语言学经典第六章

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语言学(6-10)

语言学(6-10)

第六章语义学一、导读6.1 意义研究语义学(semantics)是研究意义的科学。

它的理论探讨对象是语言的意义(linguistic meaning)或语义,语义是一般意义的一部分。

人类对语言意义的关注已有久远的历史。

古希腊哲学家在研究哲学问题时,也涉及了语言的意义问题。

但古今中外的各种学科,都未把语言的意义问题进行系统探讨。

只有语义学才把语言意义作为直接的、基本的研究对象,并对语言意义进行全面、系统的研究。

现代语义学的一个重要特点是这门学科与许多相关科学的相互借鉴和交融贯通。

哲学、逻辑学、符号学、心理学、音韵学、人类学等众多学科都为语义学的发展提供了丰富的营养,而语义学则是兼收并蓄,博采众长,使自身的理论日斟精深,体系趋于完整。

6.2 指称和意义语义学中涉及意义问题的几种主要理论有指称论、意念论、实证论等等。

指称论将词义与词的指称对象直接联系,其观察词义的出发点是外延逻辑。

指称论提供了一种对词义的自然、直观的解释:词语有意义是因为词语标示了语言外世界中的事物。

词的意义就是它指称的对象。

意义的指称论有明显的缺陷,用此理论解释词义会遇到各种矛盾:并非所有的词语都有指称对象,某些词(如语气词、感叹词、连接词、介词等)都无指称对象。

不同词语可指称同一对象。

如“伦敦”和“英国首都”指称同一城市,但意义也不同。

有些词在现实世界中无指称对象,但有意义,如“负一”。

这些情况一方面显示出意义并不局限于指称,另一方面在语言表达与所确定的实体之间并不总是存在一一对应的关系。

意义常常大于所指。

词汇不仅与客观世界相关也与人类思维有联系。

因此除了指称,还有意义。

意义是思维的体现。

6.3 词汇意义的分类词汇意义主要有指称意义和联想意义。

指称意义是指词和句子等语言成分跟语言外部世界的关系。

如woman(女人)一词其意义可以说包含了+HUMAN(人),-MALE(非男性),+ADULT(成人)这几个特征。

附加在指称意义上的其它意义会随着历史时期的不同而有所改变。

Chapter6pragmatics语言学整理的资料

Chapter6pragmatics语言学整理的资料

Chapter 61.pragmatics:自测:Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent. (T/F)术语:pragmatics语用学解释:语用学处理的是语言的实际意义,是在应用中的意义,而不是固有的意义。

术语:Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. 语用学是研究某一语言的言者是如何利用句子成功进行交际的。

解释:Pragmatic analysis of meaning is first and foremost concerned with the study of what is communicated by a speaker/writer and interpreted by a listener/reader. Analysis of intentional meaning necessarily involves the interpretation of what people do through language in a particular context. Intended meaning may or may not be explicitly expressed. Pragmatic analysis also explores how listeners/readers make inferences about what is communicated.语用学对意义的研究主要关注的是说者或作者要交流的是什么,听者或读者读到的是什么。

并且根据语境分析要表达的意义。

语言学概论第六章语言的变异.

语言学概论第六章语言的变异.
团居民在地域上的向外扩展,这样,原来内部 交际密度均匀的单一社会就分化为若干个社团, 社团内成员的交际比较密切,不同社团的成员 交际较稀疏。这样,在某一个社团内出现的语
言变化往往能在本社团内很快推开而不能同样
快地扩展到其他社团,从而形成不同社会方言 或地域方言的差异。

方言差异是语言演变不平衡性的重要体现, 这种不平衡是指在不同语言社团中进展速度快 慢的不同,是在语言演变在语言外进展的不平 衡。 社会方言是指在同一地区居住的居民因年 龄、性别、职业、文化程度、阶级、原居住地 等的社会因素的不同而决定的小社团语言差异。 社会方言最常见的显著差异在词汇方面, 有时也有发音色彩(如北京的 " 女国音 " )或音 位分合上的差异。一般来说,社会方言的差别 较小 , 自由 通 话不 成 问题 ( " 黑话 " 除 外)。

语言的性别差异是显而易见的,但社会 语言学家更感兴趣的是其成因。迄今为止, 已提出了种种假说。代表性的有入侵说、禁 忌说、教育逆反说、保守说、社会声望说、 气质说等。
入侵说:是一种古老的说法。据 17 世纪西方文 献记载,当欧洲人来到西印度群岛的小安地列 斯群岛,跟当地的加勒比印第安接触时,发现 男人和女人说不同的语言。男人有他们所独有 的很多说法,女人能听懂但自己永远不说。女 人也有男人永远不用的词和短语,如果男人用 了就要受到嘲笑。这种语言差异据多米尼加土 著的野蛮人说是由于加勒比人占据了阿拉瓦克 人的岛屿后,将男子斩尽杀绝,女子纳为妻室。 这些女子生男育女并以本族语教养后代。孩子 长大后,女孩继续讲母辈的阿拉瓦克语男孩却 操父辈的加勒比语。
(二)地域方言的特点
地域方言是全民语言在不同地域上的分支。 地域方言在汉语中俗称“话”,“江浙 话”、“福建话”、“广东话”通常指的 就是吴方言、闽方言和粤方言。汉语不同 方言的词语,用汉字写下来差别不大,但 念出来,相互之间就难以听懂了。如:

语言学概论,讲义第六章 语言的运用特点——语用

语言学概论,讲义第六章 语言的运用特点——语用

第六章语言的运用特点──语用教学要求与目的:了解语境的类型、语境和语句意义的关系、语境和词语所指的关系;了解会话的合作原则和礼貌原则、违反会话准则产生的会话含义,区分蕴含义和预设义;了解“言有所为”、直接和间接的言语行为第一节语用概说一、什么是语用语用就是语言运用,指人们在一定的交际环境中对语言的实际运用。

