of the lexicon
语言学教程(第四版)练习-第4章
语言学教程(第四版)练习-第4章Chapter Four From Word to TextI. Mark the choice that best completes the statement.1.Which of the following term does NOT mean the same as the relation of substitutability ?A. Associative relationB. Paradigmatic relationC. Vertical relationD. Horizontal relation2. Clauses can be used as subordinate constituents and the three basic types of subordinate clauses are complement clauses, adjuncts clauses and _______.A. relative clausesB. adverbial clausesC. coordinate clausesD. subordinate clauses3. Names of the syntactic functions are expressed in all the following terms EXCEPT ______.A. subjects and objectsB. objects and predicatorsC. modifiers and complementsD. endocentric and exocentric4. In English, case is a special form of the noun which frequently corresponds toa combination of perception and noun and it is realized in all the following channels EXCEPT _______.A. inflectionB. following a prepositionC. word orderD. vertical relation5. In English, theme and rheme are often expressed by _____ and ____.A. subject; objectB. subject; predicateC. predicate; objectD. object; predicate6. Phrase structure rules have _____ properties.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC. socialD. functional7. Which of the following is NOT among the three basic ways to classify languages in the world ?A. Word orderB. Genetic classificationC. Areal classificationD. Social classification8. The head of the phrase the city Rome is ______.A. the cityB. RomeC. cityD. the city Rome9. The phrase on the shelf belongs to ______ construction.A. endocentricB. exocentricC. subordinateD. coordinate10. The sentence They were wanted to remain quiet and not to expose themselves isa _____ sentence.A. simpleB. coordinateC. compoundD. complexII. Mark the following statements with “T” if they are true or “F” if they are false.1.The relation of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations, partlyto paradigmatic relations.2.One property coordination reveals is that there is a limit on the number ofcoordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.3.According to Standard Theory of Chomsky, deep structure contain all theinformation necessary for the semantic interpretation of sentences.4.In English, the object is recognized by tracing its relation to word order andby inflections of pronouns.5.Classes and functions determine each other, but not in any one-to-onerelation.ually noun phrases, verb phrases and adverbial phrases belong toendocentric types of constriction.7.In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usuallyfollows the verb.8.In the exocentric construction John kicked the ball, neither constituent standsfor the verb-object sequence.9. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.10.In a coordinate sentence, two (or more) S constituents occur as daughters andco-heads of a higher S.III. Fill in each of the following blanks with an appropriate word. The first letter of the word is already given.1.The subordinate constituents are words which modify the Heads andconsequently, they can be called m____________.2.John believes (that the airplane was invented by an Irishman). The part in thebracket is a c_________ clause.3.In order to account for the case of the subject in passive voice, we haveanother two terms, p____________ and n__________.4.There is a tendency to make a distinction between phrase and w_______,which is an extension of word of a particular class by way of modification with its main features of the class unchanged.5.Recursiveness, together with o_______, is generally regarded as the core ofcreativity of language.6.Traditionally, p_________ is seen as part of a structural hierarchy, positionedbetween clause and word.7.The case category is used in the analysis of word classes to identity thes______ relationship between words in a sentence.8.Clause can be classifies into FINITE and NON-FINITE clauses, the latterincluding the traditional infinitive phrase, p__________, and gerundial phrase.9.Gender displays such contrasts as masculine: feminine: n_______.10.English gender contrast can only be observed in g__________ and a smallnumber of l__________ and they are mainly of the natural gender type.IV. Explain the following concepts or theories.1.Syntax2.IC analysis3.Relation of co-occurrence4.Category5.RecursivenessVI. Answer the following question.1.What are endocentric construction and exocentric construction?2.What are the basic functional terms in syntax?VII. Essay question.1.Explain an comment on the following sentence a and b.a.John is easy to please.b.John is eager to please.ment on the statement, “Linguistic structure is hiearchical”I. Mark the following statements with “T” if they are true or “F” if they are false.1.The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but they are capableof yielding an infinite number of sentences.2.Although, a single word can also be uttered as a sentence, normally asentence consists of at least a subject, its predicate and an object.\3.The sentences are linearly structured, so they are composed of sequence ofwords arranged in a simple linear order.4. a.John his upon an idea.b.An idea hit upon John.In the above sentences, the subject and object constituent by the sentences switch their position. Although sentence b is absurd, it is still grammatical, because John and an idea are of the same phrasal category.5.Though they are of a small number, the combinational rules are powerfulenough to yield all the possible sentences and rule out the impossible ones. 6.In a sentence like Mary likes flowers, both Mary and flowers are not onlyNouns, but also Noun Phrases.7.The recursive property can basically be discussed in a category-basedgrammar, but not in a word-based grammar.8.An XP must contain an X which is called the phrasal head.9.In the phrase this very tall girl, tall girl is an obligatory element and the headof the phrase.10.a. The man beat the child. b. The child was beaten by the man.In the above sentences, the movement of the child from its original place to a new place is a WH- movement.11.Tense and aspect, the two important categories of the verb, nowadays areviewed as separate notions in grammar.12.The structuralists regard linguistic units as isolated bits in a structure (orsystem).13.IC analysis can help us to see the internal structure of a sentence clearly andit can also distinguish the ambiguity of a sentence.14.Structural linguists hold that a sentence does only have a linear structure, butit has a hierarchical structure, made up of layers of word groups.15.In Saussure’s view, the linguist cannot attempt to explain individual signs in apiecemeal fashion. Instead he must try to find the value of a sign from its relation to others, or rather, its position in the system.16.The theme-rheme order is the usual one in unemotional narration, which is asubjective order.17.What is new in Halliday is that he has tried to relate the functions oflanguage to its structure.18.Sentence is a basic unit of structure in functional grammar.19.The interpersonal function of language refers to the idea held by Hallidaythat language serves ot establish and maintain social relations.20.Finite is a function in the clause as a representation, both the representationof outer experience and inner experience.21.The relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations, partlyto paradigmatic relations.22.According to Chomsky, grammar is a mechanism that should be able togenerate all and only the grammatical sentences of a language.23.In English, the subject of a sentence is said to be the doer of an action, whilethe object is the person or thing acted upon by the doer. Therefore, the subject is always an agent and the patient is always the object.24.In English, the object is recognized by tracing its relation to word order andby inflections of pronouns.25.Classes and functions determine each other, but not in any one-to-onerelation.26.The syntactic rules of a language are finite in number, and there are a limitednumber of sentences which can be produced.27.Structuralism views language as both linearly and hierarchically structured.28.Phrase structure rules provide explanations on how syntactic categories areformed and sentences generated.29.UG is a system of linguistic knowledge and a human species-specific giftwhich exists in the mind of a normal human being.30.Tense and aspect are two important categories of the verb, and they wereseparated in traditional grammar.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with (an) appropriate word(s).1.As is required by the ______, a noun phrase must have case and case isassigned by verb, or preposition to the _________ position or by auxiliary to the ________ position.2.Adjacency condition states that a case _________ and a case _______ shouldstay adjacent to each other.3.The general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of anyconstituent movement is called __________.4.The phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generatesentences at the level of _________.5.The application of syntactic movement rules transforms a sentence from thelevel of ________ to that of ______.6.In English there are two major types of movement, one involving the_____.A.(1)B.(2)C. both (1) and (2)D. neitherC.Imitation accounts for language acquisition.D.Phonological information must form part of syntactic movement.8.The symbol N indicates a/an ________.A.lexical categoryB.phrasal categoryC.intermediate categoryD. lexical insertion rule9.Of the following combination possibilities, ______ can NOT be generated from the following rule: NP→(Det)(Adj)N(PP)(S).A. NP→→→→Det Adj N PPS.10.An advantage of X-bar syntax over phrase structure syntax is that X-bar.A.avoid a ploliferation of redundant intermediate categories.B.allows us to identify indefinitely long embedded sentences.C. allows as to postulate categories other than lexical and phrasal.D. forces us to conclude that the ambiguity of phrases like the English Kingis lexical rather than structural.11. Which set of rules generates the following tree structures?A. S→NP VPB. NP→VPNP→N PP NP→NP NP PPVP→V NP VP→V NP PPPP →P NP PP →P NPNP→N NP →NC.S VP VP D, S NP VPNP→(NP/PP) NP →NP (NP /PP)VP →V NP VP →V NPPP →P NP PP →P NPNP→N NP →N12.a.It seems they are quite fit for the job.b. They seem quite fit for the job.Sentence b is a result of ______ movement.A.NPB.WHC.AUX.D. None13. The head of the phrase underneath the open window is _______.A.underneathB.theC.openD.window14.The following statements are in accordance with Hallliday’s opinion on language EXCEPT _______.he use of language involves a network of systems of choices.B. Language is never used as a mere mirror of reflected thought.nguage is a system of abstract forms and signs.nguage functions as a piece of human behavior.15.Chomsky is more concerned with ____ relations in his approach to syntax.16.______ is a type of control over the form of some words by other words in Certain syntactic constructions and in terms of certain category.A.ConcordernmentC. BindingD. Co-command17. Clauses can be used as subordinate constituents and the three basic types of subordinate clauses are complement clauses, adjunct clauses and _____.A.relative clausesB.adverbial clausesC.coordinate clausesD.subordinate clausess of the syntactic functions are expressed in all the following terms EXCEPT_____.A.subjects and objectsB.objects and predicatorsC.modifiers and complementsD. endocentric and exocentric19.In English, case is a special form of the noun which frequently corresponds toa combination of preposition and noun and it is realized in all the following channels EXCEPT ______.A.inflectionB.following a prepositionC.word orderD.vertical relation20. Clauses can be classified into finite and non-finite clauses, _____ including the traditional infinitive phrases, participial phrase and gerundial phrase.A. the formerB. the latterC.bothD. neither21.It is the _______ on case assignment that states that a case assignor and a case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.A. Case ConditionB.Adjacent ConditionC.Parameter ConditionD.Adjacent Parameter.22.Predication analysis is a way to analyze _______ meaning.A. phonemeB. wordC. phrase…d. sentence23.Which of the following italic parts is NOT an idiom?A. How to you do?B. How did you do ?C. He went to it hammer and tongs.D. They kept tabs on the Russian spy.24.When we say that we can change the second word in the sentence she is singing in the room with another word or phrase, we are talking about ______.A. governmentB. linear relationsC. syntactic relationsD. paradigmatic relations25.IN the phrase structure rule S→NP VP, the arrow can be read as ______.A. hasB. generatesC. consists ofD. is equal toIV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible, giving examples if necessary.1.The following two sentences are ambiguous. Show the two readings of eachby drawing its respective tree diagrams.(1)The ball man and woman left(2) Visiting professor can be interestinge an example to show what a tree diagram is (as it is used inTransformational-Generative Grammar).e an example to show what IC analysis is.4.What are the three general functions of language according to Halliday?5.What distinguishes the structural approach to syntax from the traditionalone?6.Some grammar books say there are three basic tenses in English-the present,the past and the future; others say there are only two basic tenses –the present and the past. Explain what tense is and whether it is justifiable to say there is a future tense in English.。
英语词汇学6.3Synonymy
expectation: either good or evil. anticipation: as a rule is a pleasurable expectation of something good. hope: is not only a belief but a desire that some event would happen.
7
Sense Relations between Words
-nyms Most wonderful of all are words, and how they …[relate] one with another.
O. Henry, as modified by a semantician
Words are related to one another in a variety of ways. These relationships have words to describe them that often end in the bound morpheme –nym It may be more accurate to think of the lexicon as network, rather than a listing of words as in a published dictionary.
to hope against hope, • to • lose • hope,• to pin one's hopes on sth.•
7.1.2 Patterns of synonymous sets in Modern English
Why so many synonyms? English is a language particularly rich in pairs of synonyms. The primary reason for this has to do with the history of language and especially with the wholesome borrowing from other languages. "The richness of • English • in synonyms is largely due to the happy mingling of Latin, French and Native elements". Generally speaking, the native words are the simplest and most ordinary and tends to belong to the ordinary colloquial language; The Greek or Latin borrowings are the most learned, most formal and most technical and they tend to be used in the most formal context; French borrowings stands between the native words and the Latin and Greek borrowings.
商务英语专业16届毕业论文设计题目
Basic Principles of Business English writing
A Culture Approach to SinoAmerican Negotiation Styles
A Pragmatic Study of Fuzzy Language in Business Letters
Lady Dress Etiquette on Business Occasions
A Discussion on the Properness of Legal Translators in Light of Prototype-Model Translation Theory
A Study on the Seating Arrangement in International Business Negotiation
On the Application of Euphemisms to Business English Correspondence
A Brief Analysis of the Accomplishment of Interpretors in Global Business Negotiation
Cultural Differences Reflected in Taboos of Gift-giving Between China and America
A Brief Study of Business Negotiation Etiquette
On Cultural Turn in Translation of Business English
Unit Two Diction
Part 2 Levels of Words
The words that we come across can be divided into 3 types, according to a stylistic point of view:
formal, common, and colloquial.
I feel that paying attention to words used around you is the best way to increase your working vocabulary. If you are really into improving the number of words you know, you can use such vocabulary-improvement lessons as are in the Reader's Digest.
3.1 Don't need long words Television commentator William S. Buckley has a tremendous vocabulary and would often overpower his debate opponents through the use of long words, whose definitions only highly literate people would know. He wouldn't win on logic of argument but on frustrating his opponents.
3.4 Summary
A good vocabulary does not mean you know many long or difficult words. Instead, it means that you know how to express yourself so that the reader will understand your material. Sometimes is it necessary to use industry-specific jargon, but you still must make sure everyone understands what you are writing. It is worthwhile to constantly work at improving your knowledge of words.
英语词汇学教程课件第3章English Lexicology 3
Lecture Three
The Development of English
The 5000 or so languages of the world can be grouped into about 300 language families, on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammars.
The early English settlers do not seem to have made much of an effort to understand the language of the Britons. They did not learn many words from the Celts. The English added only a handful of Celtic words to their language, like clout, cradle, crock, dun, slough, cumb (valley), torr (hill). Place names formed a large group. Thames, Wye and Avon are Celtic river names, and so are some city names like York, London, Kent. These words came into English as the result of daily contact between Celt and Anglo-Saxon.
Because of these and other influences, the English vocabulary changed enormously and became the largest and most complex in the world, and the grammar changed its emphasis from inflections to word order.
