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新编简明英语语言学教程第二版整理

Chapter 1: Introduction1.Linguistics:语言学It is generally defined as the scientific study of language. ( Linguistics studies not any particular language ,but it studies language in general)2.General linguistics:普通语言学The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics.(language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets )nguage:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.4.descriptive (描述性):A linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.5.prescriptive(规定性): It aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behaviors.i.e. what they should say and what they should not to say.6.synchronic(共时语言学): the description of language at some point of time in hiatory7.diachronic (历时语言学):the description of language as it changes through time3) speech（口语）Writing（书面语）These the two media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. (speech is prior to writing)ngue(语言): refers to abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of the speech community.It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by. Such as: In English sentence must have subject and predicate.9.parole(言语):refers to the realization of langue in actual use.It is concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. (Saussure )petence(语言能力): the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language11.performance(语言应用):the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. (Chomsky)traditional grammar and modern linguistics1.linguistics is descriptive,while traditional grammar is prescriptive2.modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary,not the writer.3. also in that it does not force languages into a latin-based framework. Functions of language.1.the descriptive function.2. the expressive function3.the social functionChapter 2: Phonology音系学phonetics:the study of the phonic medium of language;it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’ s languages9.The three branches of phonetics(1).Articulatory phonetics (发音语音学) (longest history)(2.)Auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）(3)Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学）2. Speech organs: three important areas⑴Pharyngeal cavity咽腔---- the throat;⑵The oral cavity口腔---- the mouth;⑶Nasal cavity –鼻腔--- the nose.The principle source such modifications is the tongue.The tongue is the most flexible.International Phonetic Alphabet [IPA]:the basic principle of the IPA is using one letter selected from major European languages to represent one speech sound.Broad transcription宽式音标. The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only.Narrow transcription窄式音标The transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics.Aspirated and unaspirated1). phonology: 音系学It aims to discover how speech sounds in a language formpatterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.4. Phone, phoneme, allophoneA phone音素is a phonetic unit or segment.The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some don’t, e.g. [ bI:t ] & [ bIt ], [spIt] & [spIt].A phoneme音位is a phonological unit;it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently in [pIt], [tIp] and [spIt].Allophones音素变体---- the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environmentssequential rule,⑴Sequential rule(序列规则): rule governing the combination of sounds in aparticular language.⑵Assimilation rule（同化规则）: rule assimilating one sound to another bycopying features of sequential phoneme,thus making the two phones similar.⑶Deletion rule（省略规则）: rule governing the deletion of a sound in acertain phonetic context although it is represented in spelling.6. Suprasegmental features（超切分特征）⑴StressWord stress and sentence stress⑵Tone声调Tones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.English is not a tone language, but Chinese is.⑶Intonation语调When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than to the word, they are collectively known as intonation.English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used:falling tone (matter of fact statement)rising tone (doubts or question)the fall-rise tone (implied message)the frise-fall tone (not frequently used)For instance, “That’s not the book he wants.Chapter 3: Morphology1). Morphology形态学: refers to the the study of the internal structure of wordsand the rules by which words are formed2). Morpheme词素: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.3). Free morpheme自由词素:a morpheme can be a word by itself.4). Bound morpheme.黏着词素: a morpheme that must be attached to anotherone.5). Allmorphs词素变体:the variant forms of a morphemeChapter 4: SyntaxSyntax句法学: Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules thatgovern the formation of sentences.Word-level categories1,Major lexical categories2. minor lexical categoriesTo determine a word’s categorie,three critera are usually employed1.meaning2.inflection3.distribution.Phrase:syntactic units that are built around a centain word category complementizers words which introduce the sentence complement complement clause the sentence introduced by the cmomplementizersD-structure:formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization propertiesS-structure:corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results form appropriate transformation .Chapter 5: SemanticsSemantics: 语义学can be simply defined as the study of meaning.1）The naming theory(命名论)Oldest notions concering meaning.most primitive one.It was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato.words are just names or labels for things.2）The conceptualist view（意念论）It holds that there is no direct link between a lin-guistic form and what it refers to. In the interpretation of meaning, they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.3)Contextualism（语境论）①Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized:②Situational context: spatiotemporal situation③Linguistic context: the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation.④For example, “black” in black hair & black coffee, or black sheep differs in me aning; “The president of the United States” can mean either the pre sident or presidency in different situation.4) Behaviorism（行为主义论）Bloomfield①Behaviorists attempted to define meaning as “the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.②The story of Jack and Jill:Jill JackS_________r--------s_________R3. Sense and reference①Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.②Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4. Major sense relationsSynonymy（同义关系）Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. 同义词complete synonyms, i.e. synonymy that are mutually substitutable under all circumstances, are rareHomonymy（同音/同形异义）Homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form,（1)Homophones（同音异义）: When two words are identical in sound, they are called homophones.e.g. rain/reign.（2)Homographs(同形异义): When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.e.g. tear v. / tear n.（3)Complete homonyms(同音同形异义):When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are called complete homonyms.e.g. fast v. / fast adj.; scale v. /scale. n.Hyponymy（下义关系）Hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.eg.superordinate: flowerhyponyms: rose, tulip, carnation, lilyAntonymy（反义关系）the term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning1) Gradable antonyms（等级反义词）----there are often intermediate formsbetween the two members of a pair, e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short …2) Complementary antonyms（互补反义词）----the denial of one member ofthe pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. alive-dead, male-female …3) Relational opposites（关系反义词）----exhibits the reversal of therelationship between the two items, e.g. husband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee, give-receive, above-below …2) There are two aspects to sentence meaning:1.grammatical meaning2. semantic meaning, e.g.selectional restrictions.Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by ruleseg. constraints on what lexical items can go with what othersPredication analysis---- a way to analyze sentence meaning (B ritish G.Leech).Chapter 6: Pragmatics1). P ragmatics:语用学the study of how speakers of a language use sentences toeffect successful communication.Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning.What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatic s is whether the context of use is considered in the study of meaningIf it is not considered, the study is confined to the area of traditional semantics;if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.⑴Austin’s new model of speech actsUtterance meaning:the meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.Cooperative Principle(CD):Paul Grice.His idea is that to converse with each other, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk.3）Principle of conversation (Paul Grice)The maxim of quantity （数量准则）Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange). （使自己所说的话达到当前交谈目的所要求的详尽程度。

新编简明英语语言学教程第二版课后参考答案

《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版练习题参考答案Chapter 1 Introduction1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.答：Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2. What are the major branches of linguistics What does each of them study答：The major branches of linguistics are:(1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;(3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words;(4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages;(5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar答：The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “traditional grammar.”Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic Why答：In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing答：Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when theneed arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of speech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance答：Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language答：First of all, language is a system, ., elements of language are combined according to rules. Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound. Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system答：The main features of human language are termed design features. They include:1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.3) DualityLanguage consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.4) DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what “displacement” means.5) Cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis, ., we were all born with the abilityto acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.9. What are the major functions of language Think of your own examples for illustration.答：Three main functions are often recognized of language: the descriptive function, the expressive function, and the social function.The descriptive function is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified. For example: “China is a large country with a long history.”The expressive function supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values. For example: “I will never go window-shoppi ng with her.”The social function serves to establish and maintain social relations between people. . For example: “We are your firm supporters.”Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1. What are the two major media of linguistic communication Of the two, which one is primary and why答：Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.Of the two media of language, speech is more primary than writing, for reasons, please refer to the answer to the fifth problem in the last chapter.2. What is voicing and how is it caused答：Voicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English. It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.3. Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ答：The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription. This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. The latter, . the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called narrow transcription. This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose.In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sounds [l] in the four words leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], and health [helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l] in all these four sound combinations differs slightly. The [l] in [li:f], occurring before a vowel, is called a dear [l], and no diacritic is needed to indicate it; the [1] in [fi:l] and [bild], occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1] as in “leaf”. It i s called dark [] and in narrow transcription the diacritic [] is used to indicate it. Then in the sound combination [helθ], the sound [l] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it. It is thus called a dental [l], and in narrow transcription the diacritic [、] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ].Another example is the consonant [p]. We all know that [p] is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit. In the word pit, the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broad transcription, but in narrow transcription, a small raised “h” is used to show aspiration, thus pit is transcribed as [pht] and spit is transcribed as [spt].4. How are the English consonants classified答：English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation. In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place of articulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5. What criteria are used to classify the English vowels答：Vowels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest. To further distinguish members of each group, we need to apply another criterion, . the openness of the mouth. Accordingly, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels. A third criterion that is often used in the classification of vowels is the shape of the lips. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unfounded vowels, i. e., without rounding the lips, and all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are rounded. It should be noted that some front vowels can be pronounced with rounded lips.6. A. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1) voiced palatal affricate2) voiceless labiodental fricative3) voiced alveolar stop4) front, close, short5) back, semi-open, long6) voiceless bilabial stopB. Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1) [ t ] 2) [ l ] 3) [] 4) [w] 5) [] 6) []答：A. (1) [] (2) [ f ] (3) [d ] (4) [ ] (5) [ :] (6) [p]B. (1) voiceless alveolar stop (2) voiced alveolar liquid(3) voiceless palatal affricate (4) voiced bilabial glide(5) back, close, short (6) front, open7. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study Who do you think will be more interested in the difference between, say, [l] and [], [ph] and [p], a phonetician or a phonologist Why答：(1) Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language ––the speech sounds. But while both are related to the study of sounds,, they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.(2) A phonologist will be more interested in it. Because one of the tasks of the phonologists is to find out rule that governs the distribution of [l] and [], [ph] and [p].8. What is a phone How is it different from a phoneme How are allophones related to a phoneme 答： A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. The different phoneswhich can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the phoneme /l/ in English can be realized as dark [], clear [l], etc. which are allophones of the phoneme /l/.9. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.答：Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.There are many such sequential rules in English. For example, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi] are impossible combinations in English. They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Assimilation of neighbouring sounds is, for the most part, caused by articulatory or physiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. This “sloppy” tendency may become regularized as rules of language.We all know that nasalization is not a phonological feature in English, ., it does not distinguish meaning. But this does not mean that vowels in English are never nasalized in actual pronunciation; in fact they are nasalized in certain phonetic contexts. For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green, team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].The assimilation rule also accounts for the varying pronunciation of the alveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations. The rule is that within a word, the nasal [n] assumes the same place of articulation as the consonant that follows it. We know that in English the prefix in- can be added to ma adjective to make the meaning of the word negative, . discreet – indiscreet, correct – incorrect. But the [n] sound in the prefix in- is not always pronounced as an alveolar nasal. It is so in the word indiscreet because the consonant that follows it, . [d], is an alveolar stop, but the [n] sound in the word incorrect is actually pronounced as a velar nasal, . []; this is because the consonant that follows it is [k], which is a velar stop. So we can see that while pronouncing the sound [n], we are “copying” a feature of the consonant that follows it.Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. We have noticed that in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter g. But in their corresponding forms signature, designation, and paradigmatic, the [g] represented by the letter g is pronounced. The rule can be stated as: Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. Given the rule, the phonemic representation of the stems in sign – signature, resign – resignation, phlegm –phlegmatic, paradigm –paradigmatic will include the phoneme /g/, which will be deleted according to the regular rule if no suffix is added.10. What are suprasegmental features How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning答：The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun, to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. Tones are pitch variations which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings.Chapter 3 Morphology1. Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a “+” between each morpheme and the next:a. microfile e. telecommunicationb. bedraggled f. forefatherc. announcement g. psychophysicsd. predigestion h. mechanist答：a. micro + file b. be + draggle + edc. announce + mentd. pre + digest + ione. tele + communicate + ionf. fore + fatherg. psycho + physics h. mechan + ist2. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: -orsuffix: -ormeaning: the person or thing performing the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: actor, “one who acts in stage plays, motion pictures, etc.” translator, “one who translates”答：(1) suffix: -ablemeaning: something can be done or is possiblestem type: added to verbsexamples: acceptable, “can be accepted”respectable, “can be respected”(2) suffix: -lymeaning: functionalstem type: added to adjectivesexamples: freely. “adverbial form of ‘free’ ”quickly, “adverbial form of 'quick' ”.(3) suffix: -eemeaning: the person receiving the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: employee, “one who works in a company”interviewee, “one who is interviewed”3. Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: a-prefix: a-meaning: “without; not”stem type: added to adjectivesexamples: asymmetric, “lacking symmetry” asexual, “without sex or sex organs”答：(1) prefix: dis-meaning: showing an oppositestem type: added to verbs or nounsexamples : disapprove, “do not approve”dishonesty, “lack of honesty”.(2) prefix: anti-meaning: against, opposed tostem type: added to nouns or adjectivesexamples : antinuclear, “opposing the use of atomic weapons and power”antisocial, “opposed or harmful to the laws and customs of an organized community. ”(3) prefix: counter-meaning: the opposite ofstem type: added to nouns or adjectives.examples: counterproductive, “producing results opposite to those intended”count eract, “act against and reduce the force or effect of (sth.) ”4. The italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectional morpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning.Sue moves in high-society circles in London.A traffic warden asked John to move his car.The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.答：(1) the third person singular(2) the past tense(3) the present perfect(4) the present progressive5. Determine whether the words in each of the following groups are related to one another by processes of inflection or derivation.a) go, goes, going, goneb) discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverabilityc) inventor, inventor’s, inventors, inventors’d) democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize答：(略)6. The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes. Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes.a) The farmer’s cows escaped.b) It was raining.c) Those socks are inexpensive.d) Jim needs the newer copy.e) The strongest rower continued.f) She quickly closed the book.g) The alphabetization went well.答：(略)Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntaxSyntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure ruleThe grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements . specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP →(Det) N (PP) ...VP →(Qual) V (NP) ...AP →(Deg) A (PP) ...PP →(Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N,3. What is category How to determine a word's categoryCategory refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution.若详细回答，则要加上：Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. The meanings associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives. For example, when we say that pretty lady, we are attributing the property ‘pretty’ to the lady designated by the noun. Similarly, the properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted by adverbs. For example, in Jenny left quietly the adverb quietly indicates the manner of Jenny's leaving.The second criterion to determine a word's category is inflection. Words of different categories take different inflections. Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as work and help take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix -ing. And adjectives like quiet and clever take comparative affix -er and superlative affix -est. Although inflection is very helpful in determining a word's category, it does not always suffice. Some words do not take inflections. For example, nouns like moisture, fog, do not usually take plural suffix -s and adjectives like frequent, intelligent do not take comparative and superlative affixes -er and -est.The last and more reliable criterion of determining a word's category is its distribution. That is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. For example, nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card, verbs with an auxiliary such as should stay and will go, and adjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright.A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it haveThe structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.It has (或写Conjunction exhibits) four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to theconjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elementsbeing conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element playA phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structureThere are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure(or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).（以下几题只作初步的的成分划分，未画树形图, 仅供参考）7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriatetree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsXP(AP) →head (rich) A + complement (in minerals) PPb) often read detective storiesXP(VP) →specifier (often) Qual + head (read) V + complement (detective stories) NPc) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) →specifier (the) Det + head (argument) N + complement (against the proposals) PPd) already above the windowXP(VP) →specifier (already) Deg + head (above) P + complement (the window) NPd) The apple might hit the man.S →NP (The apple) + Infl (might) + VP (hit the man)e) He often reads detective stories.S →NP (He) + VP (often reads detective stories)9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（斜体的为名词的修饰语，划底线的为动词的修饰语）a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.（划底线的为并列的范畴）a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.b) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.b) Herbert bought a house that she lovedc) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences. （斜体的为深层结构，普通字体的为表层结构）a) Would you come tomorrowyou would come tomorrowb) What did Helen bring to the party。

