores are most common in the professional and managerial classes,1and2,where they are in fact in a slight majority,while univores dominate in Classes5,6and7,those of lower supervisory and technical, semi-routine and routine workers.Table5is then analogous to Table4,but with the31categories of our status scale replacing the seven NS-SEC classes.An obvious‘status gradient’exists in the chances of being an omnivore rather than a univore,which can be shown graphically as inCultural Trends201 Table4Distribution of Univores(U)and Omnivores(O)within NS Social ClassesNS social class U(%)O(%)N 1Higher managerial and professional occupations43.956.2488 2Lower managerial and professional occupations49.450.61023 3Intermediate occupations63.236.8574 4Small employers and own-account workers72.727.3275 5Lower supervisory and technical occupations77.722.3359 6Semi-routine occupations77.122.9620 7Routine occupations85.814.248064.235.83819 Figure1.Note that among higher professionals,teachers and other professionals in education and general managers and administrators,over60per cent are omnivores, while in the six categories of manual workers at the bottom of the status scale over80 per cent are cinema-only univores.These results are then consistent with the general idea that it is members of higher social strata who are more likely to be culturally omnivorous,and members of lower strata who are more likely to be univorous.But to test this idea more rigorously against the data on theatre and cinema attendance,it is necessary to move on from merely two-way,or bivariate,analysis to analysis of a multivariate kind.That is to say,it is necessary to relate the chances of an individual being an omnivore rather than a univore to the full range of stratification variables referred to earlier and also to the socio-demographic variables of sex,age,marital status,family composition and region of residence that are introduced as controls.Only if the effects of all these variables are considered simultaneously can we hope to gain some reliable idea of their relative importance.In Table6we report results from a binary logistic regression analysis.Such an analysis is appropriate where the‘dependent’variable—that on which our explanatory interest centres—has just two possible values,‘x’or‘not x’:or,in our case,being an omnivore or not being an omnivore,and thus a univore.The b coefficients shown in the second column of the table represent the estimated effects of the variables listed in thefirst column.A positive coefficient implies that the higher the value of the explanatory vari-able,the higher the probability of being an omnivore rather than a univore,and a negative coefficient implies the opposite.Coefficients that are starred are statistically significant. That is to say,there is good reason to believe that these variables do have a real effect rather than one that might have been observed simply by statistical accident.13In assessing the results obtained from our regression analysis,we may begin with those relating to the socio-demographic control variables at the top of the table, since these turn out to be methodologically instructive.First,we may note a result that serves to confirm what several other investigators(e.g.O’Hagan,1999;Quine, 1999)have previously reported:namely,that a highly significant gender effect exists in that women are more likely to be theatre goers than men;or,in our terms, women are more likely than men to be theatre and cinema omnivores rather than202Tak Wing Chan&J.H.GoldthorpeTable5Distribution of Univores(U)and Omnivores(O)within Status Categories in Rank OrderCategory a Status score b U(%)O(%)N HP Higher professionals0.564335.964.11280.533748.551.5171 APB Associate professionals inbusinessSM Specialist managers0.510741.858.21820.501739.560.5167 TPE Teachers and other professionalsin educationGMA General managers and0.411436.863.276administrators0.311658.241.8110 API Associate professionals inindustrySET Scientists,engineers and0.311555.944.1136technologistsFRC Filing and record clerks0.255957.142.956 OMO Managers and officials,nec c0.235533.366.790.227455.144.998 AOA Administrative officers andassistantsNCC Numerical clerks and cashiers0.223856.843.21690.222844.155.9152 APH Associate professionals in healthand welfareSEC Secretaries and receptionists0.153961.838.2157 OCW Other clerical workers0.144370.529.595 BSR Buyers and sales representatives0.119362.137.958 CCW Childcare workers0.109752.847.28920.045362.437.7170 MPS Managers and proprietors inservicesPDM Plant,depot and site managers20.062558.141.986 SW Sales workers20.115171.428.6262 HW Health workers20.212171.328.7164 PSW Personal service workers20.226162.038.092 PSP Protective service personnel20.228878.521.579 RWS Routine workers in services20.297484.115.9208 CW Catering workers20.326175.025.068 SDC Store and despatch clerks20.335380.020.02520.407283.316.7138 SMO Skilled and related manualworkers necTO Transport operatives20.411484.415.610920.501484.515.5116 SMC Skilled and related manualworkers in construction andmaintenance20.512181.019.0121 SMM Skilled and related manualworkers in metal tradesPMO Plant and machine operatives20.558990.39.7207 GL General labourers20.597981.019.0121 Overall64.235.83819 Notes:a For examples of occupations within each category and other details,see Chan and Goldthorpe(2004, Table2).b Status scores relate to the occupational-based status scale earlier mentioned and described in Chan and Goldthorpe(2004).c nec:not elsewhere classified.。
Lexical Semantics
big red
buy sell
→ →
about size about color
not antonyms
→ change in possession
relational opposites
Evidence for Semantic Features
Consider the following unintentional word substitutions that some speakers have actually spoken.
