CohesionandCoherence资料
雅思大作文-评分标准之“CoherenceandCohesion”逻辑连贯性
雅思大作文－评分标准之“Coherence and Cohesion”逻辑连贯性事实上，上一次我们已经，提到了过文章应该有连接性，Coherence and Cohesion, 简单解释就是－逻辑连贯性，（还记得这个图吗？好文章是环环相扣的，就像看故事一样，要交代事情如何发展，不然读者会有什么感受呢？）言归正传，要保持逻辑连贯，上次提过的解决方案P(point)-E(explanation)-E(examples): 写每一个段落时先给出主要观点，然后给原因解释说明，最后给一个具体例子。
－段落内逻辑连接所以事实上，考官主要考察大家的以下几个方面：1.Paragraph 段内逻辑连接2.Logical organization of essay 文章逻辑结构3.Cohesive devices need to be used well 连接手法4.Punctuation 标点符号我们来看具体如何做到考官的要求：1.Paragraph 段内逻辑连接：文章一般都要分段，每一段有清晰的中心观点，使用相关的观点支持主要观点。
（我们之前提过，这里就不做过多解释。
）Solution：这是一个考官给同学们的解决方案：‘ Make sure that each paragraph is about one idea. In the planning stage make sure you have enough to say about an idea before you start writing about it. This means that you may choose the ideas that are easiest to write about and not the ones that are the most intelligent.’确保一个段落就一个主要观点，在开始审题的阶段就把能想到的观点罗列出来，另外，强调一点，应该把你最有把握的观点写下，而不是你认为能吸引考官眼球的例子（词汇用错了，便可能弄巧成拙），要记住，雅思考试是一个语言测试，不是智力测试。
英文写作的coherence cohesion
英文写作的coherence cohesion Coherence and cohesion are important aspects of English writing that contribute to the overall quality and readability of a piece of written work.Coherence refers to the logical and clear flow of ideas in a text. It means that the ideas and information presented in the writing should be organized in a way that makes sense to the reader. To achieve coherence, writers must ensure that each paragraph and sentence relates to the main topic and thesis statement of the essay or article. They should also use transitional words and phrases to connect ideas and create a smooth progression from one point to another.For example, in an essay discussing the benefits of exercise, coherence would require that each paragraph focus on a different aspect of exercise, such as physical health, mental well-being, and longevity. Within each paragraph, the writer could discuss specific benefits and provide supporting evidence or examples. By maintaining this clear and logical structure, the reader can easily follow the writer's train of thought.Cohesion, on the other hand, refers to the use of linguistic devices to connect sentences and paragraphs within a text. It involves the use ofcohesive devices such as pronouns, conjunctions, and transitional expressions to create a sense of unity and flow. Cohesion helps to establish relationships between ideas and clarify the writer's intended meaning.For instance, cohesive devices like "however," "on the other hand," or "in addition" can be used to signal a contrast or addition of information between two sentences. Pronouns like "it" or "they" can be used to refer back to previously mentioned nouns, reducing repetition and creating a smoother reading experience. By using these cohesive devices effectively, writers can enhance the coherence of their writing and help readers to understand the connections between ideas.In summary, coherence and cohesion are key elements of English writing. Coherence ensures that the ideas and information presented in the text are logical and well-organized, while cohesion helps to connect sentences and paragraphs and create a smooth and unified flow. By consciously applying these principles in their writing, authors can improve the clarity and readability of their work.。
Discourse：Cohesion and Coherence语篇的衔接和连贯
Halliday and Hasan 观点
记录
• 衔接是一种非结构性语篇关系，它侧重于句间不同成分之间的语 义联系。
• 他们把形成衔接的非结构性意义关系分为五种类型： • 1. 指代 （reference）； 2. 替代 （substitution）； • 3. 省略 （ellipsis）； 4. 连接 （conjunction）； • 5. 词汇衔接 （lexical cohesion）
2. 替代 （substitution）
记录
• Eg：He has his own positive opinion on all matters；not an unwise one，for his own ends； and will ask no advice of yours.
• Eg: Darcy took up a book； Miss Bingley did the same.