陈新仁《英语语言学实用教程》（章节题库第12章英语习得）【圣才出品】

陈新仁《英语语⾔学实⽤教程》（章节题库第12章英语习得）【圣才出品】第12章英语习得Ⅰ.Fill in the blanks.1.The type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language is often referred to as_____.（中⼭⼤学2008研）【答案】interlanguage【解析】中介语是在外语或第⼆语⾔学习中形成的。

2.An influential claim regarding the input issue is the hypothesis that there must be sufficient,comprehensible input available to L2learners,as captured by the_____ formula.【答案】“i+1”【解析】关于输⼊问题，⼀个有影响⼒的说法是假设对于第⼆语⾔学习者必须有可获得的⾜够的以及能够被理解的输⼊，⽤公式可表⽰为“i+1”。

3.Error is the grammatically incorrect form;_____appears when the language is correct grammatically but improper in a communicational context.（中⼭⼤学2008研）【答案】mistake【解析】mistake是指在语法上正确但在交流语境中不恰当。

4._____are“the special thoughts or behaviors that individuals use to help them comprehend,learn,or retain new information”.【答案】Learning strategies【解析】学习策略是指特殊的想法或⾏为，这种想法或⾏为能够帮助学习者理解，学习或者获得新的信息。

笔记_新编简明英语语言学教程_复习资料讲解

Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性（创造性）Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递5.语言能力Competence（抽象）Competence is the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performance（具体）Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的具体体现。

7.历时语言学Diachronic linguisticsThe study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time.8.共时语言学Synchronical linguisticsThe study of a given language at a given time.9.语言langue（抽象）The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.10.言语parole（具体）The realization of langue in actual use.11.规定性Prescriptivebehavior, to tell people what they should say and what It aims to lay down rules for ‖correct‖　should not say.12.描述性DescriptiveA linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.二、知识点a social activity carried out in a certain socialnguage is not an isolated phenomenon, it‘senvironment by human beings.语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。

