Gut bacteria may be a source of male steroid hormones
Microbial Ecology of the Gut
Microbial Ecology of the Gut The microbial ecology of the gut is a fascinating and complex aspect of human biology that has been the subject of extensive research in recent years. The gut microbiome, which consists of trillions of microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and other microbes, plays a crucial role in maintaining theoverall health and functioning of the human body. This intricate ecosystem of microorganisms has been found to have a significant impact on various aspects of human health, including digestion, immunity, metabolism, and even mental health. One of the most significant aspects of the gut microbiome is its role in digestion and nutrient absorption. The microorganisms in the gut play a key role in breaking down complex carbohydrates, producing essential vitamins, and aiding in the absorption of nutrients. This symbiotic relationship between the gut microbiota and the human body is crucial for maintaining a healthy digestive system and overall well-being. Imbalances in the gut microbiome, known as dysbiosis, have been linked to various digestive disorders, such as irritable bowel syndrome, inflammatory bowel disease, and even obesity. In addition to its role in digestion, the gut microbiome also plays a crucial role in modulating the immune system. The presence of beneficial microorganisms in the gut helps to train the immune system to distinguish between harmful pathogens and beneficial microbes, thus helping to prevent the development of autoimmune disorders and allergies. Furthermore, the gut microbiome has been found to produce various metabolites and signaling molecules that can directly influence immune cell function, further highlighting the intricate relationship between the gut microbiota and the immune system. Moreover, recent research has also uncovered the significant impact of the gut microbiome on mental health and brain function. The gut-brain axis, a bidirectional communication system between the gut and the central nervous system, has been found to play a crucial role in regulating mood, cognition, and behavior. The production of neurotransmitters, such as serotonin and dopamine, by the gut microbiota, as well as the modulation of the immune system and inflammation, can have a profound impact on mental health. Imbalances in the gut microbiome have been linked to various mental health disorders, including depression, anxiety, and even neurodegenerative diseases. Furthermore, the composition of the gutmicrobiome has also been found to be influenced by various factors, including diet, lifestyle, and environmental exposures. A diet rich in fiber and diverse plant-based foods has been associated with a more diverse and beneficial gut microbiome, while a diet high in processed foods and saturated fats has been linked to dysbiosis and various health problems. Additionally, lifestyle factors, such as stress, sleep, and physical activity, have also been found to influence the composition and functioning of the gut microbiome. Moreover, exposure to antibiotics, environmental toxins, and other external factors can also have a significant impact on the gut microbiome, highlighting the delicate balance ofthis complex ecosystem. In conclusion, the microbial ecology of the gut is a multifaceted and essential aspect of human biology that plays a crucial role in maintaining overall health and well-being. The intricate relationship between the gut microbiota and various physiological systems, including digestion, immunity, and mental health, highlights the significant impact of the gut microbiome on human health. Furthermore, the influence of various factors, such as diet, lifestyle, and environmental exposures, on the composition and functioning of the gut microbiome underscores the importance of maintaining a healthy and diverse gut microbiome. As research in this field continues to advance, further insights into the gut microbiome's role in human health will undoubtedly emerge, paving the way for innovative approaches to promoting gut health and preventing disease.。
肠道菌群和自闭症
∙1a Department of Soil, Plant and Food Sciences , University of Bari Aldo Moro , Bari , Italy.AbstractThrough extensive microbial-mammalian co-metabolism, the intestinal microbiota have evolved to exert a marked influence on health and disease viagut-brain-microbiota interactions. In this addendum, wesummarize the findings of our recent study on the fecal microbiota and metabolomes of children with pervasive developmental disorder-not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS) or autism (AD) compared with healthy children (HC). Children with PDD-NOS or AD have altered fecal microbiota and metabolomes (including neurotransmitter molecules). We hypothesise that the degree of microbial alteration correlates with the severity of the disease since fecal microbiota and metabolomes alterations were higher inchildren with PDD-NOS and, especially, AD compared to HC. Our study indicates that the levels of free amino acids (FAA) and volatile organic compounds (VOC) differ in AD subjects compared to children with PDD-NOS, who are more similar to HC. Finally, we propose a new perspective on the implications for the interaction between intestinal microbiota and AD.