多重短语英语
多重短语英语Multiword Expressions in EnglishMultiword expressions (MWEs) are a fundamental aspect of natural language that present unique challenges and opportunities in the field of linguistics and language processing. These expressions, which consist of two or more words that function as a single semantic or syntactic unit, are ubiquitous in everyday speech and writing, and their understanding is crucial for effective communication and language comprehension.One of the defining features of MWEs is their idiomatic nature, where the meaning of the entire expression cannot be deduced from the literal meanings of its individual components. For example, the phrase "kick the bucket" does not refer to the physical act of kicking a bucket, but rather the idiomatic meaning of "to die." This idiomatic quality is what sets MWEs apart from literal, compositional language, and it is this very characteristic that makes them both fascinating and challenging to study and process.Another key feature of MWEs is their syntactic flexibility, or lack thereof. While some MWEs, such as "by and large," are fixed expressions that cannot be altered without losing their meaning, others, like "take a look," can undergo certain grammatical transformations, such as "took a look" or "will take a look." This flexibility, or lack thereof, adds an additional layer of complexity to the study and understanding of MWEs.The prevalence of MWEs in natural language is staggering. Estimates suggest that MWEs account for a significant portion of the lexicon, with some studies suggesting that they may comprise up to 50% of all language use. This ubiquity is a testament to the importance of these expressions in human communication, as they allow speakers to convey complex ideas and nuanced meanings in a concise and efficient manner.The study of MWEs has important implications for a wide range of fields, including natural language processing (NLP), language learning, and cognitive linguistics. In the realm of NLP, the accurate identification and interpretation of MWEs is crucial for tasks such as machine translation, information retrieval, and text summarization. Failing to recognize and properly handle MWEs can lead to significant errors and misunderstandings in these applications.Similarly, in language learning, the mastery of MWEs is a keycomponent of achieving fluency and natural-sounding speech. Learners often struggle to understand and produce idiomatic expressions, and the ability to recognize and use MWEs is a hallmark of advanced language proficiency.From a cognitive linguistic perspective, the study of MWEs provides valuable insights into the way the human mind processes and organizes language. The fact that certain word combinations are stored and accessed as single units, rather than as individual words, suggests that language is not simply a matter of stringing together discrete lexical items, but rather a complex and dynamic system of interconnected conceptual representations.Despite the importance of MWEs, their study and treatment in language research and applications has not always been straightforward. One of the primary challenges is the sheer diversity and complexity of these expressions, which can range from simple idioms to more elaborate constructions, such as collocations, phrasal verbs, and compound nouns. This diversity makes it difficult to develop a unified theory or approach to the study of MWEs.Additionally, the identification and classification of MWEs can be a complex and subjective process, as the boundaries between literal and idiomatic language are not always clear-cut. Determining whether a particular expression should be considered an MWE or afree combination of words can be a matter of debate, and this ambiguity can complicate the development of robust and reliable MWE recognition systems.Another challenge in the study of MWEs is the fact that they are often highly context-dependent, with their meaning and usage varying based on the specific linguistic and cultural context in which they occur. This context-sensitivity can make it difficult to develop generalized models or rules for the interpretation and processing of MWEs.Despite these challenges, the study of MWEs remains an active and important area of research in linguistics and language processing. Researchers and practitioners are continually working to develop more sophisticated approaches to the identification, classification, and interpretation of these expressions, with the ultimate goal of improving our understanding of natural language and enhancing the performance of language-based technologies.One promising area of research in this field is the use of machine learning and data-driven approaches to the study of MWEs. By leveraging large corpora of natural language data, researchers can develop statistical models and algorithms that can automatically identify and classify MWEs, based on their linguistic and contextual features. These data-driven approaches have the potential toovercome some of the limitations of more traditional, rule-based methods, and to provide new insights into the patterns and behaviors of MWEs in natural language.Another area of research that holds promise for the study of MWEs is the integration of linguistic and cognitive theories into language processing systems. By incorporating insights from fields such as cognitive linguistics, psycholinguistics, and neurolinguistics, researchers can develop more sophisticated models of language comprehension and production that can better account for the role of MWEs in human language use.Ultimately, the study of multiword expressions in English, and in natural language more broadly, is a complex and multifaceted endeavor that will continue to challenge and fascinate linguists, language researchers, and language technology developers for years to come. As we deepen our understanding of these ubiquitous and idiomatic expressions, we will not only enhance our ability to communicate and interact effectively, but also gain valuable insights into the fundamental nature of human language and cognition.。
语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版)2
语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第四章)I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1. Syntax is a subfied of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, including the combination of m orphemes into words. 2.Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.3. Sentences are composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order, with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic.4.Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic kn owledge of a language speak-er are known as linguistic competence.5. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.6. In a complex sentence, th e two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.7. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.8. Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixed and new members are allowed for.9. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitiv e phrase, and auxiliary phrase. 10. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.11.What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.12. A no un phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.13. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-struct ure.14. WH-movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the l etter given: 15. A s________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a sub-ject a nd a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence. 16.A s______ is a structurally independ ent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question o r command. 17.A s______ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually prec edes the predicate.18. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called p_________.19. A c_________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.20. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an e_ ______ clause.21. Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sense that new words a re constantly added.22. A _____ Condition on case assignment states that a case assignor an d a case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.23. P_______ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to signific ant linguistic variations between and among natural languages.24. The theory of C____ condit ion explains the fact that noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.III. There are four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete t he statement: 25.A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammatical-cal knowledge in the mind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical 26. A __________ in the embedd ed clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause. A. coordinato r B. particle C. preposition D. subordinator 27. Phrase structure rules have ____ properti es. A. recursive B. grammatical C. social D. functional 28. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand ____________A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. All of the above. 29. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called ________. A. transformational rul esB. generative rules C. phrase structure rules D. x-bar theory 30. The theory of case conditio n accounts for the fact that __________. A. noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions. B. noun phrases can be used to modify another noun phrase C. noun phrase can be used in adverbial positions D. noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary. 31. The sentence structure is ________. A. only linear B. Only hierarchical C. complex D. both linear and hierarchical 32. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite 33. The ________ rules are the rules that g roup words and phrases to form grammatical sentencesA. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational 34._______ rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence. A. Generative B. Transformational C. X-bar D. Phrase structureIV. Define the following terms: 35. syntax 36. Sentence 37. coordinate sentence 38. synta ctic categories 39. grammatical relations 40. linguistic competence 41. transformational rules42. D-structure V. Answer the following questions:43. What are the basic components of a sentence? 44. What are the major types of sentence s? Illustrate them with examples. 45. Are the elements in a sentence linearly structured? Why?46. What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures? 4 7. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples.I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: l.F 2.T 3.F 4.T 5. T 6.T 7.T 8.F 9.F 10.T 11.F 12.T 13.T 14.T II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given: 15. simple, 16. sentence 17. subject 18. predicate 19. complex 20.embedded 21. open 22.adjacency 23.Parameters 24.Case III. There ar e four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: 25. D 26. D 27. A 28. D 29. A 30. A 31. D 32. C 33. D 34. BIV. Define the following terms: 35. syntax: Syntax is a subfield of linguistics. It studies the sentence structur e of language. It consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with o ther words to form grammatical sentences. 36. Sentence: A sentence is a structurally indepen dent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and a predicate which conta ins a finite verb or a verb phrase. 37. coordinate sentence: A coordinate sentence contains t wo clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "o r". 38. syntactic categories: Apart from sentences and clauses, a syntactic category usually refe rs to a word (called a lexical category) or a phrase ( called a phrasal category) that performs a particular grammatical function. 39. grammatical relations: The structural and logical functi onal relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. The grammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. In many cas es, grammatical relations in fact refer to who does what to whom .40. linguistic competence: Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the syst em of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.41. Transformational rules: Transformational rules are the rules that transform one sentence type into another type.42. D-structure: D- structure is the level of syntactic representation that exists before movement takes place. Phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.V. Answer the following questions: 43.What are the basic components of a sentence? Normally, a sentence consists of at least a s ubject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase. 44. What are the maj or types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples. Traditionally, there are three major ty pes of sentences. They are simple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex se ntence. A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicat e and stands alone as its own sentence, for example: John reads extensively. A coo rdinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating con junction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example: John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for her history exam. A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentenc e do not have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For exam-ple: Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in lin-guistics. 45. Are the elements in a sentence li nearly structured? Why? No. Language is both linearly and hierarchically structured. When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after an other in a sequence. A closer examination of a sentence shows that a sentence is not comp osed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order with one adding onto another f ollowing a simple arithmetic logic. In fact, sen-tences are also hierarchically structured. They are orga-nized by grouping together words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phra se (NP) or verb phrase (VP), as can be seen from the following tree diagram:S NP VP Det N Vt NPDet N The boy likes the music. 46. Wh at are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures? The tre e diagram can not only reveal a linear order, but also a hierarchical structure that groups wo rds into structural constituents. It can, in addition, show the syntactic category of each struct ural constituent, thus it is believed to most truthfully illustrate the constituent relationship am ong linguistic elements. 47. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples. NP movemen t in-volves the movement of a noun phrase. NP-movement occurs when, for example, a sent ence changes from the active voice to the passive voice: (A)The man beat the child. (B). The child was beaten by the man. B is the result of the m ovement of the noun phrases "the man" and "the child" from their original positions in (A) to new positions. That is, "the man" is postposed to the right and "the child" is preposed to the left. Not all instances of NP-movement, however, are related to changing a sentenc e from the active voice to the passive voice. For example: (C) It seems they are quite fit for the job. (D) They seem quite fit for the job. These sentences are identical in meanin g, but different in their superfi-cial syntactic representations. It is believed that they have the same underly-ing structure, but (27b) is the result of an NP movement.语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第五章)I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1. Dialectal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as British English and American Engl ish but cannot be found within the variety itself, for example, within British English or Ame rican English. 2. Sense is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience, while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. 3. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different refere nces in different situations. 4. In semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsi c and inherent relation to the physical world of experience. 5. Contextualism is based on t he presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable context s. 6. Behaviourists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer. 7. The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its components. 8. Most languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but ranked differently according to their degree of formality. 9. “it is hot.”is a no-place predication because it contains no argument.10. In grammatical analysis, the sentence is taken to be the basic unit, but in semantic analy sis of a sentence, the basic unit is predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the let ter given: 11. S________ can be defined as the study of meaning. 12. The conceptualist vie w holds that there is no d______ link between a linguistic form and what it refers to. 13.R______ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. 14. W ords that are close in meaning are called s________. 15. When two words are identical in s ound, but different in spelling and meaning, they are called h__________. 16.R_________ o pposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.17. C ____ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided i nto meaning components. 18. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called s________ restrictions, which are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others. 19. An a________ is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence. 20. According to the n ____ theory of meaning, the words in a lan-guage are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. III. There are fou r choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: 21. The naming theory is advanced by ________.A. PlatoB. BloomfieldC. Geoffrey LeechD. Firth 22. “We shall k now a word by the company it keeps.”This statement represents _______. A. the conce ptualist view B. contexutalism C. the naming theory D.behaviourism 23. Whic h of the following is not true? A. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the lin guistic form. B. Sense is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form. C. Sense is abstract and de-contextualized. D. Sense is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are not interested in. 24. “Can I borrow your bike?”_______ “You have a bike.”A. is synonymous withB. is inconsistent withC. entailsD. presupposes 25. ____ _______ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning compone nts, called semantic features. A. Predication analysis B. Componential analysis C. Phonemic analysis D. Grammatical analysis 26. “alive”and “dead”are ______ ________. A. gradable antonyms B. relational opposites C. complementary antony ms D. None of the above 27. _________ deals with the relationship between the ling uistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. A. Reference B. C oncept C. Semantics D. Sense 28. ___________ refers to the pheno广告网址n that words having different meanings have the same form. A. PolysemyB. SynonymyC. HomonymyD. Hyponymy 29. Words that are close in meaning are called ______________. A. homonyms B. polysemy C. hyponyms D. synonyms 30. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by _ ______. A. grammatical rules B. selectional restrictions C. semantic rules D. semantic fea tures IV. Define the following terms: 31. semantics 32. sense 33 . reference 34. synonymy 35. polysemy 36. homonymy 37. homophones 38. Homographs 39. complete homonyms 40. hyponymy 41.antonymy 42 componential analysis 43.grammatical meaning 44. predication 45. Ar gument 46. predicate 47. Two-place predication V. Answer the following questions: 48. Why do we say that a meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components? 49. What is componential analysis? Illustrate it with exampl es. 50. How do you distinguish between entailment and presupposition in terms of truth val ues? 51. How do you account for such sense relations between sentences as synonymous re lation, inconsistent relation in terms of truth values? 52. According to the way synonyms di ffer, how many groups can we classify synonyms into? Illustrate them with examples. 53. W hat are the major views concerning the study of meaning? How they differ?I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: l.F 2.F 3.T 4.F 5. T 6.T 7.F 8.T 9.T 10.T II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given: 11. Semantics 12. direct 13.Reference 14. synonyms 15.homopho nes 16.Relational 17. Componential 18. selectional 19. argument 20. naming III. There are fo ur choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: 2l.A 22.B 23.D 24.D 25.B 26.C 27.A 28.C 29.D 30.A IV. Define the following terms: 31. Se mantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language. 32. Sense: Se nse is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de -contextualised. 