语用主要包括以下一些性质。

1、情境性:语言的实际运用是要讲求交际效果,正式场合和非正式场合话语的表现风格不同,要切合语境,表达得体2、社会性:语言运用从本质上说是一种与他人密切相关的社会行为3、规约性:语言运用过程必须遵从语言使用的社会习惯和表达规则,按照社会的行为规范行事二、语用研究的范围语用学是一门对立的语言学分支学科,主要研究句法学、语义学、语言的发出者和理解者;使用语言的环境,语言在语境中产生的临时意义和附加意义第二节语境和语句的意义一、语境的类型语境指言语交际活动的环境,语境大致分为两类:言内语境和言外语境(1)言内语境:又称上下文语境,指语言表达中的前言后语或上下文,是狭义语境(2)言外语境:指言语交际活动相关的时间、空间、场景等交际情景和社会情境,是广义语境二、语境和语句意义1、言内语境的作用:对语言的表达和理解有着明显的制约作用2、言外语境的作用:主要是用来解释词语的非义项和句子的非命题,解释特殊词义和句子,解释不但超过了词语的义项义和句子的命题义三、语境和词语所指1、指示词语和指示意义(1)指示词语:主要是指示词语的所指问题,是随着语境变化而变化的(2)指示意义:包括“人称指示”“时间指示”“地点指示”,指示意义都要借助语境来确定2、一般名词的指称意义区分名词指称中的“有指”和“无指”。

“有指”就是名词有指称性,“无指”就是名词没有指称性第三节会话准则和会话含义一、“合作原则”和“礼貌原则”1、合作原则:在言语交际中,为确保交谈双方相互配合而遵守的语用规则,包括“质量准则”“数量准则”“相关准则“方式准则”2、礼貌原则:是人类交际的普遍现象,也是人与人会话必须遵守的准则;要做到“得体和慷慨”“赞誉和谦逊”“一致和同情”二、违反会话准则产生的会话含义1、被迫违反或放弃会话准则:说话人在某些场合或条件下只能迁就一种会话原则放弃另一种会话原则2、故意违反会话准则产生的会话含义:说话人故意违反会话原则来表达某种特殊的意义,或者说是在语句背后还暗含其他意义甲:我这副山水图怎么样/乙:嗯:装裱的不错三、蕴含义和预设义1、蕴含义:句子的基本信息中包含的上位义或整体义,具体分为“衍推义”和“隐含义”两种2、预设义:不在句子断言的范围之内,指句子包含的某个背景信息如:他哥哥在北京上大学第四节言语行为一、言有所为用语句做事,说话本身就是在做“建议、劝告、请求、命令”这一些事,通过语言形式来完成交际的行为就是言语行为二、言内、言外、言后1、言内:言内行为是一种述事行为,指的是“说话”这一行为本身,即通过语音、语汇、语法的等语言形式和手段来传递信息2、言外:言外行为是说话人用某种语言的语音形式说出了这句话,就完成了述事这一行为3、言后:言后是指说话带来的效果三、直接与间接的言语行为1、直接言语行为:用字面意义来实现交际如:我们把空调关了好吗?2、间接言语行为:委婉暗示自己的交际信息如:今天有点冷。

语言学概论第六章

语言学概论第六章

第六章文字和书面语三.问答题1.简述文字的作用。

文字的产生是人类社会发展史上的一个重要里程碑。

文字的作用主要表现在以下几方面:(1)突破了有声语言时间和空间的局限性,扩大了语言交际的范围。

(2)文字是人类积累知识的工具和传播科学的媒介。

文字产生以前,人类社会的生产、生活经验和知识只能通过口耳相传,而文字产生以后,前人的创造性成果可以通过文字记载下来,变成我们今天生活的基础,人类能更好地总结生产经验,发展科学技术,扩大生产规模,创造丰富的文化艺术。

人们不仅可以通过文字文本进行超越时间和空间的交流,大容量地传承文化,而且加深了思考的深度。

有了文字,人类才有了历史,文字是人类由蒙昧走向文明的标志。

(3)文字导致了书面语的产生,促进了语言的发展,进而促进了文学语言的形成和文学艺术的繁荣发展。

(4)文字是研究古代社会生活的绝好材料,是文化的活化石。

文字是社会发展到一定阶段的产物,古代社会的生活、历史通过文字记载得以保存下来,同时我们又可以透过文字本身看到古代社会生活的多方面的情况,因为文字也是一种文化现象,是古代社会遗留下来的活化石,古人的思维方式、认知水平等也必然在文字中有所反映。

2.简述汉字和拼音文字的差异。

1、从记录语言单位的大小看,音位文字通过为音节制定符号来记录语言,拼音文字、英文、俄文就属于这种文字.而汉字记录的不是音节或音位,而是词或者语素.在古代汉语中,单音节词占优势,大多数情况下,一个汉字记录的是一个词,也是一个语素.在现代汉语中,双音节词占优势,大多数情况下,一个汉字记录的是一个语素,不见得是一个词.所以现代汉字可以称为语素文字或语素——音节文字.2、从记录语言的文字的字符看,拼音文字为表音文字,它和以汉字为代表的表意文字的不同在于为文字所制定的字符的性质不同.字符大体上可分为3类,即意符、音符、记号.与文字所代表的词在意义上有联系的字符是意符,在语音上有联系的是音符,在意义上和语音上都没有联系的是记号.音位符号或音节符号仅仅同语音相联系,做为字符来讲,是音符,毫无意义可言,所以说是表音的.意符是构成汉字的最基本的符号,是独体的表意字,与语音没有联系.汉字的音符都是“借音符”.汉字在隶变以前,主要由意符和音符构成,记号为数极少.隶变以后,字形发生了剧烈的变化,独体表意字作为字符大都丧失了原来的表意作用,变成了记号.在长期发展过程中,不少字形、字意、字音起了变化,致使意符、音符丧失了原有的表意、表音作用,成为记号.但这并不妨碍占汉字绝大多数的合体字仍然是由意符和音符构成的.把隶变前的古汉字称为意符音符文字,隶变后的今文字称为意符单符记号文字,或简称意符音符文字.3、从记录语言的方法看,文字体系中拼音文字属于表音体系,是根据语音构形的文字体系.汉字是表意体系,指仅仅根据意义构形的文字体系,字形与声音没有直接的联系.3.简述独立的文字体系必须具备的条件。

语言学第六章Part One

语言学第六章Part One

What that? Andrew want that. Not sit here.

