Chapter 11 Energy transfer
【生物化学】Chapter 11 Oxidative Phosphorylation
ATP: produced by mitochondria: out
ADP + Pi: into
Zhao Dandan
Chapter 11 Oxidative Phosphorylation
9
Zhao Dandan
Mitochondria: Power
Plants of the Cell
The inner membrane is
Zhao Dandan
Chapter 11 Oxidative Phosphorylation
6
Chemiosmotic Theory (Proton-motive force)
Protons (H+) are moved into intermembrane space “pumped” byenergy from e- transfers Creates a proton gradient (pH gradient)
Convergence of degradation of Carbohydrates, Fats, AA Electrons move from intermediates to O2
Occurs in mitochondria of eukaryotes “ Fate of Electrons”
Zhao Dandan
Chapter 11 Oxidative Phosphorylation
8
The Mitochondrion
Site in Eukaryotes
Demonstrated in 1948
Albert Lehninger and Eugene Kennedy
Mitochondrial transport systems
《工程传热学》教学大纲
教学大纲一、《工程传热学》（双语）课程教学大纲1. 课程名称：工程传热学2. 课程编码：8020623. 学时与学分：56/3.54. 先修课程：流体力学、工程热力学5. 课程的地位、作用和任务工程传热学是研究热量传递规律的工程技术学科，是热工类及机械类动力机械等专业的一门主干技术基础课程。
本课程不仅为学生学习有关的专业课程提供基本的理论知识，也为学生以后从事热能的合理利用，热工设备效能的提高及换热器的设计等方面的工作，打下必要的基础。
6. 课程教学目标《工程传热学》（双语）课程是全校大机械类的平台课程，适用于能源与动力工程学院、机械科学与工程学院、材料科学与工程学院、交通科学与工程学院、环境科学与工程学院共5个学院的各本科专业。
课程以中文和英语相结合的双语教学，教学目标是：1）与我校专业的发展特色相结合，编写相关高质量的专业教材《工程传热学》，同时以国外先进的外文原版教材做辅助，使学生既能了解我校本领域在国内的影响力，同时也能学习国际上本领域的先进科学知识，了解国际上本领域的科技发展前沿。
2）帮助学生获得热量传递的基本知识，了解传热学理论与生产技术之间的关系，掌握分析基本热现象的一般规律和方法，培养学生创新的思维能力。
3）通过对热量传递的三种基本方式的学习，使学生能够分析复杂的热量传递问题，提高学生综合分析和解决问题的能力。
4）提高学生的专业英语水平，提高学生阅读国际科技期刊上发表的科学研究论文的能力。
7. 教学内容第一章绪论(2学时)1-1传热概述热导热；热对流；热辐射1-2传热过程和传热系数传热过程；传热系数第二章稳态导热过程分析(6学时)2-1分析基础温度场；付立叶定律；导热系数；导热微分方程；定解条件2-2一维稳态导热分析平壁导热；圆筒壁导热；球壳导热；变截面或变导热系数问题；具有内热源的导热问题；肋片导热分析2-3 多维稳态导热分析二维稳态导热分析解；形状因子法第三章非稳态导热过程分析(8学时)3-1基本概念周期性和非周期性非稳态导热；毕渥数3-2集总参数法温度函数；傅里叶数；时间常数3-3一维非稳态导热一维平壁非稳态导热分析解；非稳态导热的正规状况阶段；一维圆柱及球体非稳态导热分析解；近似算法及海斯勒图3-4 半无限大物体非稳态导热第一类边界条件；第三类边界条件3-5 二维及三维非稳态导热二维非稳态导热；三维费稳态导热；无量纲分析法第四章对流换热原理(11学时)4-1 对流换热概述对流换热过程、对流换热过程的分类、表面传热系数、对流换热微分方程式4-2 层流流动换热的微分方程组连续性方程；动量方程；能量方程；层流流动换热的微分方程组4-3 对流换热过程的相似理论无量纲形式的对流换热微分方程组；无量纲方程组的解及换热准则关系式；特征尺寸、特征流速和定性温度；对流换热准则关系式的实验获取方法4-4 边界层理论边界层的概念；边界层微分方程组；边界层积分方程组4-5 紊流流动换热紊流流动现象及表述；稳流时均方程；混合长度理论；双方程模型；紊流边界层方程及壁面法则；紊流边界层换热的比拟分析第五章对流换热计算(7学时)5-1 流体外掠物体的强制对流换热流体平行外掠平板的对流换热；流体横向绕流单个圆柱体的强制对流换热；流体横向绕流光管管束的对流换热5-2 管(槽)内强制对流换热管内流动与换热分析；管内强制对流换热的计算5-3 自然对流换热大空间自然对流的流动与换热特性；竖直平板自然对流换热的微分方程及准则数；大空间自然对流换热计算；受限空间自然对流换热计算5-4 沸腾换热汽液相变换热的基本概念；沸腾过程的分析；大容器沸腾曲线；大容器沸腾换热计算5-5 凝结换热蒸汽表面凝结过程及换热机理；竖壁膜状凝结的理论解；影响膜状凝结换热的因素第六章热辐射基础(6学时)6-1 基本概念投入辐射；吸收比；反射比；透射比；表面辐射；容积辐射；漫反射；镜反射；透明体；白体；镜体；黑体6-2 黑体辐射和吸收的基本性质辐射力和辐射强度；普朗克定律；维恩定律；斯蒂芬—波尔兹曼定律；兰贝特定律；波段辐射和辐射函数；黑体的吸收特性6-3 实际物体的辐射和吸收实际物体的辐射特性；实际物体的吸收特性；实际物体辐射与吸收之间的关系—基尔霍夫定律6-4 气体的辐射和吸收气体辐射的特点；气体吸收定律；气体的发射率；气体的吸收比第七章辐射换热计算(4学时)7-1两黑体表面间的辐射换热角系数的定义；角系数的性质；角系数的计算7-2灰体表面间的的辐射换热有效辐射；组成封闭腔的两个灰体表面间的辐射换热；组成封闭腔的多灰表面之间辐射换热的网络求解法；辐射屏第八章传热过程和换热器(4学时)8-1传热过程的计算通过平壁的传热过程计算；通过圆筒壁的传热过程计算；通过肋壁的传热过程计算8-2换热器的类型间壁式换热器；回热式换热器；混合式换热器；热管式换热器8-3换热器计算对数平均温差法；效能-传热单元数法第九章流动与传热的数值计算(4学时)9-1 数值计算的基本思想时间与空间的离散化；节点方程的建立；节点方程的求解9-2 Saints2D软件简介速度已知与速度未知边界条件的概念；Saints2D软件的基本操作；流动与传热问题的计算示例第十章实验（4学时）10.1 演示与观察10.2 实物实验（包括导热系数测量，受迫对流实验）10.3 开放实验10.4 虚拟实验8. 考核方式期末考试为闭卷，最终成绩由学生平时课堂讨论、作业、实验成绩，卷面成绩等几部分组成。
上海海洋大学海洋生态学 Chapter 001 生态系统及其功能概论
2、 生态平衡（ecological equilibrium）
如果生态系统能量和物质的输入和输出在较长时间趋于相等，系统的结
构与功能长期处于稳定状态（这时动、植物的种类和数量也保持相对稳 定，环境的生产潜力得以充分发挥，能流途径畅通），在外来干扰下能 通过自我调节恢复到原初的稳定状态，生态系统的这种状态就叫做生态 平衡。
南极磷虾
食物链类型：
牧食食物链或称植食食物链
（grazing food chain） 碎屑食物链（detritus food chain） 寄生食物链
硅藻
南极海域典型食物链
２、食物网
（food web）
豹形海豹
虎鲸
食物链彼此交错连接，
威德尔氏 海豹
帝企鹅
食蟹海豹
形成网状营养结构，称为食 物网。
大型鱼类
库(pool)：研究生态系统中某一物质在生物或非生物环境
中贮存的数量。
贮存库（reservoir pool）、交换库或循环库(exchange or cycling pool)
流通率、周转率、周转时间
库中营养物质量 周转时间 ＝ 流通率
流通率 周转率 ＝ 库中营养物质量
水循环（water cycle）： 由太阳能所推动的由
二、生态系统的基本组成成分
非生物成分
(非生物环境) 物质代谢原料
能源：太阳能、地热等其他能源 气候：光照、温度、降水和风等 基质(介质)：岩石、土壤、水、空气等 H2O、O2、CO2、N2等 无机盐(矿物质原料) 碳水化合物、蛋白质、脂肪和腐殖质等 (连接生物和非生物部分的有机物)
生态系统
生产者： 绿色植物、光合细菌、化能细菌等
化学反应工程英文课件Chapter 11
化学反应工程
停留时间分布函数 — F(t) 函数
对于同时进入反应器入口的 N 个流体粒子，若在出口 处进行检测，则其中停留时间介于 0 ～ t 之间的流体粒 子所占的分率为 F(t) —— 我们定义 F(t) 为停留时间分 布函数。 如：在某时刻进入反应器入口的 100 个流体粒子，到 达出口时停留时间为 0 ~ 5 min 的粒子有 20 个，若取 t = 5 min，则此时 F(t) = 20 /100 = 0.2。 F(t) 是一个累积（如 t = 0～5 min ）的分率。
化学反应工程
Figure 11.3Ex来自mples of macro- and microfluid behavior.
化学反应工程 Earliness of Mixing
The fluid elements of a single flowing stream can mix with each other either early or late in their flow through the vessel. For example, see Fig. 11.4. Usually this factor has little effect on overall behavior for a single flowing fluid. However, for a system with two entering reactant streams it can be very important. For example, see Fig. 11.5.
化学反应工程
11.1 E, THE AGE DISTRIBUTION OF FLUID, THE RTD
It is evident that elements of fluid taking different routes through the reactor may take different lengths of time to pass through the vessel. The distribution of these times for the stream of fluid leaving the vessel is called the exit age distribution E, or the residence time distribution RTD of fluid. E has the units of time-1.
Energy transfers
People can make full use of energy to make life easier.
Please turn to page 225, chapter 16.
A square in Manchester, England, 120 years ago (Figure 16.1 )
strain energy 应变能
catapult 弹弓
kinetic energy 动能
How to show energy transformations
2.