∙1Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Neurosciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada.∙2Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Neurosciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada ; Brain-Body Institute, St Joseph's Healthcare, Hamilton, ON, Canada.AbstractThe human intestine houses an astounding number and species of microorganisms, estimated at more than 10(14) gut microbiota and composed of over a thousand species. An individual's profileof microbiota is continually influenced by a variety of factors including but not limited to genetics, age, sex, diet, and lifestyle. Although each person's microbial profile is distinct, the relative abundance anddistribution of bacterial species is similar among healthy individuals, aiding in the maintenance of one's overall health. Consequently, the ability of gut microbiota to bidirectionally communicate with the brain, known as the gut-brain axis, in the modulation of human health is at the forefront of current research. At a basic level, the gutmicrobiota interacts with the human host in a mutualistic relationship - the hostintestine provides the bacteria with an environment to grow and the bacterium aids in governinghomeostasis within the host. Therefore, it is reasonable to think that the lack ofhealthy gut microbiota may also lead to a deterioration of these relationships and ultimately disease.Indeed, a dysfunction in the gut-brain axis has been elucidated by a multitude of studies linked toneuropsychological, metabolic, and gastrointestinal disorders. For instance, altered microbiota has been linked to neuropsychological disorders including depression and autism spectrum disorder, metabolic disorders such as obesity, and gastrointestinal disorders including inflammatory bowel disease andirritable bowel syndrome. Fortunately, studies have also indicated that gut microbiota may be modulated with the use of probiotics, antibiotics, and fecal microbiota transplants as a prospect for therapyin microbiota-associated diseases. This modulation of gutmicrobiota is currently a growing area ofresearch as it just might hold the key to treatment.∙1Department of Internal Medicine and Medical Specialties, University Sapienza, Rome (Marilia Carabotti, Annunziata Scirocco, Carola Severi), Italy.∙2Experimental Pharmacology Laboratory, Scientific Institute of Gastroenterology S. de Bellis, Castellana Grotte, Bari (Maria Antonietta Maselli), Italy.AbstractThe gut-brain axis (GBA) consists of bidirectional communication between the central and the enteric nervous system, linking emotional and cognitive centers of the brain with peripheral intestinal functions.Recent advances in research have described the importance of gut microbiota in influencing theseinteractions. This interaction between microbiota and GBA appears to be bidirectional, namely through signaling from gut-microbiota to brain and from brain to gut-microbiota by means of neural, endocrine, immune, and humoral links. In this review we summarize the available evidence supporting the existence of these interactions, as well as the possible pathophysiological mechanisms involved. Most of the data have been acquired using technical strategies consisting in germ-free animal models, probiotics,antibiotics, and infection studies. In clinical practice, evidence ofmicrobiota-GBA interactions comes from the association of dysbiosis with central nervous disorders (i.e. autism, anxiety-depressive behaviors) and functional gastrointestinal disorders. In particular, irritable bowel syndrome can be considered an example of the disruption of these complex relationships, and a better understanding of these alterations might provide new targeted therapies.∙1Alimentary Pharmabiotic Centre, University College, Cork, Ireland; Department of Psychiatry, University College Cork, Ireland. Electronic address: t.dinan@ucc.ie.∙2Alimentary Pharmabiotic Centre, University College, Cork, Ireland; Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, University College Cork, Ireland.∙3Alimentary Pharmabiotic Centre, University College, Cork, Ireland; Department of Psychiatry, University College Cork, Ireland; Teagasc, Moorepark, Cork, Ireland.AbstractThe human gut harbors a dynamic and complex microbial ecosystem, consisting of approximately 1 kg of bacteria in the average adult, approximately the weight of the human brain. The evolutionary formation ofa complex gut microbiota in mammals has played an important role in enabling brain development andperhaps sophisticated social interaction. Genes within the human gut microbiota, termed the microbiome,significantly outnumber human genes in the body, and are capable of producing a myriad of neuroactive compounds. Gut microbes are part of the unconscious system regulating behavior. Recent investigations indicate that these microbes majorly impact on cognitive function and fundamental behavior patterns, such as social interaction and stress management. In the absence of microbes, underlyingneurochemistry is profoundly altered. Studies of gut microbes may play an important role in advancing understanding of disorders of cognitive functioning and social interaction, such as autism.∙1Swette Center for Environmental Biotechnology, Biodesign Institute, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA.∙2School of Sustainable Engineering and The Built Environment, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA; dr.rosy@.∙3Department of Medicine, University of Colorado-Denver, Aurora, CO, USA.∙4School for Engineering of Matter, Transport and Energy, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA.AbstractRecent studies suggest a role for the microbiota in autism spectrum disorders (ASD), potentially arising from their role in modulating the immune system and gastrointestinal (GI) function or from gut-brain interactions dependent or independent from the immune system. GI problems such as chronicconstipation and/or diarrhea are common in children with ASD, and significantly worsen their behavior and their quality of life. Here we first summarize previously published data supporting that GI dysfunction is common in individuals with ASD and the role of the microbiota in ASD. Second, by comparing with other publically available microbiome datasets, we provide some evidence that the shifted microbiota can be a result of westernization and that this shift could also be framing an altered immune system. Third, we explore the possibility that gut-brain interactions could also be a direct result of microbially produced metabolites.∙1BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA.∙2Department of Computer Science, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA.∙3Center for Infection and Immunity, Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health, New York, NY, USA.∙4Department of Epidemiology, Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health, New York, NY, USA.∙5Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Denver, Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA.∙6Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Colorado at Boulder, Boulder, CO, USA.∙7Institute for Genomic and Systems Biology, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL, USA.∙8Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.∙9Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, MA, USA.∙10College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China;gilbertjack@.∙11Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Boulder, CO, USA.AbstractDifferences in the gut microbiota have been reported between individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and neurotypical controls, although direct evidence that changes in the microbiome contribute to causing ASD has been scarce to date. Here we summarize some considerations of experimental design that can help untangle causality in this complex system. In particular, large cross-sectional studies that can factor out important variables such as diet, prospective longitudinal studies that remove some of the influence of interpersonal variation in the microbiome (which is generally high, especially in children), and studies transferring microbial communities into germ-free mice may be especially useful. Controlling for the effects of technical variables, which have complicated efforts to combine existing studies, is critical when biological effect sizes are small. Large citizen-science studies with thousands of participants such as the American Gut Project have been effective at uncovering subtle microbiome effects in self-collected samples and with self-reported diet and behavior data, and may provide a useful complement to other types of traditionally funded and conducted studies in the case of ASD, especially in the hypothesis generation phase.J Clin Invest. 2015 Mar 2;125(3):926-38. doi: 10.1172/JCI76304. Epub 2015 Feb 17.Gut/brain axis and the microbiota.Mayer EA, Tillisch K, Gupta A.AbstractTremendous progress has been made in characterizing the bidirectional interactions between the central nervous system, the enteric nervous system, and the gastrointestinal tract. A series of provocativepreclinical studies have suggested a prominent role for the gut microbiota in these gut-brain interactions.Based on studies using rodents raised in a germ-free environment, the gut microbiota appears toinfluence the development of emotional behavior, stress- and pain-modulation systems, and brainneurotransmitter systems. Additionally, microbiota perturbations by probiotics and antibiotics exertmodulatory effects on some of these measures in adult animals. Current evidence suggests that multiple mechanisms, including endocrine and neurocrine pathways, may be involved in gut microbiota-to-brain signaling and that the brain can in turn alter microbial composition and behavior via the autonomicnervous system. Limited information is available on how these findings may translate to healthy humans or to disease states involving the brain or the gut/brain axis. Future research needs to focus on confirming that the rodent findings are translatable to human physiology and to diseases such as irritable bowel syndrome, autism, anxiety, depression, and Parkinson's disease.∙1Department of Biochemistry, Rush University Medical Center, Cohn Research Building, 1735 W.Harrison St., Room 506, Chicago, IL 60612, United States.