Embed one constituent inside another:

Give doggie paper. Give big doggie paper.
Teaching points
1. What is cognition? 2. What is psycholinguistics?
Commonalities between language and cognition:

childhood cognitive development (Piaget):


[haj]: hi [s]: spray [sr]: shirt, sweater [sæ:]: what’s that?/ hey, look! [ma]: mommy [dæ ]: daddy
Fromkin,V., Rodman, R., & Hymans, N. (2007)An Introduction to Language (8th Ed.). Singapore/Beijing: Thompson/PUP
Two-word stage: around 18m
Child utterance Want cookie More milk Joe see My cup Mature speaker I want a cookie I want some more milk I (Joe) see you This is my cup Purpose Request Request Informing Warning



1. Diaries-Charles Darwin; 2. Tape recorders; 3. Videos and computers. Eg. Dr. Deb Roy (MIT)

语言学概论初等教育第六章 语法

语言学概论初等教育第六章 语法

第二节 语法的内容和形式
一、语法意义和语法形式
(一二三)语法意 形义 式和语法意义的对立统一关系 12语.法什 语形 意么 法式 义是 意是 和语 义能 语法 的够 法意 特把形义 点语式法是单互位为组依织存起、来不并能在分组割织 的过 。程 但中 两产 者生 不语 是
法一意对(义一每1的)个语 关语言 系法形 ,意单式 这义位。 种必即语关须语言系是素中是高、不极度词管其抽、是复象词语杂的组音的意、的。义句表在。子现具、形体句式的群、 话除词 语了形 中本的 ,身变 我的化 们词 汇形找意式不(义,到2外还 单),是 纯语还成 的法具分 语意有的 法义语组 形必法合式须意和,是义类也语。别找法语形不形法式到式意,单体义凡纯现是是的出语能语来法体法的单现意意位一 义义在类 ,。组意 它合义 们中或 总所有 是产共 结 生单同合统的位作成一(各的用一体3种词的个。)关 汇 形 不句系 意 式 可子意 义 就 分中义 上 都 割的。 。 是 的语语整法法体意形。义式语不。法能中独的立任存何在成,分必都须是依形附式于和一意定义语的法
语言学概论
主讲人:
语言学概论
第一章 绪 论 第二章 语言的本质 第三章 语 音 第四章 语 义 第五章 词 汇
第六章 语 法 第七章 文 字 第八章 语言的起始与发展 第九章 世界的语言 第十章 新兴交叉语言学
二、语法的特性
(一二三)抽 生 语象 成 法性 体系的稳定性
所也谓 就抽 是 稳象 “ 定性 递是 归指 性对”语具。法体语规东法则西规与进则语行实音类际、的上词概就汇括是等。一语种 言有 要限 素手 比段 起可 来以 , 反变复化使现语用象法的 较的规 少抽则 ,象。 变和可 化词以过义说程的,也抽语十象法分是正缓不是慢同因。性为语质有法的了是抽递语象归言。性 结词, 构义才 中的能 最 如物限 斯质多 大或的林现句所象子说的。:抽“象语,言抽的象语出法来构的造是比词语汇言意的义基;本语词法 的汇抽变象化是得对还词要或慢句,子语之法间构的造关是系许进多行时的代抽以象来,形抽成象的出,来它的在是语语言法中 意根义深。蒂固,所以它的变化比基本词汇还要慢。”这正说明了语法 体系的稳定性。

语言学概论第六章 语言的发展_OK

语言学概论第六章 语言的发展_OK

2、语言发展的历史变化
指那些被历史固定下来的、已经成为语言事实的变化。
目——眼睛、耳——耳朵等。
十二个月名称的变化。 汉语古今声调的变化。
平分阴阳 浊上变去 去仍为去 入派四声
语法上的被动句的变化。
注意:正如前面提到的,历史变化不同于历时变化,共时 8 阶段也有历史变化。
• 思考: • 面包 mian bao 这种变化属于什么变化?
多义词,如:
布 《国语》中共出现19次。
1、用麻、棉、葛、丝、毛等纤维织成的做衣服的材料。1次
自是子服之妾衣不过七升之布,马饩不过稂莠。鲁语上
2、陈述,表达,抒写。1次
敢私布于吏,唯君图之!晋语四 韦昭注:布,陈也。
3、公布,宣布。6次
以太蔟之下宫,布令于商,昭显文德,底纣之多罪,故谓之宣,所以
宣三王之德也。周语下
汉语语法系统也逐渐精密化。
那么上面的这些变化是如何进行的?诱发这些变化的原因是什么呢?
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先秦时期,随着社会的发展,新事物、新现象的增多,要求 创造新词、新义来表示它们。因为当时的音节数量有限,所 以出现了大量的同音词和多义词:
扬:4次,如:所不掩子之恶,扬子之美者,使其身无终没于越 国。《国语⋅越语下》 羊:7次,如:以丘之所闻,羊也。 《国语⋅鲁语下》 阳:9次,如:阳至而阴,阴至而阳;日困而还,月盈而匡。 《国语⋅越语下》 杨:6次,如:汎汎杨舟,载沉载浮。《诗经⋅小雅⋅菁菁者莪》 飏(表扬):2次,如:时而飏之。《尚书⋅皋陶谟》 旸(日出):1次,如:曰旸。 《尚书⋅洪范》 佯:5次,如:乃佯有罪出走入齐。《战国策⋅ 楚策》 炀(烤火):2次,如:若灶则不然,前人之炀,则后之人无从 见它 锡也们良。都《是《汉余战字部国古阳策音母⋅手赵字册策,》》[,其i 中共收]入,1都7个是余平部声阳字母。字(拟)音据郭14

