lecture12Extensive-Form Representation(博弈论,Carnegie Mellon University)

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博弈类型及其表述形式

1博弈的分类博弈模型一般分为合作博弈( cooperative game )和非合作博弈( non- cooperativegame),如图。

合作博弈是以单个参与者的可能行动集合为基本元素，而非合作博弈是以参与人群的可能联合行动集合为基本元素( Martin and Ariel Rub in stein ，2000, P2),也就是说，在合作博弈中，博弈中所有参与者都独立行动，不存在有约束力的合作、联合或联盟的关系，而在非合作博弈中，在一些参与者之间存在着有约束力的合作、联合或联盟的关系，并因为这种关系影响到博弈的结局。

合作博弈强调的是团体理性( collectiverati on ality )、效率、公正和公平；非合作博弈强调的是个人理性、个人最优决策，其结果可能是有效率的，也可能是低效率或无效率的(张维迎，1996，P5)。

20世纪50年代，合作博弈的研究达到鼎盛期，同时开始出现对非合作博弈的研究，此后，博弈论的研究主流逐步转向在非合作博弈领域。

有些人认为非合作博弈模型比合作博弈更“基本”，但有些人认为两者不相上下(Martin and Ariel Rubinstein ，2000，P2)。

合作博弈，有时也叫做联盟博弈( coalitional game )，一般根据有无转移支付而分为两类：可转移支付联盟博弈( coalitio nal game with tran sferable payoff )和不可转移支付联盟博弈(coalitional game with non-transferable payoff )。

可转移支付也叫有旁支付(side payment )，可转移支付联盟博弈假设博弈中各参与者都用相同的尺度来衡量他们的赢得，且各联盟的赢得可以按任意方式在联盟成员中分摊；否则，就是不可转移支付联盟博弈。

可转移支付合作博弈合作博弈不可转移支付合作博、非合作博弈非合作博弈的分类主要从两个角度进行划分。

战略管理

4、逆向归纳法与前向归纳法的关系逆向归纳法——寻找子博弈完美纳什均衡的有效方法逆向归纳法(backward induction)的基本做法是从求解最后一个子博弈的纳什均衡开始，不断向后推，直至到初始决策节点，以求解整个博弈的纳什均衡。以这种方法找出的纳什均衡必定是子博弈完美纳什均衡。前向归纳法：参与人通过其他参与人早期的、过去的决策推断出一些信息，以帮助求解动态博弈。前向归纳法与逆向归纳法之间并没有冲突，而是相互补充。
战略管理题目
1、纳什均衡作为博弈论的优缺点是什么？纳什均衡：它是由全部参与人所选择的战略构成的这样一个组合，在这个组合中，每个参与人的战略都是针对其他参与人人战略选择的最优反应。优点：纳什均衡具有战略稳定性，在均衡状态之下没有人愿意单方面改变自己的战略选择，因此，纳什均衡具有自我实施特征。纳什均衡在战略实施中有着非常重要的意义。缺点：存在多个纳什均衡，这是纳什均衡的最大缺陷，降低了纳什均衡解的预测能力，因为一旦参与人的预期不一致，就可能出现极为糟糕的结局。
隐藏行动：是指博弈参与人采取的行动（如努力水平）一方知道而另一方不知道。 .隐藏行动问题的解决——激励机制设计之一（1）传统解决思路 A对隐藏行动者进行监督 B对隐藏行动者进行伦理教化。（2）创造一种激励机制让隐藏行动者自愿努力工作或学习。这种方法的实质就是尽量让人们自己监督自己。 A让隐藏行动者成为全部剩余收入的索取者。 B如果隐藏行动者是风险厌恶的，则为了激励他努力工作，只能将他的报酬与产出水平挂钩，即报酬依存于产出。 C产出不可测条件下的激励机制设计：机会成本激励法，赋予团队更大的决定权。
（6）行业进入风险。（7）行业退出风险。（8）内部经营整合风险。
2、占优策略的优缺点在企业各自的策略集中，如果存在一个与其他竞争对手可能采取的策略无关的最优选择，则称其为占优策略。所谓的占优策略就是指无论竞争对手如何反应都属于本企业最佳选择的竞争策略。

第一章什么是博弈

第一章什么是博弈一．管理活动中博弈现象无处不在1．如同我们的人生是由一局又一局的博弈组成的，各类管理实践也是如此，如管理者与被管理者之间的博弈，管理者之间的博弈，被管理者之间的博弈，企业与消费者之间的博弈，企业之间的博弈，等等。

案例1.斗鸡博弈白军红军进攻后退问题：在该博弈中，甲和乙应该如何决策？最终的博弈结局会是什么样的？斗鸡博弈在市场进入及许多社会问题的分析中有着非常重要的应用价值。

案例2.智猪博弈小猪大猪按等问题：在该博弈中，甲和乙应该如何决策？最终的博弈结局会是什么样的？智猪博弈在公共产品问题的分析中有着非常重要的应用。

案例3.报数博弈两人在1、2、3、4、5、6、7、8之间任意选择数字进行轮流报数，然后把两人已经报出的全部数字进行加总，谁报数后，加起来的数字大于等于174，谁就获胜。

如果让你先报，为了获胜，你应该采取什么报数策略？案例4：最低价格承诺我们上街经常会遇见一些大商场作出如下广告承诺：本商场承诺所卖的XX商品是市场最低价；若不是最低价，本商场将承诺退回差额并按照差额对消费者进行补偿。

问题：你有没有见过最低价格承诺？这些大商场为什么要作出最低价格承诺？他们的意图和目的是什么？2．到底什么是博弈（game）？（1）在日常生活中，人们经常把博弈狭隘地等同于讨价还价或勾心斗角、玩阴谋诡计。

（2）凡是具备以下几个特征的事件均可以视为博弈A.参与人之间或多或少存在利益上的相互冲突。

B.参与人获得的收益不仅取决于自己的决策，也取决于其他参与人的决策。

C.参与人的行动或决策相互之间存在直接的影响。

二．博弈的基本构成要素从上面的例子可以发现博弈是由以下基本要素构成的。

1.博弈的参与人（player）。

通常有n个人参与博弈，就称之为n人博弈思考：一场足球比赛是几人博弈？在构造博弈时一定要仔细辨别谁才是博弈真正的参与人，不要以为所有的当事人都是博弈的参与人。

例如，企业参加工程投标活动，博弈的参与人通常是谁？2.博弈的规则。

博弈论(第一、二章)

游戏2：摘柿子
甲跑
摇跑
乙
摇跑
甲
摇
乙跑
摇跑
甲
不跑（2,2）
（0,0）
（0,1）（2,0）
（0,3）（4,0）
游戏3：免费彩票博弈
每个人可以免费购买任意数量彩票，随机抽取1张彩票中奖，奖金总额为1000万元/n，n 为彩票数量。
博弈论：研究理性人行为选择的理论
博弈论作用：帮助个人、组织等决策主体深刻理解策略并明智的选择行动。
第二章完全信息静态博弈
� 基本分析思路和方法 � 纳什均衡 � 混合策略 � 纳什均衡的选择
第一节基本分析思路和方法
行动或策略（acቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱion or strategy）
si：局中人i的一个特定策略 Si：局中人i的策略集（strategy set）或策略空间（strategy space），可以是离散的或连续的。
纳什的基本贡献是证明了非合作博弈均衡解及其存在性，建立了作为博弈论基础的“纳什均衡”概念；海萨尼则把不完全信息纳入到博弈论方法体系中；泽尔腾的贡献在于将博弈论由静态向动态的扩展，建立了“子博弈精练纳什均衡”的概念。
1996莫里斯（James A.Mirrlees）和维克瑞（William Vickrey）
游戏1：军事游戏-进攻和防守
博弈结果表
守方
B 攻方 a -1 b -1 c +1 +1 +1 -1 +1 -1 -1
C -1 +1 +1
游戏1：军事游戏-进攻和防守
博弈结果表
守方
B 攻方 a -1 b -1 c +1 +1 +1 -1 +1 -1 -1

博弈论概述

“坦白”是A的占优策略。同样，“坦白”也是B的占优策略。
一般地，称 si*为局中人i的(严格)占优策略，若对应所有的
si , s i*是i的严格最优策略 , 即:
ui (si*, si ) ui (si' , si ) si , si' si*
对应地，所有的 si' si* 被称为“劣策略”。注意：这
甲的策略
1
2
3
乙的策略
1
7
8
9
2
6
2
3
3
5
4
0
1.乙先行动。若乙选1，则甲选3；乙选2，则甲选1；乙选3，则甲选1。乙在行动时会估计到甲的行动，它估计三种选择中的最高代价为策略1（损失900万），其次为策略2（损失 600万），最低为策略3（损失为500万）。因此，乙必选代价最低的策略3。——最大最小原理。结论：乙选择3，甲选 1作为回应，乙损失500万，甲获益500万。
在博弈论里，一个博弈可以有两种表述方式：一种是策略式（strategic form representation）表述，另一种是扩展式（ extensive form representation ）表述。前者适合于讨论静态博弈，后者适合于讨论动态博弈。在策略式表述中，所有参与人同时选择各自的策略，所有参与人选择的策略一起决定每个参与人的支付。
2007 - Leonid Hurwicz, Eric S. Maskin, Roger B. Myerson 2005 - Robert J. Aumann, Thomas C. Schelling 2001 - George A. Akerlof, A. Michael Spence, Joseph E.