Sankey diagrams 桑基图
The width of arrow indicates the amount of energy it represents.
Name:
Think 1-2
1. Rub your hands fast
Why your hands become warm?
2. Turn on the light
What happened?
Байду номын сангаас
Think 3
Why the ball jumps lower and lower until it stops?
Of course not! Why?
Summary
When an energy transformation takes place, some energy is always lost as heat (thermal) energy. Energy transfers can be shown by energy transfer diagrams and Sankey diagrams. Energy and work are measured in the unit called joule (J) Photosynthesis and respiration. Electricity generation: bicycle dynamo and power station generator. The Law of Conversation Energy
Glider Flying Handbook说明书
Glider Flying Handbook2013U.S. Department of TransportationFEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATIONFlight Standards Servicei iPrefaceThe Glider Flying Handbook is designed as a technical manual for applicants who are preparing for glider category rating and for currently certificated glider pilots who wish to improve their knowledge. Certificated flight instructors will find this handbook a valuable training aid, since detailed coverage of aeronautical decision-making, components and systems, aerodynamics, flight instruments, performance limitations, ground operations, flight maneuvers, traffic patterns, emergencies, soaring weather, soaring techniques, and cross-country flight is included. Topics such as radio navigation and communication, use of flight information publications, and regulations are available in other Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) publications.The discussion and explanations reflect the most commonly used practices and principles. Occasionally, the word “must” or similar language is used where the desired action is deemed critical. The use of such language is not intended to add to, interpret, or relieve a duty imposed by Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR). Persons working towards a glider rating are advised to review the references from the applicable practical test standards (FAA-G-8082-4, Sport Pilot and Flight Instructor with a Sport Pilot Rating Knowledge Test Guide, FAA-G-8082-5, Commercial Pilot Knowledge Test Guide, and FAA-G-8082-17, Recreational Pilot and Private Pilot Knowledge Test Guide). Resources for study include FAA-H-8083-25, Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge, FAA-H-8083-2, Risk Management Handbook, and Advisory Circular (AC) 00-6, Aviation Weather For Pilots and Flight Operations Personnel, AC 00-45, Aviation Weather Services, as these documents contain basic material not duplicated herein. All beginning applicants should refer to FAA-H-8083-25, Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge, for study and basic library reference.It is essential for persons using this handbook to become familiar with and apply the pertinent parts of 14 CFR and the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM). The AIM is available online at . The current Flight Standards Service airman training and testing material and learning statements for all airman certificates and ratings can be obtained from .This handbook supersedes FAA-H-8083-13, Glider Flying Handbook, dated 2003. Always select the latest edition of any publication and check the website for errata pages and listing of changes to FAA educational publications developed by the FAA’s Airman Testing Standards Branch, AFS-630.This handbook is available for download, in PDF format, from .This handbook is published by the United States Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, Airman Testing Standards Branch, AFS-630, P.O. Box 25082, Oklahoma City, OK 73125.Comments regarding this publication should be sent, in email form, to the following address:********************************************John M. AllenDirector, Flight Standards Serviceiiii vAcknowledgmentsThe Glider Flying Handbook was produced by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) with the assistance of Safety Research Corporation of America (SRCA). The FAA wishes to acknowledge the following contributors: Sue Telford of Telford Fishing & Hunting Services for images used in Chapter 1JerryZieba () for images used in Chapter 2Tim Mara () for images used in Chapters 2 and 12Uli Kremer of Alexander Schleicher GmbH & Co for images used in Chapter 2Richard Lancaster () for images and content used in Chapter 3Dave Nadler of Nadler & Associates for images used in Chapter 6Dave McConeghey for images used in Chapter 6John Brandon (www.raa.asn.au) for images and content used in Chapter 7Patrick Panzera () for images used in Chapter 8Jeff Haby (www.theweatherprediction) for images used in Chapter 8National Soaring Museum () for content used in Chapter 9Bill Elliot () for images used in Chapter 12.Tiffany Fidler for images used in Chapter 12.Additional appreciation is extended to the Soaring Society of America, Inc. (), the Soaring Safety Foundation, and Mr. Brad Temeyer and Mr. Bill Martin from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) for their technical support and input.vv iPreface (iii)Acknowledgments (v)Table of Contents (vii)Chapter 1Gliders and Sailplanes ........................................1-1 Introduction....................................................................1-1 Gliders—The Early Years ..............................................1-2 Glider or Sailplane? .......................................................1-3 Glider Pilot Schools ......................................................1-4 14 CFR Part 141 Pilot Schools ...................................1-5 14 CFR Part 61 Instruction ........................................1-5 Glider Certificate Eligibility Requirements ...................1-5 Common Glider Concepts ..............................................1-6 Terminology...............................................................1-6 Converting Metric Distance to Feet ...........................1-6 Chapter 2Components and Systems .................................2-1 Introduction....................................................................2-1 Glider Design .................................................................2-2 The Fuselage ..................................................................2-4 Wings and Components .............................................2-4 Lift/Drag Devices ...........................................................2-5 Empennage .....................................................................2-6 Towhook Devices .......................................................2-7 Powerplant .....................................................................2-7 Self-Launching Gliders .............................................2-7 Sustainer Engines .......................................................2-8 Landing Gear .................................................................2-8 Wheel Brakes .............................................................2-8 Chapter 3Aerodynamics of Flight .......................................3-1 Introduction....................................................................3-1 Forces of Flight..............................................................3-2 Newton’s Third Law of Motion .................................3-2 Lift ..............................................................................3-2The Effects of Drag on a Glider .....................................3-3 Parasite Drag ..............................................................3-3 Form Drag ...............................................................3-3 Skin Friction Drag ..................................................3-3 Interference Drag ....................................................3-5 Total Drag...................................................................3-6 Wing Planform ...........................................................3-6 Elliptical Wing ........................................................3-6 Rectangular Wing ...................................................3-7 Tapered Wing .........................................................3-7 Swept-Forward Wing ..............................................3-7 Washout ..................................................................3-7 Glide Ratio .................................................................3-8 Aspect Ratio ............................................................3-9 Weight ........................................................................3-9 Thrust .........................................................................3-9 Three Axes of Rotation ..................................................3-9 Stability ........................................................................3-10 Flutter .......................................................................3-11 Lateral Stability ........................................................3-12 Turning Flight ..............................................................3-13 Load Factors .................................................................3-13 Radius of Turn ..........................................................3-14 Turn Coordination ....................................................3-15 Slips ..........................................................................3-15 Forward Slip .........................................................3-16 Sideslip .................................................................3-17 Spins .........................................................................3-17 Ground Effect ...............................................................3-19 Chapter 4Flight Instruments ...............................................4-1 Introduction....................................................................4-1 Pitot-Static Instruments ..................................................4-2 Impact and Static Pressure Lines................................4-2 Airspeed Indicator ......................................................4-2 The Effects of Altitude on the AirspeedIndicator..................................................................4-3 Types of Airspeed ...................................................4-3Table of ContentsviiAirspeed Indicator Markings ......................................4-5 Other Airspeed Limitations ........................................4-6 Altimeter .....................................................................4-6 Principles of Operation ...........................................4-6 Effect of Nonstandard Pressure andTemperature............................................................4-7 Setting the Altimeter (Kollsman Window) .............4-9 Types of Altitude ......................................................4-10 Variometer................................................................4-11 Total Energy System .............................................4-14 Netto .....................................................................4-14 Electronic Flight Computers ....................................4-15 Magnetic Compass .......................................................4-16 Yaw String ................................................................4-16 Inclinometer..............................................................4-16 Gyroscopic Instruments ...............................................4-17 G-Meter ........................................................................4-17 FLARM Collision Avoidance System .........................4-18 Chapter 5Glider Performance .............................................5-1 Introduction....................................................................5-1 Factors Affecting Performance ......................................5-2 High and Low Density Altitude Conditions ...........5-2 Atmospheric Pressure .............................................5-2 Altitude ...................................................................5-3 Temperature............................................................5-3 Wind ...........................................................................5-3 Weight ........................................................................5-5 Rate of Climb .................................................................5-7 Flight Manuals and Placards ..........................................5-8 Placards ......................................................................5-8 Performance Information ...........................................5-8 Glider Polars ...............................................................5-8 Weight and Balance Information .............................5-10 Limitations ...............................................................5-10 Weight and Balance .....................................................5-12 Center of Gravity ......................................................5-12 Problems Associated With CG Forward ofForward Limit .......................................................5-12 Problems Associated With CG Aft of Aft Limit ..5-13 Sample Weight and Balance Problems ....................5-13 Ballast ..........................................................................5-14 Chapter 6Preflight and Ground Operations .......................6-1 Introduction....................................................................6-1 Assembly and Storage Techniques ................................6-2 Trailering....................................................................6-3 Tiedown and Securing ................................................6-4Water Ballast ..............................................................6-4 Ground Handling........................................................6-4 Launch Equipment Inspection ....................................6-5 Glider Preflight Inspection .........................................6-6 Prelaunch Checklist ....................................................6-7 Glider Care .....................................................................6-7 Preventive Maintenance .............................................6-8 Chapter 7Launch and Recovery Procedures and Flight Maneuvers ............................................................7-1 Introduction....................................................................7-1 Aerotow Takeoff Procedures .........................................7-2 Signals ........................................................................7-2 Prelaunch Signals ....................................................7-2 Inflight Signals ........................................................7-3 Takeoff Procedures and Techniques ..........................7-3 Normal Assisted Takeoff............................................7-4 Unassisted Takeoff.....................................................7-5 Crosswind Takeoff .....................................................7-5 Assisted ...................................................................7-5 Unassisted...............................................................7-6 Aerotow Climb-Out ....................................................7-6 Aerotow Release.........................................................7-8 Slack Line ...................................................................7-9 Boxing the Wake ......................................................7-10 Ground Launch Takeoff Procedures ............................7-11 CG Hooks .................................................................7-11 Signals ......................................................................7-11 Prelaunch Signals (Winch/Automobile) ...............7-11 Inflight Signals ......................................................7-12 Tow Speeds ..............................................................7-12 Automobile Launch ..................................................7-14 Crosswind Takeoff and Climb .................................7-14 Normal Into-the-Wind Launch .................................7-15 Climb-Out and Release Procedures ..........................7-16 Self-Launch Takeoff Procedures ..............................7-17 Preparation and Engine Start ....................................7-17 Taxiing .....................................................................7-18 Pretakeoff Check ......................................................7-18 Normal Takeoff ........................................................7-19 Crosswind Takeoff ...................................................7-19 Climb-Out and Shutdown Procedures ......................7-19 Landing .....................................................................7-21 Gliderport/Airport Traffic Patterns and Operations .....7-22 Normal Approach and Landing ................................7-22 Crosswind Landing ..................................................7-25 Slips ..........................................................................7-25 Downwind Landing ..................................................7-27 After Landing and Securing .....................................7-27viiiPerformance Maneuvers ..............................................7-27 Straight Glides ..........................................................7-27 Turns.........................................................................7-28 Roll-In ...................................................................7-29 Roll-Out ................................................................7-30 Steep Turns ...........................................................7-31 Maneuvering at Minimum Controllable Airspeed ...7-31 Stall Recognition and Recovery ...............................7-32 Secondary Stalls ....................................................7-34 Accelerated Stalls .................................................7-34 Crossed-Control Stalls ..........................................7-35 Operating Airspeeds .....................................................7-36 Minimum Sink Airspeed ..........................................7-36 Best Glide Airspeed..................................................7-37 Speed to Fly ..............................................................7-37 Chapter 8Abnormal and Emergency Procedures .............8-1 Introduction....................................................................8-1 Porpoising ......................................................................8-2 Pilot-Induced Oscillations (PIOs) ..............................8-2 PIOs During Launch ...................................................8-2 Factors Influencing PIOs ........................................8-2 Improper Elevator Trim Setting ..............................8-3 Improper Wing Flaps Setting ..................................8-3 Pilot-Induced Roll Oscillations During Launch .........8-3 Pilot-Induced Yaw Oscillations During Launch ........8-4 Gust-Induced Oscillations ..............................................8-5 Vertical Gusts During High-Speed Cruise .................8-5 Pilot-Induced Pitch Oscillations During Landing ......8-6 Glider-Induced Oscillations ...........................................8-6 Pitch Influence of the Glider Towhook Position ........8-6 Self-Launching Glider Oscillations During Powered Flight ...........................................................8-7 Nosewheel Glider Oscillations During Launchesand Landings ..............................................................8-7 Tailwheel/Tailskid Equipped Glider Oscillations During Launches and Landings ..................................8-8 Aerotow Abnormal and Emergency Procedures ............8-8 Abnormal Procedures .................................................8-8 Towing Failures........................................................8-10 Tow Failure With Runway To Land and Stop ......8-11 Tow Failure Without Runway To Land BelowReturning Altitude ................................................8-11 Tow Failure Above Return to Runway Altitude ...8-11 Tow Failure Above 800' AGL ..............................8-12 Tow Failure Above Traffic Pattern Altitude .........8-13 Slack Line .................................................................8-13 Ground Launch Abnormal and Emergency Procedures ....................................................................8-14 Abnormal Procedures ...............................................8-14 Emergency Procedures .............................................8-14 Self-Launch Takeoff Emergency Procedures ..............8-15 Emergency Procedures .............................................8-15 Spiral Dives ..................................................................8-15 Spins .............................................................................8-15 Entry Phase ...............................................................8-17 Incipient Phase .........................................................8-17 Developed Phase ......................................................8-17 Recovery Phase ........................................................8-17 Off-Field Landing Procedures .....................................8-18 Afterlanding Off Field .............................................8-20 Off-Field Landing Without Injury ........................8-20 Off-Field Landing With Injury .............................8-20 System and Equipment Malfunctions ..........................8-20 Flight Instrument Malfunctions ................................8-20 Airspeed Indicator Malfunctions ..........................8-21 Altimeter Malfunctions .........................................8-21 Variometer Malfunctions ......................................8-21 Compass Malfunctions .........................................8-21 Glider Canopy Malfunctions ....................................8-21 Broken Glider Canopy ..........................................8-22 Frosted Glider Canopy ..........................................8-22 Water Ballast Malfunctions ......................................8-22 Retractable Landing Gear Malfunctions ..................8-22 Primary Flight Control Systems ...............................8-22 Elevator Malfunctions ..........................................8-22 Aileron Malfunctions ............................................8-23 Rudder Malfunctions ............................................8-24 Secondary Flight Controls Systems .........................8-24 Elevator Trim Malfunctions .................................8-24 Spoiler/Dive Brake Malfunctions .........................8-24 Miscellaneous Flight System Malfunctions .................8-25 Towhook Malfunctions ............................................8-25 Oxygen System Malfunctions ..................................8-25 Drogue Chute Malfunctions .....................................8-25 Self-Launching Gliders ................................................8-26 Self-Launching/Sustainer Glider Engine Failure During Takeoff or Climb ..........................................8-26 Inability to Restart a Self-Launching/SustainerGlider Engine While Airborne .................................8-27 Self-Launching Glider Propeller Malfunctions ........8-27 Self-Launching Glider Electrical System Malfunctions .............................................................8-27 In-flight Fire .............................................................8-28 Emergency Equipment and Survival Gear ...................8-28 Survival Gear Checklists ..........................................8-28 Food and Water ........................................................8-28ixClothing ....................................................................8-28 Communication ........................................................8-29 Navigation Equipment ..............................................8-29 Medical Equipment ..................................................8-29 Stowage ....................................................................8-30 Parachute ..................................................................8-30 Oxygen System Malfunctions ..................................8-30 Accident Prevention .....................................................8-30 Chapter 9Soaring Weather ..................................................9-1 Introduction....................................................................9-1 The Atmosphere .............................................................9-2 Composition ...............................................................9-2 Properties ....................................................................9-2 Temperature............................................................9-2 Density ....................................................................9-2 Pressure ...................................................................9-2 Standard Atmosphere .................................................9-3 Layers of the Atmosphere ..........................................9-4 Scale of Weather Events ................................................9-4 Thermal Soaring Weather ..............................................9-6 Thermal Shape and Structure .....................................9-6 Atmospheric Stability .................................................9-7 Air Masses Conducive to Thermal Soaring ...................9-9 Cloud Streets ..............................................................9-9 Thermal Waves...........................................................9-9 Thunderstorms..........................................................9-10 Lifted Index ..........................................................9-12 K-Index .................................................................9-12 Weather for Slope Soaring .......................................9-14 Mechanism for Wave Formation ..............................9-16 Lift Due to Convergence ..........................................9-19 Obtaining Weather Information ...................................9-21 Preflight Weather Briefing........................................9-21 Weather-ReIated Information ..................................9-21 Interpreting Weather Charts, Reports, andForecasts ......................................................................9-23 Graphic Weather Charts ...........................................9-23 Winds and Temperatures Aloft Forecast ..............9-23 Composite Moisture Stability Chart .....................9-24 Chapter 10Soaring Techniques ..........................................10-1 Introduction..................................................................10-1 Thermal Soaring ...........................................................10-2 Locating Thermals ....................................................10-2 Cumulus Clouds ...................................................10-2 Other Indicators of Thermals ................................10-3 Wind .....................................................................10-4 The Big Picture .....................................................10-5Entering a Thermal ..............................................10-5 Inside a Thermal.......................................................10-6 Bank Angle ...........................................................10-6 Speed .....................................................................10-6 Centering ...............................................................10-7 Collision Avoidance ................................................10-9 Exiting a Thermal .....................................................10-9 Atypical Thermals ..................................................10-10 Ridge/Slope Soaring ..................................................10-10 Traps ......................................................................10-10 Procedures for Safe Flying .....................................10-12 Bowls and Spurs .....................................................10-13 Slope Lift ................................................................10-13 Obstructions ...........................................................10-14 Tips and Techniques ...............................................10-15 Wave Soaring .............................................................10-16 Preflight Preparation ...............................................10-17 Getting Into the Wave ............................................10-18 Flying in the Wave .................................................10-20 Soaring Convergence Zones ...................................10-23 Combined Sources of Updrafts ..............................10-24 Chapter 11Cross-Country Soaring .....................................11-1 Introduction..................................................................11-1 Flight Preparation and Planning ...................................11-2 Personal and Special Equipment ..................................11-3 Navigation ....................................................................11-5 Using the Plotter .......................................................11-5 A Sample Cross-Country Flight ...............................11-5 Navigation Using GPS .............................................11-8 Cross-Country Techniques ...........................................11-9 Soaring Faster and Farther .........................................11-11 Height Bands ..........................................................11-11 Tips and Techniques ...............................................11-12 Special Situations .......................................................11-14 Course Deviations ..................................................11-14 Lost Procedures ......................................................11-14 Cross-Country Flight in a Self-Launching Glider .....11-15 High-Performance Glider Operations and Considerations ............................................................11-16 Glider Complexity ..................................................11-16 Water Ballast ..........................................................11-17 Cross-Country Flight Using Other Lift Sources ........11-17 Chapter 12Towing ................................................................12-1 Introduction..................................................................12-1 Equipment Inspections and Operational Checks .........12-2 Tow Hook ................................................................12-2 Schweizer Tow Hook ...........................................12-2x。
Keywords 单词表