33. Reference: Refere nce means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relati onship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience 34. Synonym y :Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. 35. Polysemy :Polysemy r efers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning. 36. Homonymy:Homonymy refers to the pheno广告网址n that words having different mean-ings have the same form, i.e. , different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. 37. homoph ones :When two words are identical in sound, they are called homophones 38. homographs : When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. 39. complete homonyms.:Wh en two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are called complete homonyms.40.Hyponymy :Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. 41. Antonymy :Antonymy refers to the relation of opposite ness of meaning. 42. Componential analysis : Componential analysis is a way to analyze word meaning. It was pro-posed by structural semanticists. The approach is based on the belief t hat the meaning of a -word can be divided into meaning components, which are called sema ntic features. 43.The grammatical meaning : The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality, i.e. , its grammatical well-formedness . The grammaticality of a sentence i s governed by the grammatical rules of the language. 44. predica-tion :The predica-tion is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. 45. ar-gument : An ar-gument is a logical particip ant in a predication. It is generally identical with the nominal element (s) in a sentence. 46. predicate : A predicate is something that is said about an argument or it states the logical re lation linking the arguments in a sentence. 47. two-place predication :A two-place predication is one which con-tains two arguments. V. Answer the following qu estions: 48. Why do we say that a meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the mea nings of all its components? The meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the mean ings of all its components because it cannot be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its constituent words. For example; (A) The dog bit the man. (B) The man bit the dog. If the meaning of a sentence were the sum total of the meanings of all its co mponents, then the above two sentences would have the same meaning. In fact they are diff erent in meanings. As we know, there are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical mea n-ing and semantic meaning. The grammatical meanings of “the dog”and “the man”in (A) are different from the grammatical meanings of “the dog”and “the man”in (B). T he meaning of a sentence is the product of both lexical and grammatical meaning. It is the product of the meaning of the constituent words and of the grammatical constructions that r elate one word syntagmatically to another. 49.What is componential analysis? Illustrate it with examples. Componential analysis, pro-pos ed by structural semanticists, is a way to analyze word meaning. The approach is based on t he belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components, which are c alled semantic features. Plus and minus signs are used to indicate whether a certain semantic feature is present or absent in the meaning of a word, and these feature symbols are usuall y written in capitalized letters. For example, the word “man”is ana-lyzed as consisting of the semantic features of [+ HUMAN, + ADULT, + ANIMATE, +MALE] 50. How do yo u distinguish between entailment and presupposition in terms of truth values? Entailment is a relation of inclusion. Suppose there are two sentences X and Y: X: He has been to Fran ce. Y: He has been to Europe. In terms of truth values, if X is true, Y is necessarily tru e, e.g. If he has been to France, he must have been to Europe. If X is false, Y may be t rue or false, e. g. If he has not been to France, he may still have been to Europe or he h as not been to Europe. If Y is true, X may be true or false, e.g. If he has been to Europe, he may or may not have been to France. If Y is false, X is false, e.g. If he has not been to Europe, he cannot have been to France. Therefore we conclude that X entails Y or Y i s an entailment of X. The truth conditions that we use to judge presupposition is as follows: Suppose there are two sentences X and Y X: John' s bike needs repairing. Y: J ohn has a bike. If X is true, Y must be true, e.g. If John' s bike needs repairing, John mus t have a bike. If X is false, Y is still true, e. g. If John' s bike does not need repairing, Jo hn still has a bike. If Y is true, X is either true or false, e.g. If John has a bike, it may or may not need repairing. If Y is false, no truth value can be said about X, e.g. If John doe s not have a bike, nothing can be said about whether his bike needs repairing or not. There fore, X presupposes Y, or Y is a presupposition of X. 51. How do you account for such sense relations between sentences as synonymous relation, inconsistent relation in terms of tr uth values? In terms of truth condition, of the two sentences X and Y, if X is true, Y is true; if X is false, Y is false, therefore X is synonymous with Y e.g. X; He was a bachelor all his life. Y: He never married all his life. Of the two sentences X and Y, if X is true, Y is false; if X is false, Y is true, then we can say A is inconsistent with Y e.g. X: John ismarried. Y: John is a bachelor.52. According to the ways synonyms differ, how many groups can we classify synonyms into? Illustrate them with examples.According to the ways synonyms differ, synonyms can be divided into the following group s. i. Dialectal synonyms They are synonyms which are used in different regional dialects. Bri tish English and American English are the two major geographical varieties of the English la nguage. For examples: British English American English autumn fall lift elevator Then dialectal synonyms can also be foun d within British, or American English itself. For example, "girl" is called "lass" or "lassie" in Scottish dialect, and "liquor" is called "whisky" in Irish dialect. ii. Stylistic synonyms They a re synonyms which differ in style or degree of formality. Some of the stylistic synonyms ten d to be more formal, others tend to be casual, and still oth-ers are neutral in style. For exa mple: old man, daddy, dad, father, male parent chap, pal, friend, companion iii. Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning They are the words that have the same meaning but express different emotions of the user. The emotions of the user indi cate the attitude or bias of the user toward what he is talking about . For exam-ple, “colla borator” and “accomplice” are synonymous, sharing the meaning of "a person who helps another", but they are different in their evaluative meaning. The former means that a person who helps another in do-ing something good, while the latter refers to a person who helps another in a criminal act. iv. Collocational synonyms They are synonyms which differ in the ir collocation. For example, we can use accuse, charge, rebuke to say that someone has done something wrong or even criminal, but they are used with different preposi-tions accuse. . . of, charge. . . with, rebuke. . .for. v. V. Semantically different synonyms Semantically differe nt synonyms refer to the synonyms that differ slight-ly in what they mean. For example, "a maze" and "astound" are very close in meaning to the word "surprise," but they have very s ubtle differences in meaning. While amaze suggests confusion andbewilderment, " astound" implies difficulty in believing. " 53. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning? How do they differ? One of the oldest w as the naming theory, proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato, who believed that the w ords used in a language are taken to be la-bels of the objects they stand for. The conceptua list view holds that there is no direct link between a lin-guistic form and what it refers to.The form and the meaning are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. Conte xtualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized; the situational context and the linguistic context. For example, the meaning of the word "seal" in the sentence "The seal co uld not be found" can only be determined ac-cording to the context in which the sentence occurs: The seal could not be found. The zoo keeper became worried. (seal meaning an aqu atic mammal) The seal could not be found. The king became worried. (seal meaning the kin g's stamp)Behaviorism drew on behaviorist psychology when he tried to define the meaning of lingui stic forms. Behaviorists attempted to de-fine the meaning of a language form as " the situati on in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer".语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第六章)Historical Linguistics I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1. One of the tasks of the historical linguists is to explore methods to reconstruct linguistic history and establish the relationship between languages. 2. Language change is a gradual and constant process, therefore often indiscernible to speakers of the same generation. 3. The hi story of the English language is divided into the periods of Old English, Middle English and Modern English. 4. Middle English began with the arrival of Anglo-Saxons, who invaded th e British Isles from northern Europe. 5. In Old English, all the nouns are inflected to mark nominative, genitive, dative and accusative cases. 6. In Old English, the verb of a sentence often precedes the subject rather than follows it. 7. A direct consequence of the Renaissance Movement was the revival of French as a literary language. 8. In general, linguistic change i n grammar is more noticeable than that in the sound system and the vocabulary of a langua ge. 9. The sound changes include changes in vowel sounds, and in the loss, gain and move ment of sounds. 10. The least widely-spread morphological changes in the historical develop ment of English are the loss and addition of affixes. 11. In Old English, the morphosyntac tic rule of adjective agreement stipulated that the endings of adjective must agree with the h ead noun in case, number and gender. 12.。
chapter4 syntax
Chapter 4：SyntaxI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, including the combination of morphemes into words.2.Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.3. Sentences are composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order, with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic.4.Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker are known as linguistic competence.5. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.6. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.7. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.8. Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixed and new members are allowed for.9. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.10. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.11.What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.12. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.13. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.14. WH-movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:15. A s________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a sub-ject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.16. A s______ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.17. A s______ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.18. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called p_________.19. A c_________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.20. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an e_______ clause.21. Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sense that new words are constantly added.22. A _____ Condition on case assignment states that a case assignor and a case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.23. P_______ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages.24. The theory of C_____condition explains the fact that noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.III. There are four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:25. A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammati-cal knowledge in the mind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical26. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC. prepositionD. subordinator27. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC. socialD. functional28. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand _____________.A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. All of the above.29. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called ________.A. transformational rulesB. generative rulesC. phrase structure rulesD. x-bar theory30. The theory of case condition accounts for the fact that __________.A. noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.B. noun phrases can be used to modify another noun phraseC. noun phrase can be used in adverbial positionsD. noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary.31. The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. Only hierarchicalC. complexD. both linear and hierarchical32. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite33. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sen-tences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational34._______ rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.A. GenerativeB. TransformationalC. X-barD. Phrase structureIV. Define the following terms:35. syntax 36. Sentence 37. coordinate sentence38. syntactic categories 39. grammatical relations40. linguistic competence 41. transformational rules42. D-structureV. Answer the following questions:43. What are the basic components of a sentence?44. What are the major types of sentences Illustrate them with examples.45. Are the elements in a sentence linearly structured? Why?46. What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures?47. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples.48. Explain and exemplify the following PS rules.(1) NP {(D)N / Pron }(s)(2) Aux—t(M)(have-en)(be-ing)49. What is the nature of Transformational-generative grammar? What are its main aspects?50. Which of the following sentences are ambiguous? For those you find ambiguous, paraphrase them so as to illustrate why they are ambiguous?(1) This is my colleague, Frank.(2) Are you tired of cleaning yourself? Let us do it.(3) In the film, Pat was a witch.(4) He promised me to come next week.(5) Patent medicines are sold by frightening people.(6) Dog for sale; eats anything and is fond of children.(7) I found something interesting on the Internet.51. Some grammar books say there are three tenses in English—the present, the past and the future; others say there are only two basic tenses—the present and the past. Explain what tense is and whether it is justifiable to say there is a future tense in English.52. On the basis of the following data, write out the phrase structure rules for adverb phrases and verb phrases.(1) John walked slowly.(2) Tom talked with Jack very quietly.(3) Alice discussed the matter with her best friend quite early.Chapter 4 SyntaxI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:l.F 2.T 3.F 4.T 5.T 6.T 7.T 8.F 9.F 10.T 11.F 12.T 13.T 14.TII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:15. simple, 16. sentence 17. subject 18. predicate 19. complex 20.embedded 21. open 22.adjacency 23.Parameters 24.CaseIII. There are four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:25. D 26. D 27. A 28. D 29. A 30. A31. D 32. C 33. D 34. BIV. Define the following terms:35. syntax: Syntax is a subfield of linguistics. It studies the sentence structure of language. It consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences.36. Sentence: A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, asentence consists of at least a subject and a predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.37. coordinate sentence: A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or".38. syntactic categories: Apart from sentences and clauses, a syntactic category usually refers to a word (called a lexical category) or a phrase ( called a phrasal category) that performs a particular grammatical function.39. grammatical relations: The structural and logical functional relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. The grammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. In many cases, grammatical relations in fact refer to who does what to whom .40. linguistic competence: Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.41. Transformational rules: Transformational rules are the rules that transform one sentence type into another type.42. D-structure: D- structure is the level of syntactic representation that exists before movement takes place. Phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.V. Answer the following questions:43. What are the basic components of a sentence ?Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.44. What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples.Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences. They are simple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence. A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence, for example:John reads extensively.A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example:John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparingfor her history exam.A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do not have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For exam-ple:Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in lin-guistics.45. Are the elements in a sentence linearly structured? Why?No. Language is both linearly and hierarchically structured. When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence. A closer examination of a sentence shows that a sentence is not composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic. In fact, sentences are also hierarchically structured. They are organized by grouping together words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase (NP) or verb phrase (VP), as can be seen from the following tree diagram:SNP VPDet N Vt NPDet NThe boy likes the music.46. What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures ?The tree diagram can not only reveal a linear order, but also a hierarchical structure that groups words into structural constituents. It can, in addition, show the syntactic category of each structural constituent, thus it is believed to most truthfully illustrate the constituent relationship among linguistic elements.47. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples.NP movement in-volves the movement of a noun phrase. NP-movement occurs when, for example, a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice:(A) The man beat the child.(B). The child was beaten by the man.B is the result of the movement of the noun phrases "the man" and "the child" from their original positions in (A) to new positions. That is, "the man" is postposed to the right and "the child" is preposed to the left.Not all instances of NP-movement, however, are related to changing a sentence from the active voice to the passive voice. For example:(C) It seems they are quite fit for the job.(D) They seem quite fit for the job.These sentences are identical in meaning, but different in their superficial syntactic representations. It is believed that they have the same underlying structure, but (27b) is the result of an NP movement.48. (1) The rule means that a noun phrase can be written as a determiner plus a noun or a pronoun, and may then be followed by a sentence. For example, (a) the man who came to see me last night, and (b) He who had never been there before.(2) The rule means that an auxiliary can be represented by a number of ways. An auxiliary should contain tense element (t) and a modal verb (M), or a past perfect form (have-en), or be plus an –ing form of a verb, e.g.: Aux—t(M): May I read your paper? Aux—t(have-en): Have you finished your paper? Aux—t(be-ing): Are you reading your paper?49. Transformational-generative grammar linguistic theory is associated with Noam Chomsky, particularly with his Syntactic Structures(1957). Generative grammar attempts to define rules that can generate the infinite number of grammatical(well-formed) sentences possible in a language. It starts not from a behaviorist analysis of minimal sounds but from a rationalst assumption that a deepstructure underlies a language, and that a similar deep underlies all languages. Transformational grammar seeks to identify rules (transformations) that govern relations between parts of a sentence, on the assumption that beneath such aspects as word order a fundamental structure exists. Transformational and generative grammar together were the starting point for the tremendous growth in linguistic studies since 1950s.TG Grammar has the following features. First, it seews language as a set of rules or principles. Second, the aim of linguistics is to produce a generative grammar which captures the linguistic competence of the native speaker. This concerns the question of learning theory and the question of linguistic universals. Third, grammarians are interested in any data that can reveal the native speaker‟s knowledge instead of what native speakers actually say; they rely on their own intuition. Fourth, the methodology used is hypothesis-deductive, which operates at two levels: (a) the linguist formulates a hypothesis about language structure—a general linguistic theory; this is tested by grammars of particular languages, and (b) each such grammar is a hypothesis on the general linguistic theory. Finally, the reaearchers follow rationalism in philosophy and mentalism in psychology.50. (1) This sentence is ambiguous, since it can be interpreted in two ways; first, it could be interpreted as that “I” was introducing my colleague Frank to someone else. Second, it could also means “I” was introducing my colleague to Frank.