电力市场(博弈论)-2022年学习资料

博弈理论在发电厂报价中的应用-电力市场不是一个完全意义上竞争的市场，而是一个-典型的寡头垄断的市场。而博弈是经济学上研究寡-头垄断市场常采用的工具之一，是专门研究两个或两-个以上有利益冲突的个体，在有相互作用的情下，-如何进行各自优化决策的理论。博弈论可以分为两类-非合作博弈和合作博弈。在非合作博弈中，每个决策-者都力使自己的利益最大化，而在合作博弈中决策-者可以形成同盟来最大化同盟的利益。在这章中，我-们的分析是基于非作博弈论。非合作博弈论可以进-一步分为完全信息博弈和不完全信息博弈。
博弈理论在发电厂报价中的应用-在完全信息博弈中，每个参与者的策略和利润函数都-是其他参与者的共同知识。最为名的博弈论问题就-是“囚犯的困惑”问题。Joey和Tom是两个嫌疑犯并且-分别被关在不同的监狱房间中。我们设两个囚犯都-是理性的。也就是说他们两人都更加关心自己的自由-囚犯有两个选择：承认或者否认。如果其中一个囚 -承认而另一个否认，那么承认犯罪的囚犯将被无罪释-放，而另一个将被判五年徒刑；如果两人都认罪，那-么两人都被判一年徒刑；如果两人都否认，那么两-人都将被判四年徒刑。下表所示为各种情况的判决服-刑期限：
博弈理论在发电厂报价中的应用-如果Tom认罪，Joey的最优决策也是认罪；如果Tom否-认，Joey的最优策还是认罪。因此，不管Tom是否认-罪，Joey的最优决策都是认罪。同理，Tom的最优决策-是认罪。在这个件中，对于Joey和Tom的最优决策都-是认罪，每人都被判入狱一年。这个结果被称为纳什-均衡衡。纳什均衡表在其他参与人的决策给定时，每-个参与人的决策都是对于其他决策作出的最优选择-也就是说，在纳什均衡时，如果参人在其他参与人-的决策都保持不变时而单方面改变了自己的决策，那-么他会减少其利润。
博弈理论在发电厂报价中的应用-6结果（outcome：结果是博弈分析者感兴趣-所在，如均衡战略组合，均衡行组合和均衡支付组-合等等。-7均衡equilibrium：均衡是所有参与人的最-优战略组合，一般记做-=-其中，s是第i个参与人在均衡情况下的最优战略，-它是参与人的所有可能的战略中使得支付最大化的战-略。

高级英语上讲义Lesson12

Lesson Twelve Why I Write一、Words and Expressions1.aesthetic-esthetic adj.美学的，审美的，艺术的美学标准aesthetic standards美感 aesthetic sense这个建筑的设计很美观。

The design of this building is very aesthetic.adv.aesthetically n.aesthetics 美学2.arrest-arresting v.-adj.put/place sb.under arrest她因为企图盗窃被捕了。

She was put under arrest for attempted burglary.adj.arresting: striking, appealing, attractivearresting smile/gesture/behavior3.backbone n.脊柱，中坚，栋梁，勇气， support这一代的年轻人是国家的栋梁之才。

The young of this generation are the backbone of the country.He has no backbone.他没有脊梁骨（没有坚强的性格）。

to the backbone彻底地backlog 积压的工作 a backlog of work, unanswered lettersback number 过期的期刊4.bout n.I.bout of (doing) sth.一回，一阵II.(疾病的)侵袭，发作 a bout of flu她患多发性抑郁症。

She suffered from frequent bouts of depression. III.拳击或摔跤比赛。

pulsion n.强制 being compelledI．under compulsion他勉强接受他们的邀请。

《产业经济学》第五章--(博弈1)讲解

在上述“囚徒困境”的例子中，每个囚徒都有两种可选择的策略：坦白或抵赖。显然不论同伙选择什么策略，每个囚徒的最优策略是 “坦白”。如果一个博弈中，某个参与人有占优策略，那么该参与人的其他可选择策略就被称为“劣策略”。
在一个博弈里，如果所有参与人都有占优策略存在，那么占优策略均衡是可以预测到的唯一的均衡，因为没有一个理性的参与人选择劣策略。所以在“囚徒困境”博弈里，“坦白、坦白”是占优策略均衡。
第五章博弈
第一节博弈论的基本概念与应用
一、博弈论的定义博弈论，英文为Game theory，是研究相互依赖、相互影响的决策主体的理性决策行为以及这些决策的均衡结果的理论。一些相互依赖、相互影响的决策行为及其结果的组合称为博弈。博弈论研究的是存在相互外部效应条件下的主体的决策问题。
在寡头垄断的市场上，只有少数几家厂商在相互竞争，寡头们面对的市场环境或者说竞争对手的行为将随着他们本身的决策行为而变动，即寡头们的决策是相互作用的，每个企业的得益和利润不仅取决于自身的决策，也取决于其他厂商的决策。寡头厂商之间可能有激烈的竞争，这些竞争涉及价格、产量、广告、投资等许多方面的决策，在分析寡头垄断市场中的企业决策行为时，就必须把各种决策者之间的策略相互作用纳入到经济模型中，这就是一种博弈分析。
1．从行动的先后次序来划分，博弈可以分为静态博弈和动态博弈。静态博弈指在博弈中，参与人同时选择行动或虽非同时但后行动者并不知道先行动者采取了什么具体行动；动态博弈指的是参与人的行动有先后顺序，且后行动者能够观察到先行动者所选择的行动的博弈。
2．从参与人对其他参与人的各种特征信息的获得差异来划分，博弈可分为完全信息博弈和不完全信息博弈。完全信息博弈指的是每一个参与人对所有其他参与人的特征，如策略集合及得益函数都有准确完备的知识；否则就是不完全信息博弈。

Lecture 12 cohesion andcoherence 英语词汇学教学课件

Conjunctions
Conjuncts have a fundamental role in the cohesion of a text and may have various functions
Listing (indicating that what follows is a list of propositions) To start with, First, Second, Third
Chapter 12 Cohesion & Coherence
Revision Causes for Meaning Change in Words
1. Historical 2. Social 3. Psychological 4. linguistic
Pencil”, for instance, is from a Latin word meaning “a little tail” or “a fine brush”, like our Chinese “pen”. Later, when it was made of wood and graphite, it was still called a “pencil”. “Engine” originates in Latin word “ingenium, natural ability”. But when stream power was developed in the first quarter of the 19th century, the term “engine” comes to mean “a railroad locomotive”, and in contemporary English it means “any machine that uses energy to develop mechanical power, esp., a machine for starting motion in some other machine”

博弈论——完全信息动态博弈

2 完全信息的动态博弈2.1完全和完美信息的动态博弈动态博弈(dynamic game)：参与人在不同的时间选择行动。

完全信息动态博弈指的是各博弈方先后行动，后行动者知道先行动者的具体行动是什么且各博弈方对博弈中各种策略组合下所有参与人相应的得益都完全了解的博弈静态博弈习惯用战略式(Strategic form representation)表述，动态博弈习惯用扩展式（Extensive form representation）表述。

战略式表述的三要素：参与人集合、每个参与人的战略集合、由战略组合决定的每个参与人的支付。

扩展式表述的要素包括：参与人集合、参与人的行动顺序、参与人的行动空间、参与人的信息集、参与人的支付函数、外生事件（自然的选择）的概率分布。

n人有限战略博弈的扩展式表述用博弈树来表示1(1,2) (0,3)①结：包括决策结和终点结。

决策结是参与人采取行动的时点，终点结是博弈行动路径的终点。

第一个行动选择对应的决策结为“初始结”，用空心圆表示，其它决策结用实心圆表示。

X表示结的集合，x X表示某个特定的结。

z表示终点结，Z表示终点结集合。

表示结之间的顺序关系，x x´表示x在x´之前。

x之前所有结的集合称为x的前列集，x之后所有结的集合称为x的后续集。

以下两种情况不允许：前者违背了传递性和反对称性；后者违背了前列节必须是全排序的。

在以上两个假设之下，每个终点结都完全决定了博弈树的某个路径。

②枝：博弈树上，枝是从一个决策结到其直接后续结的连线，每一个枝代表参与人的一个行动选择。

在每一个枝旁标注该具体行动的代号。

一般地，每个决策结下有多个枝，给出每次行动时参与人的行动空间，即此时有哪些行动可供选择。

③信息集（information sets）：博弈树中某一决策者在某一行动阶段具有相同信息的所有决策结集合称为一个信息集。

博弈树上的所有决策结分割成不同的信息集。

每一个信息集是决策结集合的一个子集(信息集是由决策结构成的集合)，该子集包括所有满足下列条件的决策结：(1)每一个决策结都是同一个参与人的决策结。

1 完全信息静态博弈

1.4.3委托-代理关系中被设计的囚徒困境

囚徒困境对于人们来说是糟糕的，是应当竭力避免的？在一些委托-代理关系中，故意创造出代理人之间的囚徒困境有时对委托人有好处。这样的囚徒困境对于效率来说是一种促进。委托-代理关系：通常的含义是委托人请代理人代理某件事情。其中的关键问题是二者利益不一致，并且委托人与代理人之间存在信息不对称。为此，需要设计一种制度 (system)或机制(mechanism) ，使代理人在追求自己利益的同时也最大化委托人的利益，如何设计这样的制度就是信息经济学研究的问题。
1 完全信息静态博弈