Chapter 1 Measurement 测量Physical quantity 物理量, Standard 标准, unit单位, Precision精度significant figures 有效数字, Dimension 量纲,维度， Force 力， Velocity 速度,Speed 速率, Acceleration 加速度， Momentum 动量, Base units 基本单位，Derived units 导出单位， phenomenon 性质， Cesium atom clock 铯原子钟，Definition 定义， vibrations 振动， platinum-iridium alloy 铂铱合金，multiply乘, divide除, product积, quotient商， consistent 一致,pendulum单摆, frequency 频率Chapter 2 Motion in one dimension 一维运动Kinematics运动学, Dynamics 动力学，vector矢量， Scalar 标量constant acceleration 匀加速度， Freely falling body 自由落体， Object 物体，Particle 质点， Translation 平动， Rigid body 刚体， Rotation 转动，Reference frame 参考系， magnitude and direction 大小和方向， equal 相等， opposite 相反addition 加，subtraction减， Triangle， Parallelogram 平行四边形，Commutative law 交换律， Associative law 结合律， Component分量，rectangular coordinate system直角坐标系， Unit Vectors 单位矢量，spherical coordinate system 球坐标系， Dot product 点乘， Cross product 叉乘，Radius 半径， Average velocity平均速度，Instantaneous velocity 瞬时速度，tangent 切线，initial position初始位置，vertical垂直， positive正， Derivative 导数，Integration 积分， Calculus 微积分， Simple harmonic motion 简谐运动Chapter 3 Force and Newton’s Laws 力和牛顿定律Classical mechanics 经典力学, interaction互作用, counteraction 反作用action-reaction force 作用与反作用力, environment 环境net force 净力remain at rest 保持静止，linear motion 线性运动， reference frame 参照系, inertia 惯性, inertial frame 惯性参照系，independent 独立的，无关的, friction 摩擦力,frictionless 无摩擦的, resistance 阻力，external force 外力, internal force 内力, horizontal 水平的, calibration 校准，定标, weight 重力, weightless 失重， perception 感觉，equator 赤道，North pole 北极，vary 变化Chapter 4 Motion in two and three dimensions 二维和三维运动Projectile motion 抛体运动, Drag force 曳力,阻力, Uniform circular motion 匀速圆周运动, Equivalent 相等,等价, Parabolic trajectory 抛物型轨道, range 射程,origin of coordinate 坐标原点, Differential equation 微分方程, angular velocity 角速度, centripetal acceleration 向心加速度, Relative Motion 相对运动, due east 正东Chapter 5 Application of Newton’s Laws牛顿定律的应用non-constant force 非恒力，inertial force 惯性力，pseudo-force 赝力，viscous force 黏滞力,tensile force, tension 张力，拉力，spring force 弹力，normal force正压力，frictionalforce 摩擦力，gravitational force万有引力，centrifugal force 离心力，Non-inertial frame 非惯性系， negligible 可忽略的， Massless and non-stretch string 无质量不可伸长的绳子，Passive force 被动力，active force 主动力，pulley 滑轮， Free-body diagram 隔离图，subscript 下标， superscript 上标，Coefficient of friction 摩擦系数， static friction静摩擦力，kinetic friction动摩擦力， conical pendulum 锥摆Chapter 6 Momentum 动量momentum 动量，collision 碰撞，impulse 冲量， conservation 守恒，strike 击打，theorem 定理， internal force 内力，external force 外力，elastic 弹性的，completely inelastic 完全非弹性， Center-of-mass reference frame 质心参考系，Coefficient of restitution 恢复系数Chapter 7 Systems of Particles 质点系Translational motion 平动，Rotational motion 转动，Combination 合成，simultaneous 同时的，trajectory 轨道，center of mass 质心， geometry 几何， symmetry 对称性， eliminate 消除，snapshot 快照，distribute 分布，numerator 分子，denominator 分母， decompose 分解，corollary 推论，distinction 区别，wobble 摇摆，oscillation 振动，tedious 冗长的，infinitesimal 无穷小，argument 论证，spherical symmetry 球对称，cylindrical symmetry 柱对称，irregular 不规则的，superimpose 重叠，mirror image 镜像，variable mass 可变质量Chapter 8 Rotational Kinematics 转动运动学rigid body 刚体，axis 轴，pure rotation 纯转动，angular displacement 角位移，angular velocity 角速度， angular acceleration 角加速度， degree of freedom 自由度，orientation 方向，spin 旋转，radian 弧度，circumference 一周，revolution 圈，increase增加, decrease 减少, counterclockwise 逆时针， characteristic 特征， finite 有限的，represent 表示， right-hand rule 右手定则， curl 卷曲， tangential 切向的，radial 径向的Chapter 9 Rotational Dynamics 转动动力学torque (moment of force)力矩, analogy 类比， analogue 类似物， analogous 类似的， emerge 出现， rotational inertia (moment of inertia) 转动惯量, intrinsic 固有的， arbitrary 任意的， resolve 分解， radial 径向的， tangential 切向的， moment arm力臂, cross-section 截面, cross product (vector product) 叉乘，矢量积，align 排列，substitute 替代，proportionality 比例性， parallel-axis theorem 平行轴定理, perpendicular-axis theorem 垂直轴定理, discrete 离散的， continuous 连续的， approximate 近似， uniform 均匀的，algebraic 代数的， calculus 微积分，approach 方法，instantaneous axis 瞬时轴, corollary 推论, equilibrium 平衡, nonequilibrium 非平衡, rolling without slipping 无滑滚动， inch 缓慢移动， superposition 叠加， inclined plane 斜面Chapter 10 Angular Momentum 角动量Specify 指定， right angle 直角， with respect to the origin 关于原点，time rate of change 随时间的变化率， moment of impulse 冲量矩，resolve a vector into components 将矢量分解，gyroscope 陀螺仪，回转仪， top 陀螺， axle 轮轴， shaft 轴， bearing 轴承， wobble 摇晃，symmetric 对称的， asymmetric 非对称的，lopsided 倾向一方的， sideways 向侧面的，invert 反转， divert 转向， deflect 偏转， orientational stability 取向稳定性，configuration 组态，构型， precession 进动， nutation 章动Chapter 11 Energy 1: Work and Kinetic Energy 功和动能Work 功, Kinetic energy 动能, Power 功率, Variable force 变力, Mechanical energy 机械能, Invariant 不变的, Work-energy theorem 功能原理, Negative work 负功,Electron-volt 电子伏特, Stretch 拉伸, Compress 压缩, Restoring force 恢复力, Integrate, integral, integration 积分, Elastic/inelastic collision 弹性(非弹性碰撞)Chapter 12 Potential Energy 势能Conservative force 保守力，Potential energy 势能， Agent Body, Round trip 环程，Cycle 循环， Characteristic 特征， Configuration 构型， State quantity 状态量，Process quantity 过程量， Isolated system 孤立系， Turning points 拐点，Stable equilibrium 稳定平衡， Unstable 非稳定的，Neutral 中性的，Dissociation energy 离解能, Gradient ▽梯度， Divergence ▽· 散度，Rotation ▽×旋度，Partial derivative 偏导数Chapter 13 Conservation of Energy 能量守恒Internal energy 内能， environment 环境， transfer 传递， microscopic 微观的，Weld 接触点， Protrusion 突出物， dissipative force 耗散力， decay 衰变，Exoergic 放能的， endoergic 吸能的， calorie 卡路里Chapter 14 Gravitation 引力Origin 起源，Universal gravitation 万有引力，Attract 吸引，Superposition 叠加，Shell theorem 壳层定理，Latitude 纬度，Altitude 高度，Inverse square law 平方反比律，Equator 赤道，Spherically symmetric 球对称的，Planet 行星，Satellite 卫星，Escape speed 逃逸速度，Perturb 扰动， Mutual interaction 相互作用，Torsion 扭力，Ellipsoid 椭圆体，Elliptic 椭圆的，Parabolic 抛物线的，Hyperbolic 双曲线的， Focus 焦点，Semi-major axis 半长轴，Eccentricity 离心率，Aphelion 远日点，Perihelion 近日点，Dark matter 暗物质， Dark energy 暗能量， General theory of relativity 广义相对论。
热能与动力工程专业英语
Chapter 1 Introduction to Thermal Science第一章热科学基础Acoustic flow meter 声波流量计Corrugated fin 波状散热片Adiabatic []绝热的Cross product 矢量积Aerodynamics 空气动力学Denominator 分母Affiliation 联系Developed flow 充分发展流Airfoil 机翼，螺旋桨Diffusion 扩散Alternative 替代燃料Doppler effect 多普勒效应Anemometer 风速计Double-pipe heat exchanger 套管式换热器Angular speed 角速度Dry saturated vapor 干饱和蒸汽Area density 表面密度Electrode 电极Baffle 挡板Electrolyte 电解，电解液Bifurcation 分形Electrostatic 静电的Blackbody 黑体Emissivity 发射率Blade 浆叶，叶片Equilibrium 平衡Boiler 锅炉Fluid mechanics 流体力学Boundary layer 边界层Forced convection 强制对流Carnot Cycle 卡诺循环Free convection 自然对流Cartesian coordinates 笛卡尔坐标系Friction loss 摩擦损失Celsius Degree 摄氏度Glass ceramic 微晶玻璃，玻璃陶瓷Heat engine 热机Compact heat exchanger 紧凑式换热器Composition 成分，合成物Heat pump 热泵Compressed liquid 压缩液体Hydrofoil 水翼Compressibility 可压缩性，压缩率Hypersonic speed 高超音速Condensation 凝结Infinitesimal 无穷小的Condenser 冷凝器Inflating/deflating 充气/压缩Conduction 导热Internal combustion engine 内燃机Control volume 控制体Isentropic 等熵的Convection 对流Isobaric 等压的Coriolis-accelaration flowmeter 科Isolated system 孤立体系的氏加速流量计Isometric 等容的Rough-wall tube 粗糙管Isothermal 等温的Saturation 饱和Kinematic viscosity 运动黏度Shear stress 剪切力、切应力Laminar 层流Shell-and-tube heat exchanger管壳式换热器Manuscript 手稿，原稿Specific volume 比容Moisture 湿度，水分Steady 稳态的，定常的Molecule (化学)分子Stifling engine 斯特林机Molten polymer 熔融聚合物Strain rate 变形速度，应变率Muti-disciplinary 多学科的Streamline 流线Newtonian Fluid 牛顿流体Strut 支撑，支柱Nominal temperature gradient 法向Subcooled liquid过冷液体温度梯度Numerator （数学）分子Superheated vapor 过热蒸汽Parallel flow 平行流动，并流Surrounding 环境，外界Pathline迹线Thermal conductivity 热传导率Phase change 相变Thermal efficiency 热效率Plane flow 平面流，二元流Thermodynamics 热力学Torsional 扭力的，扭转的Plate and flame heat exchanger板式换热器Polymer solution 胶浆Trailing edge 机翼后缘、尾缘Proof 校样Transmitter 传送装置、发送器Propeller 螺旋桨，推进器Turbine meter 涡轮流量计Pump泵Turbulent 湍流的Qulity 干度Ultrosonic 超声波的Qusi-equilibrium 准平衡、准静态Uniform flow 均匀刘Radiation 辐射Vacuum 真空Rankin Cycle 朗肯循环View factor 角系数Regenerative heat exchangerViscous 黏性的蓄热/再生式换热器Reservoir 水库，蓄水池Cortex shedding 漩涡脱落Reversible 可逆的Water faucet 水龙头，水嘴Rotameter 转子流量计Bi Biot number 比澳数NPSH 汽蚀余量CFD 计算流体力学NTU 传热单元数CHF 临界热流量Nu 努谢尔特数COP 制冷系数PE 势能Eu 欧拉数Pr 普朗特数Fo 富立叶数Ra 瑞利数Fr 弗劳德数Re 雷诺数Gr 格拉晓夫数Sc 施密特数KE 动能St 斯坦顿数，斯特劳哈数LMTD对数平均温差We 韦伯数1.1Fundamental of Engineering Thermodynamics1.1工程热力学基础Thermodynamics is a science in which the storage, transformation and transfer of energy are studied. Energy is stored as internal energy (associated with temperature), kinetic energy (du to motion), potential energy (due to elevation) and chemical energy (due to chemical composition); it is transformed from one of these forms to another; and it is transferred across a boundary as either heat or work.热力学是一门研究能量储存、转换及传递的科学。
可见波段到近红外的光谱调制与能量传递
摘要利用光伏效应将太阳能转换成电能的太阳能电池是当前合理利用太阳能的重要装置之一。
然而，目前所广泛使用的硅基太阳能电池其光电转换效率理论最大值仅为29%（Shockley-Queisser极限效率），实际最高转换效率约15%。
如何通过光谱调制使硅太阳能电池更充分、更合理地吸收太阳光，从而提高硅太阳能电池的光电转换效率是当前广泛关注的焦点问题之一。
为此，可以在太阳能电池的上表面引入光转换层，其中包含的掺杂稀土和过渡金属离子光转换材料首先吸收电池光谱响应较差的一个短波长光子（400~700 nm），再发射出光谱响应性好的一个或两个红外光子（~1000 nm），从而提高了电池的光谱响应性并减少了载流子热能化损耗，进而提高硅太阳能电池的光电转换效率。
本论文旨在研究，在不改变太阳能电池电子结构的基础上，通过对输入太阳能光谱的调制来实现提高硅基太阳能电池能量转换效率的可能性。
本文选择稀土离子Ce3+, Tm3+, Tb3+, Pr3+或过渡金属离子Cr3+分别与Yb3+离子或Nd3+共掺进钇铝石榴石基质材料中，研究了在太阳光模拟光源泵浦下掺杂不同离子对的近红外发光特性和能量传递机理。
绪论部分（第一章）介绍了太阳能电池工作原理和发展现状，太阳能电池存在问题及解决方案，同时介绍了能量传递的概念和分类，着重阐述了如何利用稀土离子的上转换和下转换发光机制来提高太阳能电池的光电转换效率。
在理论上，利用光转换可能将硅太阳能电池光电转换效率提高到38.6%（下转换）和50%（上转换）。
但在实际中实现这么高的转换效率还很遥远，因而需要更多的基础研究。
第二章介绍了稀土掺杂发光材料合成制备的几种常见的方法以及表征手段。
第三章分别研究了太阳光模拟光源泵浦Ce3+, Yb3+-YAG和Cr3+, Yb3+-YAG发光材料的光转换特性和能量传递机理。
利用太阳光模拟光源分别泵浦YAG: Yb3+, YAG: Ce3+-Yb3+和YAG: Cr3+-Yb3+发光材料，观察Yb3+离子2F5/2→2F7/2发光光谱，Ce3+: 5d→4f 与Yb3+: 2F5/2→2F7/2发光峰的激发谱，Cr3+: 2E→4A2与Yb3+: 2F5/2→2F7/2发光峰的激发谱，时间分辨曲线和寿命曲线，这些都证明了Ce3+-Yb3+离子和Cr3+-Yb3+离子之间存在能量传递。
2023自考本科英语试题及答案