64曲阜师范大学2020年成人高等教育《英语词汇学》复习资料期末考试试题及参考答案

《英语词汇学》复习资料1Ⅰ. Fill in the blanks.Directions: Complete the following statements with proper words.1.The 1 is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words.2. 2 are words borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilated into the Englishlanguage.3.The problem of interrelation of the various meanings of the same word can be dealt with fromtwo different angles: 3 approach and synchronic approach.4.“Mal-” in “maltreat” is a 4 prefix, while “inter-” in “ interstate” is a 5 prefix.5.Old English is described as a language of full endings, Middle English language of 6endings, and a language of 7 endings.6.In modern English, one may find some 8 words whose sounds suggest their meaning,for these words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises.7.The word meaning is made up of 9 meaning and 10 meaning, and the later hastwo components: conceptual meaning and 11 meaning.8.Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories: appreciative or 12 .9.13 is thought to be the opposite process of suffixation.10.14 is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus apart of another word.11.15 refers to the jargon of criminals. Its use is confined to the sub-cultural groups, andoutsiders can hardly understand it.12.“Pretty” and “handsome” share the same 16 meaning，but differ in 17 meaning.13.___18___analysis is a process of breaking down the sense of a word into its minimalcomponents which are also known as semantic features..14.Radiation and 19 are the two coinages which the development of word meaningfollows from monosemy to polysemy.15.20 deals with the relationship of inclusion, i.e. the meaning of a more specific word isincluded in that of another more general word.Ⅱ. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. Write T for “true” and F for “false”.1.Homonyms are descendants of different sources whereas a polysemant is a word of the samesource which has acquired different meanings in the course of development.2.Words of the basic word stock are mostly root words or monosyllabic words, so they havestrong productivity.3.“Can-opener” used as slang to mean “all-purpose key”.4.Native words are neutral in style.5.The Indo-European language family is made up of most languages of Europe, the Far East, andIndia.6.Borrowing has played a vital role in the development of English vocabulary, particularly inearlier times.7.The smallest functioning unit in the composition of words is morpheme.8.Stem is a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.9.Base is what remains of a word after the removal of all affixes.10.Words created by compounding occupy the highest percentage of the English vocabulary.11.“Fore-” in “forehead” and “fore-” in “foreknowledge” belong to two kinds of prefix.12.Word-building and word-formation are relative synonyms.13.The word manusc ript which originally denotes “handwriting” only has undergone a process ofextension of meaning.14.Parent—child and husband—wife are two pairs of converses.15.Policeman, constable, bobby and cop are synonyms differing in intensity.Ⅲ. Answer the following questions briefly.1.What are the characteristics of the basic word stock?2.Why are prefixes and suffixes divided according to different criteria?3.List the four sources of synonyms.4.What are the characteristics of conceptual meaning and associative meaning?Ⅳ. Answer the following questions according to the requirement.Classify the three pairs of antonyms according to types of antonyms you have learned and describe the characteristics of each type of them.interviewer/interviewee; male/female; old /young答案I．Fill in the blanks.1. morpheme2. denizens3. diachronic4. pejorative5. locative6. leveled7. lost8. onomatopoeic9. grammatical 10.lexical11.associative 12. pejorative 13. backformation 14. blending 15.argot 16. conceptual 17. collocative 18. componential 19. concatenation 20.hyponymyII.Decide whether the following statements are true or false. Write T for “true” and F for “false”.1-5 TTTFT 6-10 TFFFT 11-15 TFFTFIII.Answer the following questions briefly.1.What are the characteristics of the basic word stock?1)All national character 2) stability 3) productivity 4) polysemy 5)collocability2.Why are prefixes and suffixes divided according to different criteria?1)Prefixes primarily effect a semantic modification of the base, i.e. prefixes do not generallychange the word-class of the base but only modify its meaning.2)Suffixes have only a small semantic role and their primary function is to change thegrammatical function of the base, i.e. the change of the word class with a slight modification of meaning.3)So prefixes are categorized on a semantic basis while suffixes are divided on a grammaticalbasis.3.1)Borrowing; (2) dialects and regional English (3) figurative and euphemistic use of words(4) coincidence with idiomatic expressions4.What are the characteristics of conceptual meaning and associative meaning?1)Conceptual meaning is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of wordmeaning. Being constant and relatively stable, conceptual meaning forms the basis for communication as the same word generally has the same conceptual meaning to the speakers in the same speech community. (3%)2)Associative meaning differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is open-ended andindeterminate, liable to the influence of such factors as culture, experience, religion,geographical region, class background, education, etc…（3%）Ⅳ. Analyze the following questions and explain them according to the requirement.1.1)Interviewer& interviewee are converses; male & female are complementaries; old &young are contraries.2)Complementaries truly represent oppositeness of meaning. They are so opposite to eachother that they are mutually exclusive and admit no possibility between them. The assertion of one is the denial of the other or vice versa. Complementaries are nongradable, and they cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like “very” to qualify them.3)Contraries are gradable antonyms. The existence of one is in relation to the other. We cansay: A man is rich or very rich and also we can say a man is rich than the other. Contraries are characteristic of semantic polarity. These antonyms form part of a scale of values between two poles and can accommodate a middle ground belonging neither to one pole nor to the other.4)Converses consist of relational opposites. The pairs of words indicate reciprocal socialrelationships that one of them cannot be used without suggesting the other. It also includes reverse terms, which comprise adjectives and adverbs signifying a quality or verbs and nouns signifying an act or state that reverse or undo the quality, action or state of the other.复习资料2I. 单选题1. In the sentence “I like to see a movie.”, there are ________ functional words.A. 2B. 3C. 4D. 52. Conversion is amethod________________________.A. of turning words of one part of speech to those of a different part of speechB. of converting words of one meaning into different meaningC. of deriving words through grammatical meansD. of changing words in morphological structure3. The following words have derivational affixes EXCEPT ________________.A. subseaB. prewarC. postwarD. desks4. Which of the following statements is false?A. Conversion refers to the use of words of one class as that of a different class.B. Words mainly involved in conversion are nouns, verbs and adverbs.C. Partial conversion and full conversion are concerned with adjectiveswhen converted to nouns.D. The conversion between nouns and verbs may involve a change of stress.5. _________ is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.A. Grammatical meaningB. Denotative meaningC. Associative meaningD. Connotative meaning6. The words what have emotive content in themselves are said to contain __ meaning.A. collocativeB. affectiveC. stylisticD. denotative7. __________ explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word.A. Etymological motivationB. Onomatopoetic motivationC. Morphological motivationD. Semantic motivation8. The following words have inflectional affixes EXCEPT __________.A. worksB. workerC. workingD. worked9. “Smog”is formed by combining “smoke”and “fog”. So it is an example ofA. clippingB. compoundingC. blendingD. back-formation10. The word “smog”is created by blending, with the structure of __________.A. head + tailB. head + headC. head + wordD. word + tail11. The most important mode of vocabulary development in present-day English is the creation of new words by means of ________________.A. translation-loansB. emantic loansC. word formationD. borrowings12. Which of the following belongs to a semantic field?A. steed, charger, palfrey, plug, nagB. pony, mustang, mule, stud, mareC. policeman, constable, bobby, copD. domicile, residence, abode, home13. Words which are used to show the attitude of approval are ________________.A. appreciativeB. pejorativeC. conntativeD. collocative14. General features of English contains the following except _________.A. simplicityB. receptivityC. adaptabilityD. imprssiveness15. The most productive means of word-formation in modern English are the following except .A. compoundingB. affixationC. acronymD. conversionII判断题1. The Indo-European language family is made up of most languages of Europe, the Far East, andIndia. （）2. The word manusc ript which originally denotes “handwriting” only has undergone a process ofextension of meaning. （）3. The beginning of the Middle English Period was marked by the Norman Conquest which broughtmany Latin words into the English language. （）4. Words of the basic word stock are mostly root words or monosyllabic words, so they have strongproductivity. （）5. Grammatical meaning or a word includes part of speech, tense meaning, and stylistic coloring.（）6. Words created by compounding occupy the highest percentage of the English vocabulary. （）7. The marked term of each pair of antonyms covers the sense of the unmarked term. （）8. Policeman, constable, bobby and cop are synonyms differing in intensity. （）9. Borrowing has played a vital role in the development of English vocabulary, particularly inearlier times. （）10. “Radiation” shows that the derived mea nings of a polysemantic word are not directly related tothe primary meaning. （）III简答题1. What are the characteristics of conceptual meaning and associative meaning?2. List different types of associative meaning and define them.答案I． 1-5 AADDB 6-10 BDBCA 11-15 CBADCⅡ. 1-5 TFFTF 6-10 TFFTFⅢ. 1. What are the characteristics of conceptual meaning and associative meaning?Conceptual meaning is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word meaning.Being constant and relatively stable, conceptual meaning forms the basis for communication as the same word generally has the same conceptual meaning to the speakers in the same speech community. Associativemeaning differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is open-ended and indeterminate, liable to the influence of such factors as culture, experience, religion, geographical region, class background, education, etc…2. List different types of associative meaning and define them.Explain different types of homonyms with examples.Perfect homonyms are known as absolute homonyms, and they are words identical both in sound and spelling. E.g bear (to put up with) and bear (a kind of fruit) Homographs are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning, e.g. sow (to scatter seeds) and sow (female adult pig)Homophones are words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning, e.g. dear ( a loved person) and deer (a kind of an animal)复习资料3I．Fill in the blanks.Directions: Complete the following statements with proper words.1.The __1 is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words.2. 2 are words borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilated into the Englishlanguage.3.The problem of interrelation of the various meanings of the same word can be dealt withfrom two different angles: 3 approach and synchronic approach.4.“Mal” in “maltreat” is a 4 prefix, while “inter-” in “ interstate” is a 5_ prefix.5.Old English is described as a language of full endings, Middle English language of___6__endings, and a language of __7__ endings.6.In modern English, one may find some 8 words whose sounds suggest their meaning,for these words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises.7.The word meaning is made up of 9 meaning and 10 meaning, and the later hastwo components: conceptual meaning and 11 meaning.8.Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories: appreciative or __12 .9.13 is thought to be the opposite process of suffixation.10.___14__ is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus apart of another word.11.15 refers to the jargon of criminals. Its use is confined to the sub-cultural groups, andoutsiders can hardly understand it.12.“Pretty” and “handsome” share the same _16_ meaning, but differ in _17_ meaning.13.___18___analysis is a process of breaking down the sense of a word into its minimalcomponents which are also known as semantic features.14.Radiation and ___19___ are the two coinages which the development of word meaningfollows from monosemy to polysemy.15.__20____deals with the relationship of inclusion, i.e. the meaning of a more specific word isincluded in that of another more general word.Ⅱ. Decide whether the following statements are true or false and write T or F on the answer sheet:1.Homonyms come mainly from borrowing, changes in sound and spelling, and dialects.2.“Radiation” shows that the derived meanings of a polysemantic word are not directly related tothe primary meaning.3.Borrowing is a very important source of synonyms.4. A word which has a synonym naturally has an antonym.5.Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion.6.Motivation explains the connection between the linguistic form and its meaning.7.Grammatical meaning or a word includes part of speech, tense meaning, and stylistic coloring.8.The origins of the words are a key factor in distinguishing homonyms from polysemants.9.The marked term of each pair of antonyms covers the sense of the unmarked term.10.If the words differ in range and intensity of meaning, the words are not identical in denotation.11.The beginning of the Middle English Period was marked by the Norman Conquest whichbrought many Latin words into the English language.ponential analysis is to break down. the conceptual sense of a word into its minimaldistinctive components.13.Celtic language made great contributions to the expansion of the English vocabulary.14.Native words enjoy the same features as the basic word stock and more.15.Shortening includes clipping and blending.Ⅲ. Answer the following questions briefly.1. Analyze the morphological structures of the following words and point out the types of the morphemes in terms of free and bound morphemes.unbearable international ex-prisoner.2. How would you explain the difference between back formation and suffixation? Give examples to illustrate your point.3. List different types of associative meaning and define them.4. Explain different types of homonyms with examples.Ⅳ. Analyze the following questions and explain them according to the requirement.1. What is the difference between homonyms and polysemants?答案I．Fill in the blanks.1. morpheme2. denizens3. diachronic4. pejorative5. locative6. leveled7. lost8. onomatopoeic9. grammatical 10. lexical 11.associative 12. pejorative 13. backformation 14. blending 15. argot 16. conceptual 17. collocative 18. componential 19. concatenation 20. hyponymyⅡ. Decide whether the following statements are true or false and write T or F in the brackets: 1．F 2.F 3.T 4.F 5.T 6. T 7.F 8.T 9.F 10.T 11.F 12. F 13. F 14. T 15. TⅢ. Answer the following questions briefly.1. Analyze the morphological structures of the following words and point out the types of the morphemes in terms of free and bound morphemes.unbearable international ex-prisoner.un+bear+able:(1)‘bear’ is a free morpheme, and ‘un’, ‘able’are bound morphemes.inter+nation+al: ‘nation’ is a free morpheme, and ‘inter, al’ are bound morphemes.ex+prison+er: ‘prison’ is a free morpheme, and ‘ex, er’ are bound morphemes.2. How would you explain the difference between back formation and suffixation? Give examples to illustrate your point.1)Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation.2)Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to bases.3)Backformation is therefore the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes, socalled because many of the removed endings are not suffixes but inseparable parts of the word.4)For example, it is a common practice to add –er, -or to verb bases to form agential nouns.5)Reasonably, people make verbs by dropping the ending such as –or in editor, -ar in beggar and–er in butler.3. List different types of associative meaning and define them.1)Connotative meaning refers to the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptualmeaning, traditionally known as connotations.2)Stylistic meaning refers to stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different styles.3)Affective meaning expresses the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing in question.4)Collocative meaning consists of the associations a word acquires on account of the meanings ofwords which tend to occur in its environment.4. Explain different types of homonyms with examples.(1)Perfect homonyms are known as absolute homonyms, and they are words identical both insound and spelling. E.g bear (to put up with) and bear (a kind of fruit)(2)Homographs are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning, e.g. sow(to scatter seeds) and sow (female adult pig)(3)Homophones are words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning, e.g. dear( a loved person) and deer (a kind of animal)Ⅳ. Analyze the following questions and explain them according to the requirement.1.What is the difference between homonyms and polysemants?1)Perfect homonyms and polysemants are fully identical with reference to spelling andpronunciation, as both have the same orthographical form but different meanings. This creates the problem of differentiation.2)The fundamental difference between homonyms and polysemants lies in the fact that the formerrefers to different lexemes which have the same form and the latter the one and same lexeme which has several distinguishable meanings.3)One important criterion by which to differentiate them is ‘etymology’, i.e., homonyms aredescendants of different sources whereas a polysemant is a word of the same source which has acquired different meanings in the course of development.4)The second principal consideration is ‘semantic relatedness’. The several meanings of a singlepolysemous lexeme are related and can be traced back to one central meaning. On the other hand, meanings of different homonyms have nothing to do with one another.5)In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meanings all listed under one headword whereashomonyms are listed as separate entries.。

《新编简明英语语言学教程》学习手册(打印版)

页眉内容《语言学概论》学习指导第一章III. Answer the following questions briefly.1.What features does human language have, which can not be foundin animal communication system?2.Why is spoken language given priority to written language inmodern linguistics?3.What are the features of modern linguistics?第二章语音学一、导读2.1 语音研究人类交际包括两种形式：语言交际(linguistic communication) 和非语言交际(paralinguistic communication)。

非语言交际包括手势、表情、眼神或图表等。

语言交际包括口语（spoken language）和书面语(written language)。

在多数情况下，人们主要是通过口语进行交际。

口语交际的媒介是语音(speech sounds)，也就是说人们通过声道（vocal track）发出的音来表达意义。

这种对语音的研究被叫做语音学(phonetics)。

口语交际是一个复杂的过程。

可以想象，当人们交际时，语音首先被说话者发出，然后，它在空气中被传递并被听话者接收。

也就是说，口语交际包括三个基本步骤：语音的发出→语音在空气中的传导→语音的接收。

根据这三个步骤, 语音研究也自然地分成三个主要研究领域。

对第一个步骤的研究是发声语音学(articulatory phonetics)，研究语音的产生。

对第二个步骤的研究是声学语音学(acoustic phonetics)，研究语音的物理特征。

对第三个步骤的研究是听觉语音学(auditory phonetics），研究和语音感知有关的内容。

笔记-新编简明英语语言学教程-复习资料

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性（创造性）Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递Competence（抽象）Competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.performance（具体）Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的具体体现。

Diachronic linguisticsThe study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time.Synchronical linguisticsThe study of a given language at a given time.langue（抽象）The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.parole（具体）The realization of langue in actual use.PrescriptiveIt aims to lay down rules for ”correct” behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say.DescriptiveA linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.二、知识点nguage is not an isolated phenomenon, it’s a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings.语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。