语言学概论--第六章 文字

语言学概论--第六章 文字
第六章 文字
1. 解释“字符”
答:字符即文字符号,是文字的最基本的单位,是直接跟某种语言单位相联系的符号。
2. 解释“他源文字”。
答:他源文字是在已有的别的文字的基础上创制的文字。
3. 解释“复合字符”。
答:复合字符是由单纯字符组合而成或由单纯字符和复合字符再组合而成的字符。
4. 解释“表意文字”。
答:表意文字即全部字符都是意符的文字。
5. 解释“意音文字”。
答:意音文字即一部分是意符,一部分是音符的文字。
6. 所有的书写符号都是文字吗?
答:文字是用来书写某一种语言单位的符号,如果不是用来书写某一种语言单位的符号,即使表示一定意义,也不是文字。如红绿灯不直接与哪个语言单位对应,所以是一种符号,但不是语言符号,因而也不是文字。旗语、莫尔斯电报代码则不同,它们直接代表文字符号,可以说是文字的符号,所以是语言的符号。
10. 简答“文字的创制”含义。
答:文字的创制指现代社会里为没有文字的语言创制文字,特别是政府或语言学家为没有文字的民族创制文字,不涉及历史上各种民族语言的文字的创制过程。
11. 简答文字改革的类型有哪些情况。
答:文字改革的类型有三种情况:(1)整个文字类型和字符类型不变,只是对正字法的个别规则和个别字符进行调整。(2)整个文字类型不变,但是字符类型变了,如1928年土耳其进行的文字改革,几个月内,用拉丁字母拼写的新土耳其文全面替代了用阿拉伯字母拼写的旧土耳其文。(3)整个文字类型和字符类型都变了。如越南原来使用汉字作为他们的表意文字,现在改用拉丁字母的表音文字。
8. 现代汉语中的“文字”含有那些义项?
答:(1)书写或记录评议的符号,也说“字”或“字母”。如汉字,英文字母。(2)语言的书面形式或书面语,如中文、英文等。(3)文章(多指形式方面)。

语言学概论第六章 语言的发展

语言学概论第六章  语言的发展

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(一)一种语言逐步消除方言分歧而走向统一 在存在方言分歧的社会里,不同地区之间的人 们为了交际的方便,往往会选择一种方言作为各方 言区之间的交际工具,我们可以把这种语言形式叫 做“通用语”。我国古代所谓的“雅言”、“通语 ”、“四方之语”以及后来的“官话”,都是当时 的人们给这种通用语起的名称。但是,在经济上自 给自足的、分散的、没有形成统一市场的封建社会 里,各地区之间的相互往来不很普遍,频率也比较 低,通用语的使用者就可能只局限于一些官员、商 人和读书人,人数势必不多。
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第二节
语言的分化和统一
一、语言随着社会的分化而分化 社会的分化有两种基本类型:一是社会分化为 不同的地域,即一个统一的社会在其发展过程中, 在地域上逐渐分化为若干个相对独立或完全独立的 部分;二是社会分化为不同的社群,就是在一个统 一的社会内部,因阶级、阶层、职业、年龄、性别 、文化程度、宗教等社会特征的不同而形成不同的 社会集团(又叫“社群”)。
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(二)亲属语言 一个社会、一个民族或一种文化凭着语言等手 段得以凝聚和整合,在一定的政治历史条件下,一 个社会在地域上相对独立的部分进一步分化,走向 完全独立,分裂成几个各自完全独立的社会,原来 相对独立的地域所使用的方言可能会逐渐转变为各 自独立的语言。
5
(三)社会方言 稍加留意,我们会发现不同年龄、性别、职业 、阶级、阶层、文化程度、宗教信仰的人群所说的 话有一定的差异,语言学上把这些不同的人群称为 “言语社团”(speech community),他们所说 的话被称作“社会方言”。社会方言指的是同一种 语言或地域方言在不同的言语社团中表现出来的各 种变体。比如网民这个言语社团在网络聊天室和论 坛上进行交流时所创制和使用的所谓“网络语言” 就是一种社会方言。

语言学6整理版

语言学6整理版

Chapter 6: Language and CognitionThe relationship between language, reality and cognition:nguage reflects reality2.cognition determines language(reality-cognition-language)nguage determines thoughtthree approaches to the study of language and cognition:the formal approach, the psychological approach, the conceptual approachwhat is psycholinguistics?Is the study of psychological aspects of language; it usually studies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language.Focus: largely unconscious application of grammatical rules that enable people to produce and comprehend intelligible sentences.Six subjects: acquisition, comprehension, production, disorders, language and thought, neurocognitionLanguage acquisition: holophrastic stage, two-word stage, stage of three-word utterance, telegraphic stage.ASL: Language Acquisition DeviceInnatenessChildish creativityWords, regular for irregular, negation, interrogative, imitation and correctionCognitive linguistics: is an approach to language that is based on human experience of the world and the way they perceive and conceptualize it.Construal and construal operations: construal is the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in alternate ways through specificity, different mental scanning, directionality, vantage point, figure-ground segregation, etc.1.attention/ salience: relates to language, among other things, because we use certain linguisticexpressions to provoke certain patterns of activation.2.judgment and comparison (figure-ground alignment)3.perceptive/ situatednesscategorization: the classification is a mental process, in which human beings analyze, make judgments, generalize. And in this way they understand the objective world. This mental process of classification is now commonly called categorization, and its products are the cognitive categories.1.basic level(principle of similarity, continuation)2.superordinate level3.subordinate levelimage schemas 物理,抽象metaphor: involves the comparison of two concepts in that one is construed in terms of the other.1.the foundation of Gestalt Psychology (the principle of similarity, proximity, continuation,prominence)2.metaphor as a figure of speech3.conventionalized metaphor4.metaphor as cognitive instrument(time is money)types of metaphor:1.ontological metaphor: inflation is an entity. We are out of trouble now.2.structural metaphor: time is money. Argument is war.3.orientational metaphor: happy is up; sad is down.Novel metaphor: literature metaphor, scientific metaphorMetonymy and metaphor:1.similarities: both are seen being conceptual in natureboth can be conventionalizedboth are means of extending the resources of a languageboth can be explained as mapping processes2.differences: metaphor involves a mapping process across different cognitive domain whilemetonymy is a mapping within one domain, close or relevant domain.Metonymy involves the relation of closeness and salience.General conceptual configuration:1.part for wholewhole for part (bathroom, the united states)2. attribute for entity (he is a size ten, hand)Extending the word meaning:Head:人数:metonymy智力:metonymy首要的:metonymy率领,向…前进:metonymy顶部,源头:metaphor首脑:metaphor。