2023自考本科英语试题及答案一、选择题（每题2分，共20分）1. The company has decided to ________ its new product line.A. launchB. landC. branchD. brand答案：A2. She ________ to the meeting this afternoon, but she was too busy.A. aimedB. plannedC. intendedD. designed答案：C3. The teacher asked the students to ________ the book to the next chapter.A. turnB. switchC. transferD. translate答案：A4. The weather forecast says it will ________ tomorrow.A. clear upB. brighten upC. warm upD. cool down答案：A5. He is ________ to be the best player in the team.B. probableC. possibleD. potential答案：A6. The new policy will ________ a significant impact on the economy.A. haveB. takeC. makeD. carry答案：A7. She ________ her keys in the office, so she had to wait for her husband to bring her spare set.A. forgotC. misplacedD. lost答案：B8. The company is ________ a new marketing strategy to increase sales.A. developingB. designingC. creatingD. constructing答案：A9. The doctor advised him to ________ smoking.A. give upB. give inC. give outD. give away答案：A10. The project was ________ due to lack of funding.A. delayedB. suspendedC. canceledD. postponed答案：B二、阅读理解（每题4分，共40分）Passage 1In recent years, the popularity of e-books has grown exponentially. Many people have switched from traditional paper books to digital ones, citing convenience and portability as the main reasons. E-books can be easily stored on devices such as tablets and e-readers, allowing readersto carry thousands of books with them wherever they go. Additionally, e-books are often cheaper than their paper counterparts, which makes them an attractive option for budget-conscious consumers.Questions:11. What is the main reason for the growth in popularity of e-books?A. Environmental concernsB. Convenience and portabilityC. Advanced technologyD. Lower prices答案：B12. What advantage do e-books have over paper books?A. They are more durable.B. They are easier to carry.C. They are more visually appealing.D. They are more widely available.答案：B13. What is one of the benefits of e-books mentioned in the passage?A. They can be stored on multiple devices.B. They can be read in the dark without a light.C. They are often less expensive than paper books.D. They can be easily shared with friends.答案：CPassage 2The concept of a "smart city" is becoming increasingly prevalent as technology advances. A smart city uses information and communication technologies to enhance the quality and performance of urban services, to reduce costs, and to respond to the needs of its citizens. This includes the use of sensors to monitor traffic flow, intelligent lighting systems that adjust based on the time of day, and even smart waste management systems that optimize garbage collection routes.Questions:14. What is the main focus of a smart city?A. Reducing pollutionB. Enhancing urban servicesC. Increasing population densityD. Expanding green spaces答案：B15. Which of the following is an example of a smart city technology?A. Solar-powered street lightsB. Public transportation appsC. Drought-resistant plants in parksD. Bicycle-sharing programs答案：B16. What is one of the goals of implementing smart city technologies?A. To increase the cost of livingB. To improve the quality of lifeC. To decrease the populationD. To reduce the availability of public services答案：B三、完形填空（每题2分，共20分）In today's fast-paced world, the ability to multitask has become a highly valued skill. People are often expected to juggle multiple tasks at once, whether it's answering emails while attending a meeting or cooking dinner while taking care of children. However, recent studies have shown that multitasking may not be as efficient as once thought.17. In the modern world, multitasking is considered to be ________.A. a waste of timeB. a valuable skillC. a sign of lazinessD. a cause of stress答案：B18. People are expected to ________ while performing their duties.A. take breaksB. focus on one taskC. switch between tasksD. delegate responsibilities答案：C19. The passage suggests that multitasking might not be as________ as people believe.A. productiveB. enjoyableC. challengingD. time-consuming答案：A20. Recent studies indicate that multitasking could lead to________.A. better work performanceB. increased efficiencyC. decreased productivityD. higher job satisfaction答案：C21. The author implies that multitasking is a common ________ in today's society.A. expectationB. complaintC. hobbyD. tradition答案：A22. The passage discusses the idea that multitasking can be ________.A. beneficialB. detrimentalC. neutralD. optional答案：B23. The author uses the example of answering emails during a meeting to illustrate ________.A. the importance of multitaskingB. the difficulty of multitaskingC. a common multitasking scenarioD. the advantages of focusing on one task答案：C24. The passage suggests that cooking dinner and taking care of children at the same time is an example of ________.A. effective time managementB. poor parentingC. a common multitasking challengeD. a sign of being overworked答案：C25. The author's main point is that ________.A. multitasking is always efficientB. multitasking is not as efficient as people thinkC. multitasking is a necessary skill in certain jobsD. multitasking should be avoided at all costs答案：B四、翻译题（每题10分，共20分）26. 将以下句子从英文翻译成中文："The rapid development of technology has changed the way we live and work."答案：技术的快速发展改变了我们生活和工作的方式。
新编简明英语语言学-Chapter-11-Second-language-acquisition
Chapter 11 Second language acquisition第二语言习得知识点：1.*Definition: second language acquisition; overgeneralization; interlanguage2.Connections between first and second language acquisition3.Contrastive analysis4.*Error analysis5.Characteristics of interlanguage6.*Krashen’s Input Hypothesis7.Individual Differences in second language acquisition: language aptitude; motivation;#learning strategies考核目标：识记：Definition: second language acquisition; overgeneralization; interlanguage领会：Connections between first and second language acquisition; Contrastive analysis; Error analysis; Characteristics of interlanguage; Individual Differences in second language acquisition简单应用：Krashen’s Input Hypothesis一、定义1. Second Language Acquisition(SLA)第二语言习得：refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language. 指一个人在习得其母语之后是如何习得一门第二语言系统的研究。
中华人民共和国物权法英文
中华人民共和国物权法英文The Law of the People's Republic of China on Property Rights (hereinafter referred to as the "Property Rights Law") was promulgated and implemented on March 16, 2007. It is a fundamental law that governs the ownership and rights of property in China. This law plays a crucial role in protecting property rights and promoting economic development.The Property Rights Law consists of 10 chapters and 247 articles, covering various aspects of property rights, including the creation, transfer, and termination of property rights, as well as the protection of property rights and the liability for infringement.Chapter 1 of the Property Rights Law defines the nature of property rights and establishes the principle of equal protection for both public and private property. It emphasizes that property rights are inviolable, and that the State protects the rights of citizens, legal persons, and other organizations to own, use, benefit from, and dispose of property in accordance with the law.Chapter 2 of the Property Rights Law addresses the creation of property rights and outlines the requirements for the establishment of ownership, such as registration and certification. It also covers the ownership of land and natural resources, as well as the rights and obligations of owners.Chapter 3 of the Property Rights Law focuses on the transfer of property rights, including the sale, exchange, gift, and inheritance of property. It sets out the requirements and procedures for the transfer of property and provides guidance for the exercise of theserights.Chapter 4 of the Property Rights Law addresses the protection and management of property rights. It stipulates the duties and responsibilities of property owners, as well as the obligations of the State and society in protecting property rights. This chapter also covers the management of collective property, such as urban and rural collective land, and the protection of property rights in the event of natural disasters or emergencies.Chapter 5 of the Property Rights Law discusses the termination of property rights, including the extinction of property rights due to expropriation and requisition by the State. It also addresses the termination of property rights due to abandonment, destruction, and expiration.Chapter 6 of the Property Rights Law covers the protection of property rights. It defines the scope of protection for property rights and outlines the remedies available to owners in the event of infringement, such as compensation, restitution, and injunctions. This chapter also addresses the liability for infringement of property rights and the penalties for violations.Chapter 7 of the Property Rights Law discusses the legal liability for property damage, including the liability of property owners for damages caused by their properties. It also addresses the liability of government agencies and other organizations in the management and protection of property.Chapter 8 of the Property Rights Law pertains to the publicity andsupervision of property rights. It emphasizes the importance of information disclosure and public participation in property-related matters. It also establishes the role of property rights administration in the supervision and regulation of property rights.Chapter 9 of the Property Rights Law covers specific provisions for intellectual property rights, including inventions, trademarks, copyrights, and trade secrets. It addresses the protection, transfer, and licensing of intellectual property rights.Chapter 10 of the Property Rights Law addresses the implementation of the law and sets out the procedures for dispute resolution related to property rights. It establishes the jurisdiction of courts and other institutions in resolving property-related disputes and outlines the procedure for arbitration and mediation. In summary, the Property Rights Law of the People's Republic of China provides a comprehensive legal framework for the establishment, protection, and management of property rights. It covers a broad range of property rights, including land, personal property, intellectual property, and collective property. The law aims to protect the rights of property owners, promote economic development, and ensure social stability through the proper management and supervision of property rights.。
铁道车辆专业英语