2010年四川大学英语专业(语言学)真题试卷答案

一、名词解释1 【正确答案】 Language as interaction involves not just vocal behavior but many kinds of behavior and to engage in face-to-face communication is to co-monitor with the other person on a behavioral continuum along which a succession of integrated events can be expected to occur.【试题解析】 (考查语言交际论的定义)2 【正确答案】 It refers to the use of language for the sheer joy of using it, such as singing or poetry writing.【试题解析】 (考查语言的娱乐功能)3 【正确答案】 Universal grammar holds that there are certain fundamental grammatical ideas which all humans possess without having to learn them, which acts as a way to explain how language acquisition works in humans by showing the most basic rules that all languages have to follow.【试题解析】 (考查普遍语法的定义)4 【正确答案】 Fricative consonant is produced when there is close approximation of two articulators so that the airstream is partially obstructed and turbulent airflow is produced, which includes[f],[v],[θ], and so on.【试题解析】 (考查摩擦音的定义)5 【正确答案】 IC analysis, short for Immediate Constituent Analysis, refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents—word groups(or phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.【试题解析】 (考查直接成分分析法)6 【正确答案】 Conceptual meaning, also called denotative meaning, involves the relationship between a linguistic unit and the nonlinguistic entities to which it refers. Forexample, a desk is a piece of furniture with a flat top and four legs, at which one reads and writes; and a dog is an animal kept as a pet, for guarding buildings, or for hunting.【试题解析】 (考查概念意义)7 【正确答案】 Radiation is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rays. The meanings are independent of one another, but can all be traced back to the central meaning. For example, the primary meaning of the word "neck" is that part of a man or animal jointing the head to the body, but it can also mean the neck of an animal used as food. Therefore, we can say "neck" has developed through the process of radiation. Another example is the word " head". In the phrases like the head of a school, to come to a head, the word " head" has different meanings, but they all derive from special application of the central idea of head as a part of the body.【试题解析】 (考查词义辐射)8 【正确答案】 Performative verbs are verbs carried out simply by means of uttering them aloud. The uttering of the verbs is, or is a part of, the doing of the action. Performative verbs include "promise" ,"invite" /'apologize" , and so on. For example, when a judge sentences someone to jail time, the action is completed when he or she says, "I hereby sentence you to five years in prison," or in sentences like "I name this ship the Queen Elizabeth. "【试题解析】 (考查施为性动词)9 【正确答案】 Conversational implicature is proposed by H. P. Grice. It refers to a type of implied meaning, which is deduced on the basis of the conventional meaning of words together with the context, under the guidance of the CP and its maxims. In this sense, implicature is comparable to illocutionary force in speech act theory in that they are both concerned with the contextual side of meaning, or 言外之意 in Chinese. For example, the sentence "Mary had a baby and got married" strongly suggests that Mary had the baby before the wedding, but the sentence would still be strictly true if Mary had her baby after she got married. To make it clearer, we can see another Chinese examplein a film. A boy says to a girl “你不戴眼镜时很漂亮”, and the girl immediately responds “我戴眼镜时一定很丑了”. Now the boy may have reason to deny that the girl's interpretation is what he said. But he may not be able to deny in all fairness that this is, at least partly, what he implied.【试题解析】 (考查会话含义理论)10 【正确答案】 Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis suggests that our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express our unique ways of understanding the world. The hypothesis has two important points, linguistic determinism and linguistic relativity. The principle of linguistic relativity holds that the structure of a language affects the ways in which its speakers are able to conceptualize their world, i. e. their world view. One of the examples is that there are many words for "snow" in the Inuit language, and the other example is that there are many words for "horse" in the Mongolian language.【试题解析】 (考查语言相对论)二、词汇题11 【正确答案】assets→asset12 【正确答案】 burgl ar→burgle13 【正确答案】enthusiasm→enthuse14 【正确答案】greedy→greed15 【正确答案】hushed→hush16 【正确答案】automation→automate17 【正确答案】donation→donate18 【正确答案】escalator→escalate19 【正确答案】homesickness→homesick20 【正确答案】amusingly→amusing三、简答题21 【正确答案】 We have to teach culture in the language classroom because language is an indispensable carrier of culture. Culture finds a better representation through language use. A joint study of these two subjects will definitely broaden the horizon of the students' knowledge and enhance the study of language. The correlation highlights the pursuit of the relationship between the two.(2 points)Therefore, we have to keep in mind that it is a rather difficult job to know another culture. At the same time, we have to realize the fascinating role of cultural knowledge in language teaching.(1 point)In language teaching, we have to get the students familiar with cultural differences; to help the students transcend their own culture and see things as the members of the target culture will; and to emphasize the inseparability of understanding language and understanding culture through various classroom practices. All in all, successful mastery of a given language has much to do with an understanding of that culture.(2 points)【试题解析】考查文化在外语教学中的重要意义。

ChapterFour英语词汇学PPT

Definition of Antonyms
Antonyms are words that have opposite or contrasting meanings
Types of Antonyms
Antonyms can be classified into gradable Antonyms, which exists on a scale (e.g., hot/cold), and complete Antonyms, which represents two mutually exclusive categories (e.g., male/female)
Distinguishing synonyms
Synonyms of differences in annotation, emotional color, stylistic level, and location
Antonyms and their corresponding relationships
02
Classification and Composition of
English Vocabulary
Basic vocabulary and professional vocabulary
Basic Vocabulary
Basic vocabulary refers to the core set of words that are essential for daily communication and are typically learned in the early stages of language acquisition These words are generally simple, frequently used, and have a broad range of means

教师资格证考试英语学科知识语言学整理高中英语

教师资格证考试英语学科知识语言学整理高中英语学科知识中语言学并不是唯一的部分，不过是比较难理解的部分。

其实语言学只要知道专业名词意思是什么，题目很好做的。

特此整理一份语言学手册，尽量给出通俗解释帮助大家快速掌握抽象在风中的语言学相关概念。

此外，我在百度上看到一个学科知识的总结也挺好的，可以结合TKT知识理解复习。

预祝教资顺利。

一、语言学基本概念1. 语言概念及功能：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

语言学概念中，语言本质上是声音符号，文字只是声音的载体。

语言学中认为声音和意义的对应是任意的，是约定俗成的。

我们所创造出来的发音和这个事物的本身并没有任何内在的联系。

说白了就是所有人管叫做“xiao lian”，“xiao lian”才对应了意义，我们也可以管这个叫做“ku lian”，如果大家都这么约定的话。

语言的功能：（便于理解，做通俗解释）信息功能informative：传递信息人际功能interpersonal：表达讲话者身份、地位、态度、动机及其对事物推断等方面的功能施为功能performative：用语言去做事情，比如用“好冷啊”去让人关门。

感情功能emotive function：表达感情感受寒暄功能phatic communication：比如问候娱乐功能recreational function：比如相声元语言功能metalingual function：用语言解释语言（此概念重要）真题链接：The language used to describe the language itself is called __________.A. paralanguageB. special languageC. metalanguageD. interlanguage2. 语言学：Linguistics is the scientific study of language.语言学是对语言的科学研究。

如何学好英语的班会课

• Prepare a portfolio of your best works to showcase your writing talent and skills
• Collaborate with classes or other students to create group projects or reports to improve your English writing ability
Exercise opportunities such as participating in
English writing competitions or course projects
• Participate in English writing competitions or course projects to exercise your English writing skills
• Try to find opportunities outside the classroom to exercise your English writing skills, such as participating in social media groups or contributing to English language blogs
Use technology tools
Utilize technology tools, such as online resources, apps, and games, to enhance your learning experience
Practice makes perfect
The key to mastering English is through consistent practice Engage in speaking, writing, reading, and listening activities often

从汉语言文学中学到的技巧英语作文

从汉语言文学中学到的技巧英语作文Studying techniques from Chinese literary works can greatly enhance one's English writing skills. 通过学习汉语文学作品中的技巧，可以极大地提升一个人的英语写作水平。

One technique that can be learned from Chinese literature is the use of vivid imagery. Chinese authors often use descriptive language to paint a picture for the reader, evoking strong emotions and creating a lasting impact. This can be applied to English writing by incorporating detailed descriptions and sensory details to engage the reader's imagination. Another valuable lesson from Chinese literature is the use of symbolism and allegory to convey deeper meanings and themes. By employing symbols and allegorical elements in English writing, one can add layers of complexity and significance to their work, encouraging readers to look beyond the surface and explore deeper interpretations. 中国文学中可以学到的一个技巧是运用生动的意象。

英语句子成分分析课件

A noun or pronoun that functions as a completion to a verb or position, modifying or describing the subject or object
Attribute
"The book" in the presence "John likes the book."
Example
Predict
The action or state described in the presence, commonly consistent of a verb and its completeness
Example
"reads" in the presence "John reads books."
contents
目录
Translation Techniques for Sentence ElementsPractice and consolidation
01
Introduction
To improve the ability to analyze and compose English sentences
Definition
A clause that belongs to the main clause, usually guided by subordinate conjunctions such as when, because, if, etc.
Analysis
In this sentence, "when the rain stops" is a subordinate clause that modifies the main sentence "I will go to the park".

新编简明英语语言学学习重点总结

一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication andit makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。

Features of English Pronunciation

to is commonly pronounced da: I dunno where da go now.
wanna(*)(when followed by a consonant or vowel) wannu(when followed ty a vowel
only)
wud
wachya or wacha
Also (S) he hasta/hadda This does not apply. If he begins a sentence.
This does not apply. If her begins a sentence.
his
how did you
‘is
What is ‘is name?
Although you will occasionally see the conjunction of contracted to o’, it is pronounced like a. There fore, it’s made o’gold would be pronouced it’s made a gold.
• like the 'a' in about [əˈbaʊt] • like the 'e' in taken [ˈtʰeɪkən] • like the 'i' in pencil [ˈpʰɛnsəl] • like the 'o' in eloquent [ˈɛləkʰwənt] • like the 'u' in supply [səˈpʰlaɪ] • like the 'y' in sibyl [ˈsɪbəl] • unwritten as in rhythm [ˈrɪðəm]