(2) This sentence is ambiguous. First, “Are you tired of cleaning all by yourself?”Second, “Are you tired of taking bath yourself?”(3) This sentence is ambiguous. First, “In the film, there is a character called “Pat”, who is a witch”. Second, “ Pat is an actor, and he plays the role of witch in the film.”(4) This sentence is unambiguous.(5) This sentence is ambiguous. First, “it is frightening people who sell patent medicines‟. Second, “ The way of selling patent medicines is by frightening people.”(6) This sentence is ambiguous. First, this dog is not particular about food, and is friendly to children; Second, this dog eats anything, especially children.(7) This sentence is ambiguous. First, “on the internet there was something interesting‟ (I found/something interesting on the internet). Second, “ I have surfed the internet for …the interesting thing‟” (I found something interesting/ on the internet). 51. Tense is primarily used to indicate the thime at which an event took place(but also has secondary uses, as in I wish I took you seriously). Tense and aspect are two imporant categories of the verb, and they were not separated in traditional grammar. Based on the tense system in Latin grammar, English used to be said to have 16 tenses. Nowadays, linguists make two distinctions: one between time andt ense, and the other between tense and aspect. Time is a universal concept, which every language is capable of expressing; while tense is a linguistic concept, which varies from language to language. The difference between tense and aspect is that the former is deictic, i.e. indication time relative to the timeo of utterance; while the latter is not deictic, the time indicated is not relative to the time of utterance, but relative to the time of another event described, or implied, in te narrative. As a result, there are only two tenses recognized now: past and present. The so-called future tense is not expressed inthe same way as these two. That is , it is not expressed by morphology, not by the different forms of the verb, but by various other means, such as “will/shall +infinitive”, “be going to + infinitive”, “present progressive aspect”“simple presnet tense” and “will/shall +progressive infinitive”. And will and shall are basically modal verbs like can and may.52. Adverbs may be preceded by a very tiny class of adverbs, as shown by the above sentences. The class of adverbs in these sentences leads to the following new Phrase Structure rules:AdvP→(Deg) Adv(Deg stands for degree words)VP→V(NP)(PP)( AdvP)。
英语语言学复习资料
英语语言学复习资料注: 1.试题类型为选择题,填空题,语料分析题和问答题.2.未标习题的章节为一般了解.Chapter 1Language and Linguistics: An Overview1.1 What is language?1.2 Features of human languages(i) Creativity (or productivity)Productivity is the first and foremost striking feature of human language._________ is the first and foremost striking feature of human language.A. DualityB. ArbitrarinessC. CreativityD. Displacement(ii) Duality( ) Language contains two subsystems, one of speaking and the other of writing. (iii) Arbitrariness( ) The Swiss linguist de Saussure regarded the linguistic sign as composed of sound image and referent.(iv) Displacement( ) Modern linguistics is prescriptive rather than descriptive.( ) Language can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present or future.(v) Cultural transmission(vi) Interchangeability(vii) Reflexivity1.3 Functions of language(i) The ideational function(ii) The interpersonal function(iii) The textual functionWhich of the following does not belong to the language metafunctions illustrated byM.A.K. Halliday?A.Ideational functionB. Interpersonal functionC．Textual function. D. Logical function1.4 Types of language( ) Chinese is an agglutinating language.1.5 The myth of language: language origin1.6 Linguistics: the scientific study of language1.6.1 Linguistics as a science1.6.2 Branches of linguistics(i) Intra-disciplinary divisions(ii) Inter-disciplinary divisions1.6.3 Features of modern linguisticsChapter 2 Phonetics: The Study of Speech Sounds2.1 The study of speech soundsThe study of speech sounds is called ________.A. PhoneticsB. Articulatory phoneticsC. PhonologyD. Acoustic Phonetics2.2 The sound-producing mechanism2.3 Phonetic transcription of speech sounds2.3.1 Unit of representation2.3.2 Phonetic symbols2.4 Description of English consonants2.5 Description of English vowels( ) Not all vowels are voiced.2.6 Phonetic features and natural classesI. Write the phonetic symbol that corresponds to the articulatory description. (10%) Example: vowel front high [i:]1．bilabial nasal2．voiced labiovelar glide3．literal liquid4．voiced bilabial stop5．front high laxII. Transcribe the sound represented by the underlined letter(s) in the words and then describe it. (10%)Example: heat [i:] vowel front high1．write2．actor3．city4．worry1．yesChapter 3 Phonology: The Study of Sound Systems and Patterns3.1 The study of sound systems and patterns( ) The study of speech sounds is called Phonology.3.2 Phonemes and allophones3.3 Discovering phonemes3.3.1 Contrastive distributionSip and zip, tip and dip, map and nap, etc, are all ______.A. minimal pairsB. minimal setsC. allophonesD. phomes3.3.2 Complimentary distribution( ) The voiceless bilabial stop in pin and the one in spin are in complementary distribution.Pronounce the words key and core, ski and score, paying attention to the phoneme /k/. What difference do you notice between the first pair and the second pair in terms of the phonetic features of the voiceless velar stop? (10%)3.3.3 Free Variation( ) If segments appear in the same position but the mutual substitution does not result in change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation.3.3.4 The discovery procedure3.4 Distinctive features and non-distinctive features3.5 Phonological rules3.6 Syllable structureEvery syllable has a(n) _______, which is usually a vowel.A. onsetB. nucleusC. codaD. rhyme3.7 Sequence of phonemes3.8 Features above segments3.8.1 Stress3.8.2 Intonation3.8.3 Tone( ) Tone is the variation of pitch to distinguish utterance meaning.Which of the following does not belong to suprasegmental features?B.Stress B. IntonationC. ToneD. Syllable3.8.4 The functioning of stress and intonation in EnglishI.How would you read the phrases in the two columns? What does each of them mean? (10%)Column I Column IIa. a bluebird a blue birdb. a lighthouse keeper a light housekeeperII.Explain the ambiguity of the following sentences. (10%)1. Those who went there quickly made a fortune.2. A woman murdererChapter 4 Morphology: The Study of Word Structure4.1 Words and word structure1.________ is defined as the study of the internal structure and the formation of words.A. MorphologyB. SyntaxC. LexiconD. Morpheme4.2 Morpheme: the minimal meaningful unit of language4.3 Classification of morphemes4.3.1 Free and bound morphemes( ) In the phrases a herd of cattle, a flock of sheep, both cattle and sheep contain only one morpheme.In the phrases a herd of cattle, a flock of sheep, both cattle and sheep contain _____ morphemes.A. oneB. twoC. threeD. four4.3.2. Inflectional and derivational morphemes4.4 Formation of English words4.4.1 Derivation4.4.2 Compounding( ) The meaning of compounds is always the sum of meaning of the compounds. ( ) A greenbottle is a type of bottle.( ) Compounding, the combination of free morphemes, is a common way to form words.4.4.3 Other types of English word formationTell the process of word formation illustrated by the example and find as many words as you can that are formed in the same way. (10%)a) flub) OPECc) Nobeld)televisee) better (v.)_____ is a process that puts an existing word of one class into another class.A. ClippingB. BlendingC. EponymD. ConversionChapter 5 Syntax: the Analysis of Sentence Structure5.1 Grammaticality5.2 Knowledge of sentence structure5.3 Different approaches to syntax5.4 Transformational-generative grammar5.4.1 The goal of a TG grammar5.4.2 Syntactic categories5.4.3 Phrase structure rules5.4.4 Tree diagramsDraw two tree diagrams of the following ambiguous sentence. (10%)Pat found a book on Wall Street.5.4.5 Recursion and the infinitude of language5.4.6 Subcategorization of the lexicon5.4.7 Transformational rules5.5 Systemic-functional grammar5.5.1 Two perspectives of syntactic analysis: chain and choice5.5.2 The three metafunctions5.5.3 Transitivity: syntactic structure as representation of experienceMaterial processesRelational processesMental processesVerbal processesBehavioral processesExistential processesIdentify the type of transitivity process in each of the following sentences. (10%)1. John washed the car.2. John likes the car.5.5.4 Mood and modality: syntactic structure as representation of interaction5.5.5 Theme and rheme: syntactic structure as organization of message Chapter 6 Semantics: the Analysis of Meaning6.1 The study of meaning6.2 Reference and sense6.2.1 Reference6.2.2 Sense6.3 Classification of lexical meaningsBoth pretty and handsome mean good-looking but they differ in ________ meaning.A. collocativeB. socialC. affectiveD. reflected6.3.1 Referential meaning and associative meaning6.3.2 Types of associative meaning6.4 Lexical sense relations6.4.1 Synonymy6.4.2 Antonymy6.4.3 Homonymy6.4.4 Polysemy6.4.5 HyponymyExplain the relation between bank1(the side of a river) and bank2(the financial institute). (5%)6.5. Describing lexical meaning: componential analysis6.6 Words and concepts6.6.1 Categorization6.6.2 Prototypes6.6.3 Hierarchies6.7 Semantic relations of sentencesTell the semantic relation within the given sentence and that between the two sentences.(15%)a)My uncle is male.b)The spinster is married.c)Jim is an orphan. Jim lives with his parents.d)Sam is the husband of Sally. Sally is the wife of Sam.e)He has gone to London. He has gone to England.6.8 Metaphors6.8.1 From rhetorical device to cognitive device6.8.2 The components of metaphors6.8.3 Features of metaphorsChapter 7 Pragmatics: Analysis of Meaning in Context7.1 The pragmatic analysis of meaning7.2 Deixis and reference7.3 Speech ActsWhat are the three dimensions that a speech act consists of?7.4 Cooperation and implicatureWhat are the four maxims of the Cooperative Principle?7.5 The politeness principle7.6 The principle of relevance7.7 Conversational structure______ refers to having the right to speak by turns.A．Adjacency pairs B. Turn-talkingC．Preferred second parts D. Insertion sequencesChapter 8 Language in Social Contexts8.1 Sociolinguistic study of languageHow do sociolinguists classify the varieties of English?8.2 Varieties of a language1. ______ is a term widely used in sociolinguistics to refer to “varieties according to use.”A. RegisterB. FieldC. ModeD. Tenor2. British English and American English are ______ varieties of the English language.A. functionalB. socialC. regionalD. standard8.3 Grades of formality8.4 Languages in contactHow do you distinguish pidgin from Creole?8.5 Taboos and euphemisms8.6 Language and culture8.7. Communicative competenceChapter 9 Second Language Acquisition9.1 What is second language acquisition?In _____ stage, children use single words to represent various meanings.A. telegraphicB. two-wordC. holophrasticD. babbling9.2 Factors affecting SLA9.3 Analyzing learners' language_____ is the approximate language system that the learner constructs for use in communication through the target language.A. MetalanguageB. InterlanguageC. SignD. Esperanto9.4 Explaining second language acquisitionChapter 10 Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching10.1 Foreign language teaching as a system10.2 Contribution of linguistics: applications and implications10.3 Linguistic underpinning of syllabus design10.4 Method as integration of theory and practice10.5 Linguistics in the professional development of language teachers。
英语同形异义词词典
英语同形异义词词典A Dictionary of English HomonymsLanguage is a complex and fascinating system, with countless nuances and intricacies that often confound even the most proficient speakers. One particularly intriguing aspect of language is the phenomenon of homonyms - words that are spelled and pronounced the same but have different meanings. These linguistic oddities can be a source of amusement, confusion, and even frustration for language learners and native speakers alike.In the vast and ever-evolving landscape of the English language, homonyms are particularly prevalent, adding a layer of complexity and richness to the way we communicate. From the everyday to the esoteric, these words with dual identities can be found in every corner of the lexicon, waiting to trip up the unwary and delight the linguistically inclined.Take the word "bear," for example. This unassuming three-letter word can refer to the large, furry mammal that roams the wilderness,or it can mean to carry or support a weight. The context in which it is used is the only clue to its intended meaning, a fact that can lead to amusing misunderstandings or even serious miscommunications.Consider the sentence "I can't bear the thought of you leaving." Does the speaker mean they cannot physically support or carry the thought, or that they find the idea of your departure deeply distressing? The homonymous nature of the word "bear" leaves the meaning open to interpretation, adding a layer of ambiguity to the statement.Another common homonym is the word "bank." This seemingly innocuous term can refer to the sloping land bordering a body of water, the financial institution where people deposit and borrow money, or even the act of tilting an aircraft during a turn. Without additional context, the listener or reader is left to decipher which meaning is intended, a task that can be challenging, especially for non-native speakers.The versatility of homonyms extends far beyond the realms of everyday language. Even in more specialized fields, these linguistic doppelgangers can wreak havoc. In the world of medicine, for instance, the term "discharge" can refer to the release of a patient from a healthcare facility or the fluid that emanates from a wound or body orifice. A doctor's order to "increase the patient's discharge"could be interpreted in drastically different ways, with potentially serious consequences.Similarly, in the realm of law, the word "counsel" can mean either the legal advice provided by an attorney or the attorney themselves. The sentence "The counsel advised the client to seek further counsel" is a prime example of how homonyms can create ambiguity and confusion, even in a field where precision is paramount.Beyond the practical implications of homonyms, these linguistic curiosities can also be a source of humor and wordplay. Puns, a form of linguistic humor that relies on the dual meanings of words, often capitalize on the existence of homonyms. "I used to be addicted to soap, but I'm clean now" is a classic example of a pun that plays on the homonymous relationship between "clean" (free from dirt) and "clean" (free from addiction).The appeal of homonyms extends beyond the realm of humor, however. Writers and poets have long recognized the creative potential of these linguistic doppelgangers, using them to craft rich, multilayered narratives and evocative imagery. In the hands of a skilled wordsmith, a homonym can become a powerful tool for conveying complex ideas, evoking emotional responses, and challenging the reader's assumptions.In the famous poem "Ode on a Grecian Urn" by John Keats, the line "Thou still unravish'd bride of quietness" is a prime example of how homonyms can add depth and nuance to a work of literature. The word "unravish'd" can be interpreted as both "untouched" and "not violated," creating a layered and ambiguous description of the urn that invites the reader to ponder the nature of beauty, mortality, and the relationship between art and reality.As the English language continues to evolve, the role of homonyms is likely to become even more prominent. With the ever-increasing pace of technological and cultural change, new words and meanings are constantly being added to the lexicon, leading to a proliferation of homonymous relationships. Social media, for instance, has given rise to a host of new homonyms, such as "post" (to publish online) and "post" (a piece of upright support), which can lead to confusion and misunderstandings in digital communication.In the face of this linguistic complexity, the creation of a comprehensive dictionary of English homonyms becomes an increasingly valuable resource. Such a reference work would not only serve to clarify the various meanings of these linguistic doppelgangers but also provide a fascinating glimpse into the rich tapestry of the English language.Within the pages of this hypothetical dictionary, readers would findentries that not only define the different meanings of a homonymous word but also provide examples of its usage, historical context, and even etymological insights. This wealth of information would not only aid in resolving ambiguities and misunderstandings but also foster a deeper appreciation for the nuances and idiosyncrasies of the English language.Moreover, a dictionary of English homonyms could serve as a valuable tool for language learners, both native and non-native speakers alike. By providing a centralized resource for navigating the treacherous waters of homonyms, such a reference work could help students and language enthusiasts develop a more robust understanding of the language, improving their ability to communicate effectively and avoid common pitfalls.Beyond its practical applications, a dictionary of English homonyms could also serve as a source of intellectual and creative stimulation. By delving into the rich tapestry of these linguistic oddities, readers could uncover new avenues for wordplay, literary exploration, and linguistic experimentation. The study of homonyms could inspire writers, poets, and linguists to push the boundaries of language, crafting innovative and thought-provoking works that challenge our perceptions and expand our understanding of the power of words.In conclusion, the creation of a comprehensive dictionary of Englishhomonyms would be a valuable addition to the lexicographic landscape, providing a resource that not only clarifies the nuances of these linguistic doppelgangers but also celebrates the richness and complexity of the English language. Whether one's interest lies in the practical applications of such a reference work or in the intellectual and creative potential it unlocks, the exploration of homonyms promises to be a rewarding and enlightening journey, one that reveals the true depth and versatility of the words we use every day.。
2012.9《语言学教程》测试题(1-6章)