记录
• With all the above cohesive devices combined，we have our own way on how to combine some sentences together in writing a text.
Relationship between cohesion and coherence
语篇的特点
记录
• 与句子相比较，语篇有自己的特点。 • 语篇不是一连串孤立的句子的简单组合，而是一个语义上的整体
；换言之，它有表达整体意义的特点。 • 在语言形式上，篇内各句、段之间存在着粘连性，如连接、替代
Cohesion and Coherence 衔接和连贯.ppt
Texture
A semantically coherent text must have texture. Texture distinguishes text and n your son? B: He is seven.
(2) A: How old is your son? B: She is playing in the garden.
Text vs. Discourse
We can say that the terms do not refer to different domains (speech and writing) but reflect a different in focus. Discourse is the umbrella term for either spoken or written communication beyond the sentences.
Cohesion is achieved by cohesive ties. Some may call them cohesive devices. Cohesive ties are the forces that keep the text together in the original order and what we manipulate when we try to regain a text’s meaning after a recording of its sentences.
(anaphoric relations)
Substitution
Another kind of formal link between sentences is the substitution. Here a word in the second sentence refers not to exactly the same entity as does the related word in the first, but to some other entity to which the same term would be applicable.
cohesion and coherence
•
• 使用平行结构 • American, the richest and most powerful
nation in the world, can well lead the way in this revolution of values. This is nothing to prevent us from paying adequate wages to schoolteachers,… There is nothing but a lack of social vision to prevent us from paying an adequate wage to every American citizen… This is nothing ,except a tragic death wish, to prevent us from… There is nothing to keep us from …
照应）指意义依赖于后述词项的词项。
• 例：The snail is considered a great delicacy. • As the child grows, he learns to be
independent.
• It never should have happened. She went out
连贯 （coherence）
语篇的连贯手段
• 连贯(coherence)：是整个语篇
一致性的抽象特征。 • 词汇衔接 • 句子衔接 • 段落衔接
1、词汇衔接：连接词、同义词、反义 词、上、下义词、同一语义场等.
• 例1：连接词（conjunction) • A student acquires knowledge mainly from
Lecture 12 cohesion andcoherence 英语词汇学 教学课件
Conjunctions
Conjuncts have a fundamental role in the cohesion of a text and may have various functions
Listing (indicating that what follows is a list of propositions) To start with, First, Second, Third
Chapter 12 Cohesion & Coherence
Revision Causes for Meaning Change in Words
1. Historical 2. Social 3. Psychological 4. linguistic
Pencil”, for instance, is from a Latin word meaning “a little tail” or “a fine brush”, like our Chinese “pen”. Later, when it was made of wood and graphite, it was still called a “pencil”. “Engine” originates in Latin word “ingenium, natural ability”. But when stream power was developed in the first quarter of the 19th century, the term “engine” comes to mean “a railroad locomotive”, and in contemporary English it means “any machine that uses energy to develop mechanical power, esp., a machine for starting motion in some other machine”
Cohesion and coherence
Reference
Reference is one of the most important types of cohesive ties, which is 'the act of using language to refer to entities' (Cutting 2000: 212). Halliday and Hasan (1976: 33) establish two basic types of reference:
Other types of cohesive ties
Cohesion can also be achieved by ellipsis and substitution. 'Ellipsis is the omission of elements normally required by the grammar which the speaker/writer assumes are obvious from the context and therefore need not be raise (McCarthy 1991: 43).' In ellipsis, a noun head, a verb head or a part of the clause can be left out. In 'He sings folk songs. I'll never forget the first he sang to me', the noun head 'folk song' is omitted in the second sentence. In 'Will you come to the party? ---Yes, I will', the verb head 'come' is omitted in the answer. In example 2, 'or his wife for the matter' replaces the full noun clause version 'or what his wife thinks about it for that matter'. Substitution is regarded as a halfway point between reference and ellipsis. Instead of being omitted, nouns, verbs and clause elements are substituted by 'one(s)', 'do', 'so/not', 'same', etc., as illustrated in examples (McCarthy 1991: 45):
Cohesion and Coherence的区别知识讲解
lexical sets, pronouns, verb tenses, time references, grammatical
reference, etc. For example, 'it', 'neither' and 'this' all refer to an idea
previously mentioned. 'First of all', 'then' and 'after that' help to
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Cohesion is the glue that holds a piece of writing together. In other words, if a paper is cohesive, it sticks together from sentence to sentence and from paragraph to paragraph. Cohesive devices certainly include transitional words and phrases, such as therefore, furthermore, or for instance, that clarify for readers the relationships among ideas in a piece of writing. However, transitions aren't enough to make writing cohesive. Repetition of key words and use of reference words are also needed for cohesion.