语言学教程测试题及答案之欧阳与创编

Chapter1 Introductions to LinguisticsI. Choose the best answer.(20%)1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used forhuman__________A. contactB.communication C. relation D. community 2. Which of the followingwords is entirely arbitrary?A. treeB.typewriter C.crash D. bang3. The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degreesCentigrade.” is__________.A. interrogative（疑问） B. directive C. informative D. performative 4. In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say“碎碎（岁岁）平安”as a means of controlling the forces which they believes feel might affect their lives. Whichfunctions does it perform?A. InterpersonalB.Emotive C.Performative√ D.Recreational5. Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place,due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in anysituation?A. TransferabilityB.Duality C.Displacement D.Arbitrariness6. Study the following dialogue.What function does it play according to the functions oflanguage?—A nice day, isn’t it?— Right! I really enjoy thesunlight.A. EmotiveB.Phatic C.Performative D.Interpersonal7. __________ refers to theactual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language inutterances.A. PerformanceB.Competence C.Langue D. Parole 8. When a dog is barking, you assume it is barking for something or at someone that exists hear and now. It couldn’t be sorrowful for some lost love or lost bone. This indicates the design feature of __________.A. cultural transmissionB.productivity C. displacement D. duality 9. __________ answers such questions as how we as infants acquire our first language.A. PsycholinguisticsB.Anthropological linguisticsC. SociolinguisticsD.Applied linguistics10. __________ deals with language application to other fields, particularly education.A. Linguistictheory B. PracticallinguisticsC. Appliedlinguistics D.Comparative linguistics II. Decide whether the following statements are true orfalse. (10%)11. Language is a means ofverbal communication. Therefore, the communication way used by the deaf-mute is notlanguage.F12. Language change isuniversal, ongoing andarbitrary.TF??13. Speaking is the quickest and most efficient way of the human communication systems.FT??14. Language is written because writing is the primary medium for all languages.F15. We were all born with the ability to acquirelanguage, which means the details of any language system can be genetically transmitted.F 16. Only human beings areable to communicate.F17. F. de Saussure, who made the distinction between langue and parole in the early20th century, was a French linguist.FSwiss18. A study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time is an example of the diachronic study of language.F19. Speech and writing came into being at much the same time in humanhistory.F20. All the languages in the world today have both spoken and written forms.FIII. Fill in the blanks. (10%)21. Language, broadlyspeaking, is a means of__verbal_ communication. 22. In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be combined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature isusually termed__creativity________. 23. Language has many functions. We can use language to talk about itself. This function is ___metalingualfunction_______.24. Theory that primitive man made involuntary vocal noises while performing heavy work has been called the__yo-he-ho________ theory.25. Linguistics is the_scientific_________ study oflanguage.26. Modern linguistics is _descriptive_________ in the sense that the linguist tries to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules forpeople to observe.27. One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of ___speech_______ overwriting.28. The description of a language as it changes throughtime is a_diachronic_linguistic________study.29. Saussure put forwardtwo important concepts._langue_________ refers to the abstract linguistic system sharedby all members of a speechcommunity.30. Linguistic potential is similar to Saussure’s langue andChomsky’s__competence________. IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Design featureDesign feature: It refers to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication.32. DisplacementDisplacement: It means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts, which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.33. CompetenceCompetence: It is an essential part of performance. It is the speaker’s knowledge of his or her language; that is, of its sound structure, its words, and its grammatical rules. Competence is, in a way, an encyclopedia of language. Moreover, the knowledge involved in competence is generally unconscious. A transformational-generative grammar is a model of competence.34. Synchronic linguisticsSynchronic linguistics: It refers to the study of a language at a given point in time. The time studied may be either the present or a particular point in the past; synchronic analyses can also be made of dead languages, such as Latin. Synchronic linguistics is contrasted with diachronic linguistics, the study of a language over a period of time.V. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. Why do people take duality as one of the important design features of human language? Can you tell us what language will be if it has no such design feature?（南开大学，2004）Duality makes our language productive. A large number of different units can be formed out of a small number of elements – for instance, tens of thousands of words out of a small set of sounds, around 48 in the case of the English language. And out of the huge number of words, there can be astronomical number of possible sentences and phrases, which in turn can combine to form unlimited number of texts. Most animal communication systems do not have this design feature of human language.If language has no such design feature, then it will be like animal communicational system which will be highly limited. It cannot produce a very large number of sound combinations, e.g. words, which are distinct in meaning.36. Why is it difficult to define language? （北京第二外国语大学，2004）It is difficult to define language, as it is such a general term that covers too many things. Thus, definitions for it all have their own special emphasis, and are not totally freefrom limitations.VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. How can a linguist make his analysis scientific? （青岛海洋大学，1999）It should be guided by the four principles of science: exhaustiveness, consistency, economy and objectivity and follow the scientific procedure: form hypothesis – collect data – check against the observable facts – come to a conclusion.I.1~5 BACCC 6~10 BACAC II.11~15 FFTFF 16~20 FFFFF III.21. verbal 22. productivity / creativity23. metalingual function 24. yo-he-ho 25. scientific 26. descriptive27. speech 28. diachronic linguistic29. langue 30. competenceChapter 2 Speech SoundsI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Pitch variation is known as __________ when its patterns are imposed on sentences.A. intonationB. toneC. pronunciationD. voice2. Conventionally a __________ is put in slashes (/ /).A. allophoneB. phone []C. phoneme //D. morpheme3. An aspirated p, an unaspirated p and an unreleased p are __________ of the p phoneme.A. analoguesB. tagmemesC. morphemesD. allophones4. The opening between the vocal cords is sometimesreferred to as__________.A. glottis 声门B. vocal cavityC. pharynxD. uvula5. The diphthongs that are made with a movement of the tongue towards the center are known as __________ diphthongs.??A. wideB. closingC. narrowD. centering6. A phoneme is a group of similar sounds called __________.A. minimal pairsB. allomorphsC. phonesD. allophones7. Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech sounds?A. Acoustic phoneticsB. Articulatory phoneticsC. Auditory phoneticsD. None of the above8. Which one is different from the others according to places of articulation?A. [n]B. [m]C. [ b ]D. [p]9. Which vowel is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowels?A. [i:]B. [ u ]C. [e]D. [ i ]10. What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibrating?A. V oicelessB. V oicedC. Glottal stopD. ConsonantII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Suprasegmental phonology refers to the study of phonological properties of units larger than the segment-phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.T12. The air stream provided by the lungs has to undergo a number of modification to acquire the quality of a speech sound.T13. Two sounds are in free variation when they occur in the same environment and do not contrast, namely, the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word, but merely a differentpronunciation.T14. [p] is a voiced bilabial stop.F15. Acoustic phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.F16. All syllables must have a nucleus but not all syllables contain an onset and a coda.T17. When pure vowels or monophthongs are pronounced, no vowel glides take place.T18. According to the length or tenseness of the pronunciation, vowels can be divided into tense vs. lax or long vs. short.T19. Received Pronunciation is the pronunciation accepted by most people.F20. The maximal onset principle states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the coda rather than the onset.FIII. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. Consonant sounds can be either _voiceless_________ or ___voiced_______, while all vowel sounds are ___voiced_______.22. Consonant sounds can also be made when two organs of speech in the mouth are brought close together so that the air is pushed out between them, causing _friction_________.23. The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the ___tongue_______ and the lips.24. One element in the description of vowels is the part of the tongue which is at the highest point in the mouth.A second element is the ___height_______ to which that part of the tongue is raised.25. Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without __obstruction________.26. In phonological analysis the words fail / veil are distinguishable simply because of the two phonemes /f/ - /v/. This is an example for illustrating __minimal pairs________.27. In English there are a number of diphthongs__________, which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.28. Coarticulation__________ refers to thephenomenon of sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.29. __Phonemes________ is the smallest linguistic unit.30. Speech takes place when the organs of speech move to produce patterns of sound. These movements have an effect on the __air stream________ coming from the lungs.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Sound assimilationSound assimilation: Speech sounds seldom occur in isolation. In connected speech, under the influence of their neighbors, are replaced by other sounds. Sometimes two neighboring sounds influence each other and are replaced by a third sound which is different from both original sounds. This process is called sound assimilation.32. Suprasegmental featureSuprasegmental feature: The phonetic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features; these are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence. The main suprasegmental ones includes stress, intonation, and tone.33. Complementary distributionComplementary distribution: The different allophones of the same phoneme never occur in the same phonetic context. When two or more allophones of one phoneme never occur in the same linguistic environment they are said to be in complementary distribution.34. Distinctive featuresDistinctive features: It refers to the features that can distinguish one phoneme from another. If we can group the phonemes into two categories: one with this feature and the other without, this feature is called a distinctive feature.V. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. What is acoustic phonetics?（中国人民大学，2003）Acoustic phonetics deals with the transmission of speech sounds through the air. When a speech sound is produced it causes minor air disturbances (sound waves). Various instruments are used to measure the characteristics of these sound waves.36. What are the differences between voiced sounds and voiceless sounds in terms of articulation?（南开大学，2004）When the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiceless; consonants [p, s, t] are produced in this way. But when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeatedly pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiced. [b, z, d] are voiced consonants.VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Write the symbol that corresponds to each of the following phonetic descriptions; then give an English word that contains this sound. Example: voiced alveolar stop [d] dog. （青岛海洋大学，1999）(1) voiceless bilabial unaspirated stop(2) low front vowel(3) lateral liquid(4) velar nasal(5) voiced interdental fricative答案I.1~5 ACDAA 6~10 DBABBII.11~15 TTTFF 16~20 TTTFFIII.21. voiced, voiceless, voiced 22. friction23. tongue 24. height25. obstruction 26. minimal pairs27. diphthongs 28. Co-articulation29. Phonemes 30. air stream 36.Chapter 3 LexiconI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as __________.A. lexical wordsB. grammatical wordsC. function wordsD. form words2. Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called __________ morpheme.A. inflectionalB. freeC. boundD. derivational3. There are __________ morphemes in the worddenationalization.de+nation+al+iz+ationA. threeB. fourC. fiveD. six4. In English –ise and –tion are called __________.A. prefixesB. suffixesC. infixesD. stems5. The three subtypes of affixes are: prefix, suffix and __________.A. derivational affixB. inflectional affixC. infixD. back-formation6. __________ is a way in which new words may be formed from already existing words by subtracting an affix which is thought to be part of the old word.A. affixationB. back-formationC. insertionD. addition7. The word TB is formed in the way of __________.A. acronymyB. clippingC. initialismD. blending8. The words like comsat and sitcom are formed by __________.A. blendingB. clippingC. back-formationD. acronymy9. The stem of disagreements is __________.A. agreementB. agreeC. disagreeD. disagreement10. All of them are meaningful except for __________.A. lexemeB. phonemeC. morphemeD. allomorphII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.12. Fore as in foretell is both a prefix and a bound morpheme.13. Base refers to the part of the word that remains when all inflectional affixes are removed.14. In most cases, prefixes change the meaning of the base whereas suffixes change the word-class of the base.15. Conversion from noun to verb is the mostproductive process of a word.16. Reduplicative compound is formed by repeating the same morpheme of a word.17. The words whimper, whisper and whistle are formed in the way of onomatopoeia.18. In most cases, the number of syllables of a word corresponds to the number of morphemes.19. Back-formation is a productive way of word-formations.20. Inflection is a particular way of word-formations. III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. An __________ is pronounced letter by letter, while an __________ is pronounced as a word.22. Lexicon, in most cases, is synonymous with __________.23. Orthographically, compounds are written in three ways: __________, __________ and __________.24. All words may be said to contain a root __________.25. A small set of conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns belong to __________ class, while the largest part of nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs belongs to __________ class.26. __________ is a reverse process of derivation, and therefore is a process of shortening.27. __________ is extremely productive, because English had lost most of its inflectional endings by the end of Middle English period, which facilitated the use of words interchangeably as verbs or nouns, verbs or adjectives, and vice versa.28. Words are divided into simple, compound and derived words on the __________ level.29. A word formed by derivation is called a __________, and a word formed by compounding is calleda __________.30. Bound morphemes are classified into two types: __________ and __________.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Blending32. Allomorph33. Closed-class word34. Morphological ruleV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. How many types of morphemes are there in the English language? What are they? （厦门大学，2003）36. What are the main features of the English compounds?VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Match the terms under COLUMN I with the underlined forms from COLUMN II （武汉大学，2004）I II(1) acronym a. foe(2) free morpheme b. subconscious(3) derivational morpheme c. UNESCO(4) inflectional morpheme d. overwhelmed(5) prefix e. calcul ationKey:I.1~5 AACBB 6~10 BCADBII.11~15 FTFTT 16~20 FTFFF III.21. initialism, acronym 22. vocabulary 23. solid, hyphenated, open 24. morpheme 25. close, open 26. back-formation27. conversion 28. morpheme29. derivative, compound 30. affix, bound root IV.31. Blending: It is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms, like newscast (news + broadcast), brunch (breakfast + lunch) 32. Allomorph: It is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds.33. Close-class word: It is a word whose membership is fixed or limited. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed-class words.34. Morphological rule: It is the rule that governs which affix can be added to what type of base to form a new word, e.g. –ly can be added to a noun to form an adjective.V.Omit.VI.37.(1) c (2) a (3) e (4)d (5) bChapter 4 SyntaxI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. only hierarchicalC. complexD. both linear and hierarchical2. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite3. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational4. A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammati¬cal knowledge in the mind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical5. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC.preposition D. subordinator6. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC. socialD. functional7. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand _____________.A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. all of the above.8. The head of the phrase “the city Rome” i s __________.A. the cityB. RomeC. cityD. the city Rome9. The phrase “on the shelf” belongs to __________ construction.A. endocentricB. exocentricC. subordinateD. coordinate10. The sentence “They were wanted to remain quiet andnot to expose themselves.” is a __________ sentence.A. simpleB. coordinateC. compoundD. complexII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker are known as linguistic competence.12. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.13. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.14. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.15. Minor lexical categories are open because thesecategories are not fixed and new members are allowed for.16. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.17. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.18. What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.19. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.20. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. A __________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.22. A __________ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.23. A __________ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.24. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called __________.25. A __________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.26. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an __________ clause.27. Major lexical categories are __________ categories in the sense that new words are constantly added.28. __________ condition on case assignment states thata case assignor and a case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.29. __________ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages.30. The theory of __________ condition explains the fact that noun phrases appear only in subject and objectpositions.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Syntax32. IC analysis33. Hierarchical structure34. Trace theoryV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. What are endocentric construction and exocentric construction? （武汉大学，2004）36. Distinguish the two possible meanings of “more beautiful flowers” by means of IC analysis. （北京第二外国语大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Draw a tree diagram according to the PS rules to show the deep structure of the sentence:The student wrote a letter yesterday.Key:I.1~5 DCDDD 6~10 ADDBAII.11~15 TTTTF 16~20 FTFTT III.21. simple 22. sentence23. subject 24. predicate25. complex 26. embedded 27. open 28. Adjacency29. Parameters 30. CaseIV.31. Syntax: Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.32. IC analysis: Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis for short, refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents –word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate sake of convenience.33. Hierarchical structure: It is the sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic category of each structural constituent, such as NP, VP and PP.34. Trace theory: After the movement of an element in a sentence there will be a trace left in the original position. This is the notion trace in T-G grammar. It’s suggested that if we have the notion trace, all the necessary information for semantic interpretation may come from the surface structure. E.g. The passive Dams are built by beavers. differs from the active Beavers built dams. in implying that all dams are built by beavers. If we add a trace element represented by the letter t after built in the passive as Dams are built t by beavers, then the deep structure information that the word dams was originally the object of built is also captured by the surface structure. Trace theory proves to be not only theoretically significant but also empirically valid. V.35.An endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, toone of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. A typical example is the three small children with children as its head. The exocentric construction, opposite to the first type, is defined negatively as a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constituents. Prepositional phrasal like on the shelf are typical examples of this type.36.(1) more | beautiful flowers(2) more beautiful | flowersChapter 5 Meaning[Mainly taken from lxm1000w’s exercises. – icywarmtea]I. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. The naming theory is advanced by ________.A. PlatoB. BloomfieldC. Geoffrey LeechD. Firth2. “We shall know a word by the company it keeps.” This statement represents _______.A. the conceptualist viewB. contexutalismC. the naming theoryD. behaviorism3. Which of the following is NOT true?A. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.B. Sense is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form.C. Sense is abstract and decontextualized.D. Sense is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are not interested in.4. “Can I borrow your bike?”_______ “You have a bike.”A. is synonymous withB. is inconsistent withC. entailsD. presupposes5. ___________ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.A. Predication analysisB. Componential。