铁道车辆专业英语铁道车辆专业英语 Final approval draft on November 22, 2020Chapter1IntroductiontoRailwayLocomotive机车freightwagon货车passengercoach客车multipleunits动车组metrocar地铁车辆lightrail轻轨railwayservicecars铁路服务车Rail铁轨standardgauge标准轨距narrowgauge,broadgauge窄轨，宽轨Trackbed道床Sleeper，枕⽊Crosstie枕⽊Ballast,subballast，道砟，底部道砟fastener紧固件Turnout道岔Derail(derailment)脱轨Crossing平交道⼝colliery:煤矿quarry：采⽯场flangedsteelwheels：有凸缘钢轮copperore：铜矿speakof：谈到，提及backbone：⾻⼲bulkfreight：散装货物masscommutationtraffic:⼤规模通勤运输shorthaul:短途运输Merchandisetraffic：货物运输Depreciation：(反-appreciation)，减值，折旧，贬值Settling：沉降，沉积bulkfreight：散装货物Subgrade:地基，路基Soilstratum:地层Embankment：堤坝Trimoff：修剪Organictopsoil:有机表层⼟Civilengineering:⼟⽊⼯程Earthwork:⼟⽅，⼟⽅⼯程Gravitywall：重⼒墙Drainage:排⽔系统，排⽔装置Realestate：房地产，不动产Crane：起重机Tamper：捣固机Trolley：台车，⼿推车，电车Headway：进展，向⽬标前进Chapter2TheTrainCoach,carriage，客车Monorail单轨Refrigeratorwagon冷藏车High-speedrailways⾼速铁路Maglev磁悬浮Open-toppedwagon敞顶车Cograilway嵌齿铁路Rubber-tiredunderground橡胶轮地铁Siding旁轨，⽀线Freighttrain货运列车Passengertrain旅客列车Heavyfreight重载货运Sleepingcar卧铺车Diningcar餐车Run-aroundtrack调车线Inter-citytrain城际列车Localtrain管内列车，慢车Elctrictraction电⼒牵引Stopper慢车Double-deckedpassengertrain双层旅客列车Motorcar（trailercar）动⼒车（拖车）Container集装箱车Tanker罐车Drivingcab司机室TOFC平板拖车Boxwagon棚车Coupler车钩Maintenanceofway道路维护Long-distancetrain长途列车ChannelTunnel海峡隧道parcel:package包裹Travellingpostoffices：移动邮局Centrifugalforce：离⼼⼒pram：婴⼉车Wheelchair：轮椅Conurbation：有卫星城市的⼤都市elevatedstructure：⾼架结构Accelerate(decelerate):加速（减速）Tram,trolley,streetcar:有轨电车Flexibility：机动，灵活Lowloder：低架拖车Sneakinto：偷偷地摸进Stowaway：偷乘，搭⽩车Fatality：disasterKit：⼯具包，装备earnone‘skeep：值得雇⽤,挣饭吃Showup：揭露，露出Deadendterminal：闭塞终端Bufferstop：⽌冲器Crossover：转辙轨Locomotiveescape：机车折返Phaseout：逐步淘汰，逐步停⽌Intensiveservice：auxiliaryequipment：辅助设备,备⽤设备,附属设备Heavymaintenance：⼤修Whilst：时时，同时，whilePush-pull：推挽Intervalservice：Keepatforefrontof：保持在……最前沿trainloading：列车运载量Traincapacity：列车运载能⼒Densityofpassengers：乘客密度Loadfactor：上座率Patronage：保护，光顾，赞助Highdegreeofstandardisation:⾼度标准化Headstock,endsill,pilot：endbeam Bellmouth：钟形⼝，喇叭⼝Lineup：整队，排列Semipermanentcoupler：半永久车钩Beboltedtogether：螺栓连接Cushioning：减震，缓冲Uncoupling：解钩，拆开（反，coupling）Buckeye,KnuckleandJanneycoupler:詹式车钩Couplerknuckle(jaw)：钩⾆Couplerhead：钩头Hingepin:折页销Fullyautomaticcoupler：全⾃动车钩Disengage：脱离pneumatical：风⼒的，空⽓的Keepingoodworkingorder：保持正常运转状态Drawgear：牵引装置Bolt：螺栓Pedal：踏板Funicular:索道Coupleralignmentbar：车钩调直杆Pushbutton：按钮Shockabsorber：减震器Multicorecable：多芯电缆Chapter7RailwayCars(1)Baggage⾏列车Coach客车Combine合造车Dome圆顶车Lounge游乐车Dinner餐车Observation了望车Sleeper,sleepingcar,Pullman卧铺车RPO铁路邮政车Housingcar封闭车Autorack,autocarrier汽车运输车Boxcar,orvan棚车Refrigeratorcar,reefer冷藏车Stockcar牲畜车Opentopcar敞车Gondola敞车Hopper漏⽃车Ballastcar砟车Flatcar平车Depressed-centerflatcar凹底平车Piggybackcar背负式车Schnabelcar钳夹车Tankcar罐车Caboose守车Snowplow除雪犁Dynamometercar动⼒检测（试验）车Encompasss:包围，环绕，构成，包括Listedinalphabeticorder:按字母顺序排列lining:衬⾥，衬套，内层，linedwithContamination：污染，玷污Corrosiveaction：腐蚀作⽤Stainlesssteel：不锈钢Glassenamel：玻璃釉彩，搪瓷Pocketforstake:柱插⼝Tie-downpoint：栓柱Manualbrakeequipment:⼿制动Airbrakeequipment:空⽓制动primaryunderframe:主车架，主底架Cumbersome:笨重的Intermodalshipping:联合运输Tonnage：吨位log：⽊材，原⽊Lumber：⽊材Slopedown：向下斜Scrapmetal:⾦属屑，废⾦属Aggregate：粒料，总计，聚集Woodchip：⽊屑，⽊⽚Dropend：落端门Shovel：铲Perishablefreight：易腐货物spoiling:变坏，损毁Insulation：绝缘层，保温层Keepout：Coolingsystem：冷却系统Coldbrine：冷盐⽔Waterproof：防⽔的Airtight：密封的，⽓密的Warehouse：仓库，库房Breakage：破坏，破损Barrel：桶Drum：⿎型圆桶safetyvalve：安全阀Chapter8RailwayCars(2)FormoreinformationseeTiltingtrain摆式列车Head-endequipment车端设备Branchline⽀线Air-conditionedhardseatcar空调硬座车seatingcapacity定员Lengthbetweentruckpivotcenters车辆定距tareweight空重Clearance间隙Wheelbase轴距Gauge轨距Constructionalspeed构造速度Wheeldiameter车轮直径Stanhope:轻便马车enroute：在途中Streamlined：流线型的Ornate:装饰的,华丽的,(⽂体)绚丽的todate：到此为⽌Aluminumsteel：铝钢，含铝钢evolveinto：发展[进化]成Fluted：有凹槽的Conveyance：运输Rowuponrow：⼀排排，⼀⾏⾏carry-on：⼿提⾏李，⼿提的Aisle：⾛廊Partitionedinto:分割，分隔开efficiencyapartment：有⼩厨房和卫⽣设备的⼩套公寓房间，公寓⼩套间Interior：内部Galley：厨房Recede：后退，倒退，变得模糊Felloutofuse:开始不⽤，渐废Vantage：优势，有利情况Roofline：屋顶轮廓线Dumbwaiter：楼上楼下送饭菜的⼩升降机，可移动的上菜架或上菜桌Aluminumofhighstrengthalloy：⾼强度铝合⾦pane:长⽅块,尤指窗格,窗格玻璃,边,⾯，⽅框Vestibule:门廊,前厅Chapter9BogieRidecomfort乘坐舒适性Irregularity轨道不平顺Wheeltread车轮踏⾯Suspension悬挂系统Treadgradient踏⾯锥度Flange轮缘Runningperformance运⾏品质Articulatedbogies铰接式转向架Lowercenterofgravity低重⼼Swinghanger摇枕吊Bolsterbogie摇枕转向架Bolsterlessbogie⽆摇枕转向架Wheelsethunting轮对蛇⾏Anti-yawdamper抗蛇⾏减震器Suspensiongear悬挂装置JR⽇本铁路Bogieframe构架Lateraldamper横向减震器Tractiontransferdevice牵引装置Brakeequipment制动装置Axlebearingandaxlebox轴箱轴承及轴箱Axlespring轴箱弹簧Brakedisk制动盘Tractionmotor牵引电机Gearbox齿轮箱，减速箱Wheelset轮对Tractionforce牵引⼒Airspring,airbag空⽓弹簧Sidebeam侧梁Coilspring圆弹簧Crossbeam横梁Presswelding压⼒焊Bearing轴承Supportrigidity⽀撑刚度Pedestalswingspringtype导框式定位Play，游间，游隙，摆动量Leafspring板弹簧 IStypeIS拉板式定位Bendingstrength弯曲强度Unsprungmass(weight)Non-sprungmass簧下质量Axlebeamtype转臂式定位Cylindricalrollerbearing圆柱滚⼦轴承Ballbearing球轴承Overhaul⼤修Nosesuspensiondevice轴悬，臂式悬挂装置Cardandrivingdevice万向轴驱动Torqueconverter变扭器Wheeltreadbrake踏⾯制动Discbrake盘型制动Brakeshoe闸⽡Frictionalheat摩擦热Brakepad制动闸⽚Motorbraking动⼒制动Quilldrive空⼼轴驱动Hollowshaft空⼼轴Gearwheel,drivengear从动齿轮Pinion,drivinggear主动齿轮Electriclocomotive电⼒机车Railhead轨头Reprofile镟修Wheel/railinterface轮轨关系Lubricant润滑物Flattedwheel车轮擦伤Bogietransom转向架横梁Brakecylinder制动缸Parkingbrake停车制动Heavydutybrake重载制动Framemountedmotor架悬式电机Liftinglug吊⽿Gearbox齿轮箱Compressedair压缩空⽓WSP(wheelslideprotection)车轮防滑装置Speedsensor速度传感器Pendulum(titling)bogie摆式转向架Servicelife使⽤寿命Designconcept设计理念Runningspeed运⾏速度Maximumspeed最⼤速度Lateralforce横向⼒Transitioncurve过渡曲线Circularcurve圆曲线Self-steeringbogie⾃导向转向架Runningstability运⾏平稳性Forcedsteeringbogie迫导向转向架Obscurity:隐蔽，偏僻，含糊Abrasion：磨耗Intermsof：accordingtoIncomparisonto:对⽐Besensitiveto：对……敏感Rotationalresistance:回转阻尼Harmonic:谐波,和声,谐函数Isolate…from…:隔离Becommercializedfor:商业化，商品化Weldingtechnology:焊接技术Generalstructure：⼀般结构Rolledsteel：钢材，轧制钢Seamlesssteelpipe:⽆缝钢管Criticalcomponent：关键部件Corrugatedwheel:波形辐板车轮Susceptibleto：易受影响的Massimbalance：动量不平衡Resonance：共振Putintoservice:投⼊运营，交付使⽤Rightanglecardandrivingdevice:直⾓万向轴驱动装置Impede：stopForgedsteel：锻钢Porcupine:豪猪Rubberbushedlinks:⽤橡胶衬⾥的连杆Gearwheel：⼤齿轮Inrelationto:withregardto，关于，涉及，与……⽐较Degreeofconing:锥度Squealingnoise：尖啸Flangeorrailgreasing：轮缘或轨道油脂Slippage:滑动Weledsteelboxformat：焊接箱型结构Pressagainst:压向Neutralsection:分相区Leadingbogie：导向架Chapter10VehicleSuspensionVehiclesuspension车辆悬挂系统Cushionsystem缓冲系统Laminatedsteelspring板弹簧Axleload轴重Carryingload载重Springhanger弹簧吊Springlank弹簧托板Swinglink吊杆Sideframe侧架，侧梁Sidebearer(bearing)旁承 Centerbearing下⼼盘Equalizerbarsuspension均衡梁式悬挂系统Commonwealthbogie均衡梁式转向架Levellingvalve⾼度调节阀Solidrubbersuspensionpack橡胶堆悬挂系统Parlance:idiom，谈话，说法，⽤法Taketheformofleafsteelspring:采⽤板弹簧型式Securingstrap：保护带，安全带Beleftoutforsimplicity:为简便起见，不显⽰（去掉）……Endon:从⼀端看，从端⾯看，⼀端向前地Rivete：铆钉，固定Sideview：侧视图Simplifieddiagram：简图Sidewaysmovement：侧⾯运动Reversal：逆转Durability：耐久性,耐⽤性;坚固Axleboxyoke：轴箱轭RubberChevron：V型橡胶Boardingandalighting:上车，落下Intermittentgentlehissing:断断续续的轻微的咝咝声Alightfrom：⾛下来，下车Chapter11BrakingKineticenergy动能Airbrakesorpneumaticbrakes空⽓制动Brakepipe列车管，制动管Compressor空⽓压缩机Mainreservoir主风缸Driver’sbrakevalve司机阀Equalisingreservoir均衡风缸Feedvalve给⽓阀；进给阀Anglecock截断塞门，折⾓塞门Hose橡胶软管（制动软管）Auxiliaryreservoir辅助风缸Triplevalve三通阀Brakecylinder制动缸Brakeblock闸⽡Relayvalve延迟阀Failsafe失效安全Frictionmaterial摩擦材料Compositionmaterial复合材料Brakerigging制动装置Rateofapplication制动倍率Slidevalve滑阀Graduatingvalve递动阀，节制阀Regulatingvalve调整阀，调节阀Propagationrate制动波速Distributor分配阀Diaphragm，膜⽚Throttle节流阀slackaction列车冲动E-Pbrake电空制动Dynamicbraking动⼒制动Rheostaticbraking电阻制动Regenerativebraking再⽣制动Psi:Poundspersquareinch磅/平⽅英尺Replenished:补充Trigger:打开，激发，引起Distributor：分配阀Sophisticated：复杂的Choke：阻⽓门Inshot：跃升装置;跃升timelapse：时滞,时延Elusive：令⼈困惑的;油滑的;难记忆的Spur：踢马剌,剌激物,刺激Essentialingredient：关键因素Thyristor：闸流晶体管;半导体开关元件;可控硅;硅可控整流器Circuitry:电路,线路Resistor：电阻器Powerelectronic：电⼒电⼦Chapter12DepotsandWorkshopsSlidingdoor滑动门，塞拉门Routineexamination常规检查Consumable易损易耗件Maintenanceregime维修体制Existingrailway既有铁路Maintenancemanagement维修管理Interchangeability互换性Operatingpattern运⾏模式Converging聚集，会合Marshalling编组Electrifiedrailway电⽓化铁路currentcollectionequipment吸流装置Audit审计Performanceindicator绩效指标maintenancestandard维修标准Commonsense:常识Revisit：再访,重游,重临Drawon:戴上,吸收,利⽤,引诱,向...提取,招来,临近Rectify：矫正,调整Progressivelyadverseeffecton:⽇益增加的反作⽤Morale：⼠⽓，民⼼Upholstery:室内装潢Clomaticcondition:天⽓条件OfequalimportanceChore：家务杂事Contractual：契约的Goodaccesstocomponents：零部件的易接近性Superfluous：多余的,过剩的,过量的Watertight：不漏⽔的,⽔密的Thwarted：反对;阻挠,挫败,妨碍Overlook：俯瞰,耸出,远眺,没注意到Refitting：整修,改装premise:房产;房屋Planningstage：计划阶段Termini：⽬的地,界标，terminus的复数Converging：集中，收敛，会聚Proximity：接近,亲近Jack：插孔,插座,起重器,千⽄顶,男⼈Inspectionpit：检查坑Walkway：⾛道,⼈⾏道Wheelturningfacility：车轮加⼯设备ConstructedwashroadDe-icingarrangement：防⽌结冰,装以除冰装置,除冰Firealarm：⽕灾报警Chapter13DevelopingMaglevTrainsMagneticfield磁场Maglev磁悬浮Propulsion推进Levitation悬浮Guidance导向Attractiveforce吸引⼒Ferromagnetic电磁铁的Magneticrepulsion磁⼒推进Superconductingmagnet超导磁体Linearmotor线性电机Magnetizingrail磁化轨道Payloadweight负载Dynamicload动载荷Electrodynamicsuspension,EDS电⼒悬浮Electromagneticsuspension,EMS电磁悬浮Noconsensusexistson:Levitate:(使)轻轻浮起,(使)飘浮空中Cryogenics:低温学Linearsynchronousmotor:LSM同步直线电机Linearinductionmotor:LIM直线感应电机Gasturbine：燃⽓涡轮Turboprop：涡轮螺旋桨发动机Concurrently：同时发⽣的事件，并发的,协作的,⼀致的Availabilitycrisis：Metropolitan：⼤城市Turbulence：骚乱,动荡,(液体或⽓体的)紊乱HSGT，high-speedGroundTransportationACT:FRA:FederalRailroadAdministration联邦铁路管理局[美]Chapter14PowerSupplyofElectricTractionPowersupply供电Electrictractionsystem电⼒牵引系统Overheadwire接触⽹Powertransmission电⼒传输Thirdrail第三轨Collector受流器Pantograph受电⼸Returncircuit回路Substation配电站Earthingprotection接地保护Signallingcircuit信号电路Catenary接触⽹Dropper吊线Electricarc电弧Mast柱⼦Boostertransformer,BT吸流变流器Returnwire回流线Trackmagnet轨道磁铁Neutralsection分相区Communicationcable通信线缆Pigtail引线Diaper:尿布Inparallelwith:与...平⾏,与...同时,与...并联Microprocessor:微处理器Gripwith:掌握，理解Electrolysis:电解Insulated：绝缘的，insulation,insulatorManhole:(锅炉,下⽔道供⼈出⼊检修⽤的)⼈孔,检修孔Atone’speril:由某⼈⾃担风险Takeprecautionstodo:采取防范措施Aggravate:使恶化,加重Stitching:⽤U字钉钉箱,缝纫Sag:松弛,下陷,下垂,(物价)下跌,漂流Evacuate:疏散,撤出,排泄Visualintrusion:视觉障碍，妨碍Chapter15TheLightRailTransitionCBI英国⼯业联合会Urbantransportpolicy城市交通政策Urbansprawl城市扩张Lightrail轻轨Roadtransport路⾯交通Steepgradient⼤坡道sharpcurve⼩半径曲线Criteria标准Congestedurbanarea：拥挤的城市区域HouseofCommonsTransportCommittee:上议院交通委员会Congested：拥挤的Pedestrians：步⾏者Cyclists：骑脚踏车的⼈Publictransportuser；公共交通使⽤者Motorists：乘汽车者AMA：AssociationofMetropolitanAuthorities Intractable：难处理的Down-marketed：价廉质次的,低档市场的Parkandride：停车换乘Pollutant：污染物质Resurgence：复苏Overambitious：野⼼太⼤的Tyne：泰恩河Underutilized：为充分利⽤的Newcastle：纽卡斯尔。
商务翻译 Chapter 11
商业合同与协议的翻译
实用商务英语翻译
（Practical Business English Translation)
第一节 商务合同与协议的词汇特点
P 152
协议 agreement 合同 contract
协议与合同是同义词，本章中视为一体。
1. Any event or circumstance beyond the control of the Parties shall be deemed an event of Force Majeure and shall include, but not be restricted to, fire, storm, flood, earthquake, explosion, war, rebellion, insurrection, epidemic and quarantine restriction. 译文：双方遇有无法控制的事件或情况应视为 不可抗力事件，但不限于火灾、风灾、水 灾、地震、爆炸、战争、叛乱、暴动、传 染病及瘟疫。
•
Party A shall bear all expenses for advertising and publicity. 译文：甲方应承担所有广告和宣传费用的支出。
• The Employer may ask bidders individually for clarification of their tenders, including breakdowns of unit prices. 译文：业主（雇佣方）可要求投标者分别就其 投表作出表述，包括单价的细目表。
译文: 在承包商负责照管期间，倘如工程或其他 任何部分，或待用的材料或设备出现任何 损失或损坏，除第53.1.1条限定的风险情况 外，不论出于何种原因，承包商均应出资 弥补此类损失或损坏，以使永久工程在各 方面符合合同的规定，达到工程师满意的 程度。
Energy in transition
3、Comprehension of the text
PartⅣ(para.13-15): The impact of energy supplied on
global ecosystem Para.13: The ecological threats posed by energy supply are harder to quantify.