博弈论的基本概念及战略式表述纳什均衡纳什均衡应用举例混合战略纳什均衡纳什均衡的存在性与多重性
1.1 博弈论基本概念I
参与人：博弈中的决策主体，i=1,2,·,n · · 虚拟参与人：自然N，表示博弈面临的环境或外生条件。行动：ai表示第i个参与人的一个特定行动 Ai={ai}表示可供i选择的所有行动的集合。如， {坦白，抵赖}。 n人博弈中，n个参与人行动的有序集a称为“行动组合”。如（坦白，坦白），（坦白，抵赖），（抵赖，坦白），（抵赖，抵赖）信息：参与人有关博弈的知识，特别是关于“自
供应商 B 8.5 10 供应商 A 8.5 10 125，125 0，250 250，0 200，200
1.5 重复剔除的占优均衡
智猪博弈(Boxed Pigs) ：一头大猪和一只小猪生活在同一猪圈里，共用一食槽。食槽的一端有一个开关，猪用嘴一拱，食槽的另一端会掉下包子。假定按一下会掉下10个包子，而跑去按开关的猪会耗费2个包子的能量。如果小猪按开关，大猪先吃，等小猪按完跑过来时，大猪会吃掉8个包子，小猪只能吃到2个；如果大猪先按开关，按完后跑过来，小猪会吃掉4个包子，大猪可以吃到6个；如果都不去按开关，就会被一起饿死。小猪战略式描述按等按 6，0 4，4 大猪 10，-2 0，0 等