大学英语导学

8
What is English?
English as Culture
Customs & manners
Religion & beliefs literature
International communication is cross-cultural communication!
history
The target language culture and the speaker’s cultural background!
五、我校大学英语教学
● 口语课程每周由任课教师进行2学时口语课。主要训练学生的语音、语调和语流，穿插讲解一些西方文化。锻炼学生敢于张嘴说英语的自信心。
五、我校大学英语教学 ● 视听说写教程教学模式
教师教室面授为主教师面授：教师平均每周2学时面授课，在语音教室进行。
教学说明（第一学期）
本学期总学时：16周×2学时＝32学时
•大学英语学习的方法 •我校的大学英语教学 •关于大学英语的各类竞赛
二、大学英语教与学的模式转变
Language Communicative Competence Levels
语言策略
语言应用
strategic
语言知识
Sociolinguistic
tertiary
linguistic
primary
Course Introduction
College English
2013-2014 1st Semester
LOGO www.themegalle
我应该怎样读大学？我应该怎样学大学英语？
大学是什么？“大”在哪里？高等教育是什么？“高”在哪里？大学生应当学什么？怎样学？大学英语的课程意义、目标、内容、要求、方法、标准、测试大学英语与中学英语的区别

高中英语unit2exploringenglish导读话题妙切入外研外研高中第一册英语

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[答案] 1.An increasing number of English words are contributed by China.
2．“Copy”，“cool”and “cola”． 3．Latin，German and French.
Thank you for watching !
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美文欣赏 On the video website of The Wall Street Journal，a word has attracted people's
attention.In order to report the news that Chinese elderly women help increased the gold price，The Wall Street Journal creates the word “dama”(elderly women)，an English word which comes from Chinese Pinyin.This shows that English expressions which are contributed by China have integrated into every aspect of international life.
of ideas. 语言是科学的唯一工具，而词则是思想的符号。 —Samuel Johnson
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Language is the amber in which a thousand precious and subtle thoughts have been safely embedded and preserved.
Most of the English words come from other languages，such as Latin，German and French.Now，an increasing number of English words are contributed by China.

英语语言学重点及问题总汇

Basic Notions in English Linguistics Chapter 1 Introduction1.What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols for human communication.2.What are design features of language?Arbitrariness, duality, displacement, interchangeability, creativity, cultural transmission3.What is arbitrariness?There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.4.What is displacement?Language is free from barriers caused by separation of time and place.5.What is duality?Language is a system consisting of two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level (meanings) are composed of elements of the secondary level (sounds) and each level has its own principles of organization.6.What is creativity?Language users can understand and produce an infinitely large number of sentences.7.What is cultural transmission?The details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.8.What are three general functions oflanguage proposed by Halliday?Ideational, interpersonal, textual9.What is linguistics?Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.10.What are main branches of linguistics?Phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics11.What is macro-linguistics?The study of language in relation to other disciplines, e.g. sociolinguistics 12.What is the distinction of prescriptiveand descriptive?Prescribe what people should say, describe what people actually use13.What is the distinction of competenceand performance?The ideal user’s knowledge of language rules and the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication 14.What is the distinction of synchronic anddiachronic?The study of language in time and through time15.What is the distinction of speech andwriting?Natural/primary and invented/secondary media of human language16.What is traditional grammar?The general approach traditionally formed to the study of languageChapter 2 Speech Sounds17.What are speech sounds?Meaningful sounds in human linguistic communication18.What is phonetics?It studies the production, transmission and perception of speech sounds. 19.What are three branches of phonetics?Articulatory, acoustic, auditory20.What are the three cavities in speechproduction?Oral, nasal, pharyngeal21.What is IPA short for?International Phonetic Alphabet22.What is the main principle of IPA?There should be a separate letter for each distinctive sound in all languages.23.What are broad and narrowtranscriptions?With letter-symbols (and diacritics) 24.Where does the distinction lie betweenthe production of vowels and consonants?The obstruction of airstream in the oral cavity25.Describe the consonant [ ].V oiced place manner26.Describe the vowel [ ].High front long rounded27.What is phonology?The study of sound system, pattern 28.What is a phoneme?An abstract phonological unit of distinctive value 29.What is allophony?The phenomenon of variation in the pronunciation of phonemes in different phonological contexts30.What is a minimal pair?A pair of sound sequences identical inevery way except for one sound segment occurring in the same place in the strings31.What is assimilation?A process by which one sound takes onsome or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound32.What are major suprasegmentalfeatures?Syllable, stress, tone, intonation33.What are the four Chinese tones?Level, rise, fall-rise, fall34.How do intonations convey meanings?Falling indicates a straight-forward statement, rising makes a question, and fall-rise indicates an implied message.Chapter 3 Lexicon35.What is a word?A minimum free linguistic unit36.How are words classified?Variability, meaning, part of speech, membership limit37.What is morphology?The study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed38.What is a morpheme?The minimal unit of meaning39.What are types of morphemes?Free/bound (derivational/inflectional,prefix, infix, suffix, bound root)40.What are the two major ways of wordformation?Derivation, compound41.New words are added to Englishvocabulary in many ways. What are they?Coinage/invention, blending, borrowing, back-formation, abbreviation, analogy 42.How does language change in terms ofmeaning?Meaning shift, broadening, narrowingChapter 4 Syntax43.What is syntax?The study of sentence structure and the rules by which sentences are formed 44.What are the four representativeapproaches to Syntax?Traditional, structural, TG, functional 45.What are the categories of noun?Number, case, gender46.What are the categories of verb?Tense, voice, mood47.What is a sentence?The minimum part of L that expresses a complete thought, traditionally48.What are grammatical units at differentlevels?Morpheme, phrase, clause, sentence 49.What are the grammatical elements of asentence?Subject, predicate (predicator, object, comp.)50.What are the seven basic sentencepatterns in English? SVO, SV, SVC, SV A, SVOC, SVOA, SVOOChapter 5 Semantics51.What is semantics?The study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular 52.What is the nominalist view of meaning?Words are just names for things.53.What is the conceptualist view ofmeaning?Language and the real world are linked through the mediation of concepts54.What is the contextualist view ofmeaning?Meaning can be derived from observable contexts55.What is the behaviorist view ofmeaning?Meaning consists in the relation between speech and physical entities and events 56.What are the two traditional types ofmeaning?Lexical and structural meaning57.What are the 7 kinds of meaning byLeech (1981)?Conceptual, Con, S, A, R, Col, Thematic 58.How are sense and reference related toeach other?Abstract property/concrete entity59.What are major sense relations betweenwords?Synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, etc 60.What are kinds of synonyms?Dialectal, collocational, stylistic, affective, semantic61.What are kinds of antonyms?Gradable, complementary, relational 62.What is polysemy?One word with one+ meaning63.What is homonymy?Different words identical in spelling or/and sound64.What is hyponymy?Between a more general word and a more specific word65.What is the componential analysis?The dissection of word meaning into its semantic components/features66.What are the deciding factors ofsentence meaning?Meaning of sentence components, word order, sentence structure, thematic organizationChapter 6 Pragmatics67.What is pragmatics?The study of meaning in context 68.What is context?The environment of language use 69.What are components of context?Linguistic, situational, socio-cultural 70.What is an utterance?A unit of speech actually uttered in com.71.How is utterance meaning different fromsentence meaning?Concrete, contextualized, variable / 72.What are the three kinds of speech actsby Austin (1962)?Locutionary, illocutionary, perlocutionary 73.What is a locutionary act?The act of conveying literal meaning 74.What is an illocutionary act?The act of expressing intention75.What is a perlocutionary act?The effect of an utterance76.What is the general CooperativePrinciple?Make your conversational contribution as required.77.What are the four maxims of the CP?Quality, quantity, relation, manner78.What is conversational implicature?A type of implied meaning, which isdeduced on the basis of the conventionalmeaning of words together with the context, under the guidance of the CP and its maxims.79.What are characteristics of CI?Cal, Can, non-det, non-conventionality 80.What is the Politeness Principle?Maximize the belief of polite expression 81.What is Cognitive Principle ofRelevance?Human cognition tends to achieve the greatest possible cognitive effect using the smallest effort.82.What is Communicative Principle ofRelevance?Every utterance communicates a presumption of its own optimal relevance.Chapter 7 Language, Society and Culture83.What is socio-linguistics?The study of language and society84.How is language related to society? OPENSocial background/context and language use, social function of L, L change85.Provide some linguistic evidence ofsocial differences in language use.Region, class, ethnic group, age, gender, individual, register, 86.What are the two versions ofSapir-Whorf Hypothesis?Strong (determinism), weak (relativism) 87.How is language related to culture? OPENL is an indispensable carrier of culture.C finds a better representation via L use.88.Provide some linguistic evidence ofcultural differences in language use. Greeting, thanks, color words, privacy, etc。