Chapter 1 Introductions to LinguisticsI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human __________A. contactB. communicationC. relationD. community2. Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?A. treeB. typewriterC. crashD. bang3. The function of the sentence ―Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade.‖ is__________.A. interrogativeB. directiveC. informativeD. performative4. In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say“碎碎（岁岁）平安”as a means of controlling the forces which they believes feel might affect their lives. Which functions does it perform?A. InterpersonalB.EmotiveC. PerformativeD. Recreational5. Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place, due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation?A. TransferabilityB. DualityC.DisplacementD. Arbitrariness6. Study the following dialogue. What function does it playaccording to the functions of language?—A nice day, isn’t it?— Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.A. EmotiveB. PhaticC. PerformativeD. Interpersonal7. __________ refers to the actual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in utterances.A. PerformanceB. CompetenceC. LangueD. Parole8. When a dog is barking, you assume it is barking for something or at someone that exists here and now. It couldn’t be sorrowful for some lost love or lost bone. This indicates the design feature of __________.A.cultural transmissionB.productivityC.displacementD. duality9. __________ answers such questions as how we as infants acquire our first language.A. PsycholinguisticsB.Anthropological linguisticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Applied linguistics10. __________ deals with language application to other fields, particularly education.A. Linguistic theoryB. Practical linguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. Comparative linguistics II. Decide whether the following statements are true or false.(10%)11. Language is a means of verbal communication. Therefore, the communication way used by the deaf-mute is not language.12. Language change is universal, ongoing and arbitrary.13. Speaking is the quickest and most efficient way of the human communication systems.14. Language is written because writing is the primary medium for all languages.15. We were all born with the ability to acquire language, which means the details of any language system can be genetically transmitted.16. Only human beings are able to communicate.17. F. de Saussure, who made the distinction between langue and parole in the early 20th century, was a French linguist.18. A study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time is an example of the diachronic study of language.19. Speech and writing came into being at much the same time in human history.20. All the languages in the world today have both spoken and written forms.III. Fill in the blanks. (10%)21. Language, broadly speaking, is a means of __________ communication.22. In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be combined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usually termed __________.23. Language has many functions. We can use language to talk about itself. This function is __________.24. Theory that primitive man made involuntary vocal noises while performing heavy work has been called the __________ theory.25. Linguistics is the __________ study of language.26. Modern linguistics is __________ in the sense that the linguist tries to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.27. One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of __________ over writing.28. The description of a language as it changes through time is a __________ study.29. Saussure put forward two important concepts. __________ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.30. Linguistic potential is similar to Saussure’s langue and Chomsky’s __________.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%) 31. Design feature 32. Displacement33. Competence 34. Synchronic linguisticsV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. Why do people take duality as one of the important design features of human language? Can you tell us what language will be if it has no such design feature? （南开大学，2004）36. Why is it difficult to define language? （北京第二外国语大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. How can a linguist make his analysis scientific? （青岛海洋大学，1999）Chapter 2 Speech SoundsI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Pitch variation is known as __________ when its patterns are imposed on sentences.A. intonationB.toneC. pronunciationD. voice2. Conventionally a __________ is put in slashes (/ /).A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme3. An aspirated p, an unaspirated p and an unreleased p are __________ of the p phoneme.A. analoguesB. tagmemesC. morphemesD. allophones4. The opening between the vocal cords is sometimes referred to as __________.A. glottisB. vocal cavityC. pharynxD. uvula5. The diphthongs that are made with a movement of the tongue towards the center are known as __________ diphthongs.A. wideB. closingC. narrowD. centering6. A phoneme is a group of similar sounds called __________.A. minimal pairsB. allomorphsC. phonesD. allophones7. Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech sounds?A. Acoustic phoneticsB. Articulatory phoneticsC. Auditory phoneticsD. None of the above8. Which one is different from the others according to places of articulation?A. [n]B. [m]C. [ b ]D. [p]9. Which vowel is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowels?A. [i:]B. [ u ]C. [e]D. [ i ]10. What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibrating?A. V oicelessB. V oicedC. Glottal stopD. Consonant II.Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Suprasegmental phonology refers to the study of phonological properties of units larger than the segment-phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.12. The air stream provided by the lungs has to undergo a number of modification to acquire the quality of a speech sound.13. Two sounds are in free variation when they occur in the same environment and do not contrast, namely, the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word, but merely a different pronunciation.14. [p] is a voiced bilabial stop.15. Acoustic phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.16. All syllables must have a nucleus but not all syllables contain an onset and a coda.17. When pure vowels or monophthongs are pronounced, no vowel glides take place.18. According to the length or tenseness of the pronunciation, vowels can be divided into tense vs. lax or long vs. short.19. Received Pronunciation is the pronunciation accepted by most people.20. The maximal onset principle states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the coda rather than the onset.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21.Consonant sounds can be either __________ or __________, while all vowel sounds are __________.22. Consonant sounds can also be made when two organs of speech in the mouth are brought close together so that the air is pushed out between them, causing __________.23.The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the __________ and the lips.24. One element in the description of vowels is the part of thetongue which is at the highest point in the mouth. A second element is the __________ to which that part of the tongue is raised.25. Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without __________.26.In phonological analysis the words fail / veil are distinguishable simply because of the two phonemes /f/ - /v/. This is an example for illustrating __________.27. In English there are a number of __________, which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.28.__________ refers to the phenomenon of sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.29. __________ is the smallest linguistic unit.30. Speech takes place when the organs of speech move to produce patterns of sound. These movements have an effect on the __________ coming from the lungs.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Sound assimilation 32. Suprasegmental feature33. Complementary distribution 34. Distinctive featuresV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. What is acoustic phonetics?（中国人民大学，2003）36. What are the differences between voiced sounds and voiceless sounds in terms of articulation?（南开大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Write the symbol that corresponds to each of the following phonetic descriptions; then give an English word that contains this sound. Example: voiced alveolar stop [d] dog. （青岛海洋大学，1999）(1) voiceless bilabial unaspirated stop(2) low front vowel(3) lateral liquid(4) velar nasal(5) voiced interdental fricativeChapter 3 LexiconI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as __________.A. lexical wordsB. grammatical wordsC. function wordsD. form words2. Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called __________ morpheme.A. inflectionalB. freeC. boundD. derivational3. There are __________ morphemes in the word denationalization.A. threeB. fourC. fiveD. six4. In English –ise and –tion are called __________.A. prefixesB. suffixesC. infixesD. stems5.The three subtypes of affixes are: prefix, suffix and __________.A. derivational affixB. inflectional affixC.infixD. back-formation6. __________ is a way in which new words may be formed from already existing words by subtracting an affix which is thought to be part of the old word.A. affixationB. back-formationC. insertionD. addition7. The word TB is formed in the way of __________.A. acronymy B. clipping C. initialism D. blending8.The words like comsat and sitcom are formed by __________.A. blendingB. clippingC. back-formationD. acronymy9. The stem of disagreements is __________.A. agreementB. agreeC. disagreeD. disagreement10. All of them are meaningful except for __________.A. lexemeB. phonemeC. morphemeD. allomorphII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.12.Fore as in foretell is both a prefix and a bound morpheme.13. Base refers to the part of the word that remains when all inflectional affixes are removed.14.In most cases, prefixes change the meaning of the base whereas suffixes change the word-class of the base.15. Conversion from noun to verb is the most productive process of a word.16. Reduplicative compound is formed by repeating the same morpheme of a word.17. The words whimper, whisper and whistle are formed in the way of onomatopoeia.18. In most cases, the number of syllables of a word corresponds to the number of morphemes.19. Back-formation is a productive way of word-formations.20. Inflection is a particular way of word-formations.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21.An __________ is pronounced letter by letter, while an __________ is pronounced as a word.22. Lexicon, in most cases, is synonymous with __________.23.Orthographically, compounds are written in three ways: __________, __________ and __________.24. All words may be said to contain a root __________.25.A small set of conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns belong to __________ class, while the largest part of nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs belongs to __________ class. 26. _________ is a reverse process of derivation, and therefore is a process of shortening.27.__________ is extremely productive, because English had lost most of its inflectional endings by the end of Middle English period, which facilitated the use of words interchangeably as verbs or nouns, verbs or adjectives, and vice versa.28.W ords are divided into simple, compound and derived words on the __________ level.29. A word formed by derivation is called a __________, and a word formed by compounding is called a __________.30.Bound morphemes are classified into two types: __________and __________.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Blending 32. Allomorph33. Closed-class word 34. Morphological ruleV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. How many types of morphemes are there in the English language? What are they? （厦门大学，2003）36. What are the main features of the English compounds? VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Match the terms under COLUMN I with the underlined forms from COLUMN II （武汉大学，2004）III(1)acronym a. foe(2)free morpheme b. subconscious(3)derivational morpheme c. UNESCO(4)inflectional morpheme d. overwhelmed(5) prefix e. calculationChapter 4 SyntaxI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. only hierarchicalC. complexD. both linear and hierarchical2. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite3. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational4. A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammati?cal knowledge in the mind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical5. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC. prepositionD. subordinator6. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC. socialD. functional7.Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand _____________.A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. all of the above.8. The head of the phrase ―the city Rome‖ is __________.A. the cityB. RomeC. cityD. the city Rome9.The phrase ―on the shelf‖ belongs to __________ construction.A. endocentricB. exocentricC. subordinateD. coordinate10. The sentence ―Th ey were wanted to remain quiet and not to expose themselves.‖ is a __________ sentence.A. simpleB. coordinateC. compoundD. complexII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker are known as linguistic competence.12. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.13. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.14.Constituents that can be substituted for one another withoutloss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category. 15. Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixed and new members are allowed for.16. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.17. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.18. What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.19. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.20. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. A __________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.22. A __________ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.23. A __________ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.24. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called __________.25. A __________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.26. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an __________ clause.27. Major lexical categories are __________ categories in the sense that new words are constantly added.28. __________ condition on case assignment states that a case assignor and a case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.29. __________ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages.30. The theory of __________ condition explains the fact that noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%) 31. Syntax 32. IC analysis33. Hierarchical structure 34. Trace theoryV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35.What are endocentric construction and exocentric construction? （武汉大学，2004）36. Distinguish the two possible meanings of “more beautiful flowers”by means of IC analysis. （北京第二外国语大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Draw a tree diagram according to the PS rules to show the deep structure of the sentence:The student wrote a letter yesterday.Chapter 5 MeaningI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. The naming theory is advanced by ________.A. PlatoB. BloomfieldC. Geoffrey LeechD. Firth2. ―W e shall know a word by the company it keeps.‖ This statement represents _______.A. the conceptualist viewB. contexutalismC. the naming theoryD. behaviorism3. Which of the following is NOT true?A. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.B. Sense is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form.C. Sense is abstract and decontextualized.D. Sense is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are not interested in.4. ―Can I borrow your bike?‖_______ ―You have a bike.‖A. is synonymous withB. is inconsistent withC. entailsD. presupposes5. ___________ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.A. Predication analysisB. Componential analysisC. Phonemic analysisD. Grammatical analysis6. ―Alive‖ and ―dead‖ are ______________.A. gradable antonymsB. relational antonymsC. complementary antonymsD. None of the above7. _________ deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.A. ReferenceB. ConceptC. SemanticsD. Sense8. ___________ refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.A. PolysemyB. SynonymyC. HomonymyD. Hyponymy9. W ords that are close in meaning are called ______________.A. homonymsB. polysemiesC. hyponymsD. synonyms10. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by _______.A. grammatical rulesB. selectional restrictionsC. semantic rulesD. semantic featuresII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Dialectal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as British English and American English but cannot be found within the variety itself, for example, within British English or American English.12.Sense is concerned with the relationship between thelinguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience, while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.13. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.14.In semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsic and inherent relation to the physical world of experience.15. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.16. Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.17. The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its components.18. Most languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but ranked differently according to their degree of formality. 19. ―It is hot.‖ is a no-place predication because it contains no argument.20. In grammatical analysis, the sentence is taken to be the basic unit, but in semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of asentence.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. __________ can be defined as the study of meaning.22. The conceptualist view holds that there is no __________ link between a linguistic form and what it refers to.23. __________ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.24. W ords that are close in meaning are called __________.25. When two words are identical in sound, but different in spelling and meaning, they are called __________.26. __________ opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.27.__________ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components. 28.Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called __________ restrictions, which are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.29. A(n) __________ is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence. 30. According to the __________ theory of meaning, the words in a lan?guage are taken to be labels of the objects they standfor.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%) 31. Entailment 32. Proposition33. Componential analysis 34. ReferenceV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. What are the sense relations between the following groups of words?Dogs, cats, pets, parrots; trunk, branches, tree, roots （青岛海洋大学，1999）36. What are the three kinds of antonymy? （武汉大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. For each group of words given below, state what semantic property or properties are shared by the (a) words and the (b) words, and what semantic property or properties distinguish between the classes of (a) words and (b) words.(1) a. bachelor, man, son, paperboy, pope, chiefb. bull, rooster, drake, ram(2) a. table, stone, pencil, cup, house, ship, carb. milk, alcohol, rice, soup(3) a. book, temple, mountain, road, tractorb. idea, love, charity, sincerity, bravery, fear （青岛海洋大学，1999）Chapter 6 pragmaticsI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning _________ is considered.A. referenceB. speech actC. practical usageD. context2. A sentence is a _________ concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied in isolation.A. pragmaticB. grammaticalC. mentalD. conceptual3. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes a (n) _________.A. constativeB. directiveC. utteranceD. expressive4. Which of the following is true?A. Utterances usually do not take the form of sentences.B. Some utterances cannot be restored to complete sentences.C. No utterances can take the form of sentences.D. All utterances can be restored to complete sentences.5.Speech act theory did not come into being until __________.A. in the late 50’s o f the 20the centuryB. in the early 1950’sC. in the late 1960’sD. in the early 21st century6. __________ is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought aboutby the utterance.A.A locutionary actB. An illocutionary actC. A perlocutionary actD. A performative act7. According to Searle, the illocutionary point of the representative is ______.A. to get the hearer to do somethingB. to commit the speaker to something’s being the caseC. to commit the speaker to some future course of actionD. to express the feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs8. All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose, but they differ __________.A. in their illocutionary actsB. in their intentions expressedC. in their strength or forceD. in their effect brought about9. __________ is advanced by Paul GriceA.Cooperative PrincipleB. Politeness PrincipleC. The General Principle of Universal GrammarD. Adjacency Principle10. When any of the maxims under the cooperative principle is flouted, _______ might arise.A. impolitenessB. contradictionsC. mutual understandingD. conversational implicaturesII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent.12. It would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of language use was left unconsidered. 13. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.14. The major difference between a sentence and an utterance is that a sentence is not uttered while an utterance is.15.The meaning of a sentence is abstract, but context-dependent.16. The meaning of an utterance is decontexualized, therefore stable.17. Utterances always take the form of complete sentences18.Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle.19. Speech act theory started in the late 50’s of the 20th century.20. Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. The notion of __________ is essential to the pragmatic study of language.22. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an __________.23.The meaning of a sentence is __________, and decontexualized.24. __________ were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable.25.__________ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable.26. A(n) __________ act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.27. A(n) __________ act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.28. A(n) _________ is commit the speaker himself to some future course of action.29. A(n) ________ is to express feelings or attitude towards an existing state.30. There are four maxims under the cooperative principle: the maxim of __________, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner.。