lesson12

12 AdjectivesFirst and Second Declension AdjectivesMorphology: The Nominal System (Part 7)Lesson Twelve Overview§12.0 Introduction, 12-1§12.1 General Introduction to Adjectives, 12-2§12.2 Introduction to Greek Adjectives, 12-7§12.3 The verb EIMI, 12-37§12.4 Adjective Flow Chart, 12-42§12.5 Vocabulary Study, 12-43Study Guide, 12-47§12.0 IntroductionLessons six through eleven focused on nouns, specifically first and second declension nouns. Nouns name or designate a person, thing, or quality and form the nominal nucleus of a language. However, if it was not for another vital part of speech, the adjective, nouns would lack vividness as to definiteness, shape, size, quantity, color, and texture—words that describe nouns that otherwise would be general or bland.Adjectives stimulate the mind to form indelible mental images about the state of a noun. They ascribe quality, quantity, and distinction to nouns. Without them, speech would be boring, reading dull, and the excitement drawn from the five senses non-descriptive. Indeed, it would be a dreary and monotonous world without adjectives.Adjectives that modify nouns lend distinction to them. They are almost as important as their governing noun—if not as important. Consider the opening two lines of Edgar Allan Poe’s poem, The Raven.Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary, Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore,If the adjectives, a, dreary, weak, weary, many, quaint, curious, and forgotten were removed and the stanza revised as “Once upon midnight, while I pondered, over volume of lore”, who would read it twice, much less quote it? Without the adjectives, the intense mood of despair is broken.The power of the verses are defined by Poe’s literary genius of word choice and placement of the adjectives—“only this, and nothing more”.§12.1 General Introduction to AdjectivesAdjectives are an important part of speech in English and Greek. Both languages abound with them and share certain traits. An overview concerning adjectives is first outlined with an emphasis upon how they function in English before comparing and contrasting their characteristics with those of Greek adjectives (cf. §12.2).§12.11 Definition. Either in English and Greek, an adjective may modify a noun, pronoun, or a phrase used as a substantive, by describing or limiting as to quality, quantity, or definiteness.When an adjective modifies a substantive, the adjective adds detail and specifies the substantive as something distinct from something else. For example, various adjectives can make the noun dog more specific. A speckled dog adds a quality. This young small speckled Dalmatian dog adds even more detail to differentiate it from possible other dogs.An adjective is identified by its function or position in a sentence. Most adjectives can come between an article and a noun, and can stand singly before or after copulative verbs (i.e., “is”, “am”, “are”, etc.). In addition, adjectives express degrees of comparison by function words (cf. §12.13). As a part of speech in English, adjectives are usually single and occasionally hyphenated words (i.e., one-eyed, know-it-all, long-term). However, expressions that roughly perform the same function are adjectival phrases and adjectival clauses. For example, in the angry man and the man angered by her cruel behavior, the clause angered by her cruel behavior modifies the noun man, just as the adjective angry does. Greek adjectival phrases and clauses will be studied in later lessons. Many adjectives were originally nouns placed near other nouns to describe or otherwise limit their meaning, and gradually grew into a distinct class of words. This is true in both English and Greek. In fact, the Greek term for “adjective”, o1n oma e0p i/q eton, appropriately describes their function as descriptive words or “epithets” that are adjunct to nouns.The adjective is not the only method in Greek to describe asubstantive. The same force belongs to a noun in thegenitive case, especially the genitive of description and thegenitive of apposition. These as well as other usages of thegenitive will be explained in a later lesson.§12.12 Function of adjectives. Adjectives may be identified according to their function in a sentence. The following three roles of adjectives are the classic categorization used in most grammars.§12.121 Attributive. Most English adjectives occur before nouns: large house, quick lunch, fun time. These adjectives attribute a quality to nouns. These types of adjectives are attributive. An attributive adjective is always dependant upon the substantive it modifies. It never occurs by itself without its substantive. If an article modifies the noun, whether definite or indefinite, the attributive adjective is sandwiched between the two: a hard table, the hot poker. When an adjective precedes the noun, pronoun, or substantive it modifies, it is in the attributive position. English attributive adjectives occasionally occur immediately after the noun for dramatic or more emphatic effect, but are not technically categorized as in the attributive position in English (i.e., president elect, God Almighty, face white with fear, joy unspeakable, Kansas City proper).§12.122 Predicative. Adjectives can also come before or follow a copulative verb. Copulative verbs include the verb to be and such verbs as seem, become, or feel, verbs that never take a direct object. In the sentence, “The bed is hard”, the adjective hard follows the copulative verb is and modifies the noun bed. With these verbs, the adjective supplies the predication about the noun; hence, predicate adjectives. Not only do they differ from attributive adjectives by their function in a sentence, but also in that no article is employed with them. Adjectives that are “coupled” to a noun with copulative verbs are in the predicate position.Some predicate adjectives may precede a copulative verb, in which case, the subject then follows: “Blessed are the peacemakers”. Adjectives that follow nouns and repeat the meaning of the noun in different words are adjective appositives: The boring speech, long and dull, lasted forever!Whatever positions an adjective sustain, whether attributive or predicative, it has the function of modifying by qualifying, limiting, identifying, or describing the meaning of the substantive with which it is connected.§12.123 Substantive. Sometimes, adjectives may function as a substantive. In these instances, the adjective does not modify a noun but is itself a substantive as in “the good die young”, or “the poor you have always with you”. These adjectives are functioning substantivally. Substantival adjectives are not ascribed a position as attributive and predicate adjectives are, and their function in a sentence is indistinguishable from a substantive. The article normally precedes a substantival adjective.§12.13 Degrees of comparison. Adjectives have three degrees of comparison, called the positive, the comparative, and the superlative. The positive degree expresses the quality of an object without reference to another object: “a large house”. The comparative degree shows that an object has more or less of a quality than some other object or objects with which it is compared: “a larger house”. The superlative degree expresses the greatest or least amount or intensity of a quality that is found among all the objects of a group compared: “the largest house”. The definite article usually accompanies the superlative degree of the adjective.§12.131 Adjectives with one syllable. Most positive adjectives of one syllable add –er to form the comparative and –est to form the superlative, as shown in the following examples.Positive Comparative Superlative cold colder thecoldestwarmest warm warmer thewettest wet wetter thedriest dry drier thelowest low lower thehighest high higher theslow slower theslowestfastest fast faster the§12.132 Adjectives of more than one syllable. Adjectives with more than one syllable usually indicate differences in amount of degree by the addition of function words or by spelling changes. The function words “less” and “least” indicate decreasing amounts or degrees. The function words “more” and “most” show increasing amounts of degrees. These function words come before the positive to indicate the comparative and the superlative, respectively, as in the examples.Positive Comparative Superlative interestingless interesting the least interestingmore interesting the most interestingless accurate the least accurate accuratemore accurate the most accurate anxiousless anxious the least anxiousmore anxious the most anxious honestless honest the least honestmore honest the most honest lovelyless lovelier the least loveliestmore lovelier the most loveliestMany adjectives, including handsome, happy, lovely, and proud, may be compared by either method: happy, happier, happiest; or happy, more happy, most happy.§12.133 Irregular adjectives. Few English adjectives indicate comparison by irregular forms. These forms follow no pattern and are a source of consternation for those learning English as a second language.Positive Comparative Superlativebest good better theworst bad worse themost many more theleast less lesser thelatest late later thefar farther, further the farthest, furthest§12.134 Absolute adjectives. Although most adjectives indicate three degrees of comparison, a few adjectives exist in only one degree (unique , foremost , and perfect , and the ordinal numerals [i.e., first , second , third , etc.]) These are absolute adjectives and they do not permit comparison.§12.14 Classification of Adjectives. Adjectives may be classifiedaccording to their function, attributing quality, quantity, or as a determiner, answering the questions “What kind of?”, “How much?”, and “Which” or “What?” respectively.The chart below shows these general classifications of adjectives with a few subcategories. Although these broad classifications could be further subdivided into more subcategories, it is not necessary for this overview.Definition and ExamplesDenotes quality that is descriptive and specifies the kind, nature, or condition of the words they modify. Amongothers, adjectives of this category describe material,spatial, possibility, necessity, and proper. The properadjective is always written with a capital letter.Subjective: beautiful woman, young man, bad choiceObjective: black dog, red house, unique qualityQuality “What kind of?” Proper: French cuisine, American flag Limits substantives to their quantity or number. Quantity “How much?”thirty cents, a six-year-old child, many trees, few goldfish Place limits on a noun rather than add description. Several groups of words serve as determiners, including the article, possessive, demonstrative, indefinite, andinterrogative pronouns.Article: a boy, an addendum, the girlPossessive: his book, her toy, my kiteDemonstrative: this computer, that album, these booksIndefinite: some food, several coinsC l a s s i f i c a t i o n Determiner “Which?” “What?” Interrogative: Which ones? What are the costs?We are now ready to turn our attention specifically to Greek adjectives.§12.2 Introduction to Greek AdjectivesThe fundamental aspects of English adjectives correlate to Greekadjectives, specifically in definition (§12.11), function (§12.12), degrees of comparison (§12.13), and classification (§12.14). However, there are particular aspects of Greek adjectives that deserve special attention.