语言学概论--第六章 文字

语言学概论--第六章 文字

语言学概论
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• 二、完善和扩大语言交际功能的书写符号系统 • 语言是一种符号体系,语言符号的物质形式就 是语音。语音同其他音响形式一样,延续的时间是 短暂的。当我们说完一句话,语音一落,这句话随 即就消失了。当然,我们可以把某个人说过的话储 存在记忆里,但人的记忆力是有一定限度的,也不 能做到像录音机那样准确无误。要把某人说过的一 大段话毫无差错地记住,是非常困难的,即使暂时 记住了,过一段时间也会忘记。有时很简单的一句 话,过后要复述时也往往走样。在文字诞生以前, 人们主要依靠语言来一代一代传递过去的历史、文 化遗产和劳动经验等等。这种口耳相传的方式显然 有很大的时间上和空间上的局限性。
语言学概论 15
第二节 文字的符号和类型
• 一、字符 • 字符也就是文字符号,是文字的最基本的单位, 也就是直接跟某种语言单位相联系的符号。 • 各种文字的字符,大体上可以归纳成三类,即 “意符”、“音符”和“记号”。 • 文字系统中的字符跟文字所代表的语言单位在 意义上有联系的字符是意符,如汉字“镜”当中的 “金”,“符”字里面的“竹”。在语音上有联系 的是音符,如“驱”字里面的“区”,“愈”当中 的“俞”。在语音和意义上都没有联系的字符是记 号。记号往往来源于原始的契刻符号,(鲁宾孙漂 流记里的星期五)如“一”、“二”、“三”等等; 记号也可以是硬性规定的,如现代简化字“环”里 面的“不”,“鸡”里面的“又”,“动”里面的 “力”,“烛”里面的“虫”,等等。
语言学概论 3
第一节 文字的性质
• 一、标记语言的书写符号系统 • 世界上有众多的文字,不管以何种形式出现, 都是用来标记语言的。存在没有文字的语言,但不 存在不标记任何语言的文字。我国十万人口以下的 少数民族,多数民族处于有自己的语言,而没有民 族文字的状态。我国已正式使用和经国家批准推行 的少数民族文字有19种,它们是蒙古文、藏文、维 吾尔文、朝鲜文、壮文、哈萨克文、锡伯文、傣文、 乌孜别克文、柯尔克孜文、塔塔尔文、俄罗斯文、 彝文、纳西文、苗文、景颇文、僳僳文、拉祜文和 佤文。 •

语言学概论(6)

语言学概论(6)
第六章 词汇 第一节 词汇和词汇学 一、什么是词和词汇 词是人们自然地感觉到的、 词是人们自然地感觉到的、在说话中能自由运用的 最小语言单位。 最小语言单位。 The word is the smallest significant unit of a given language capable of functioning alone. 词汇,又叫语汇,是词语的总汇, 词汇,又叫语汇,是词语的总汇,即语言符号的聚 合体。语汇所指范围有大有小, 合体。语汇所指范围有大有小,最大范围是指一种语言 系统中的全部词语。 系统中的全部词语。语汇一般指一种语言或方言中某个 历史时期的词语的聚合体。如现代汉语语汇等。 历史时期的词语的聚合体。如现代汉语语汇等。词汇有 时还指某个作家、某部作品、 时还指某个作家、某部作品、某个学科或某种性质的词 语的聚合体。如鲁迅的语汇、 红楼梦》的语汇、 语的聚合体。如鲁迅的语汇、《红楼梦》的语汇、计算 机语汇等。 机语汇等。 一种语言的语汇不是杂乱无章的, 一种语言的语汇不是杂乱无章的,而是一个有机的 系统。 系统。
root prefix inflectional affix eg. books affix infix suffix derivational affix eg. careful The majority of roots are free forms, and bound roots are relatively few ,but they do exist, such as -ceive, -tain and -cur in receive, retain and recur. 3 、 morpheme
3)语素变体(allomorph) )语素变体( ) An allomorph is a positional variant of a morpheme occurring in a specific environment and so characterized by complementary distribution. eg. ir-, im-,in -, etc; -ion,-tion, etc. (2)词(omission) ) ) (3)固定短语(omission) )固定短语( )

第六章 语言的发展演变第一节 语言发展演变的原因和特点 语言学概论PPT 教学课件

第六章  语言的发展演变第一节  语言发展演变的原因和特点 语言学概论PPT 教学课件

• 北方方言 不超过五个,以四个居多
• 湘、赣、客 五六个
• 吴、闽
七八个
•粤
八九个,最多十个
古调类 阴入
例字 八[-t]
广州 pat33
南昌 pat5
福州 苏州
pai?/ k23
po? 4
阳入 阴入
十[-p] 百[-k]
S¦p2 pak33
sÈt21 pak5 sei?/k4 pai?/
k23 z ɤ?23 pÌ? 4
不平衡性
语汇与社会的联系最直接,因此新陈代谢 最快,但是基本语汇是不易变化的。
语汇迅速发展,也不会立即引起语音系统 的演变。语音系统演变的速度要缓慢些。
语法的发展演变更加缓慢。 不仅各个子系统的发展速度不平衡,同样
的语言现象由于所处的条件不同,其发展 也是不平衡的。
汉语方言调类分合的总趋势是北方方言 的调类少,南方方言的调类多。
第六章
语言的演变和发展
一、语言发展演变的原因
系统外部原因:社会的发展演变(语言演 变的基本条件和强大动力)
系统内部原因:语言系统的结构不平衡性
系统外部原因——社会的发展演变
社会的进步 社会的分化和统一 社会的接触和交往
系统内部原因——语言系统的结构不平衡性
各子系统与社会联系的密切程度不平衡 语言系统内部要素的结构不平衡
二、语言演变的特点
渐变性:语言是逐步发展变化的,不允许 一下子发生巨大的变化。
不平衡性:在语言内部的不同组成成分之 间,以及在不同的地域之间,语言发展演 变的速度和方向是不一致的。
渐变性
语言的稳固和发展都是由社会的交际工具 这一语言的根本性质所决定的。这两个互 相对立的要求决定了语言一方面不能不变, 一方面又不能变得过于急剧。