result of emissions from or accidents at energy facilities Para.9: The impacts of energy technologies on public health and safety are difficult to pin down. Para.10: Large uncertainties also apply to the health and safety impacts of nuclear fission. Para.11: There are many suggestions about the risks from both coal-fired and nuclear-power plants. Para.12: Often neglected,but no less important,is the public health menace from traditional fuels in the developing world.
2
3 4
1、Topic of the text
Energy in Transition
2、Structure of the text
The article falls into 5 parts: PartⅠ(para.1): Introduction PartⅡ(para.2-8): The negitive part of energy in use PartⅢ(para.9-12): The risk of death or disease as a
Radiation
Chapter 11 Radiation Heat Transfer11-1 IntroductionThree modes of heat transfer:conduction, convection radiationWe have learnt conduction and convection Radiation: Heat transferred byelectromagnetic radiation Thermal radiation Electromagnetic radiation whichis propagated as a result oftemperature difference Examples: Sun, boilerλν=c Thermal radiation is a kind of the electromagnetic radiation, so it is propagated at the speed of light. The following relation holdsThe propagation of thermal radiation takes place in the form of discrete quanta, each quantum having an energy of where ：c —speed of light λ—wavelength ν—frequency νh E =h=6.625×10-34J.s is Planck’s constantStefan-Boltzmann Law4T E b σ=E b is called the emissive power (辐射力) of a blackbody , the energy radiated per unit time and per unit area by a black body.T is the surface absolute temperatureK)W/(m 10669.528-⨯=σElectromagnetic spectrumCosmic rays宇宙射线up to 4⨯10-7 μm Gamma rays 4⨯10-7 to 1.4 ⨯10-4 μm X-rays 1⨯10-5 to 2 ⨯10-2 μm Ultraviolet rays 1⨯10-2 to 3.9 ⨯10-4 μm Visible light 0.38 to 0.76 μm Infrared rays 0.76 to 1000μm Radio and 1000 to 2⨯1010 μmThermal radiation 0.1—100µmVisible light 0.35-0.75(0.38—0.76 )µmmost body on the earth <2000K 0.38-100 µm most of them 0.76-20 µm The sun a black body at 5762K 0.2---2µmInfrared 0.76---20 µmNear infrared (近红外线)Far infrared (远红外线)τραQ Q Q Q ++=1///=++Q Q Q Q Q Q τραAbsorbed ：Q αReflected ：Q ρTransmitted ：Q τHeat balance or Q Q Q αα=1=++τραSet ：Q Q ρρ=QQ ττ=absorptivity 吸收比(率)reflectivity 反射比(率)transmissivity 穿透比(率)1=+ρα❑Solid body and liquid ：Most solid body and liquids do not transmit thermal radiation, so for many applied problems the transmissivity may be taken as zero τ=0❑two types of reflectionsspecular reflection (镜面反射)：incident angle=reflection angle diffuse reflection (漫反射)：the incident beam is distributed , uniformly in all directions after reflection❑gases ：Gases do not reflect thermal radiation, so ρ=0, α+τ=1❑For solids and liquids the absorption and reflection takes place on the surface, the surface properties are important to thermal radiation.glass and water？❑Radiation and absorption take place inside gas, the surface properties do not matter.•There is no ideal black body.•Constructing a approximate blackbody(a large cavity with very small openingthe opening is 6% the area of thecavity α≈0.996)1=αperfect black body (黑体) Ideal bodies 1=ρ1=τperfect reflector （理想的反射体)specular (镜体)diffuse perfect reflector (白体)transparent media (透明体)黑体：是指能吸收投入到其面上的所有热辐射能的物体，是一种科学假想的物体，现实生活中是不存在的。
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Contents
11.1 Energy and disorder 11.2 Primary production in terrestrial communities 11.3 Primary production in aquatic communities 11.4 The capture of light by plants
surface.
6
Disorder (无序性): the second law of thermodynamics. no energy transfer from one form to another is 100% efficient (often, the additional energy is lost as heat). the entropy (熵) of a closed system— roughly defined as how disordered it is—will tend to rise with time.
受土壤特性影响。
Phosphorus deficiency is a widespread nutritional disorder of rice, next only to nitrogen. The efficiency on phosphorus is influenced by soil characteristics.
respired or devoted to growth.
37
Production efficiency 生产效率
This is the percentage of the energy assimilated that is devoted to
production (i.e. growth or
（使熵增加）。
8
11.2 Primary production in terrestrial communities
Primary production can be expressed as a process that organisms use light energy, water and inorganic to synthesize organic. It is similar as photosynthesis. 初级生产是生物利用太阳能将无机物，如二 氧化碳、水等，合成为含高能量有机物 的一种过程，它常和光合作用互通使用。
runoff （径流）- percolation （渗漏）
14
15
16
2. Leaf area index (LAI) It is defined as the one sided green leaf area per unit ground area in
broadleaf canopies, or as the
24
肥沃土壤可含0.5%的氮，1m2土壤表面生长50千 克植物（干重）；富饶的海水含氮0.00005%， 1m2海水只维持不足5克浮游植物。
25
陆地和海洋主要生态系统的净初级生产力
26
27
The phytoplankton are the start of
the aquatic food wet. They occur in their greatest density in places where currents bring in large supplies of phosphate,
33
Exploitation efficiency 利用效率
This is the percentage of the production
of one trophic level that is ingested by
the trophic level above it.
If some of the production of a trophic
or devoted to reproduction.
36
Reproduction efficiency 繁殖效率
This is the percentage of the energy assimilated that is devoted to
reproduction rather than being
respiration.
10
11
Net primary productivity （NPP）= Gross
primary productivity (GPP) - respiration
陆地和海洋主要生态系统的净初级生产力
12
13
Factors that account for variations in primary productivity: 1. Evapotranspiration (蒸散)：the amount of water vaporised into the air from evaporation and transpiration. Evapotranspiration = precipitation (降水) –
9
Key conceptions Net primary productivity (净初级生产量): the amount of dry weight accumulated by autotrophs per unit area per unit time. Gross primary productivity （总初级生产 量）: net primary productivity plus
across the wall the gut rather than
egested.
35
Growth efficiency 生长效率
This is the percentage of the energy assimilated that is devoted to
growth rather than being respired
Chapter 11 Energy transfer
1
Everyday English
垄作小麦冠层为波浪状，有利于提高小麦的籽粒产量和水分 利用效率。 Raised bed planting (RBP) can get higher grain yield and water use efficiency than flat planting (FP). 缺磷是普遍的水稻养分失调问题，仅次and disorder
The energy that organisms contains in their living or dead tissues originate form the sun completely.
5
Annual average solar radiation reaching the Earth’s
nutrient, potassium and other
minerals.
28
11.4 The capture of light by plants
29
Efficiency of photosynthesis Even in the most productive communities, plants trap only about 1-3% of the energy which they receive in sunlight.
level is not ingested by the trophic level
above, it either passes directly to the
decomposers or accumulates.
34
Assimilation efficiency 同化效率
This is the percentage of the energy ingested that is actually absorbed
30
Photosynthetic
rate as a function of light intensity in red oak, a C3 plant,
and in pigweed,
a C4 plant.
31
11.5 Efficiencies in ecology
Before we carry on a energy transfer experiment in natural communities, it is necessary to understand various measures of efficiency used in ecology.
projected needleleaf area per unit
ground area in needle canopies.
17
18
LAI = 2.25
LAI = 2.5
LAI = 3.5
LAI = 4.0
LAI = 4.5
LAI = 4.75
19
In a terrestrial plant community which is well supplied with water and sunlight, plants response by producing many leaves. In a dried environment, plants cannot afford to produce so many leaves as they would risk transpiring so much water that they would wilt.
reproduction) rather than being respired.
38
Trophic efficiency 营养效率