§12.21 Grammatical concord. When an adjective functions adjectivally, it agrees with the substantive it modifies in case, gender, and number .Adding adjectives to an English sentence is straightforward. Whetheradding adjectives to describe men, women, or inanimate objects like books or trees, they all could be described as “good”. An English adjective may be put next to any substantive it modifies, and the adjective does not change form to conform to the substantive’s case, gender, and number because the adjective is not inflected to agree with its substantive.In Greek, however, such simplicity is not possible because of inflection. Like the substantives they modify, adjectives are an inflected part ofspeech. Greek adjectives are inflected for each of the five cases, the three genders, and the two numbers. This makes it possible for any adjective to agree in grammatical concord with the substantive it modifies in case, gender, and number—like the article.The good news is that, because Greek adjectives decline like nouns, there are not any new case-number forms to learn. The bad news is that, like the article, they do not always reflect the same declensional ending as the noun they modify. Let us look at a few examples of adjectives modifying nouns and see why.1. In the first example, the stem for the adjective a)g aqo/j is a)g aqo .jthe good manBecause of grammatical concord, the adjective a)g aqo/j must agree in case, gender, and number with its substantive, a!n qrwpoj (nominative masculine singular). Therefore, the adjective is inflected in its nominative, masculine singular form to agree with its substantive. In this instance, the adjective replicates the declensional ending of its substantive.Like words that are adjectives, the article functions as anadjective and must agree with the substantive it modifiesbecause of grammatical concord. Grammatical concord mustbe maintained at all times in a language that is inflected.2. In the next example, the stem again for the adjective a)g aqo/j is a)g aqo.tw~ a)g aq w| e1r g w|the good workAgain, because of grammatical concord, the adjective a)g aqw~must agree in case, gender, and number with its substantive, e1r gw~(dative neuter singular). Therefore, the adjective is inflected in its dative neuter singular form to agree with its substantive. Once again, both the adjective and substantive have identical declensional endings.3. In the next example, the stem for the adjective a)g aqo/j is a)g aqh.h9 a)g aq h bi/b lo jBecause the substantive bi/b loj (n-2b) is nominative feminine singular, its modifying adjective has to agree in case, gender, and number—and it does, although it may not look like it! The reason why the adjective does not appear to modify correctly its substantive is that the declensional ending of a)g aqh/is first declension and the substantive it modifiesbi/b loj is a second declension feminine noun that replicates masculine case-number declensional endings.4. In the final example, the stem for the adjective a)g aqo/j is a)g aqo.oi9 a)g aqo i maqhta iThis example is the reverse of the one above. The substantive is a firstdeclension nominative masculine plural noun, modified by a seconddeclension adjectival form. In this instance, the inflected suffixes -oi and -ai are in grammatical concord, although they differ in both spelling andpronunciation.In examples three and four, a common difficulty arises when trying toreconcile grammatical concord and phonetic dissonance. This is becauseadjectives of a different declension are modifying nouns that do not sharethe same inflected declensional endings. However, this is not any differentfrom Greek articles modifying nouns of divergent phonetic dissonance.Consider the following examples.1. h9o9d o/j, th=j o9d ou=, th=o9d w~, ai9o9d oi/, tai=j o9d oi=j2. tw~neani/a, oi9neani/a i, toi=j neani/a ij, tou\j neani/a j3. tw~maqhth=, oi9maqhtai/, toi=j maqhtai=j, tou\j maqhta&jWhat is the solution of overcoming phonetic dissonance when grammatical concord is not apparent because of cross-declension agreement? Without exception, know the gender of every noun without hesitation.Those whose native language is largely uninflected like English cannot truly appreciate from the outset the significance of knowing a noun’s gender in a highly inflected language like Greek. The Greek noun is the focal point of the nominal system, around which all other words that modify it must agree in case, gender, and number. Knowing the gender of a noun will clarify possible misunderstandings that might arise because of translation ambiguity.For example, in Matthew 26:27, the King James Version reads, “Drink ye all of it.” Did Jesus command each of His disciples to drink the entire cup?If this was the case, after the first disciple drank, the next disciple would not have anything to drink, since they were sharing the same cup. The adjective “all” is nominative masculine plural and modifies the subject of the verb “drink”; the adjective cannot modify the cup. Therefore, the only possible meaning in Greek is “All of you drink from it.” However, one would not know this authoritatively without knowing that the adjective was modifying the subject of the sentence, and not the cup.§12.22 Function of Greek adjectives. Like English adjectives, Greek adjectives may be identified according to their function in a sentence. Like English, Greek adjective have one of three functions: it may have an attributive relation to a noun; it may have a predicative relation to a noun; or it may function substantively as though it were itself a noun.Because Greek word order is more flexible than in English, inflection allows adjectives freer word order and therefore may appear in unexpected places than anticipated in English.§12.22.1 Attributive. A Greek adjective may function attributively with or without the article. The attributive adjective, however, is always articular if an article occurs in the construction. Attributive adjectives occur in both the singular and plural numbers, in all three genders, and in all five cases. §12.22.11 First attributive position. The usual word order that an adjective sustains in Greek is the same as the student is familiar with English: article-adjective-substantive.1. o9 a)g aqo\j a!n qrwpoj oi9 a)g aqoi\ a!n qrwpoithe good man the good men2. h9 a)g aqh\ kardi/a ai9 a)g aqai\ kardi/a ithe good heart the good hearts3. to\ a)g aqo\n e1r gon ta_ a)g aqa_ e1r gathe good work the good works4. th=j a)g aqh=j o9d ou= tw~n a)g aqw~n o9d w~nof the good way of the good waysAn adjective in the first attributive position is immediately preceded by the article and both precede the anarthrous substantive. Some grammarians also call this adjective’s position ascriptive restrictive. Translation follows sentence order.§12.22.12 Second attributive position. Not as common as the previous construction, another attributive construction is article-substantive article-adjective. The word order is crucial—both the substantive and the adjective are articular, and the substantive precedes the adjective.1. o9 no/m oj o9 a)g aqo/j oi9 no/m oi oi9 a)g aqoi/the law the good one the laws the good onesTranslation: the good law Translation: the good laws2. h9 bi/b loj h9 a)g aqh/ ai9 bi/b loi ai9 a)g aqai/the scroll the good one the scrolls the good onesTranslation: the good scroll Translation: the good scrolls3. th\n w#r an th\n prw&t hn ta_j w#r aj ta_j prw&t aj the hour the first one the hours the first onesTranslation: the first hour Translation: the first hours4. tou= dw&r ou tou= kainou= tw~n dw&r wn tw~n kainw~n of the gift the of new one of the gifts the of new ones Translation: of the new gift Translation: of the new giftsThe reverse construction, article-adjective article-substantive, does not occur in NTGreek.o9 a)g aqo\j o9 a!n qrwpojAn adjective in the second attributive position is immediately preceded by the article and both follow the articular substantive. Some grammarians also call this adjective’s position restrictive attributive.A possible difference in emphasis between first and second attributive position adjectives is suggested by some Greek grammarians. Some posit that the second attributive adjective is somewhat more emphatic in word order than the first because of its post-position articular construction.It is my personal observation, however, that authors with a Semitic background (i.e., the Apostle John) are more likely to employ the second attributive position than the first. Therefore, just because an author uses the adjective in the second attributive position may not convey emphasis if it is their normal literary style. Care must be exercised to examine an author’s stylistic predictability before making an assertion that one position is more emphatic than another. Otherwise, possible theological inaccuracies may develop because of faulty exegesis.§12.22.13 Third attributive position. The third and final articular attributive position is rarely found in NTGreek: noun article-adjective.1. ei0r h/n hn th\n e0m h/n John 14:27Translation: my peace2. E pai/n eton to\n a)g aphto/n mou Romans 16:5Translation: Epenetus [my] beloved [friend]3. Gai/w tw~a)g aphtw~ 3 John 1Translation: to Gaius [my] beloved [friend]4. Babulw_n h9mega&l h Revelation 18:2Translation: Babylon the greatAn adjective in the third attributive position is immediately preceded by the article and both follow the anarthrous substantive.§12.22.14 Anarthrous attributive adjective. The last attributive adjective construction lacks an article before both the substantive and adjective. This type of construction occurs occasionally in NTGreek. Adjectives that precede the substantive are pre-positive, and those that follow are postpositive. Most anarthrous adjectives are postpositive.The following examples illustrate the anarthrous attributive adjective in both pre-positive and postpositive positions. Regardless of position, the translation is identical.1. a!n qrwpoj a)g aqo/j a)g aqo\j a!n qrwpojTranslation: good man Translation: good man2. a!n qrwpoj a(m artwlo/j a(m artwlo\j a!n qrwpoj Translation: sinful man Translation: sinful man3. karpou\j kalou/j kalou\j karpou/jTranslation: good fruit Translation: good fruit4. dida&s kale a)g aqe/ a)g aqe\dida&s kaleTranslation: good teacher Translation: good teacher§12.22.15 Possible attributive adjective constructions. The possible different positions of the attributive adjective may vary, depending upon an author’s desire of emphasis (if it varies from his predictable literary style).Sentence order Translation1. o9a)g aqo\j a)p o/s toloj The good apostle (1st attributive)2. o9a)p o/s toloj o9a)g aqo/j The good apostle (2nd attributive)3. ei0h n hn th\n e0m h/n my peace (3rd attributive)4. a)p o/s toloj a)g aqo/j good apostle (anarthrous attributive)§12.22.16 Important information about the attributive construction.1. Position of the article. In most instances, the attributive adjectivewill be articular. However, if the article does not immediatelyprecede the adjective, it should not be automatically assumed that it is not an attributive adjective (cf. John 1:18; monogenh\j qeo/j, “theunique God”). Because of the nature of its construction, theanarthrous attributive adjective is at times confused with itspredicative use (cf. §12.22.2). Generally, if the article immediatelyprecedes the adjective, the adjective is attributive or substantive; ifthe adjective is anarthrous, it is predicative.2. Grammatical concord. The adjective agrees with the explicitsubstantive it modifies in case, gender, and number.3. Emphasis. The second attributive position is: article-noun-article-adjective. The difference in the placement of the adjective is ofposition. In this structure, both the substantive and adjective receive emphasis. The adjective follows the noun in a climactic position with its own article. A literal translation that brings out the force is "theword, the good one". However, caution must be exercised, because the author’s style must be examined before emphasis can bedetermined.4. Translation. Regardless whether the adjective is pre-positive orpostpositive, the translation is identical in English.§12.22.2 Predicative. In contrast to the attributive adjective, an adjective may also be used as the complement of a copulative verb such as ei0m i/ (“I am”). Copulative verbs are also called linking or equative verbs by some grammarians. The distinctive feature concerning copulative verbs is that they never take a direct object, but instead, make an affirmation about the substantive it modifies, functioning as an equal sign (=) between the substantive and the adjective.An adjective functions predicatively only when it meets three criteria: (1) the adjective is anarthrous, (2) the presence of an explicit or implicit substantive (with or without the article), and (3) the construction includes a copulative verb. However, unlike English, a copulative verb does not have to be explicit in a Greek predicate construction. The omission of the copulative verb does not compromise the force of the predicate adjective.1. o9lo/g oj e0s ti\n a)g aqo/j a)g aqo\j e0s ti\n o9lo/g ojTranslation: the word is good Translation: the word is good2. o9lo/g oj a)g aqo/j a)g aqo\j o9lo/g ojTranslation: the word is good Translation: the word is good3. lo/g oj a)g aqo/j a)g aqo\j lo/g ojTranslation: word [is] good Translation: word [is] good§12.22.21 Possible predicate adjective constructions. The possible different positions of the predicate adjective may vary, depending upon an author’s desire of emphasis (if it varies from his predictable literary style).Examples 1, 3, 5, and 8 lend emphasis to the substantive, whereas emphasis is on the adjective in examples 2, 4, 6, and 7. Because of inflection, Greek can make distinctions in the use of adjectives that are impossible to reflect in uninflected languages, being translated the same because of the language’s inflexible sentence order.Sentence order Translation1. o9a)p o/s toloj e0s tin a)g aqo/j. The apostle is good.2. a)g aqo\j e0s ti\n o9a)p o/s toloj. The apostle is good.3. a)p o/s toloj e0s ti\n a)g aqo/j. Apostle is good.4. a)g aqo\j e0s ti\n a)p o/s toloj Apostle is good.5. o9a)p o/s toloj a)g aqo/j. The apostle [is] good.6. a)g aqo\j o9a)p o/s toloj. The apostle [is] good.7. a)g aqo\j a)p o/s toloj. Apostle [is] good.8. a)p o/s toloj a)g aqo/j. Apostle [is] good.§12.22.22 Important information about the predicative construction.1. Position of the article. The article never immediately precedes thepredicate adjective. However, Greek syntax allows the adjective to be placed before or after an anarthrous or articular substantive—but never between the article (if present) and the substantive it modifies. In other words, the article does not determine the relation of the adjective to the noun, but the manner by which the adjective characterizes the noun: whether the adjective is incidental (attributive) or significant(predicative) in the statement.2. Attributive versus Predicative. The larger context determines whenan adjective is functioning attributively or predicatively. For example, ifa)g aqo\j lo/g oj stands alone as a complete sentence, the adjectivefunctions predicatively. However, in a sentence that contains a verb other than a copulative verb, the adjective functions attributively. An attributive adjective generally is articular in NTGreek—but not always!Most anarthrous noun and adjective combinations are attributive.。