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AcknowledgementsI wish to express my thanks and appreciation to my tutor, Miss Li Er Jie, whose careful reading and suggestions have been invaluable to me throughout my thesis writing. My thanks should also be given to all the teachers who have taught me my BA courses. Without their enthusiasm and support, this work would not have been possible.I am also grateful to my classmates and roommates for their psychological support and encouragement. In particular, I own a special debt of thanks to Su Yan Wen, who has given me many suggestions to revise the paper.AbstractAs the further economic reform causing the rapid rate of economic development, there are many foreign-owned or Joint Venture enterprises setting up in China, in particular after China’s entry of WTO. Since these companies have a great demand of Chinese talents, people gradually put their eyes on English recruiting advertisements. English recruiting advertisement is one of the most normal and applied advertisement. It has all the common features of advertisements but it also has great differences from product advertisement, non-commercial advertisement and political advertisement.Recruiting advertisements transmit the recruiting willing of corporations rapidly and accurately which help the companies find the right man within a short time. Meantime, recruiting advertisements also build up the images of companies, and encourage the staff. There are also two reasons for the companies to advertise the English recruiting advertisements: one is that they want to test the English level of those applicants; the other is to adjust them to the trend of economic globalization.This paper reviews the characteristics of the readership between English recruiting advertisements. The author pay great attention to discuss the language features of English recruiting advertisements by analyzing many instances. The author hopes that to some extent this paper may give the readers some geist knowledge of English recruiting advertisements.Key Words:English recruiting advertisement language features talents摘要随着中国的经济改革的深入和对外的进一步开放，特别是我国加入WTO以后，国内出现了许多外资企业和中外合资企业，其对国内人才的需求造成了大家对英语招聘广告的关注。

英文招聘广告是较常见和实用的应用文之一，它具有一般广告的共同特点，但又有别于产品广告，非商业广告和政治广告。

招聘广告主要是以迅速、准确地传达企业的招聘意向，帮助企业招募人才为目的，同时也可以树立公司形象，激励现有员工。

用英文撰写的招聘广告还有另外两个目的：为了适应经济全球化的趋势，体现企业国际化的性质；检测求职者的英语水平。

文章回顾了在分类广告中英语招聘广告受众的特点；摘录了许多各大报刊的英语招聘广告，探讨了英语招聘广告的语言特色，并对较为典型的例子作了详细的分析和解说，希望在一定程度上为读者提供了感性认识。