语言学chapter6syntax

语言学chapter6syntax

语言学chapter6syntaxchapter 6Chapter Six: SyntaxAims:1. Familiarize students with different types of grammar.2. Generative grammar and phrase structure rules.I. DefinitionSyntax, derived originally from Greek, is made up of two morphemes: syn-(meaning together) and –tax (to arrange), hence the literal meaning “a setting out together” or “arrangement”. In linguistics, it refers to the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.We have already considered two levels of description used in the study of language (phonetic and morphological). With these descriptions, we could characterize all the words/phrases of a language in terms of their phonetic and morphological make-up.However, we have not yet accounted for the fact that these words can only be combined in a limited number of patterns. We recognize that the phrase the lucky boys is a well-formed piece of English, but that the following two phrases are not at all well-formed.*boys the lucky *lucky boys theSo we need a way of describing the structure of phrases andsentences which will account for all of the grammatical sequences and rule out all the ungrammatical sequences. Providing such an account involves us in the study of grammar.II. Types of grammarl Traditional Grammar and the prescriptive approach: Grammar as ‘linguistic etiquette’, i.e. the identification of the best/proper structures to be used;l Structuralism and descriptive approach: Grammar as the study and analysis of the structures found in a language, with the aim of establishing a description of the grammar of a particular language.l Universal grammar and Generative approach: Grammar as a form of internal linguistic knowledge that operates in the appropriate production and comprehension of natural languages.2.1 Traditional GrammarTraditionally, a sentence is seen as a sequence of words. Whether a word can occupy a certain position in a sentence depends on its grammatical category rather than its meaning. Therefore, the study of sentence formation involves a great deal of the study of the word in terms of parts of speech, subject predicate, number, gender and case. etcThese categories can be discussed in isolation, but their role in describing language structure becomes clearer when we consider them is terms of agreement. For example, we say that the verb likes ‘agrees with’ the noun boy in the sentence The boy likes his dog. This agreement is partially based on the category of number, that is, whether the noun is singular or plural. It is also based on the category of person, which covers the distinctions of first person, second person and third person. The different forms of English pronouns are usually described in terms of person and number, in that we have firstperson singular (I), second person singular (you), third person singular (he, she, it), first person plural (we) and so on. So, in the sentence The boy likes his dog, we have a noun boy, which is third person singular, and the verb likes ‘agrees with” the noun.In addition, the form of the verb must also be described in terms of another category, that is of tense. In this case, the verb (likes) is in the present tense, which is distinguished from the past tense (liked). The sentence is also in the active voice, with the boy doing the liking. An alternative is the passive voice in which the liking is done to the boy, as in The boy is liked by his dog.Our final category is that of gender, which helps us describe the agreement between boy and his in our example sentence. In English, we have to describe this relationship in terms of natural gender, mainly derived from a biological distinction between male and female. The agreement between Boy and his is based on a distinction English makes between reference to male entities (he, his), female entities (she, her), and sexless entities, or animals when the sex of the animal is irrelevant (it its).Since traditional grammar is based on the rules of Latin, it is quite another thing to go on to claim that the structure of English sentences should be like the structure of sentences in Latin. Theview of grammar as a set of rules for the ‘proper’ use of a language may be best characterized as the prescriptive approach.2.2 StructuralismIt may be that using a well-established grammatical description of Latin is a useful guide for studying some languages (e.g. Italian or Spanish), is less useful for others (e.g. English), and may be absolutely misleading if you want to describe some non-Europe languages. This last point became clear to these linguists who wanted to describe the structure of North American Indian languages at the end of the nineteenth century. The categories and rules which were appropriate for Latin grammar just did not seem to fit the Indian languages encountered. As a consequence, throughout the present century, a rather different approach has been taken. Analysts collect samples of the language they are interested in and attempt to describe the regular structures of the language as it is used, not according to some view of how it should be used. This is called the descriptive approach and it is the basis of most modern attempts to characterize the structure of different languages.IC analysisLet’s take a look at the following sentence:The dog followed the boy.We can identify five words (constituents). How do those five constituents go together to form constituents at the phrase level?Structural linguists realize that a sentence does not only have a linear structure, consisting of individual words one after another in a line; they also have a hierarchical structure, made up of layers of word groups. So the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituent --- word groups (or phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached is called IC analysis.So the above can be diagramed like:(((The) (dog)) ((followed) ((the) (boy)))). or more clearly in labeled tree diagram.2.3 Generative grammarSince the 1950s, particularly developing from the work of the American linguist Noam Chomsky, there have been attempts to produce a particular type of grammar which would have a very explicit system of rules specifying what combinations of basic elements would result in well-formed sentences. This explicit system of rules, it was proposed, would have much in common with the types of rules found in mathematics. This mathematical point of view helps to explain the meaning of the terms generative, which is used to describe this type of grammar. If you have an algebraic expression like 3x+2y, and you can give x and y the value of any whole number, then that simple algebraic expression can generate an endless set of values, by following the simple rules of arithmetic. Then there must be a set of explicit rules which yield those sentences. Such a set of explicit rules is a generative grammar.2.3.1 Some properties of the generative grammarA grammar of this type must have a number of properties, which can be described in the following terms.a. “all and only” criterion: The grammar will generate all the well-formed sentences of the language and fail to generate any ill-formed structures.b. It has limited number of rules, but it can generate an infinite number of well-formed structures.c. recursion: The rules can be applied more than once in generating a structure. Basically, the grammar will have to capture the fact that a sentence can have another sentence inside it, or a phrase can have another phrase of the same type inside it.e.g. This is the dog that chased the cat that killed the rat…The book was on the table near the window in the hallway beside the…2.3.2 Deep and surface structureThis grammar should also be capable of revealing the basis of two other phenomena: first, how some superficially distinct sentences are closely related, and second how some superficially similar sentences are in fact distinct.For example, Charlie broke the windowThe window was broken by Charlie.The difference between them (active vs. passive) is in their surface structure that is the syntactic form they take as actual English sentence. However, this difference in superficial form disguises the fact that the two sentences are very closely related even identical, at some less ‘superficial’ level. This other ‘un derlying’ level, where the basic components share by the two sentences would be represented, has been called their deep structure.In his book Syntactic Structure publish in 1957, Chomsky proposed a linguistic model consisting of three components:2.3.3Transformational rulesPhrase structure rules generate the deep structure of the sentence. The sentences we actually see and hear are the surface structures. From deep structure to surface it should undergo transformations. In the following examplesi. George helped Mary yesterday.ii. Yesterday George helped Mary.We can think of the yesterday element as having been ‘moved to the beginning of the sentence in ii. In order to do this, we need a set of rules which will change or move constituents in the structures derived from the phrase structure rules. these are called transformational rules. Essentially what they do is take a branch of the tree away from one part of the tree diagram, and attach it to a different part. Here is an example of a movement transformation.The rules would, of course, specify which constituents can be move, from where and to where.Let’s take a look at a verb-particle construction.i. Doobie picked up the magazine.ii. Doobie picked the magazine up.We intuitively recognize that these two sentences must come from a single underlying source. Let us propose a single tree diagram source which produces a string of elements. Like: NP Verb Particle NP Under circumstances like these, let us then propose the optional transformation called ‘Particle Movement’, which takes that description and yields the structural change to NP Verb NP Particle.By using this simple transformational rule, we have provided the means for explicitly relating the two structures in sentences i and ii above as ‘surface’ variations of a single underlying structure. It may not seem much, but this type of transformational analysis solved a number of tricky problems for previous syntactic descriptions.Exercises:0. In what ways are these expressions ambiguous?a. An American history teacher.b. Flying planes can be dangerous.c. The parents of the bride and the groom were waiting.1. Can you provide four ‘superficially distinct’ sentences which would each have the same ‘underlying’ structure as one of the following sentences?a. Lara was arrested by the police.b. She took her coat off.c. Someone stole my bicycle.d. I told him to turn down the volume.3. Which of the following expressions would be generated by this phrase structure rule: NP →Art (Adj) N ?a. a radiob. the rusty carc. a new studentd. the screwdriver4. Which of the following structures can be changed via the Particle Movement transformation?a. He put down his glass.b. She threw away her dress.c. he pulled off his shirt.d. They jumped in the pool.5. Please give tree diagrams of the following sentences.a. The boy helped George today.b. George saw the dog with Mary.c. The boy saw the man with the telescope.d. The very old teachers you met yesterday greatly fear the blackbirds.。