【小卒过河】托福iBT阅读+听力经典加试整理...

TOEFL IBT经典加试整理版READING (2)苏美尔文明 (2)达尔文进化论 (4)marsupial（有袋动物） (5)威尼斯的盐事业 (5)第三篇地核物质成分 (6)第四篇玛雅文明 (6)第五篇生物适应性（1月13号阅读） (6)第六篇MS第一次出现（12月16号） (6)Listening (7)神经元细胞（四道题） (7)ID Problem (8)浪漫主义诗歌 (8)鸟类迁徙bird migration (9)Ragtime music (9)大王花Rafflesia (10)第七篇(加试-conversation) (11)第八篇(加试-lecture) (11)第九篇(加试-lecture) (11)第十篇听力MS第一次出现12月1号 (12)第十一篇北美加考 (12)第十二篇从以后的JJ来看，好像就出现过一次10月18号 (12)READING苏美尔文明Mesopotamia的背景：美索不达米亚亚洲西南部Tigris 和Euphrates 两河流域间的古王国,美索不达米亚古代西南亚介于底格里斯河和幼发拉底河之间的一个地区，位于现在的伊拉克境内。

可能在公元前5000年以前就开始有人在此定居。

这一地区孕育了众多的人类早期文明，其中包括苏美尔文明、阿卡德文明、巴比伦文明和亚述文明。

蒙古侵略者在公元1258年破坏了该地区发达的灌溉系统之后，这一地区的重要性就此减小。

其中巴比伦文明以其成就斐然而成为两河流域文明的典范，古巴比伦王国与古埃及、古印度和中国构成了人们所说的世界四大文明古国。

尼罗河文明：发源于非洲尼罗河（Nile）流域，又称古埃及文明，其历史也可追溯到公元前4000年。

公元前3100年左右，上埃及国王美尼斯统一上下埃及，开始了史称的埃及王朝时期，也就代表了古埃及文明的正式开始。

美索布达米娅文化Sumerian civilization第一段：美文化和埃及文化同时，但因为美的地域限制一直没有统一。

lecture_notes_ch1-4

1IntroductionThis chapter introduces the concept of a game and encourages the reader to begin thinking about the formal analysis of strategic situations.The chapter contains a short history of game theory,followed by a description of“non-cooperative theory”(which the book emphasizes),a discussion of the notion of contract and the related use of“cooperative theory,”and comments on the science and art of applied theoretical work.The chapter explains that the word“game”should be associated with any well-deﬁned strategic situation,not just adversarial contests.Finally,the format and style of the book are described.Lecture NotesThe non-administrative segment of aﬁrst lecture in game theory may run as follows.•Deﬁnition of a strategic situation.•Examples(have students suggest some):chess,poker,and other parlor games;tennis,football,and other sports;ﬁrm competition,international trade,inter-national relations,ﬁrm/employee relations,and other standard economic exam-ples;biological competition;elections;and so on.•Competition and cooperation are both strategic topics.Game theory is a generalmethodology for studying strategic settings(which may have elements of bothcompetition and cooperation).•The elements of a formal game representation.•A few simple examples of the extensive form representation(point out the basiccomponents).Examples and Experiments1.Clap game.Ask the students to stand and then,if they comply,ask them toclap.(This is a silly game.)Show them how to diagram the strategic situationas an extensive form tree.The game starts with your decision about whether toask them to stand.If you ask them to stand,then they(modeled as one player)have to choose between standing and staying in their seats.If they stand,thenyou decide between saying nothing and asking them to clap.If you ask them toclap,then they have to decided whether to clap.Write the outcomes at terminalnodes in descriptive terms such as“professor happy,students confused.”Thenshow how these outcomes can be converted into payoﬀnumbers.13Instructors' Manual for Strategy:Copyright 2002, 2008 by Joel Watson1INTRODUCTION142.Auction the textbook.Many students will probably not have purchased thetextbook by theﬁrst class meeting.These students may be interested in pur-chasing the book from you,especially if they can get a good deal.However,quite a few students will not know the price of the book.Without announcingthe bookstore’s price,hold a sealed-bid,ﬁrst-price auction(using real money).This is a common-value auction with incomplete information.The winning bidmay exceed the bookstore’s price,giving you an opportunity to talk about the“winner’s curse”and to establish a fund to pay students in future classroomexperiments.Instructors' Manual for Strategy:Copyright 2002, 2008 by Joel Watson2The Extensive FormThis chapter introduces the basic components of the extensive form in a non-technical way.Students who learn about the extensive form at the beginning of a course are much better able to grasp the concept of a strategy than are students who are taught the normal formﬁrst.Since strategy is perhaps the most important concept in game theory,a good understanding of this concept makes a dramatic diﬀerence in each student’s ability to progress.The chapter avoids the technical details of the extensive form representation in favor of emphasizing the basic components of games.The technical details are covered in Chapter14.Lecture NotesThe following may serve as an outline for a lecture.•Basic components of the extensive form:nodes,branches.Nodes are wherethings happen.Branches are individual actions taken by the players.•Example of a game tree.•Types of nodes:initial,terminal,decision.•Build trees by expanding,never converging back on themselves.At any placein a tree,you should always know exactly how you got there.Thus,the treesummarizes the strategic possibilities.•Player and action labels.Try not to use the same label for diﬀerent places wheredecisions are made.•Information sets.Start by describing the tree as a diagram that an externalobserver creates to map out the possible sequences of decisions.Assume theexternal observer sees all of the players’actions.Then describe what it meansfor a player to not know what another player did.This is captured by dashedlines indicating that a player cannot distinguish between two or more nodes.•We assume that the players know the game tree,but that a given player maynot know where he is in the game when he must make any particular decision.•An information set is a place where a decision is made.•How to describe simultaneous moves.•Outcomes and how payoﬀnumbers represent preferences.15Instructors' Manual for Strategy:Copyright 2002, 2008 by Joel Watson2THE EXTENSIVE FORM16Examples and ExperimentsSeveral examples should be used to explain the components of an extensive form.In addition to some standard economic examples(such asﬁrm entry into an industry and entrant/incumbent competition),here are a few I routinely use:1.Three-card poker.In this game,there is a dealer(player1)and two potentialbetters(players2and3).There are three cards in the deck:a high card,amiddle card,and a low card.At the beginning of the game,the dealer looks atthe cards and gives one to each of the other players.Note that the dealer candecide which of the cards goes to player2and which of the cards goes to player3.(There is no move by Nature in this game.The book does not deal with movesof Nature until Part IV.You can discuss moves of Nature at this point,but itis not necessary.)Player2does not observe the card dealt to player3,nor doesplayer3observe the card dealt to player2.After the dealer’s move,player2observes his card and then decides whether to bet or to fold.After player2’sdecision,player3observes his own card and also whether player2folded orbet.Then player3must decide whether to fold or bet.After player3’s move,the game ends.Payoﬀs indicate that each player prefers winning to folding andfolding to losing.Assume the dealer is indiﬀerent between all of the outcomes(or specify some other preference ordering).2.Let’s Make a Deal game.This is the three-door guessing game that was madefamous by Monty Hall and the television game show Let’s Make a Deal.Thegame is played by Monty(player1)and a contestant(player2),and it runs asfollows.First,Monty secretly places a prize(say,$1000)behind one of threedoors.Call the doors a,b,and c.(You might write Monty’s actionsas a ,b ,and c ,to diﬀerentiate them from those of the contestant.)Then,without observing Monty’s choice,the contestant selects oneof the doors(by saying“a,”“b,”or“c”).After this,Monty must open one of the doors,but he is not allowedto open the door that is in front of the prize,nor is he allowed to openthe door that the contestant selected.Note that Monty does not havea choice if the contestant chooses a diﬀerent door than Monty chosefor the prize.The contestant observes which door Monty opens.Notethat she will see no prize behind this door.The contestant then has the option of switching to the other unopeneddoor(S for“switch”)or staying with the door she originally selected(D for“don’t switch”).Finally,the remaining doors are opened and the contestant wins theprize if it is behind the door she chose.The contestant obtains a Instructors' Manual for Strategy:Copyright 2002, 2008 by Joel Watson2THE EXTENSIVE FORM17 payoﬀ1if she wins,zero otherwise.Monty is indiﬀerent between allof the outcomes.For a bonus question,you can challenge the students to draw the extensive formrepresentation of the Let’s Make a Deal game or the Three-Card Poker game.Students who submit a correct extensive form can be given points for the classcompetition.The Let’s Make a Deal extensive form is pictured on the nextpage.Instructors' Manual for Strategy:Copyright 2002, 2008 by Joel Watson2THE EXTENSIVE FORM18Instructors' Manual for Strategy:Copyright 2002, 2008 by Joel Watson3Strategies and the Normal FormAs noted already,introducing the extensive form representation at the beginning ofa course helps the students appreciate the notion of a strategy.A student that doesnot understand the concept of a“complete contingent plan”will fail to grasp the sophisticated logic of dynamic rationality that is so critical to much of game theory.Chapter3starts with the formal deﬁnition of strategy,illustrated with some examples.The critical point is that strategies are more than just“plans.”A strategy prescribes an action at every information set,even those that would not be reached because of actions taken at other information sets.Chapter3proceeds to the construction of the normal-form representation,starting with the observation that each strategy proﬁle leads to a single terminal node(an outcome)via a path through the tree.This leads to the deﬁnition of a payoﬀfunction.The chapter then deﬁnes the normal form representation as comprising a set of players, strategy spaces for the players,and payoﬀfunctions.The matrix form,for two-player,ﬁnite games,is illustrated.The chapter then brieﬂy describes seven classic normal form games.The chapter concludes with a few comments on the comparison between the normal and extensive forms.Lecture NotesThe following may serve as an outline for a lecture.•Formal deﬁnition of strategy.•Examples of strategies.•Notation:strategy space S i,individual strategy s i∈S i.Example:S i={H,L}and s i=H.•Refer to Appendix A for more on sets.•Strategy proﬁle:s∈S,where S=S1×S2×···×S n(product set).•Notation:i and−i,s=(s i,s−i).•Discuss howﬁnite and inﬁnite strategy spaces can be described.•Why we need to keep track of a complete contingent plan:(1)It allows theanalysis of games from any information set,(2)it facilitates exploring how aplayer responds to his belief about what the other players will do,and(3)itprescribes a contingency plan if a player makes a mistake.•Describe how a strategy implies a path through the tree,leading to a terminalnode and payoﬀvector.•Examples of strategies and implied payoﬀs.19Instructors' Manual for Strategy:Copyright 2002, 2008 by Joel Watson3STRATEGIES AND THE NORMAL FORM20•Deﬁnition of payoﬀfunction,u i:S→R,u i(s).Refer to Appendix A for moreon functions.•Example:a matrix representation of players,strategies,and payoﬀs.(Use anyabstract game,such as the centipede game.)•Formal deﬁnition of the normal form.•Note:The matrix representation is possible only for two-player,ﬁnite games.Otherwise,the game must be described by sets and equations.•The classic normal form games and some stories.Note the diﬀerent strategicissues represented:conﬂict,competition,coordination,cooperation.•Comparing the normal and extensive forms(translating one to the other).Examples and Experiments1.Ultimatum-oﬀer bargaining game.Have students give instructions to others asto how to play the game.Those who play the role of“responder”will have tospecify under what conditions to accept and under what conditions to reject theother player’s oﬀer.This helps solidify that a strategy is a complete contingentplan.2.The centipede game(like the one in Figure3.1(b)if the textbook).As with thebargaining game,have some students write their strategies on paper and givethe strategies to other students,who will then play the game as their agents.Discuss mistakes as a reason for specifying a complete contingent plan.Thendiscuss how strategy speciﬁcations helps us develop a theory about why playersmake particular decisions(looking ahead to what they would do at variousinformation sets).3.Any of the classic normal forms.4.The Princess Bride poison scene.Show the“poison”scene(and the few minutesleading to it)from the Rob Reiner movie The Princess Bride.In this scene,protagonist Wesley matches wits with the evil Vizzini.There are two gobletsﬁlled with wine.Away from Vizzini’s view,Wesley puts poison into one ofthe goblets.Then Wesley sets the goblets on a table,one goblet near himselfand the other near Vizzini.Vizzini must choose from which goblet to drink.Wesley must drink from the other goblet.Several variations of this game can bediagrammed for the students,ﬁrst in the extensive form and then in the normalform.Instructors' Manual for Strategy:Copyright 2002, 2008 by Joel Watson3STRATEGIES AND THE NORMAL FORM215.A3×3dominance-solvable game,such as the following.The payoﬀs are in dollars.It is very useful to have the students play a gamesuch as this before you lecture on dominance and best response.This will helpthem to begin thinking about rationality,and their behavior will serve as areference point for formal analysis.Have the students write their strategiesand their names on slips of paper.Collect the slips and randomly select aplayer1and a player2.Pay these two students according to their strategyproﬁle.Calculate the class distribution over the strategies,which you can lateruse when introducing dominance and iterated dominance.6.Repeated Prisoners’Dilemma.Describe the k-period,repeated prisoners’dilemma.For a bonus question,ask the students to compute the number of strategies forplayer1when k=3.Challenge the students toﬁnd a mathematical expressionfor the number of strategies as a function of k.Instructors' Manual for Strategy:Copyright 2002, 2008 by Joel Watson4Beliefs,Mixed Strategies,and Expected PayoﬀsThis chapter describes how a belief that a player has about another player’s behavior is represented as a probability distribution.It then covers the idea of a mixed strat-egy,which is a similar probability distribution.The appropriate notation is deﬁned.The chapter deﬁnes expected payoﬀand gives some examples of how to compute it.At the end of the chapter,there are a few comments about cardinal versus ordinal utility(although it is not put in this language)and about how payoﬀnumbers reﬂect preferences over uncertain outcomes.Risk preferences are discussed in Chapter25.Lecture NotesThe following may serve as an outline for a lecture.•Example of belief in words:“Player1might say‘I think player2is very likelyto play strategy L.’”•Translate into probability numbers.•Other examples of probabilities.•Notation:µj∈∆S j,µj(s j)∈[0,1], s j∈S jµj(s j)=1.•Examples and alternative ways of denoting a probability distribution:for S j={L,R}andµj∈∆{L,R}deﬁned byµj(L)=1/3andµj(R)=2/3,we canwriteµj=(1/3,2/3).•Mixed strategy.Notation:σi∈∆S i.•Refer to Appendix A for more on probability distributions.•Deﬁnition of expected value.Deﬁnition of expected payoﬀ.•Examples:computing expected payoﬀs.•Brieﬂy discuss how payoﬀnumbers represent preferences over random outcomes,risk.Defer elaboration until later.22Instructors' Manual for Strategy:Copyright 2002, 2008 by Joel WatsonBELIEFS AND EXPECTED PAYOFFS23 Examples and Experiments1.Let’s Make a Deal game again.For the class competition,you can ask thefollowing two bonus questions:(a)Suppose that,at each of his information sets,Monty randomizes by choosing his actions with equal probability.Is it optimal for the contestant to select“switch”or“don’t switch”when she has this choice?Why?(b)Are there conditions(a strategy for Monty)under which it is optimal for the contestant to make the other choice?2.Randomization in sports.Many sports provide good examples of randomizedstrategies.Baseball pitchers may desire to randomize over their pitches,and batters may have probabilistic beliefs about which pitch will be thrown to them.Tennis serve and return play is another good example.11See Walker,M.,and Wooders J.“Minimax Play at Wimbledon,”American Economic Review 91(2001):1521-1538.Instructors' Manual for Strategy: An Introduction to Game Theory Copyright 2002, 2008 by Joel Watson For instructors only; do not distribute.。