Definition语言学
Definition: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Language is arbitrary, which means that there is no logical connection between the signal form and the thing being referred to.Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.Duality means that language is organized at two levels simultaneously.Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, future or in far-away places.Cultural transmission means that language is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.…………………………Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as the primary medium.Speech precedes writing.Speech is used more widely than writing.Speech is always the way in which native speakers acquire their mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later.……………………………The study of the phonic medium of language The study of speech sounds: the way in which they are articulated, the way in which they are perceived, their physical characteristics.bilabial Labio-dental dental alveolar palatal velar glottal Plosives(stops) VL p t kVD b d gFricatives VL f θs ʃh VD v ð z ʒAffricates VL ʧVD ʤNasals VD m n ηLiquids VL l, rGlides VD w jPhoneme音素: an abstract unit of distinctive value in phonology; a collection of distinctive phonetic features placed in slashes.Allophones音位变体: the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.Phonemic contrast: when two phonemes, such as /p/ and /b/ in rope and robe, occur in the same phonetic environments and distinguish meaning, they are said to form a phonemic contrast. Complementary distribution: if two allophones of the same phoneme, such as clear [l] and dark [ɫ] in leap and build, occur in different phonetic environments and do not distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution, they are said to be in complementary distribution.Minimal pair: when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair.A morpheme词素is a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function.Free morphemes: those which may constitute words by themselves.e.g. at in on foot rain treatBound morphemes: those which cannot normally stand alone, but which are typically attached to another form. All affixes in English are bound morphemes.e.g. –tion, -ism, -al, -er, -ed, -ing, -able, -lyDerivational morphemes: those that are added to a root to form a new word that differs usually in part-of-speech from the root. e.g.black---blacken, social---socialize adj.→v.affection---affectionate, alcohol---alcoholic n.→adj.Inflectional morphemes: those that indicate certain grammatical properties associated with nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs.8Syntax：The study of how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.Syntactic category refers to a word or phrase that performs a particular grammatical function such as the subject or object.Deep structure: the sentences generated by using phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon. (one that exists before movement takes place)Surface structure: the sentences derived from the application of syntactic movement rules(one that occurs after movement takes place) It is the final representation of a sentence. Semantics:the study of the inherent meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular. (the meaning in isolation from the context)Five kinds of synonyms:Dialectal synonyms------synonyms used in different regional dialectse.g. autumn---fall, lift---elevator, windscreen---windshieldStylistic synonyms------synonyms differing in style e.g. kid, child, offspringc. Affective Synonyms-------These are words that bear the same meaning but express different emotions of the user, indicating the attitude or bias of the user toward what he is talking about.like,love,admired. Collocational synonyms----------Some synonyms differ in their collocation, i.e. in the words they go together with.e. Semantically different synonyms Synonyms that differ slightly in what they mean. e.g.amaze (confusion and bewildment)了解Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.homophones: identical in soundhomographs: identical in spellingcomplete homonyms: identical in both sound and spelling记Gradable antonyms (mainly adj.)Some antonyms are gradable because there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair.Complementary antonyms: A pair of complementary antonyms is characterized by the feature that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other and the assertion of one means the denial of the other.Relational opposites:The members of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition.。
戴炜栋新编英语语言学判断正误题集
Chapter I IntroductionT 1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.F 2.Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.F 3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.T 4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checkedagainst the observed facts.T 5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.T 6. General linguistics, which relates itself to(in contrast to)the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.T 7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds toconvey meaning in communication.F 8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences.T 9 . The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology.F 10.Syntax (rules that govern the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in L) is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, butalso the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.T 11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.F 12 . Both semantics(L is used to convey meaning- the study of meaning)and pragmatics( the study of meaning is conducted in the context of language use)study meanings.T 13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, butin context.T 14.Social changes can often bring about language changes.T 15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.F 16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.T 17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.F18.A diachronic历时（ it changes through time） study of language is the description of languageat some point in time.Synchronic共时F 19 Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the spoken language.F 20. The distinction between competence语言能力 and performance语言运用 was proposed by F. de Saussure.N. ChomskyChapter 2： Phonology1. Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English.(T)2. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning,they are said to be in complementary distribution.（ F）3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.（ F）4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not.（ F）5. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.（T）6. In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount ofinformation conveyed.（ T）7. Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which aspeaker issues with the help of a machine called spectrograph.（F）8. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the throat,the mouth and the chest.（ F）9. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing.（T）10.English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the part of the tonguethat is raised the highest.（F）11.According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the consonants can beclassified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar.（F）12.Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue in the mouth,the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.（T）13.According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels, semi-closevowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels.（ F）14.Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme.（F）15.Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning.（ F）16.Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories.（ F）17. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound foranother results in a change of meaning.（T）18.When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occursin the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a phonemic contrast.（F）19. The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific.（T）20.Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over a sequence of two ormore phonemic segments. （T）Chapter 3 ： Morphology1.Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.（T）2.Words are the smallest meaningful units of language.（ F）3.Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit inthe study of morphology.（T）4.The smallest meaningful units that can be used freely all by themselves are free morphemes.（T）5.Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes.（ T）6.Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories suchas number, tense, degree, and case.（T）7.The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem, which can be abound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.（T）8.Prefixes usually modify the part of speech of the original word, not the meaning of it.（F）9.There are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word.Therefore, words formed according to the morphological rules are acceptable words.（ F）10. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element,while the second element receives secondary stress.（T）Chapter 4： 1. Syntax is a subfied of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language,including the combination of morphemes into words.（ F）2.Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.（ T）3. Sentences are composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order, with one addingonto another following a simple arithmetic logic.（ F）4.Universally found in the grammars of all human languages,syntactic rules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker are known as linguistic competence.（T）5. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number ofsentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.（T）6. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.（ T）7. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to thesame syntactic category.（T）8.Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixed and new membersare allowed for. （F）9.In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed,namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.（F）10. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.（T）11.What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.（F）12.A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.（ T）13.It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences atthe level of D-structure.（T）14.WH-movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.（ T）Chapter 5Semantics1.Dialectal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as British English andAmerican English but cannot be found within the variety itself, for example, within British English orAmerican English.（F）2. Sense is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguisticworld of experience, while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.（F）3. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.（T）4. In semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsic and inherent relation to thephysical world of experience.（F）5. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.（T）6. Behaviourists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which thespeaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.（T）7. The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its components.（F）8. Most languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but ranked differently according totheir degree of formality.（T）9. “it is hot.” is a-placeno predication because it contains no argument.（T）10. In grammatical analysis, the sentence is taken to be the basic unit, but in semantic analysis of asentence, the basic unit is predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.（T）Chapter 6 ： Pragmatics1.Both semantics and pragmatics study how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication（F）2.Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent.（F）3.It would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of language usewas left unconsidered.（T）4.What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning thecontext of use is considered.（T）5.The major difference between a sentence and an utterance is that a sentence is not uttered whilean utterance is.（ F）6.The meaning of a sentence is abstract, but context-dependent.（ F）7.The meaning of an utterance is decontexualized, therefore stable.（F ）8.Utterances always take the form of complete sentences（F）9.Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle.（F）10. Speech act theory started in the late 50’s of the 20th century. （ T）11.Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative.（ T）12. Perlocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention.（ F）Chapter 10&11：（ Second） Language Acquisition1.L1 development and L2 development seem to involve the same processes.（ F）2.The capacity to acquire one's first language is a fundamental human trait that all human beings areequally well possessed with.（ T）3.All normal children have equal ability to acquire their first language.（T）4.Children follow a similar acquisition schedule of predictable stages along the route of languagedevelopment across cultures, though there is an idiosyncratic variation in the amount of time thattakes individuals to master different aspects of the grammar.（ T）5.Humans can be said to be predisposed and biologically programmed to acquire at least one language.6.Some languages are inferior, or superior, to other languages. (T)nguage acquisition is primarily the acquisition of the vocabulary and the meaning of language.(F)8.Human beings are genetically predetermined to acquire language, this genetic predisposition isa sufficient condition for language development. (F)9.Children who grow up in culture where caretaker speech is absent acquire their nativelanguage more slowly than children who are exposed to caretaker speech. (F)10.In mother tongue acquisition, normal children are not necessarily equally successful. (F)11.For the vast majority of children, language development occurs spontaneously and require littleconscious instruction on the part of adults. (T)12.The available evidence to date indicates that an explicit teaching of correct forms to young children plays a minor role at best. (T)13.Correction and reinforcement are not key factors in child language development as theywere claimed to be. (T)14.Imitation, plays at best a very minor role in the child's mastery of language. (T)15.Observations of children in different language areas of the world reveal that the developmentalstages are similar, possibly universal, whatever the nature of the input. (T)16.A child's babbling seems to depend on the presence of acoustic, auditory input. (F)17.In general, the two-word stage begins roughly in the second half of the child's first year. (F)18.Children's two-word expressions are absent of syntactic or morphological markers. (T)19.Children first acquire the sounds in all languages of the world, no matter what language theyare exposed to, and in late stages acquire the more difficult sounds. (T)nguage acquisition begins at about the same time as lateralization does and is normally complete, as far as the essentials are concerned, by the time that the process of lateralization comes to an end. (T)Chapter12 ：language & brain (Psycholinguistics)1.The linguistic ability of human beings depends primarily on the structure of the vocal cords.2.Human beings are the only organisms in which one particular part of the left half of the brain is larger than the corresponding part of the right half.（T）3.The case of Phineas Gage suggests that if our language ability is located in the brain, it is clear that it is not situated right at the front.（T）4.In general, the right side of the brain controls voluntary movements of, and responds to signals from, the left side of the body, whereas the left side controls voluntary movements of, and responds to signals from, the right side of the body.（T）nguage functions are believed to be lateralized primarily in the left hemisphere of the brain.（ F）（T）6.The language we speak determines the way we perceive the world and therefore the natureof thought. （ F）7.Human beings can not think without language, just as they can not speak without thinking.8.If a language lacks a word, its speakers will not be able to grasp its concept.（F）（ F）9.Generally speaking, left hemisphere is responsible for language and speech, analytic reasoning,associative thought, etc., while the right hemisphere is responsible for perception of nonlinguisticsounds, holistic reasoning, recognition of musical melodies, etc.（T）nguage by no means determines the ways we perceive the objective world, but by its convenience, availability, and habitual use, does influence the perceptions of human being.（T）Chapter 7： Language Change（Historical Linguistics）1.One of the tasks of the historical linguists is to explore methods to reconstruct linguistic history andestablish the relationship between languages.（T）nguage change is a gradual and constant process, therefore often indiscernible to speakers ofthe same generation.（T）3.The history of the English language is divided into the periods of Old English, Middle English andModern English.（T）4.Middle English began with the arrival of Anglo-Saxons, who invaded the British Isles from northernEurope.（ F）5.In Old English, all the nouns are inflected to mark nominative, genitive, dative and accusativecases. （ F）6.In Old English, the verb of a sentence often precedes the subject rather than follows it.（T）7.A direct consequence of the Renaissance Movement was the revival of French as a literary language.（ F）8.In general, linguistic change in grammar is more noticeable than that in the sound system and thevocabulary of a language.（F）9.The sound changes include changes in vowel sounds, and in the loss, gain and movement ofsounds. （T）10.The least widely-spread morphological changes in the historical development of English are theloss and addition of affixes.（F）11.In Old English, the morphosyntactic rule of adjective agreement stipulated that the endings ofadjective must agree with the head noun in case, number and gender.（T）12.The word order of Modern English is more variable than that of Old English.（F）13.Derivation refers to the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to theroots, stems, or words.（T）14. “Smog” is a word formed by the word-forming process called acronymy.（ F）15. “fridge ” is a word formed by abbreviation.（F）16.Modern linguists are able to provide a consistent account for the exact causes of all types oflanguage change. （ F）17.Sound assimilation may bring about the loss of one of two phonetically similar syllables in sequence, as in the case of change of“Engla- land ” to “England”（.T）18.Rule elaboration occurs when there is a need to reduce ambiguity and increase communicativeclarity or expressiveness.（T）nguage change is always a change towards the simplification of language rules（F）20.The way children acquire the language is one of the causes for language change.（ T）Chapter 8 ： Language and Society (Sociolinguistics)1. Sociolinguistics is the sub-discipline of linguistics that studies social contexts.（ F）nguage as a means of social communication is a homogeneous system with a homogeneousgroup of speakers. （F）nguage use varies from one speech community to another, from one regional group to another,from one social group to another, and even from one individual to another.（T）4. The goal of sociolinguistics is to explore the nature of language variation and language use amonga variety of speech communities and in different social situations.（T）5.The linguistic markers that characterize individual social groups may serve as social markers ofgroup membership.（ T）6. From the sociolinguistic perspective,the term“speech variety” c an not be used to refer to standard language, vernacular language, dialect or pidgin.（ F）7.Functional speech varieties are known as regional dialects.（F）8. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its grammar and uses of vocabulary.（F）9.Geographical barriers are the only source of regional variation of language.（ F）10. A person's social backgrounds do not exert a shaping influence on his choice of linguistic features. （F）11.Two speakers of the same language or dialect use their language or dialect in the same way. (F)12.Every speaker of a language is, in a stricter sense, a speaker of a distinct idiolect. (T)13.The standard language is a better language than nonstandard languages. (F)14.A lingua franca can only be used within a particular country for communication among groupsof people with different linguistic backgrounds. (F)15.Pidgins are linguistically inferior to standard languages.（F）16. A pidgin usually reflects the influence of the higher, or dominant, language in its lexicon and thatof the lower language in their phonology and occasionally syntax.（T）17.The major difference between a pidgin and a creole is that the former usually has its native speakers while the latter doesn't.（F）18.Bilingualism and diglossia mean the same thing.（F）19.The kind of name or term speakers use to call or refer to someone may indicate something oftheir social relationship to or personal feelings about that individual.（T）20.The use of euphemisms has the effect of removing derogatory overtones and the disassociativeeffect as such is usually long-lasting.（F）。