Coherence and Cohesion
Coherence and CohesionGood academic papers have coherence and cohesion. The term coherence refers to content aspects. A paper has coherence if it presents its arguments in a clear, plausible and comprehensible order. There are no ‘logical gaps’ in its line of reasoning. It avoids unnecessary digressions. The term cohesion refersto formal (stylistic) aspects of writing, specifically on the paragraph and sentence level. In good papers there is a tight fit of meaning and form. This is achieved by a skilful use of lexico-grammatical forms that highlight the sense relations binding the paragraphs and sentences in a text.CoherenceIf a paper is easy to understand, this is mostly due to a coherent presentation ofits contents. It follows a clear line in presenting facts and arguments and avoids statements which are incomprehensible for the reader. Coherent pieces of writing are selective in their presentation of content. They focus on the important issues and cut out what is irrelevant or unintelligible for a reader. This requires that their authors (a) know their subject well, and (b) have an eye on their audience and tailor their writing to what their readers probably know beforehand and are able to understand. Coherent writing creates a comprehensible context for the contents presented. It, too, presents them in a comprehensible order.There are different strategies for creating a comprehensible order, and the choice of strategy depends on the aims and purposes of a piece of writing. Most generally we can distinguish fictional from non-fictional or factual writing,and narrative from argumentative writing. Academic papers are ofthe factual and argumentative type. They are the ones we are interested in here. One of the easiest strategies for creating order is a chronological presentation of events. It is similar to a narrative presentation of events in fictional stories but the facts reported in academic papers must represent a true and accuratedescription of reality. They should not confuse subjective views with a fair and objective presentation of their subject matter. Fictional narratives have a beginning (exposition) and an ending, possibly an ending with an explicit or implied moral; factual writing leads to a logical conclusion. (Note that an emotionally or psychologically or poetically pleasing or plausible ending is not, in a strict sense, the same as a ‘logical’ conclusion.) A descriptive chronological report of events may serve a useful function in an academic paper, but it generally can be no more than a prelude to a logical conclusion or summary or scientific evaluation of the facts described.Similar to but not identical with a chronological presentation of events is their ordering in a sequence of cause and effect. This, too, requires a sober description of facts plus their defining circumstances. The descriptive part is complemented byan analysis and possibly explanatory comment on the forces that connect cause and effect. Physical laws of cause and effect are not the same as psychological, sociological, or other constructions of cause and effect; academic publications need to make clear, therefore, which norms or theories or models they refer to whenstating or postulating certain cause and effect relations. If there are competing norms or theories, authors need to make clear which authority they rely on, and why. Frequently academic papers take the form of a critical discussion of certain claims, theories, or models. In this case a useful strategy is to first describe and present the relevant claims, theories or models before moving on to a discussion of arguments ‘for’ and ‘against’. The competing positions must be presented in a fair and accurate form. Their presentation should lead on to a logical conclusion or other typeof evaluation. In that context a useful strategy is the comparing and contrasting of competing positions. It prepares the ground for a reasoned conclusion.Strategically similar to a critical discussion of arguments for and against certain claims or theories of other people is the development of a theory or model. This generally incorporates the need for a critical discussion of facts and/ or other people’s position. The development and presentation of ones own theory frequently follows the traditional rhetorical figure of