Lecture 12

• "by the power of the written word to make you hear, to make you feel... before all, to make you see. That – and no more, and it is everything. If I succeed, you shall find there according to your deserts: encouragement, consolation, fear, charm – all you demand – and, perhaps, also that glimpse of truth for which you have forgotten to ask.‖ • —Preface to The Nigger of the 'Narcissus'
Lecture 12
• Thomas Hardy (1840 – 1928) was an English author, though he regarded himself primarily as a poet and composed novels mainly for financial gain. The bulk of his work, set mainly in the semifictional land of Wessex, delineates characters struggling against their passions and circumstances. • Note: novels of characters and environment
• Stephen Daedalus in Ulysses tosses off the line: ―history is a nightmare from which I am trying to awake‖, he points not only to the attempt by many novelists to evade the depiction of history and society in favor of what they take to be more fundamental realms and issues (individual psychology {stream of consciousness}, myth), but also an equally important tendency for historical forces to be registered, not by a realist depiction (the 19th century), but in the modes of expressionism or symbolism we might well associate with dreams and nightmares.

博弈论

博弈类型及其表述形式1 博弈的分类博弈模型一般分为合作博弈（cooperative game ）和非合作博弈（non- cooperative game ），如图1.1。

合作博弈是以单个参与者的可能行动集合为基本元素，而非合作博弈是以参与人群的可能联合行动集合为基本元素（Martin J.Osborne and Ariel Rubinstein ，2000，P2），也就是说，在合作博弈中，博弈中所有参与者都独立行动，不存在有约束力的合作、联合或联盟的关系，而在非合作博弈中，在一些参与者之间存在着有约束力的合作、联合或联盟的关系，并因为这种关系影响到博弈的结局。

合作博弈强调的是团体理性（collective rationality ）、效率、公正和公平；非合作博弈强调的是个人理性、个人最优决策，其结果可能是有效率的，也可能是低效率或无效率的（张维迎，1996，P5）。

20世纪50年代，合作博弈的研究达到鼎盛期，同时开始出现对非合作博弈的研究，此后，博弈论的研究主流逐步转向在非合作博弈领域。

有些人认为非合作博弈模型比合作博弈更“基本”，但有些人认为两者不相上下（Martin J.Osborne and Ariel Rubinstein ，2000，P2）。

合作博弈，有时也叫做联盟博弈（coalitional game ），一般根据有无转移支付而分为两类：可转移支付联盟博弈（coalitional game with transferable payoff ）和不可转移支付联盟博弈（coalitional game with non-transferable payoff ）。

可转移支付也叫有旁支付（side payment ），可转移支付联盟博弈假设博弈中各参与者都用相同的尺度来衡量他们的赢得，且各联盟的赢得可以按任意方式在联盟成员中分摊；否则，就是不可转移支付联盟博弈。

图1.1 博弈的分类非合作博弈的分类主要从两个角度进行划分。

博弈论

ui ( si , s i ) ui ( si , s i ), s i，si si where s i ( s1 , , si 1 , si 1 , , sn ) 即s i S1 Si 1 Si 1 S n
称si*为局中人i的(严格)占优策略
各局中人先后、依次进行选择、行动后出手者通常能观察到先出手者的选择策略≠行动
按信息
信息是局中人关于博弈的知识，是实施决策的重要依据完全信息(Complete Information)：没有私人信息
局中人的策略集和支付函数均为共同知识
□ 策略集蕴含了行动集和出手时间
完全信息静态博弈是最简单的一种博弈类型。
中国科学技术大学管理学院 @ 2010
9
矩阵博弈与Maximin解(续)
矩阵博弈的Maximin解：
考虑到对方可能取使己方支付最小的策略（比如：对方通过各种渠道事先窥探到己方策略），为稳健起见，选择纯策略的原则是：
让最小支付值尽可能大（取最差情况中最好的） ——悲观逻辑、最大最小原则 □ 考虑己方每个纯策略可能带来的最小支付（每行中的最小值） □ 比较这些最小支付，对应于最大的纯策略即为己方所选
对于矩阵博弈A＝(aij)m×n，根据稳健的“最大最小原则”
己方Maximin策略：对方Maximin策略：
i arg max

i{1,, m} j{1,, n}
min aij
1、逐行行内取小 2、小中取大 1、逐列列内取大 2、大中取小
j arg max
j{1,, n} i{1,, m}
合作博弈(Cooperative Game)
部分或全部局中人能够联合,达成一个具有约束力且可强制执行的协议的博弈类型。合作博弈强调的是集体理性,强调效率、公正、公平。通过合作能带来“合作剩余” 合作博弈最重要的两个概念是联盟和分配。

lecture 12 (学生材料)