Lexical Semantics
Word Meanings
The Convention of Lexical Semantics
“There‟s glory for you!” “I don‟t know what you mean by „glory,‟” Alice said. Bob smiled, “Of course you don‟t—till I tell you. I meant „there‟s a nice knockdown argument for you!‟” “But „glory‟ doesn‟t mean „a nice knockdown argument,‟” Alice objected. “When I use a word,” Bob said, “it means just what I choose it to mean—neither more nor less.”
These additional elements of meaning are often termed sense.
Conclusion
Reference [指称]: concrete entity Reference is the association with its referent.
Simplified Semantics for Relevant Logics (and some of their Rivals
1 De nitions
1.1 The System BD
A9 $ :: .
: If 1 : : : is a rule, its disjunctive form is the rule _ 1 :_: _ The rules for B+ are the following, along with their disjunctive forms:
In their paper `Simpli ed Semantics for Basic Relevant Logics' (hereafter `SS1'), Priest and Sylvan gave a simpli cation of the usual ternary-relational frame semantics for relevant logics. The original semantics, due to Sylvan and Meyer, had to place many constraints on the ternary relation R, and it was quite unwieldy. In SS1, a simpli cation of the original semantics is de ned, and the construction was used to model the logics B+ , BM, BD and B, using two di erent approaches for negation | one using the dualising ` ' operator, and the other, using a four-valued evaluation. In a subsequent paper, `Simpli ed Semantics for Relevant Logics (and some of their Rivals)' (hereafter `SS2'), I extended the simpli ed semantics to deal with most of the well-known relevant propositional logics (and some others). The treatment of negation in SS2 was purely by way of the dualising ` ' operator, famous in the semantics for relevant logics. In this paper we consider the alternative approach to negation that involves a 4-valued evaluation. While this paper is self contained with regard to the de nitions and concepts involved, it sometimes defers to SS2 (which in turn, defers at times to SS1) for proofs of certain theorems. With that stated, it should be noted that it is quite possible to understand this paper independently of SS1 or SS2. The rst set of results deal with BD, a weak relevant propositional logic. To establish our terms, BD is expressed in a language L, which has the connectives ^, _ , ! and :, parentheses ( and ), and a stock of propositional variables p; q; : : : Formulae are de ned recursively in the usual manner, and the standard scope conventions are in force; ^ and _ bind more strongly than !. For example, p ^ q ! r is short for (p ^ q ) ! r. We will use ; ; : : : to range over arbitrary formulae. The system BD has the following axioms and rules: A1 ! , A2 ! _ ; ! _ , A3 ^ ! ; ^ ! , A4 ^ ( _ ) ! ( ^ ) _ , A5 ( ! ) ^ ( ! ) ! ( ! ^ ) , A6 ( ! ) ^ ( ! ) ! ( _ ! ), A7 :( _ ) $ : ^ : , A8 :( ^ ) $ : _ : , 1
A semantic approach to secure information flow
17 December 1997
0 Introduction
A classic problem in security is the problem of determining whether a given computer program has secure information flow [BLP73, Den76]. In its simplest form, the problem may be described informally as follows: Given a program operating on “high-security” and “low-security” variables, check whether observations of the initial and final values of the low-security variables reveal anything about the initial values of the high-security variables. A related problem is that of detecting covert flows, where information may be leaked by variations in program behavior [Lam73]. For instance, it may be possible to conclude something about the initial values of the high-security variables by examining the resource usage of the program ( e.g., by counting the number of times it accesses the disk head). The problem of secure information flow is more important today than ever before, because more and more computers are becoming connected. The risk of information being leaked inappropriately is a concern in protecting high-security military and financial data as well as in protecting data stored on personal computers. For example, with the advent of the Web, there is a danger that a downloaded applet will leak private data (such as the contents of a local file) by communicating it to other sites. Most previous approaches to checking secure information flow have been syntactic in nature, often using type systems and compiler data flow analysis techniques to analyze program texts. In this paper, we present a considerably different approach to secure information flow, based on a semantic notion of program equality. A definition based on program semantics has several desirable features. Firstly, it provides a more precise characterization of secure information flow than that possible by conservative methods based on types. Secondly, it is applicable to any programming construct whose semantics are defined; for instance, nondeterminism and exception handling constructs pose no additional problems. Thirdly, it can be applied to reasoning about a variety of covert channels, including termination behavior and timing channels. Finally, the method is also useful in the context of automated verification, since it can be used to develop a mechanically-assisted technique for certifying program flow. 0