clotcel组成单词 -回复
clotcel组成单词-回复Clotcel is a great example of how the English language has evolved over time. It is formed by combining the words "clot" and "cel," which have very different meanings on their own. In this article, we will explore the origins of these words and how they come together to form a new word with its own unique meaning.To understand the word "clotcel," we need to first understand the individual words that make it up. Let's begin with the word "clot." In its most basic form, "clot" refers to a thick mass or lump of a substance, typically blood. It can also be used metaphorically to describe something that is dense, slow-moving, or obstructive.On the other hand, "cel" is a shortened form of the word "cell." In biology, a cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all living organisms. It is often described as the building block of life, as it is responsible for carrying out various biochemical processes that are essential for the existence of living things.When we combine these two words, "clot" and "cel," and create the new word "clotcel," we derive a unique term that can be interpreted in various ways. At first glance, one might assume that a "clotcel"refers to a cell associated with blood clotting or a sluggish, obstructive cell. However, in reality, the word "clotcel" has no set definition and can be used to convey different meanings depending on the context.The concept of combining different words to create new ones is not uncommon in the English language. This practice allows for a greater range of expression, as new words can be crafted to describe unique or specific concepts. Modern linguistics often refers to such words as "portmanteau," which is a term coined by Lewis Carroll in his famous book "Through the Looking-Glass" to describe words like "chortle" (a combination of "chuckle" and "snort").In recent years, internet culture has played a significant role in the creation of new words and the evolution of language. Online communities, particularly those centered around social media platforms, have embraced the practice of word blending to create novel descriptors that reflect their evolving experiences and identities. These blended words, often referred to as "internet slang" or "net-speak," have become part of the lexicon of many internet users.When it comes to "clotcel," we can speculate that it might have originated within online communities as a tongue-in-cheek term or meme. It is possible that it arose as a way to describe someone who is perceived as both dense (clot) and generic (cel), which could be used humorously or derogatorily depending on the context.However, it is important to recognize that "clotcel" is not a widely recognized or established word in mainstream English usage. As language continues to evolve, new words may emerge and gain acceptance over time, but for now, "clotcel" remains more of an internet slang term rather than a well-defined word.In conclusion, the word "clotcel" is an example of how language evolves and adapts to changing needs and circumstances. By combining the words "clot" and "cel," individuals have created a unique term that can be interpreted in various ways. While it may have originated within online communities, its widespread use or recognition in mainstream English remains limited. Nonetheless, "clotcel" serves as a testament to the creative potential of languageand the ever-changing dynamics of human communication.。
油气储运专业英语
油气储运专业英语The oil and gas industry is a cornerstone of modern energy infrastructure, requiring a specialized understanding of the processes involved in the transportation and storage of hydrocarbons.From the extraction site to the refinery, the journey of oil and gas is complex, involving pipelines, tankers, and storage facilities. Each stage demands precision and adherence to safety protocols to prevent leaks and environmental damage.The language of oil and gas storage and transportation is technical and specific, with terms like "pipeline integrity" and "tank farm management" becoming second nature to those in the field. Communication in this industry is crucial for ensuring operations run smoothly and efficiently.In the classroom, students of oil and gas storage and transportation learn the fundamentals of fluid dynamics, material science, and engineering principles that underpin the industry. They also become familiar with the regulatory frameworks that govern these operations.As technology advances, so too does the language of the industry. Terms like "digital twins" and "smart pipelines" are now part of the lexicon, reflecting the integration of digital technology into traditional oil and gas operations.The global nature of the oil and gas industry means that professionals must be fluent in English, the lingua franca of international business. This proficiency enablescollaboration across borders and the sharing of best practices worldwide.Continuing education is essential for those in the field, as new methods and technologies are constantly emerging. This includes staying abreast of the latest in English-language literature on topics like offshore drilling and LNG shipping.In summary, mastering the English language in the context of oil and gas storage and transportation is not just about understanding technical jargon; it's about being able to communicate effectively in an ever-evolving global industry.。
精彩的绝妙的英语单词
精彩的绝妙的英语单词The English language is a treasure trove of words that can paint vivid pictures in our minds. Words like "serendipity" and "ephemeral" are not just descriptors; they are experiences that resonate with a sense of discovery and the fleeting nature of time.Each word is a story, waiting to be told. Take "flabbergasted," for instance, which perfectly captures the feeling of being utterly astonished, as if your jaw has dropped to the floor. It's a word that brings a scene to life with just a single utterance.The beauty of English lies in its ability to convey complexity in a single word. "Discombobulate" throws you into a whirlwind of confusion, while "petrichor" encapsulates the earthy scent after rain—a phenomenon that had no name until this word was coined.Words like "defenestrate" and "quixotic" are not just for the lexicon; they add a layer of whimsy and depth to our conversations. They challenge us to think beyond the mundane and to embrace the peculiar.The English language is also a testament to its history. Words borrowed from other languages, such as "déjà vu" from French, bring a touch of the exotic and the familiar, blending cultures into a rich linguistic tapestry.Sometimes, the most mundane words can be the most powerful. "Resilience" is a testament to the human spirit, a word that speaks to our ability to bounce back from adversity. It's a word that inspires and motivates.In the end, the English language is a mosaic of words, each with its own unique hue and texture. From the whimsicalto the profound, these words are the building blocks of our thoughts, our dreams, and our stories. They are the threads that weave the fabric of our communication, making it both intricate and exquisite.。
meeseeks 使命必达先生口头禅英文原版
meeseeks 使命必达先生口头禅英文原版Mission Accomplished, Sir!" with over 1000 words, as requested:Meeseeks are a peculiar race of beings created by Rick Sanchez, the brilliant but troubled scientist from the hit animated series Rick and Morty. These peculiar creatures are summoned into existence to help complete a specific task or fulfill a particular desire, and they are bound to their purpose until it is successfully achieved. Their famous catchphrase, "I'm Mr. Meeseeks! Look at me!" has become an iconic part of the show's lexicon, representing their single-minded determination to fulfill their designated mission.The Meeseeks are a fascinating study in the nature of existence and the quest for purpose. As beings created solely to serve a specific function, they embody the idea that one's meaning and value is inextricably tied to their ability to complete their assigned task. For the Meeseeks, failure is not an option – their very reason for being hinges on their success. This places them in a unique and often precarious position, as they must navigate the complexities of the human world and the often-unrealistic expectations of their summoners.One of the most compelling aspects of the Meeseeks is their steadfast commitment to their mission, no matter how challenging or absurd it may be. Whether it's helping someone improve their golf swing or teaching a socially awkward person how to be more confident, the Meeseeks approach their task with unwavering determination and a relentless enthusiasm. Their catchphrase, "I'm Mr. Meeseeks! Look at me!" serves as a constant reminder of their singular focus and their refusal to be deterred by obstacles or setbacks.Yet, as with many aspects of the Rick and Morty universe, the Meeseeks also serve as a commentary on the human condition. Their single-minded devotion to their purpose can be seen as both admirable and problematic, as they are willing to go to extreme lengths to complete their mission, even if it means causing harm or disrupting the normal order of things. This reflects the often-complex relationship between individuals and the goals they set for themselves, and the ways in which our pursuit of purpose can sometimes lead us down unexpected and even dangerous paths.Moreover, the Meeseeks also highlight the inherent instability and fragility of existence. As beings created solely to serve a function, they are in a perpetual state of uncertainty, never knowing when their purpose will be fulfilled and they will be allowed to return to the "Meeseeks Box" from whence they came. This sense ofprecariousness and the ever-present threat of their own annihilation adds an underlying current of tension and anxiety to the Meeseeks' interactions, heightening the stakes of their mission and the consequences of their failure.Despite these challenges, the Meeseeks continue to captivate audiences with their unwavering determination and their willingness to go to any length to accomplish their goals. Their persistence, their unwavering focus, and their refusal to be deterred by setbacks or obstacles serve as a testament to the power of purpose and the human drive to succeed, even in the face of seemingly insurmountable odds.Ultimately, the Meeseeks are a complex and multifaceted creation that speak to the deeper questions of meaning, purpose, and the nature of existence itself. Through their adventures and misadventures, they provide a unique and insightful lens through which we can examine our own lives, our own goals, and the sometimes-precarious nature of the pursuit of purpose. Whether we see them as admirable heroes or cautionary tales, the Meeseeks remain a enduring and fascinating part of the Rick and Morty universe, and a testament to the boundless creativity and imagination of its creators.。
我喜欢收集汽车英语作文
我喜欢收集汽车英语作文Title: The Fascination of Collecting Automotive English Essays。
Collecting automotive English essays is a unique hobby that offers a blend of linguistic appreciation and vehicular passion. It's a niche interest that intertwines language exploration with the ever-evolving world of automobiles. Let's delve into the reasons behind the allure of this distinctive pursuit.To begin with, delving into automotive English essays provides a fascinating glimpse into the evolution of automotive technology, industry trends, and cultural influences. Each essay serves as a time capsule, reflecting the prevailing attitudes, innovations, and challenges ofits era. From early discussions on the advent of automobiles to contemporary debates on sustainability and electric vehicles, the spectrum of topics covered is vast and ever-expanding.Moreover, collecting these essays allows enthusiasts to witness the evolution of automotive terminology and jargon. The lexicon of the automotive world is rich and dynamic, encompassing terms ranging from technical specifications to marketing slogans. Through the essays, one can trace the evolution of these terms, observing how they adapt to technological advancements, cultural shifts, and marketing strategies.Furthermore, delving into automotive English essays offers insights into the intersection of language and engineering. As automotive engineering progresses, so too does the need for precise and standardized terminology to describe innovations, components, and processes. By studying these essays, collectors gain a deeper understanding of the linguistic nuances inherent in the automotive domain, from the intricacies of engine design to the subtleties of automotive aesthetics.Beyond the technical aspects, collecting automotive English essays also provides a glimpse into the culturalsignificance of automobiles. Cars hold a special place in the collective imagination, symbolizing freedom, status,and adventure. Through essays that explore topics such as automotive literature, film, and art, collectors gain a holistic understanding of the profound impact that automobiles have had on society and popular culture.In addition to intellectual stimulation, collecting automotive English essays fosters a sense of community among enthusiasts. Whether through online forums,specialized publications, or local meetups, collectors have the opportunity to connect with like-minded individuals who share their passion for both language and automobiles. These interactions facilitate lively discussions, knowledge sharing, and the exchange of rare finds, enriching thehobby beyond the mere accumulation of essays.In conclusion, collecting automotive English essays isa captivating pursuit that offers a multifacetedexploration of language, technology, culture, and community. Through the lens of these essays, enthusiasts gain insight into the evolution of automotive discourse while forgingconnections with fellow aficionados. It's a hobby that celebrates the enduring appeal of both words and wheels, inviting enthusiasts to embark on a journey of discovery through the vast and dynamic world of automotive literature.。
英语词汇学教程参考答案(杨信彰)
《英语词汇学教程》参考答案Chapter 11. The three definitions agree that lexicology studies words. Yet, they have different focuses. Definition 1 focuses on the meaning and uses of words, while definition 2 on the overall structure and history. Definition 3 regards lexicology as a branch of linguistics and focuses on the semantic structure of the lexicon. It is interesting to note that the three definitions use different names for the object of study. For Definition 1, it is words, for Definition 2 the vocabulary of a language, and for Definition 3 the lexicon.2. (1) They can go into the room, and if they like, shut the door.(2) You boys are required to give in your homework before 10 o’clock.(3) I watch the football match happily and find it very interesting.3. (1) W hen it follows ‘-t’ and ‘-d’, it is pronounced as [id];(2) When it follows voiceless consonants, it is pronounced as [t];(3) When it follows voiced consonants and vowels, it is pronounced as [d].4. (1) They are words that can be included in a semantic field of “tree”.(2) They represent the forms of the verb “fly” and have a common meaning.(3) They belong to a lexical field of “telephone communication”.(4) They are synonyms, related to human visual perception. Specifically, they denote variouskinds of “looking”.5. (a) 'blackboard: a board with a dark smooth surface, used in schools for writing with chalk (the primary stress in on black);'blackbird: a particular kind of bird, which may not necessarily be black in color (the primary stress in on black);'greyhound: a slender, swift dog with keen sight (the primary stress in on black);'White House: the residence of the US President in Washington (the primary stress in on black).(b) 'black 'board: any board which is black in color (both words receive primary stress);'black 'bird: any bird which is black in color (both words receive primary stress);'grey 'hound: any hound that is grey in color (both words receive primary stress);'white 'house: any house that is painted white (both words receive primary stress).6. There are 44 orthographic words, i.e. sequences of letters bounded by space. There are 24 open class words and 20 closed class words.7. (a) The ‘bull’ is literal, referring to a male bovine animal.(b) ‘Take the bull by the horn’ is an idiom, meaning (having the courage to) deal with someoneor something directly.(c) ‘Like a bull in a china shop’is an idiom, meaning doing something with too muchenthusiasm or too quickly or carelessly in a way that may damage things or upset someone.(d) A ‘bull market’ is one where prices rise fast because there is a lot of buying of shares inanticipation of profits.8. drinking vessels: cup, mug, glass, tumbler, tankard, goblet, bowl, beaker, wineglass, beer glass, sherry glassThey can be organized in a number of ways, for example, by the drinks the vessel is used for.Non-alcoholic: glass, tumbler, cup, mug, beaker, bowlBeer: beer glass, tankardWine: wineglass, gobletSpirits: sherry glassChapter 21.Lexeme is an abstract linguistic unit with different variants, for example, sing as against sang,sung.Morpheme is the ultimate grammatical constituent, the smallest meaningful unit of language.For example, moralizers is an English word composed of four morphemes: moral+lize+er+s.Any concrete realization of a morpheme in a given utterance is called a morph, such as cat, chair, -ing, -s, etc.Allomorphs are the alternate phonetic forms of the same morpheme, for example, [t], [d] and [id] are allomorphs of the past tense morpheme in English.2. quick-ly, down-stair-s, four-th, poison-ous, weak-en,world-wide, inter-nation-al-ly, in-ject, pro-trude3. island, surname, disclose, duckling, cranberry,reading, poets, flavourfulness, famous, subvert4. (a) [ə](b) [-ai]5. (1) -’s, -s(2) -est, -s(3) -ing(4) -ed6. The connotations are as follows:(1) slang, carrying the connotation of reluctance, (2)informal, carrying the connotation that the speaker is speaking to a child, (3) beastie is used to a small animal in Scotland, carrying the connotation of disgust, (4) carrying the connotation of formalness, (5) carrying the connotation of light-heartedness.7. { -əm; ～- n; ～- n; ～-i: ～-s; ～-z; ～-iz}8. court: polysemy dart: polysemyfleet: homonymy jam: homonymypad: homonymy steep: homonymystem: homonymy stuff: polysemywatch: polysemy9. (1)—(f), (2)—(g), (3)—(c), (4)—(e), (5)—(a), (6)—(d), (7)—(b)10. (1) unpractical(2) break(3) impractical(4) rout(5) pedals(6) Route(7) razeChapter 31.The history of English can be divided into four periods: the Old, Middle, Early middle andModern English periods.In Old English period, there is a frequent use of coinages known as ‘kennings’, which refers to vivid figurative descriptions often involving compounds. The absence of a wide-ranging vocabulary of loanwords force people to rely more on word-formation processes based on native elements. The latter period of Old English was characterized by the introduction of a number of ‘loan translations’. Grammatical relationships in Old English were expressed by the use of inflectional endings. And Old English is believed to contain about 24,000 different lexical items.In Middle English period, English grammar and vocabulary changed greatly. In grammar, English changed from a highly inflected language to an analytic language. In vocabulary English was characterized by the loss of a large part of the Old English word-stock and the addition of thousands of words from French and Latin.In Early Modern English period, English vocabulary grew very fast through extensive borrowing and expansion of word-formation patterns. And there was a great many semantic changes, as old words acquire new meanings.Modern English is characterized with three main features of unprecedented growth of scientific vocabulary, the assertion of American English as a dominant variety of the language, and the emergence of other varieties known as ‘New Englishes’.2.