第六章-系统功能语言学-功能语法-语篇功能

第六章-系统功能语言学-功能语法-语篇功能

• 信息中心,也就是新信息的“最高点”,标志着所 在信息单位的新信息至此结束。如: //It /needs to have /love.//
• 其中,//是信息音位分界线,/是音步,下划线为重 音突出,即新信息最高点。
• 信息中心所传递的信息,比其他部分所传递的信息 更加突出、更加重要。它是最重要的信息。
连接:通过连接成分体现语篇中各种逻辑关系的 手段。连接成分往往是一些过渡性词语,表示时间、 因果、条件等逻辑关系。如:
如果浮尘太大,那么飞机就无法起飞。 有时并不用明显的连接成分,称作零形式连接或 意合连接。如: He died three days ago. He was buried in London.(时间关系) She didn’t know the rules. She died.(因果)
T3
• China is in Asia. Japan is in Asia. And India is in Asia, too.
• 张三喜欢运动。李四喜欢运动。王五也喜欢运动。
• 第三种是阶梯型,即后一个句子的主位是前一句子 的述位。汉语中的顶针与此相当。图示为:
T1
R1
• 如:
T2
R2
(1)Mary bought a carpet. It was made in Turkey. Turkey is a country in Asia.
1、信息结构的基本含义
• 信息结构是把语言组织成为“信息单位” (information unit)的结构。
• 信息单位是信息交流的基本成分。信息交流 是言语活动过程中,已知信息与新信息之间 的相互作用。
• 已知信息是言语活动中已经出现过的或根据 语境可以断定的成分;新信息是言语活动中 尚未出现或根据语境难以断定的成分。

语言学第六章chapter6

语言学第六章chapter6
(1) a: Can I look at your Shakespeare? b: Sure, it’s on the shelf over there.
(use names of people to refer to things)
The key process here is called inference. An inference is any additional information used by the hearer to connect what is said to what must be meant.
Voltaire (Quoted, in Spanish, in Escandell 1993.) speaker’s meaning/language in use
A melamed [/mə‘lɑ:məd/,小学教师, Hebrew teacher] discovering that he had left his comfortable slippers back in the house, sent a student after them with a note for his wife.
Pragmatics is the study of the relationships between linguistic forms and the users of those forms.
In this three-part distinction, only pragmatics allows humans into the analysis.
To study the meaning of such pieces of language in smaller contexts is called micropragmatics.