ESR Reading and Translation (lecture 12)Evaluating a Scientific Paper(对科技论文的评估)A thorough understanding and evaluation of a paper involves answering several questions:1. What questions does the paper address?2. What are the main conclusions of the paper?3. What evidence supports those conclusions?4. Do the data actually support the conclusions?5. What is the quality of the evidence?6. Why are the conclusions important?1. What questions does the paper address?Before addressing this question, we need to be aware that research in biochemistry and molecular biology can be of several different types: descriptive research, comparative research, analytical research.Descriptive research often takes place in the early stages of our understanding of a system. We can't formulate hypotheses about how a system works, or what its interconnections are, until we know what is there. Typical descriptive approaches in molecular biology are DNA sequencing and DNA microarray approaches. In biochemistry, one could regard x-ray crystallography as a descriptive endeavor. Comparative research often takes place when we are asking how general a finding is. Is it specific to my particular organism, or is it broadly applicable? A typical comparative approach would be comparing the sequence of a gene from one organism with that from the other organisms in which that gene is found. One example of this is the observation that the acting genes from humans and budding yeast are 89% identical and 96% similar.Analytical research generally takes place when we know enough to begin formulating hypotheses about how a system works, about how the parts are interconnected, and what the causal connections are. A typical analytical approach would be to devise two (or more) alternative hypotheses about how a system operates. These hypotheses would all be consistent with current knowledge about the system. Ideally, the approach would devise a set of experiments to distinguish among these hypotheses. A classic example is the Meselson-Stahl experiment.Of course, many papers are a combination of these approaches. For instance, researchers might sequence a gene from their model organism; compare its sequence to homologous genes from other organisms; use this comparison to devise a hypothesis for the function of the gene product; and test this hypothesis by making a site-directed change in the gene and asking how that affects the phenotype of the organism and/or the biochemical function of the gene product.Being aware that not all papers have the same approach can orient you towards recognizing the major questions that a paper addresses.What are these questions?In a well-written paper, as described above, the Introduction generally goes from the general to the specific, eventually framing a question or set of questions. This is agood starting place. In addition, the results of experiments usually raise additional questions, which the authors may attempt to answer. These questions usually become evident only in the Results section.2. What are the main conclusions of the paper?This question can often be answered in a preliminary way by studying the abstract of the paper. Here the authors highlight what they think are the key points. This is not enough, because abstracts often have severe space constraints, but it can serve as a starting point. Still, you need to read the paper with this question in mind.3. What evidence supports those conclusions?Generally, you can get a pretty good idea about this from the Results section. The description of the findings points to the relevant tables and figures. This is easiest when there is one primary experiment to support a point. However, it is often the case that several different experiments or approaches combine to support a particular conclusion. For example, the first experiment might have several possible interpretations, and the later ones are designed to distinguish among these.In the ideal case, the Discussion begins with a section of the form "Three lines of evidence provide support for the conclusion that... First, ... Second,... etc." However, difficulties can arise when the paper is poorly written (see above). The authors often do not present a concise summary of this type, leaving you to make it yourself. A skeptic might argue that in such cases the logical structure of the argument is weak and is omitted on purpose! In any case, you need to be sure that you understand the relationship between the data and the conclusions.4. Do the data actually support the conclusions?One major advantage of doing this is that it helps you to evaluate whether the conclusion is sound. If we assume for the moment that the data are believable (see next section), it still might be the case that the data do not actually support the conclusion the authors wish to reach. There are at least two different ways this can happen:(1)The logical connection between the data and the interpretation is not sound.(2)There might be other interpretations that might be consistent with the data.One important aspect to look for is whether the authors take multiple approaches to answering a question. Do they have multiple lines of evidence, from different directions, supporting their conclusions? If there is only one line of evidence, it is more likely that it could be interpreted in a different way; multiple approaches make the argument more persuasive.Another thing to look for is implicit or hidden assumptions used by the authors in interpreting their data. This can be hard to do, unless you understand the field thoroughly.5. What is the quality of that evidence?This is the hardest question to answer, for novices and experts alike. At the same time, it is one of the most important skills to learn as a young scientist. It involves a major reorientation from being a relatively passive consumer of information and ideas to an active producer and critical evaluator of them. This is not easy and takes years to master. Beginning scientists often wonder, "Who am I to question these authorities?After all the paper was published in a top journal, so the authors must have a high standing, and the work must have received a critical review by experts."Unfortunately, that's not always the case. In any case, developing your ability to evaluate evidence is one of the hardest and most important aspects of learning to be a critical scientist and reader.How can you evaluate the evidence?First, you need to understand thoroughly the methods used in the experiments. Often these are described poorly or not at all. The details are often missing, but more importantly the authors usually assume that the reader has a general knowledge of common methods in the field. If you lack this knowledge, as discussed above you have to make the extra effort to inform yourself about the basic methodology before you can evaluate the data.Sometimes you have to trace back the details of the methods if they are important. The increasing availability of journals on the Web has made this easier by obviating the need to find a hard-copy issue, eg in the library. A comprehensive listing of journals relevant to this course, developed by the Science Library, allows access to most of the listed volumes from any computer at the University.Second, you need to know the limitations of the methodology. Every method has limitations, and if the experiments are not done correctly they can't be interpreted. For instance, an immunoblot is not a very quantitative method. Moreover, in a certain range of protein the signal increases (that is, the signal is at least roughly "linear"), but above a certain amount of protein the signal no longer increases. Therefore, to use this method correctly one needs a standard curve that shows that the experimental lanes are in a linear range. Often, the authors will not show this standard curve, but they should state that such curves were done. If you don't see such an assertion, it could of course result from bad writing, but it might also not have been done. If it wasn't done, a dark band might mean "there is this much protein or an indefinite amount more". Third, importantly, you need to distinguish between what the data show and what the authors say they show. The latter is really an interpretation on the authors' part, though it is generally not stated to be an interpretation. Papers usually state something like "the data in Fig. x show that ...".This is the authors' interpretation of the data. Do you interpret it the same way? You need to look carefully at the data to ensure that they really do show what the authors say they do. You can only do this effectively if you understand the methods and their limitations.Fourth, it is often helpful to look at the original journal, or its electronic counterpart, instead of a photocopy. Particularly for half-tone figures such as photos of gels or autoradiograms, the contrast is distorted, usually increased, by photocopying, so that the data are misrepresented.Fifth, you should ask if the proper controls are present. Controls tell us that nature is behaving the way we expect it to under the conditions of the experiment. If the controls are missing, it is harder to be confident that the results really show what is happening in the experiment. You should try to develop the habit of asking "where are the controls?" and looking for them.6. Why are the conclusions important?Do the conclusions make a significant advance in our knowledge? Do they lead to new insights, or even new research directions? Again, answering these questions requires that you understand the field relatively wellExercisesI. Read the passage and decide whether the following statements are truth or false. Write T for True and F for False in the brackets.1. Before we know what is there, we can propose hypotheses about how a system operates. ( )2. When we are asking how general a finding is in a scientific research, it is a typical comparative study. ( )3. A typical analytical approach will formulate two or more different hypotheses that are consistent with current knowledge about how a system works. ( )4. Usually the results of experiments could raise new questions that usually become evident only in the results section ( )5. It is enough to search the main conclusions of a research paper in the abstract part in which the authors highlight them in detail. ( )6. It is common that several different experiments or approaches are combined to support a certain conclusion in a research. ( )7 Whether the authors take different approaches to answering a research question is crucial in evaluating the connection between the data and the conclusion ( )8. If there is only one line of evidence on the data, it is not necessary to interpret it in multiple ways which will only make it more complex. ( )9. Since a paper was published in a top journal and the authors have a high standing, the work must have received critical review by experts and it is not necessary for novices to question it. ( )10. When we evaluate the evidence in a research paper, we should bear in mind that every method has limitations and if the experiments are not done correctly they can’t be interpreted. ( )II. Reading the passage again, and complete the following items.1. The three different types of research include:_________.2. The preliminary way of finding the main conclusions of a research paper________.3. The most different ways in which the data do not actually support the conclusion______.4. The new development that will make searching back issues of journals easier is _______.5. The importance of the controls __________.Translation Techniques(3):Subordinate clauses ---Attributive ClausesA comparative study of English and Chinese attributive structures helps us to bring this disparity to light. As some linguists have pointed out, an English sentence may be followed by an unlimited number of attributive clauses following the word being modified, while a Chinese sentence allows only a limited amount of words preceding the word being modified. And eventually, there is no correspondence between their sentence structures.Here is a typical example:This is the cat that killed the rat that ate the cake that lay in the house that Jack built. 这就是那只捕杀了偷吃了放在杰克造的房屋内的蛋糕的老鼠的猫。

Unit 12 学术性口译

Unit 12 Interpreting Academic Speech 学术性口译12--1 Communicative Competence 语用能力Vocabulary1、起着推波助澜的作用further swell 推波助澜：add fuel to the fireswell: 膨胀，增大expand/increase2、自言自语talk when there is no one to answer3、属性attribute4、任意性的arbitrary5、遣词造句combine words to form phrases and phrases to form sentences.典型句型1电视机和收音机在言语海洋里起着推波助澜的作用。

TV and radio further swell this torrent of words.torrent: 急流，迅速流动的水a torrent of insults; torrents of mail.一连串侮辱；接连的来信典型句型2懂得一种语言能使你遣词造句。

懂得一种语言意味着你能够说出前人未说过的话，也能听懂在此之前无人说过的话。

语言学家称这种能力为语言运用的创造属性。

Knowing a language enables you to combine words to form phrases and phrases to form sentences. Knowing a language means being able to produce new sentences never spoken before and to understand sentences never heard before. Linguists refer to this ability as the creative aspect of language use.典型句型3懂得一种语言包括懂得哪些句子在某些场合中使用是恰当的。