thesis – antithesis – synthesis.The task of producing a coherent piece of academic writing is often complicated by the fact that it requires the use and combination of more than one of the strategies and types of presentation discussed above. It is important, therefore, to first critically reflect the nature of ones task and clarify the purpose of ones paper. As we pointed out in a previous chapter, this mostly is a heuristic process in which ‘things’ become clear while trying to get cognitive control over them. It often requires a re-writing of earlier versions of a paper. The final version, however, should formally flag the aim and function of the individual parts of the paper, which may be a description, or analysis, or comparison, or explanation, or evaluation, or conclusion. And this takes us to what is called ‘cohesion’.CohesionCohesion is the formal counterpart to coherence. Cohesive elements help to make texts comprehensible. And all languages provide a certain number of lexico-grammatical elements which highlight, on the sentence and paragraph level, the sense relation of one textual unit to those preceding or following on it. Such formalor stylistic devices have a guiding function for the reader. They support and speed up the cognitive processes by which a reader constructs the overall meaning of the linearly incoming textual information. This is why an author must take care that there is a tight fit of meaning and form. The cohesive elements which languages offer for the structuring and ease of understanding of texts can best be illustrated by some strategies (see. E.g. p44).。
雅思写作中的“cohesion”到底是什么？如何提升？
雅思写作中的“cohesion”到底是什么？如何提升？Coherence and Cohesion（简称CC）作为雅思写作四大评分标准之一, 相信大家都不会陌生；但实际来说，很多同学并不真正理解Cohesion 到底是什么（Coherence 我们放到以后谈）。
根据官方解释：Cohesion refers to the way ideas are connected and is usually managed by using linking words.想必大家都注意到了linking words。
于是不少同学都误以为linking words 就是把however, on the other hand 等 transition signals（过渡词）用上就可以了, 这的确是其中一部分。
▼比如在表达对比时写上in comparison，给出例子时写for instance，下结论时写to conclude 等等。
这些确实都没有问题，但这不是全部。
Linking 还包括 referencing by using pronouns（代词指代）和using substitution（同义替换）。
▼请记住，三个方面 1. transition signals2. referencing by using pronouns3. using substitution下面是剑桥雅思15第135页考官对一篇7分文章的评语，可以得到很好的印证。
▼今天我们只说 transition signals 的问题，2和3放到后面再跟大家展开。
下面是考官评语中提到的文章，为了减少阅读时间，只给出了两个段落，段落讨论的话题是：Advertising is so common that we no longer pay attention to it.7分文章▼Advertisements can act as a strong persuasion device to seemingly hypnotize people into buying goods and services. This is so because of the tactics placed in the messages, such as showing people having a good time together when using a particular product, using bandwagen, showing only the upsides of usage, and applying compare and contrast strategies to show the effects of using the product and make it stand out. Even if people do not know it, these messages are repeated several times and soon it may brainwash people to finally go out and get the product. For instance, if a person is watching television and sees a certain advertisement of a snack many times, the repeatedsight of the scrumptious food may result in that person feeling hungry and succumbing to the advertisement at last.In conclusion, advertisements can be successful in persuading people to purchase goods and services, or they can be unsuccessful in many ways. They are very commonly seen nowadays, but not all of them fulfill their purpose. Thus, advertisements must be designed and presented in the correct way to result in the highest effectiveness.大家可以看到，过渡词的使用是非常充分和准确的。
cohesion and coherence
我被连在邮局的柜台旁独自排了一小时 的队。
省去句子的一部分称作为省略。
它可以视为“零替代” （Halliday & Hasan, 1976:142），省去一些上下文可 使之意义明确的成分。
连接是句际间意义相互联
系的一种衔接手段，常用 的有递进、转折、因果、 时间。词义衔接是实现衔 接的又一手段。它是通过 词义的选择来实现的。
词义衔接主要可划分为重
复、同义词、反义词、局 部词、上座标词、下义词 和搭配。
连贯
文本或话语因其构成成分在逻辑、 语义和句法上错互依存而形成的 一种性质。连贯性是各种因素作 用而形成的：言语序列、词汇的 选择、词汇群体、逻辑关系、对 意义的说明中连接词语的使用。 与和语言相关的衔接相对，连贯 性反映的是文本内概念的相关性。 要求各个部分的语义连接应当通 顺而流畅 。
外照应指独立于上下文之
外的词项。内照应指意义
依赖于上下文的词项。下 照应（后照应）指意义依 赖于前述词项的词项、上 照应（前照应）指意义依
赖于后述词项的词项。
替代指用一个词项去代替另一个
或几个词项，是词项之间的一种 代替关系。英语中常用的替代词 one(s), do, same。Halliday和 Hasan将其分为名词性替代、动 词性替代和从句性替代。由于前 述句子或上下文使得意义明确而
e.g.（缺乏逻辑连贯性）
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二、Substitution and Ellipsis——省略和替代
Substitution and ellipsis are one type of cohesion device which takes different forms.