英语语言学笔记第六章

英语语言学笔记第六章

第六章语言的心理过程6.1 绪言为什么要研究语言?从某种更深刻更重要的意义上来说,语言是思维的镜子。

它是人类智慧的结晶,通过意志和意识觉察不到的一些机制在人类每一个体上重生。

(乔姆斯基,Reflections on Language,1975)"语言和思维"这项研究致力于构造思维中与语言相关部分的工作模型。

毫无疑问,思维的种种结构和关系是不可观察的,因而研究者们提出假设时总是根据一些零星的线索。

这也说明了为什么围绕这一论题几乎所有方面的争议都那么尖锐。

人们最经常给"语言和思维"这项研究贴上的标签是心理语言学--一个通常认为是正流行的术语,近年来该术语从某种意义上说被滥用了,我们会发现它几乎可以用于任一语言学论题。

"准确的"心理语言学也许可以注解为对利用任一媒介(口头的或书面的)进行的语言储存、理解、产生和习得过程的研究。

为什么要研究心理语言学?心理语言学首要关注的是调查语言结构的心理现实。

照实说,该学科通常也会产生一些对语言研究提出他们自己评论的发现,这些发现促进了理论体系的改进。

如果我们通过一个宽泛聚合体--认知心理学的视角来看心理语言学的任务,那么它将变得和对语言指令行为表征的研究相一致。

作为现代形态的心理学,它采用实验的方法论,坚持必须在实验条件下研究这些行为表征;通过近三十年左右始终追求这一目标、在精密实验方法指导下的心理语言学,我们看到这样做也是合理的。

区别心理语言学与语言心理学或许有助于我们的讨论。

后者处理诸如语言在多大范围内影响了思想之类更常见的论题;而且从交际心理学角度看,它还研究包括手势、面部表情等非言语交际。

在心理语言学内部,一个可能的区分是某些学者把自己称作"认知心理语言学家",以与"实验心理语言学家"相对。

前者首要关注的是作出关于人类思维内容的推论,后者则更关心经验主义的事实、比如对一个特定单词的反应速度。

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The loss
• not taking place in all positions at the same time • the earliest instances of the loss of weak e:
some words:habitually unstressed,their subordination, more valuable members possessive pronouns(our/your) some adverbs(before/tofore) some participles(come)
retaining and developing of e
(1)after a sibilant[s, z, ʃ,ʒ], e retains its syllabic value • eg:kisses[kisiz] roses[rouziz] • wishes[wiʃiz] bridges[briʒiz]
manifold consequences
turning non-syllabic to syllabic modifying the grammatical structures of the language having -e for adjectives in the definite form and in the plural giving up the distinction between adj. and the corresponding adv becoming identical in imperative, infinitive, indicative and subjective verb forms influencing word-formation showing syntactical relations having their origin for homonyms
• 2.modifying the grammatical structures of the language • the dative sg. in OE and early ME ended in -e in most nouns, eg:me thinks(据我看来) • In Chaucer's time, the dat. had nearly always become identical with the nom • now disappeared except of alive, in life /f/ in alive /v/
Mute e retained in spelling
(1)after u: to show u was the constant /v/, not a vowel, eg:live, have (2)after g: to show the sound is /dʒ/and not /g/, eg:age (3)after c: to show the sound is /s/ and not /k/,eg:defence (4)after s: to indicate s is not the flexional ending, eg:else
• The loss of the weak e is one of the most important changes in the whole history of the language. North:beginning in Scotland → completed before Barbour's Bruce was written South:many es were retanined longer in Chaucer's metre
Chapter6 The Earliest Changes
张丽 李先婷 孙婷婷
6.1——6.3 Loss of weak e 6.4 er>ar 6.5——6.9Voicing of Consonnants in English
Байду номын сангаас
loss of weak e
conditions consequences
(4)e disappered was before a consontant in various endings eg:kinges>kings but some time after Chaucer's death e in such endings became silent kinges>kingez>kingz dukes>dukez>dukz
Conditions
(1).final
e lost before a word beginning with a vowel: • eg.sitte→sitt on hors(Ch.) the array→th' array the angel→th' angel • special case:ne before a vowel(or h) ne hadde= nadde ne will he or ye>willy-nilly The elision in the was very frequent in early ModE. eg: have th'air, th'ether(other)
• immediate successors left out, Chaucer kept • e becoming one of the best criteria of the genuineness of poems
• the loss of so many unstressed es
• the general tendency to 'slur over' weak syllables • their relative unimportance for the understanding of what is said • only in very rare instances the leaving out e alters the signification of a word or a phrase • Chaucer: with and without e were used indiscrminately
(2)the ending -ed, we have parallel developmet eg: loved[lʌvd] missed[mist], ended[endid] wasted[weistid]
retaining and developing of e
(3)in four grammatical endings e is now always pronounced: -est in the superlative, eg:weakest -est in the second sg., eg:thou walkest -eth in ordinals after -ty, eg:twentieth -eth in the obsolete third person, eg:he walketh
(5)the ending /jə/ • the result was a syllabic /j/, that is /i/ • eg: thank ye>thanky • will ye nill ye>willy nilly (6)/wə/ • becoming /w/, that is /u/ • eg: ME folwe/folu/,shadwe/ʃadu/
(7)to distinguish words, • eg: bee n. doe n. • be v. do v.
toe to
• The arbitrariness of the spelling is well shown by the fact that the same name is written at Oxford Magdalen College and Cambridge Magdalen College. • in some derivatives the spelling has not been completely settled, eg:judg(e)ment, mov(e)able, lov(e)able • to avoid confusion, eg: fine-ish/finish
(5)after syllabic l and r • eg:able, stable; acre, sabre (6)after other consonants the preceding vowel was long, eg: bite, rode also in a few words that have never been long, eg: come, some after a vowel, e is very frequent eg:free, die,due, tie, vie, hue←avoid words of two letters
1.non-syllabic →syllabic
(1) /l/ • able, stable, fable must have syllabic/l/ • more common in F, eg:fiddle, riddle, bubble
• /e/ was originally found after /l/ in the majority of cases, rarer cases /e/ was originally preceded the /l/, eg: bridle OE bridel • muscle : animal tissue /musl/ /mʌsl/ • mussel : shellfish
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