关键词：英语招聘广告语言特点人才Contents Acknowledgements (i)Abstract(English)................................................................................... (ii)Abstract(Chinese)................................................................................. (iii)Contents……………………………………………………………….……………..…..iv1.Introdu ction (2)2. LiteratureReview.............................. .. (3)3. LanguageFeatures (4)3.1 Novel Title with Created Ideas (5)4. Application of Abbreviated Words (7)4.1Acronyms (8)4.2 Abbreviations formed by Omitting Vowels (9)4.3 Blended Abbreviations (10)5. Make a flexible use of phrases (11)5.1 Noun Phrase (11)5.2 Adjective Phrase (12)5.3 PrepositionalPhrase................................................................ .. (12)5.4 Gerundial Phrase (13)5.5 Appositive Phrase or Parenthetical Phrase (13)6. EllipticalSentences (15)6.1 Ellipsis of Subject (16)6.2 Ellipsis of Verb (17)6.2.1 Ellipsis of Modal Verb (18)6.2.2 Ellipsis of Auxiliary Verb (18)6.2.3 Ellipsis of Article (19)6.2.4 Ellipsis of Subordinate Clause (20)6.2.5 Imperative Sentence (21)7. Conclusion (22)Discussing the Language Features of English RecruitingAdvertisements1. IntroductionAs the further economic reform causing the rapid rate of economic development in China, many universities and colleges set courses about English Applied Writing, Business English Reading and Writing to make the students adjust themselves to the changeable society, particularly after China’s entry of WTO. English recruiting advertisements are one of the most normal and applied advertisements but some of their features are different from other advertisements. Recruiting advertisements express the recruiting aims of corporations rapidly and accurately which help the companies find the right man within a short time. Meantime, recruiting advertisements also build up the images of companies, and encourage the staff. In order to adjust to the trend of economic globalization and test the English level of applicants, many enterprises would consider English recruiting advertisement is the first step.Many foreign-owned enterprises always offer higher salaries, satisfactory welfare and excellent working environment for personal development, which attract many applicants. And many foreign-owned companies will use English recruiting advertisements to test applicants’English levels. If the applicant do not understand those English recruiting advertisements at the beginning, it would be impossible for him/her to get the job. Most multinational companies would like to use English recruiting advertisement, which supply chances for those candidates who had higher educational background and excellent English. Nevertheless, how can people get the accurate information and find the right post in their favorite companies among the sea of English recruiting advertisements with the less time. That means, to some extent, applicants should have some knowledge of language, and acquaint themselves with the language features of English recruiting advertisements which will help them to analyze and get the advantaged information, at last make a right decision within the limited space of the time.2. Literature reviewAs a matter of fact, there are many discourses about analysis of English recruiting advertisements. Researchers who are interested in advertisements found that simple and imperative sentences in common use in advertisements. Li Yu, the professor in Lanzhou Commercial University,when he analyzed the literary form of English recruiting advertisements, mentioned that recruiting advertisements as one specially applied type of writing, gradually became outstanding from other common advertisements, and set up one independent language which was full of feature and had a great application in daily life. English recruiting advertisements as one member of English advertisements, also have some features in common. But due to their special purposes, the scale of English recruiting advertisements was short but could make readers understand, and the use of rhetoric was not obvious in English recruiting advertisements.Other professors, like Zen Li(1946), considered the readers would be patient enough to deliberate carefully the simple words when they read the English recruiting advertisements in order to make them fully get the information. That was because they had clear purposes and were driven by their own benefits.Under the trend of globalization, many people who like to work in multinational companies or foreign-owned enterprises really want to understand those English recruiting advertisements within several minutes, and then to consider whether to apply the jobs or not. In order to make those people know about English recruiting advertisements further and help them get the points of English recruiting advertisements, the author, in this paper, would like to organize the distinctive language features of English recruiting advertisements through analyzing manyrecruiting advertisements appeared in Washington Post, Wall Street Journal or other famous newspapers.nguage FeaturesBefore discussing the language features of English recruiting advertisements, let us look at the following recruiting advertisement first:Example one: IBM Asia BranchHero Meets HeroIBM is one of the recognized leaders in providing information systems to its customers in Asia and throughout the world. IBM Asia Branch is seeking qualified and highly motivated professionals to assist us in managing our rapidly expanding business.● PROJECT MANAGER (PM)Responsibilities:……Responsibilities for leading systems and programming team to design and implement application systems.Requirements:……5 + years’ experience in project management with computer background, or 5 years’ experience in software development with limited project management experience.……Experience in banking or industry is preferred.3.1Novel title with created ideasBeing under the control of time, money and other factors, English recruiting advertisement use novel titles with created ideas to attract people’s eyes, and come to the great effects of advertisements.In the south, organizers always use HERO MEETS HERO as the title of senior talents communication meetings. It is a really good idea to use such title since from the angle of rhetoric; it is a metaphor which compares the employing units and senior talents to hero. Besides, from the angle of historical linguistics, it is also a innovation which is emulated an English proverb LIKE KNOWS LIKE by advertisers. Making the advertising titles with familiar proverbs, aphorism, and common expressions can impress the readers deeply because they can read fluently and keep them in mind easily.“It is You Who Makes Everything Possible.”This title is an emphasized sentence, placing stress on “YOU”. Applicants who read this title will be awakened their zeal and want to go to the company to have a try. They would have the association that this company would make them have space to achieve their full potential. Furthermore, this sentence not only stirs up applicants’ enthusiasm but also awaken the sense of responsibilities of the staff in the company. They would feel that everyone is also the master of the company. They would have equal opportunities to show their talents and abilities. There is a will thereis a way. Only by unceasing efforts, every miracle could be created.IBM had ever a recruiting advertisement with the title “IBM Not Always Have Vacancies”This title seems telling the applicants that IBM have vacancies now, please hurry up, or it will be a great pity for you to lose this golden opportunity. In fact, the final aim that employing units print recruiting advertisements on newspapers is to hustle the readers into actions. Therefore, there was no doubt that IBM’s title made the applicants had the sense of urgency to catch such a very rare opportunity. It also helps the company to win the advantage of time to find the suitable talents.Most of time interrogative sentences will be used as the titles in English recruiting advertisements. That is because interrogative sentences ask for readers’answers according to the questions it mentions, and then excites their response to the advertisements. We can easily find those interrogative titles of recruiting advertisements in many American newspapers, such as ARE YOU READY TO ACCEPT CHALLENGES FROM A TRANSNATIONAL ENTERPRISE? DO YOU DESERVE $800/WEEK MINIMUM INCOME? ARE YOU READY TO BREAK INTO SHOW BUSINESS AND WORK AMONG THE STARS? ARE YOU DRIVEN TO ACHIEVE YOUT FULL POTENTIAL? ARE YOU THE LEADER IN YOUR RESTAURANT’S KITCHEN?4. Application of abbreviated wordsA good English recruiting advertisement should have an attractive title, but also should be short in scale to reduce the cost. So the application of abbreviated words in English recruiting advertisements is really needed.It is very common that advertisers like to make use of abbreviated words when they print recruiting advertisements, in particular in those advertisements which are printed on newspapers, leaflets or other printed matters. That is another marked feature of English recruiting advertisements. There is an advertisement appeared on N.Y. Times with many abbreviated words. Show as follows:Example two: LEGAL SECRETARY●2+ yrs exp for Bklyn personal injury firm.●Knowl of pleadings & procedure●Reqd, MS Word, SAGA a+. Fax resume & salary reqs to: 718-692-0869Readers who do not often read this kind of advertisements would not understand those abbreviated words. However, advertisers use abbreviated words in order to save time and the length of advertisements, as well as the costs. Here are some of the common abbreviated words.add = address co.= companyexp = experience deg = degreeindiv = individual pro = professionref = reference sal = salaryst = street vac = vacationbnfts = benefits hr = hourrd = road rm = roomwk = week asst = assistantdept = department oppty = opportunityreqd = required respons = responsibilitieslics = license yrs = yearsexp’d = experienced p/t = part timeIn English recruiting advertisements, advertising makers will abbreviate the words as possible as they can. The followings are some detailed organizations4.1 AcronymsAcronyms are the words that save the first letter but omitted others following. They are often the place names, the proper nouns of organizations, and nouns used to being collocated together or standing for academic degrees.Example three: Marketing Manager●4+ yrs exp for marketing injury firm.●having the M.B.A. certificate.●willing to work in GZ or HKSome acronyms indicate the place names such as:● GZ = Guangzhou, HK = Hong Kong, PRC = the People’s Republic ofChina, USA = the United States of America, and so on.Some acronyms are the proper nouns of organizations:●AT&T = American Telephone and Telegram Corporation, ETDD = Economic and Technological Development District, FESCO = Foreign Enterprise Service Company, GE = General Electric Corporation, and so on. Some acronyms used to being collocated together:● ECM = European Common Market, VAT = Value Added Tax, CV = Curriculum Vitae, FT = Full time, F/T = foreign trade, G.M. = General Manager, HR = human resources, JV = joint venture, PR = public relations, PT = part time, Q.A. = quality administration, and so on.Some acronyms indicate the academic degrees:● B.A.E. = Bachelor of Art Education, B.M. = Bachelor of Medicine,B.M.S. = Bachelor of Marine Science, M.B.A. = Master of Business Administration, M.B.Sc. = Master of Business Science, and so on.4.2 Abbreviations formed by Omitting VowelsOmitting all the vowel letters in a word and only leaving the consonants, the word is so called an abbreviation by omitting vowels. You can find many in English recruiting advertisements, for example, bnfts = benefits, hr = hour, mst = must, rd = road, rm = room, wk = week, wknds = weekends, yr = year, and so on. Here is part of a 4-star hotel’s recruiting advertisement:Example four: Credit Manager● At least 3 yrs hotel credit exp is a mst● Fluent English and Chinese(All candidates mst be Beijing Resident)●Attractive remuneration pkg will be offered to the right candidates, please send resume to…In this part, yrs, mst, and pkg are all abbreviations formed by omitting vowels. They separately stand for years, must,and package. When we read the English recruiting advertisements carefully, we also can find other examples of these abbreviations: btwn = between, Cnty = county, Ct = city, hwy = highway, mfd = manufactured, msg = message, mgr = manager, pls = please, sngl= single.4.3 Blended AbbreviationsThese abbreviations are more complicated than those mentioned above. Because some of them keep the first several letters but also have the back; some of them omitted all the vowels but clip one or two consonants as well according to some special needs. Here are the qualifications of one recruiting advertisement:Example five: Qualifications● Ideally aged 30-40. minimum 5 years sales exp in travel industry or in travel department of big company. Advanced university deg in tourism or related studies.● Successful track record in sales mgmt.● Strong communication and people mgmt skills.● Good command of English. Computer literacy.The abbreviations in this advertisement are complex, including many kinds mentioned above. Exp and deg are words shortened via back-clipping, while mgmt is the abbreviations formed by omitting vowels. There are many others appeared in recruiting advertisements, like pd =paid, nec. = necessary, mfg = manufacturing, loc’d = located, comp = computer, bus = business, ad = and, asst = assistant, bkground = background, bldg = building, blvd = boulevard, conds = conditions, exp’d = experienced, Ltd = limited, mgmt = management, oppty = opportunity, pkg = package, respons = responsibilities, and so on.5. Make a flexible use of phrasesGenerally speaking, phrases and short sentence are much easier to understand than that of long sentences. And one of the points is that they can save great space on newspaper when businessman prints an advertisement. Phrases are the same as elliptical sentences, used to describe the responsibilities and requirements in English recruiting advertisements. And the phrases in common use are as follows:5.1 Noun PhraseJust looking some extracts from English recruiting advertisements:●. 25 to 35 years of age●. At least 2 years’ relevant working experience in Joint Venture Company●. Ability to work in a team under pressure●. Good translation and typing skillsThese noun phrases clearly describe the requirements of abilities that the applicants should have, and make readers have a clear idea that whether they are fit for the post. All the applicants want to find a right job, but every job has different responsibilities and requirements. That means each job should have a unique and detailed description of its duties and requirements. Noun phrase fortunately give job hunters a clear picture of what they could expect while working for the company by some accurate and simple words.5.2 Adjective Phrase● Willing to travel frequently to rural areas and cities inmainland China● Available to work for a foreign company in Shanghai● Fluent in written and oral English● Good at Cantonese and willing to work abroadThe above are the adjective phrases in English recruiting advertisements. From those phrases applicants can know some responsibilities of the job, and help them be ready in their minds to accept the arrangements of the company if they really want to entry intothat company.5.3 Prepositional PhraseThe application of prepositional phrase in recruiting advertisements is very usual. The phrases are short but expressed well and full of meaning.Example six: Qualifications:● With an age above thirty● With excellent English, Mandarin and Cantonese●With 5 years’experience in business management andprogramming experience● Under the age of 35Prepositions are the main roles in this description. They are different from noun phrases for the prepositions. Although they have the same function, prepositional phrases are more rhythmic when reading.5.4 Gerundial PhraseExample seven: The candidate will be responsible for:● Developing sales in southern China● Providing technical support to customers● Reporting to national general manager in BeijingAccurateness is one aim that advertiser pursuing in English recruiting advertisements. Gerundial phrases are also one of the often appeared phrases in recruiting advertisements. They list the requirementand duties of the job and make the job hunters know whether they are fit for the job or not immediately, for instance, if the requirements have said “willing to travel, late hours”, the young mothers would give up to apply when they see that phrase.5.5 Appositive Phrase or Parenthetical PhraseAppositive Phrase and Parenthetical Phrase always appear in the simple introductions of the employing units, and are separated from the main sentence by comma or dash. The advantage of using the two phrases is that they are limited in length but can transmit much information.● Beijing Metito Laurel—U.S. joint venture— a world leader in industrial & Wastewater Treatment System, is seeking…This simple sentence use two phrases to replenish the information of the company: the parenthetical phrase “a Sino—U.S. joint venture”, which is separated by dash, explain the quality of the company; and the appositive phrase “a world leader in…System” indicate what kind of business that the enterprise deal with.● Bayer China, subsidiary of a leading European Chemical Concern, is now offering…If this sentence do not use appositive phrase, it should be divided into two sentences: Bayer China is a subsidiary of a leading European Chemical Concern. It is now offering…There is no doubt that the costs will increase while the length of the advertisement extending. And thatis what advertisers do not want to happen.●Kellog (China) Limited, a Sino-American Joint Venture, an affiliate of the world’s largest breakfast food manufacturer, is expanding its operations and is looking for…There are two appositive phrases going together in the sentence. They separately explain the quality and the area of business of Kellogg (China) Limited. “ A Sino-American Joint Venture”indicate the quality of company, while the following “an affiliate of the world’s largest breakfast food manufacturer”transmit that the company do business about breakfast food throughout the world.Above we mentioned are the features of words and phrase in English recruiting advertisements, in the following part the author is going to discuss another remarkable language feature of English recruiting advertisements. That is elliptical sentence.6. Elliptical SentencesHaving many elliptical sentences is another remarkable language feature of English recruiting advertisements. That is why some advertisements always have marked features of informal literary form. The costs of advertisements are directly proportional to their length, so when the employing units print the advertisements, they should take the length and words into consideration. The advantages of using ellipticalsentences in advertisements are obvious. First, they predigest the words but make sense; second, they save the space, and also the money. Key words in elliptical sentences could be much easier to attract readers’attention, more effective and directly to transmit the information. Here are the English recruiting advertisements using elliptical sentences: Example eight: $ NEED MONEY? $NEED PURDUE STUDENTS. EARN $7/hour at concession stand at Feast of Hunter’s Moon October 5 & 6. Fun, Fast–Paced, Festive atmosphere. 296-35452.●Some college education preferred. Must enjoy working withteenagers.● SORORITY COOKNeeded immediately Great pay! Call for an interview 494-8909.In the advertisements elliptical sentences take concerned use with words and punctuations to reach the effects of “persuading”, “inducing”, and “urging”the readers. “$ NEED MONEY? $”,the elliptical sentence in the first example, with“$” and question mark can completely arouse readers’interests as students are always lack of money and need such part-time jobs to earn money. In the third paragraph as well, “immediately” and exclamation mark make people have a sense of urgency to pick up the phone for inquiring. In general, ellipticalsentences in English recruiting advertisements omitted the subjects, verbs, articles or subordinate clauses.6.1 Ellipsis of SubjectWhen explaining responsibilities of the posts and requirements to applicants, most English recruiting advertisements omitted the subjects. Because readers have a common sense that the subject in English recruiting advertisement is “applicants”or “you”. Take the following advertisements for instance:Example nine: Responsibilities:●Work with Sales Manager to develop and implement sales strategies in assigned territory.● Develop and maintain strong relationship at all levels with in his/her customers’ organization.Example ten: Requirements:● Have a university degree in Telecommunication● Read and write English, fluent in Mandarin & Cantonese with good interpersonal skill● Maintain professional image for internal & external customers Example eleven: OFFICE ASSISTANT● University Degree● Some experience in book—keeping and typewriting● Fluent in English● Under 35 years of ageIf the advertisers return these sentences in example 8 and example9 to the original condition, they would be：● The applicant should work with Sales Manager to develop and implement sales strategies in assigned territory.● The applicant should develop and maintain strong relationship at all levels with in his/her customers’ organization.●The applicant should have a university degree in Telecommunication●The applicant should read and write English, fluent in Mandarin & Cantonese with good interpersonal skill● The applicant should maintain professional image for internal & external customersObviously, they are extremely wordy and meaningless while every sentence has the same subject. As a matter of fact, none of the readers would like to read such kind of recruiting advertisements. Because under the particular contexts readers understand clearly who is the subject without any difficulties though there is no subject in the advertisements.6.2 Ellipsis of verbIn English recruiting advertisements, the elliptical verbs are “be”, modal verb, and auxiliary verb. When reading the English recruiting advertisements, readers know the verbs are omitted but theyusually do not know which kind of verb is deleted. So the following will introduce the three main types of ellipsis of verb.6.2.1 Ellipsis of Modal VerbWhen sentence describes the responsibilities and requirements of the job, and if the beginning of it is a linking verb or conducting verb, then the modal verb like “must”, “should” and “can”, would be deleted in most situations.●Be responsible to the General Manager for the following specific tasks…In this sentence, it omits “must” or “should” at the beginning.● Read and write English.It must omit “can” at the beginning as well.● Be able to communicate in English, Mandarin and Cantonese.Evidently, “must” is omitted before the linking word “be”.And “must (should) + have” is also the modal verb:● A good command of computer literacy● Good analytical skill● Minimum 5 years of work experience6.2.2 Ellipsis of Auxiliary VerbEllipsis of auxiliary verb is not always happen like those mentioned above, for instance, “IBM Not Always Have Vacancies”. It should have used “does not”to form negative sentence, but it only has “not”.Thatis because advertisers limit the numbers of words and then omit “does”.However, “be”as an auxiliary verb in the sentence of passive voice is usually omitted.● Technicians Wanted.“are” is omitted after the subject.● Secretary needed Immediately for Nike.In this case, so does “is”.6.2.3 Ellipsis of ArticleArticles are the functional words in English, so it will not affect readers to understand the meanings without articles. In particular in English recruiting advertisements articles are seldom used.The definite article “the”are commonly used before the proper nouns which are formed by several words in non-advertising English register, but can not be used in English recruiting advertisements. In addition, according to the rules of grammar, the requirements and responsibilities of posts are referred specifically, which should use “the”—the definite article to modify, but in English recruiting advertisements it is always omitted before those words—responsibilities, qualifications, requirements.Omitting indefinite article “a or an” is much common than that of definite article. Even in the titles of advertisements, it does not need to use the indefinite article to modify the particular post, for instance,。