当在下面一个句子重新出现时，被省略掉，或者被其他项目所替代的现象。 例如，上例中的ones就用以替代apples，如： ⑴A. Have you been playing football?
②Core six cooking apples. Put them into a fireproof dish. These are red ones, but they are not so delicious.
Them—指称，表示前面的apples These—指示，指前面的them和apples So—比较，把这些苹果与其他的相比较。
2) Bob says he is going to join the Labour Party. It will be interesting to see whether he does (do). (Verbal Substitution)
一、 Reference —— 照应
A participant or circumstantial element introduced at one place in the text can be taken as a reference point for something that follows.
personal reference demonstrative reference comparative reference
人称照应 指示照应 比较照应
由人称代词表示的照应关系叫做“人称照应” （Personal Reference）。
在使用人称代词的时候，必须搞明确谁是它的照 应对 象，如果这一点含糊不清，就会模棱两可，引 出歧义。
内照应——意义依赖于上下文的词项
下照应（后照应）——意义依赖于前述词项的词项 上照应（前照应）——意义依赖于后述词项的词项
u 李林是我的朋友。他是武汉人。（内指，‘他’回指 前文提到的‘李林’）
u 我讨厌你，李林！（内指，下指‘李林’） u （手指某物），那是你画的吗？（外指）
Three Types of Reference:
Three types of Substitution
Nominal: one, ones, same Verbal: do (inflectional forms: does, did) Clausal: so, not. 名词性替代、动词性替代和从句性替代
1)A: Have you any knives? I need a sharp one. B: I can get you several very sharp ones, but this is the best (one) I have. (nominal substitution)
“衔接”这一概念是Halliday于1962年首次提出 的。后来在他与Hasan合著的Cohesion in English一书中把衔接定义为“存在于篇章内 部，使之成为语篇的意义关系”
Five types of Cohesion——五种衔接
照应（reference）、替代（substitution）、 省略（ellipsis）、连接（conjunction）及词汇衔接 （lexical cohesion）。
Cohesion is expressed partly through grammar and partly through vocabulary. We can refer therefore to GRAMMATICAL COHESION and LEXICAL COHESION.
其中前三类属于语法手段，第四类属于逻辑手段，最后一类于词汇衔接 手段
① Jane watched Julia walk into the library with her brother．
1. （Jane看见Julia和谁的兄弟走进图书馆？） 例中的Jane和Julia都是女性，以致后面的her既可指Jane，也可 指Julia。可以改写成： Jane watched her brother and Julia walk into the library． 简瞧见她的兄弟和朱莉亚走进图书馆。
Cohesion and Coherence ——衔接与连贯
Cohesion and Coherence 衔接与连贯
vWhat is cohesion ? vTypes of the cohesion vWhat is the coherence ? vRelationships between cohesion and
coherence v天净沙秋思分析
语篇的衔接手段
语篇就好比是一棵大树 —— 一个条理清 晰，上下连贯（语篇特征）的整体，那 么语篇是靠什么形成的呢？
——靠衔接手段。
Cohesion is a semantic concept, it refers to
relations of meaning that exist within the text.(Halliday & Hasan, 1976)
B. Yes, I have (been playing football.) 都可分为三类：名词、动词和小句。 Ones替代名词；playing football替代动词。 ⑵A: Has he been ever to Beijing? B: I think so。 So 替代整个小句 (he has been to Beijing.)
照应(Reference)指用代词等语法手段表示的语义关系。
There is also reference to what is outside the text, exophoric (ex), （语外照应，外指）
endophoric (en) (语内照应，内指）
外照应——独立于上下文之外的词项