“appeareth” in (a) becomes “appeared” in (b), and “dreame” becomes “dream”. The passive“were departed”becomes the active “had gone”. With the change of word forms, (b) looks simple morphologically.3.barf: American slang kerchief: French mutton: Frenchcadaver: Latin goober: Kongo leviathan: Latinginseng: Chinese taffy: North American kimono: Japanesewhisky: Irish caddy: Malay sphere: Latinalgebra: Arabic giraffe: African4.t rain: meaning changed from the trailing part of a gown to a wide range of extended meanings.deer: meaning narrowed from ‘beast’ or ‘animal’ to ‘a particular kind of animal’knight: meaning ameliorated from ‘boy, manservant’ to ‘a man in the UK who has been given an honor of knighthood’meat: meaning narrowed down from ‘food’ to ‘the edible flesh of animals and the edible part of fruit’.hose: meaning extended from ‘leg covering’ to ‘a long tube for carrying water’.5.sell: specialized hound: specializedstarve: specialized wife: specializedloaf: specialized6.Chapter 41. read+-i+-ness dis-+courage+-ing kind+heart+-edun-+doubt+-ed+-ly stock+room+-s pre-+pack+-age+-ed2.book: books(n.); books(v.), booking, bookedforget: forgets, forgot, forgottenshort: shortter, shortestsnap: snaps, snapping, snappedtake: takes, taking, took, takengoose: geeseheavy: heavier, heaviest3.-ish: meaning ‘having the nature of , like’de-: meaning ‘the opposite of’-ify: meaning ‘make, become’-dom: means ‘the state of ’il-(im-/in-): meaning ‘the opposite of, not’-able: meaning ‘that can or must be’mis-: meaning ‘wrongly or badly’-sion(-tion):meaning ‘the state/process of’pre-: meaning ‘prior to’-ment: meaning ‘the action of’re-: meaning ‘again’under-: meaning ‘not enough’-al: meaning ‘the process or state of’4. a. They are endocentric compounds. They have the “Adj + N” structure, in which adjectivesare used to modify nouns ‘line, line, neck, room’. Hotline means ‘a telephone number that people can call for information’. Mainline means ‘an important railway line between two cities’. Redneck means ‘a person from the southern US’. Darkroom means ‘a room with very little in it, used for developing photographs’.b. They are endocentric compounds. They have the “N + N’structure. Bookshelf means ‘ashelf for keeping books’. Breadbasket means ‘a container for serving bread’. Mailbox means ‘a box for putting letters in when they delivered to a house’. Wineglass means ‘a glass for drinking wine’.c. They are endocentric compounds. They have the “N + N’ structure. Letterhead means ‘thehead of a letter (i.e. the name and address of an organization printed at the top of a letter)’.Roadside means ‘the area at the side of a road’. Keyhole means ‘the hole in a lock for putting the key in’. Hilltop means ‘the top of a hill’.d. They are exocentric compounds. Dropout means ‘a person who leaves school before theyhave finished their studies. Go-between means ‘a person who takes messages between people’.Turnout means ‘the number of people who come to an event’. Standby means ‘a person or thing that can always be used if needed’.e. They are endocentric compounds. They have the “Adj + N-ed”structure, in whichadjectives are used to modify the N-ed.f. They are endocentric compounds. They have the “N + Adj” structure, meaning As Adj As N.5.in-: not, the opposite ofen-: to put into the condition ofdis-: not, the opposite ofun-: not, the opposite ofinter-: between, amongmis-: wrongly or badlyover-: too muchre-: againpost-: after6. a. a young dog; pigletb. a female editor; hostessc. a place for booking tickets; refineryd. one who is kicked; traineee. the state of being put up; output7. unbelievable: un- (prefix), -able (suffix)inexhaustible: in- (prefix), -ible(suffix)multinational: multi (prefix)-, -al(suffix)teleshopping: tele- (prefix), -ing (suffix)8. a. initialismb. blendingc. compoundingd. conversion9. a. compounding, affixationb. compounding, affixationc. compounding, shorteningd. compounding, affixation10.a. consumable, comprehensible, exchangeable, permissibleb. absorbent, assistant, different, participantc. constructor, liar, beggar, editor, developerd. elementary, stationary, brewery, mockeryChapter 51. (a) connotation (b) formality(c) dialect (d) connotation2. waterrainwater, brine, tap water, mineral water, spring water, purified water, aerated water, ……..3. (a) keeping(b) feeling of admiration or respect4. (a) hyponymy(b) meronymy5. (a) light beer, strong beer(b) heavy coffee, strong coffee, weak coffee6. amateur—dabbler, funny—ridiculous, occupation—profession,small—little, famous—renowned, fiction—fable, smell—scent7. These words refer to different kinds of pictures or diagrams. Drawing: picture or diagram madewith a pen, pencil, or crayon. Cartoon refers to ‘an amusing drawing in a newspaper or magazine’. Diagram refers to a simple drawing using lines to explain where something is, how something works, etc. Illustration refers to a drawing or picture in a book, magazine etc. to explain something. Sketch refers to a simple picture that is drawn quickly and does not have many details.8. (a) gradable (b) non-gradable, reversive (c) gradable(d) non-gradable, reversive (e) gradable (f) non-gradable9. (a) antonym (b) hyponymy (c) antonym(d) synonymy (e) meronymyChapter 61. 1) literal expression 2) idiom3) literal expression 4) idiom5) idiom 6) literal expression2. 1) die2) something that makes a place less attractive3) suddenly realize or understand something4) make one’s friends disappoint5) continue to argue something that has already been decided and is not important6) react quickly so as to get an advantage3. 1) gradually reduce the amount of time, money, etc.2) give support and encouragement to someone in a game, competition, etc3) give something to the person it belongs to4) annoy5) fail because a part is weak or incorrect6) try to find out the facts about something7) live under the rule of someone8) talk to someone in order to find out his opinions, ideas, feelings etc.9) give someone a warning or secret information about somethingChapter 71.General dictionaries include all of the elements of a lexicon, including meanings,pronunciations, usages, and histories of the words of their language. Specialized dictionaries are restricted to one variety or to one type of entryword.2.They are different in that different media are used. Print dictionaries do not use electric powerand can be used in all kinds of light. Electronic dictionaries are easy to carry. .3.Open to discussion.4.Open to discussion.5.(a) symbolise(b) symbol of sth is a person, an object, an event, etc. that represents a more general quality orsituation; symbol for sth is a sign, number, letter, etc. that has a fixed meaning, especially in science, mathematics and music(a)/sim’bɔlik/ and /sim’ba:lik/(b)represent(c) 2(d)Yes. We know that form the label [VN] and the examples.Chapter 81.vertically challenged—shortsanitation engineer—garbage collectorethnic cleansing--genocideladies’ cloak room—women’s toilet2.(1)They differ in connotation. Politician implies disapproval while statesman impliesapproval.(2)They differ in connotation. Inexpensive sounds indirect.(3) They differ in connotation. flatter implies disapproval, while praise implies approval.(4) They differ in connotation. pedant implies disapproval, scholar is neutral.3.(1) buttocks — buns (2) nonsense — bullshit(3) prison — can (4) cocaine — coke4.(a).Turn off the lights, please.(b) Would you please turn off the lights?5. Answers vary from person to person.6. (1) on a formal occasion.(2) when the speaker is seeing a friend off(3) when the speaker is angry and wants the addressee to leave(4) when the speaker is talking with a close friend.7. gateway, firewall, virus, bookmark, address, DOS, cyberspace, profiler, browser, login8. They differ in the terms they used, as they are different jargons.Chapter 91. knife: an object with a sharp blade for cutting thingsclothes: things we wear to keep our bodies warm;building: a structure made of a strong material, having roof, walls, windows, and doors2. She attacked every weak point in my argument.He withdrew his offensive remarks.I hit back at his criticism.She produced several illustrations to buttress her argument.I braced myself for the onslaught.3. The suffix–ee is typically attached to a verb meaning ‘one who is the object of the verb’. This meaning is considered as the core meaning of the form. So, trainee means ‘one who is being trained’. But the background knowledge associated with the verb may modulate the meaning of the suffix. Suffix –ee in standee moves away from the core meaning and is deprived of the ‘object’meaning. So ‘standee’ means ‘one who stands’.4. In ‘good baby’, ‘good’means ‘well-behaved, not causing trouble’; in ‘good parent’, ‘good’means ‘kind, generous, considerate, etc.’5. (1) is used to show sad feelings while(2) is used as an apology.注：资料可能无法思考和涵盖全面，最好仔细浏览后下载使用，感谢您的关注！。
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Minimalism and the logical structureof the lexiconClaudia CasadioDipartimento di Filosofia e Scienze Umane(Dept.of Philosophy and Human Sciences),University of Chieti,Italycasadio@unich.itAbstractThis paper explores the linguistic implications of Non-commutative Linear Logic,restricted to its multiplicative fragment NMLL.In the paper particularemphasis is given to the logical representation of lexical information and of theprinciples of the X-bar theory.1IntroductionAim of the paper is to discuss the fundamental role played by the interaction of logic, language and information in the development of linguistic theory as a scientific en-terprise particularly oriented towards the formal analysis of natural language.In such a perspective,linguistic communication is conceived as a dynamic process in which the properties of natural language objects are not considered in isolation,but are rep-resented as sets of structured and interrelated resources.Fundamental contributions to this theoretical and methodological achievement are offered by the recent develop-ments in linear logic and type logical grammars.The minimalist attitude of contem-porary generative grammar allows interesting formalizations and fruitful exchanges in this direction.Lexical researches in generative grammar introduced an important set of general-izations,known as X-bar theory[5,11,6],concerning the interaction of lexical infor-mation with the categorial structure of linguistic expressions.Linguistic categories are definable in terms of two formal primitives:(i)features,that specify distinctive prop-erties of lexical items such as gender,number(and whose combinations are sensitive to language variations);(ii)levels(or types)of expansion of the internal structure of a category(formally represented by a certain number of bars in the category symbol). Systematically expressing the distinction between a head and its arguments,the X-bar theory implies a functional representation of linguistic categories allowing interesting logical formulations,as attested by the developments in Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar and Categorial Grammar[8,18,19].In this paper we propose a formal approach to lexical information in the perspec-tive of the recent extensions of Non-commutative Linear Logic[1,2,3,4].Following type logical grammars[17,16]lexical items are treated as complex signs in which the phonological,syntactical and semantic dimensions are simultaneously considered and processed.We intend to show that the formal elegance and the appealing infer-ential properties of a type logical approach to the lexicon are nicely expressed in the framework of Non-commutative Linear Logic,directly representing the principles of the X-bar Theory.2Lexical Information and X-bar TheoryLexical information is the source of a variety of linguistic resources.A lexicon for a language L is a list of the lexical items of that language,organized and structured by means of suitable criteria and specified with respect to(sets of)properties of the words in L.There are at least four distinctive types of information that contribute to the constitution of a lexical entry and relate the lexicon to the other grammatical levels,in particular phonology and syntax:T YPES OF LEXICAL INFORMATIONPhonological properties:spelling,prosody,...Morphological properties:inflection,derivation,composition,...Semantic properties:inherent,thematic,functional,...Syntactic properties:subcategorization,agreement,case,...A SSOCIATED FEATURE SPECIFICATIONSAgreement features:person,gender,number,case,...Inherent features:human,animate,abstract,count,collective,...Contextual features:XP,XP YPThematic features:roles(agent,theme,...),aspect(progressive,..),...To give an example,the verbal item destroy and the derived nominal destruction [5]are lexically related since they involve types of syntactic information that are both different:the two words belong to the categories V and.N,and similar:they share the same subcategorization property of requiring a direct object(destroy the city vs. destruction(of)the city);moreover,the two words,even though exhibiting a clear morphological distinction in the inflectional behavior:verbal conjugation vs.person and number,share the basic semantic features associated to the concept of destruction (i.e.the act or the condition of extinguishing something).In the framework of early generative grammar the lexicon was associated to a categorial component consisting of two types of rules:phrase structure rules(PS-rules) and rules of lexical insertion,e.g.a.S→NP+Aux+VPb.VP→V+NPc.NP→John,Mary,...d.V→run,sleep,...With the Extended Standard Theory(EST)the lexicon becomes an autonomous component included,together with the categorial component,in the subsystem that is the Base of the grammar.Each lexical entry is specified with respect to a structured family of informations concerning its syntactic,semantic,phonological properties and other kinds of idiosyncratic properties that the item may exhibit.boy[+N],[+anim,+num],[+hum,-abs],[+Det]NPread[+V],[-reg],[+prog],[2conj],[+NP∨S]V PThe EST theory of grammar characterizes a hierarchical architecture known as T-model in which the relations between the Base(the lexicon and the categorial compo-nent),on the one side,and the levels of Phonetic Form(PF)and Logical Form(LF)on the other,are mediated by the representation levels of D(eep)Structure and S(hallow) Structure.Under the minimalist assumptions the intermediate levels of D-Structure and S-Structure disappear,and the lexicon is directly projected over the two funda-mental levels PF and LF;[7,p.219].In such a perspective a relevant role is played by the categorial architecture of the X-bar Theory:a.X n→Y X n−1b.X n−1→X ZX denoting the head of the syntactic category,n the level(bar)index(n≤3)and Y,Z ranging over the categories assigned to the specifier plement constituents with which the head combines to yield a phrase of the head type.In the following example,both the verb prove and the noun proof take the same complement NP,but they differ at the specifier level:the verbal specifier is past,belonging to Aux(the auxiliary-aspectual group),while the noun specifier is the definite article the,belong-ing to Det.3A logical approach to the X-bar TheoryAssuming a lexicalist perspective coherent with the minimalist strategy,we propose to represent the structural architecture projected by the X-bar principles in the framework of Non-commutative Linear Logic[2,3]:a.Y X n,⊥X n−1a’. Y⊥,X n,⊥X n−1b.X X n−1,⊥Z b’. X⊥,X n−1,⊥ZLexical heads are introduced as sequents,in the two-sided formulation(b)or one-sided formulation(b’),expressing the fact that a head X has the property of taking a complement Z to produce the constituent X n−1.Heads in fact are category changing functions.Specifiers,on the other hand,are introduced as sequents of the form(a) or(a’),expressing the fact that a specifier Y,like any modifying function,has the property of taking the head-projection X n−1to produce the maximal constituent X n. On this basis,the examples above have the following derivations in the one-sided sequent calculus for Non-commutative Linear Logic:The two derivations follow the same pattern,the only relevant difference being the type TV assigned to the verb prove w.r.t.the type NP assigned to the derived nominal proof(of is the genitive case particle).As shown in[3,4],linguistic composition is obtained applying the cut rule to the types X,X⊥and⊥X,where X⊥and⊥X are the dual types of X(or the left vs.the right adjunct of X as proposed in[14]1).Non-commutative Linear Logic properly represents the fact that the negation of a formula,called its dual,occurs before or after this formula:linear post-negation of A=A⊥linear retro-negation of A=⊥A3.1Lexical compoundsLexical operations may be nicely represented in this framework2and various kind of lexical compounds easily generated.Here we present the derivation of the preposition +article compounds(a pattern very productive in Italian:composing the system of simple prepositions:di,a,da,in,con,su,with the full article paradigm:il,lo,la,i, gli,le,a set of compound prepositions is obtained,such as:dello,della,degli,allo, alle,ai,nella,negli,sullo,sulla,sui,...).We derive nello and della(see the Appendix for the corresponding proof nets):Again cut and negation are the crucial operations involved and[phon]indicates the application of the phonological rule associated to the composition.Syntactically,the preposition+article compounds result in a function that taking a nominal complement N’gives a prepositional phrase:i.e.nell o may combine with the noun stagno(pond) to produce the PP nello stagno(in the pond);della combines with the noun lettera (letter),to produce the PP della lettera(of the letter).The formalism of Non-commutative Linear Logic allows also to embed feature information,that is crucial in these contexts(e.g.nello is masculine,while della is feminine).As will be shown in thefinal paper,syntactic features such as gender:[masc ∨fem∨neuter],number:[sing∨pl],or semantic features such as[abstract],[human], may be embedded into the non-commutative logical types and suitable duality relations will generate the proper linguistic combinations.3.2Lexical vs.syntactic affixationIn the same perspective we will treat head affixation(lexical or syntactic),where the affix may be a particle such as ri that,occurring before e.g.the transitive verb vedere (to see),produces the compound transitive verb rivedere(to see again),or a clitic,suchas lo,that may be affixed to the form in present tense vedo(I see)to give the form lo vedo([1st p]see him).4Lexical types and transformationsLike in categorial grammar,many syntactic configurations follow directly from the logical architecture of lexical items,including several kinds of the(long distance) dependencies that generative grammar calls transformations.The patterns for Wh-movement are of particular interest:the logical type of the Wh-pronoun results as being dual of the type of the associated predicate and the argument position corresponding to the trace of Wh-movement can be linked to the moved phrase through a path con-sisting of cut links and axiom links(see the Appendix).Wh-phrases moved from direct and indirect object positions are marked with two negations and are therefore easily distinguished from Wh-phrases linked to subject positions(compare examples1,2vs.3).In fact,in Non-commutative Linear Logic the following laws for negation hold:(⊥A)⊥=A⊥(A⊥)=Ai.e.two negations cancel when they occur on the opposite sides of a formula,but they don’t when they occur on the same side of a formula:⊥⊥A=A A⊥⊥=AThe Wh-pronoun combines with the predicate over which it has scope by means of the logical rule of cut that has the effect of cancelling a type A when it is preceded by its dual⊥A or when it is followed by its dual A⊥.We present some examples of the derivations that may be obtained in Non-commutative Linear Logic for Wh-movement (see the Appendix for the corresponding proof nets)3:1.Whom did Elisa write a letter to?2.What did Elisa write?3.The student that admires that writer is registered in my course.5Appendix5.1Proof nets for article+preposition compounds5.2Proof nets for affixation5.3Proof nets for Wh-questions 1.Whom did Elisa write a letter to?2.What did Elisa write?3.The student that admires that writer is registered in my course.References[1]Abrusci,V.M.(1991),’Phase Semantics and Sequent Calculus for Pure Noncom-mutative Classical Linear Propositional Logic’,The Journal of Symbolic Logic, 56,IV,1403-1451.[2]Abrusci,V.M.(1995),’Noncommutative proof nets’in J.Y.Girard,fontand L.Regnier(eds.),Advances in Linear Logic,Cambridge:Cambridge Uni-versity Press,pp.271-296.[3]Casadio, C.(1997),’Unbounded Dependencies in Non-commutative LinearLogic’,in Proceedings of Formal Grammar,Aix-en-Provence:ESSLLI,1997.[4]Casadio,C.(forth),’Non-commutative Linear Logic in Linguistics’,to appear 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