∙2Department of Medicine, Knapp Center for Biomedical Discovery, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, United States.AbstractHumans have coevolved with their microbes over thousands of years, but this relationship, is now being dramatically affected by shifts in the collective human microbiome resulting from changes in theenvironment and societal norms. Resulting perturbations of intestinal host-microbe interactions can lead to miscues and altered host responses that increase the risk of pathogenic processes and promote"western" disorders such as inflammatory bowel diseases, cancers, obesity, diabetes, autism, andasthma. Given the current challenges and limitations in gene therapy, approaches that can reshapethe gut microbiome represent a reasonable strategy for restoring the balance between host and microbes.In this review and commentary, we highlight recent progress in our understanding of the intestinalmicrobiome in the context of health and diseases, focusing on mechanistic concepts that underlie the complex relationships between host and microbes. Despite these gains, many challenges lie ahead that make it difficult to close the gap between the basic sciences and clinical application. We will discuss the potential therapeutic strategies that can be used to manipulate the gutmicrobiota, recognizing that the promise of pharmabiotics ("bugs to drugs") is unlikely to be completely fulfilled without a greaterunderstanding of enteric microbiota and its impact on mammalian physiology. By leveraging theknowledge gained through these studies, we will be prepared to enter the era of personalized medicine where clinical inventions can be custom-tailored to individual patients to achieve better outcomes.∙1Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada.∙2Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada;eav@uoguelph.ca.AbstractThe human gut microbiota is a complex microbial ecosystem that contributes an important component towards the health of its host. This highly complex ecosystem has been underestimated in its importance until recently, when a realization of the enormous scope of gut microbiota function has been (andcontinues to be) revealed. One of the more striking of these discoveries is the finding thatthe gut microbiota and the brain are connected, and thus there is potential for the microbiota in the gut to influence behavior and mental health. In this short review, we outline the link between brainand gut microbiota and urge the reader to consider the gut microbiota as an ecosystem 'organ' rather than just as a collection of microbes filling a niche, using the hypothesized role ofthe gut microbiota in autism spectrum disorder to illustrate the concept.Ochratoxin A as possible factor trigging autism and its maleprevalence via epigenetic mechanism.Mezzelani A, Raggi ME, Marabotti A, Milanesi L.AbstractThe role of dysbiosis causing leaky gut with xenobiotic production and absorption is increasinglydemonstrated in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) pathogenesis. Among xenobiotics, we focused on ochratoxin A (one of the major food contaminating mycotoxin), that in vitro and in vivo exerts a male-specific neurotoxicity probably via microRNA modulation of a specific target gene. Among possible targets, we focused on neuroligin4X. Interestingly, this gene carries some SNPs already correlated with the disease and with illegitimate microRNA binding sites and, being located on X-chromosome, could explain the male prevalence. In conclusion, we propose a possible gene-environment interactiontriggering ASD explaining the epigenetic neurotoxic mechanism activated by ochratoxin A in genetically predisposed children. This mechanism offers a clue for male prevalence of the disease and may have an important impact on prevention and cure of ASD.∙1KU Leuven, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Rega Institute, Herestraat 49, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium. VIB, Center for the Biology of Disease, Herestraat 49, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium.Microbiology Unit, Faculty of Sciences and Bioengineering Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium.∙2KU Leuven, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Rega Institute, Herestraat 49, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium. VIB, Center for the Biology of Disease, Herestraat 49, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium.∙3KU Leuven, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Rega Institute, Herestraat 49, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium. VIB, Center for the Biology of Disease, Herestraat 49, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium.Microbiology Unit, Faculty of Sciences and Bioengineering Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium. jeroen.raes@med.kuleuven.be.AbstractThe microbiota of the human gut is gaining broad attention owing to its association with a wide range of diseases, ranging from metabolic disorders (e.g. obesity and type 2 diabetes) to autoimmune diseases (such as inflammatory bowel disease and type 1 diabetes), cancer and even neurodevelopmentaldisorders (e.g. autism). Having been increasingly used in biomedical research, mice have become the model of choice for most studies in this emerging field. Mouse models allow perturbationsin gut microbiota to be studied in a controlled experimental setup, and thus help in assessing causality of the complex host-microbiota interactions and in developing mechanistic hypotheses. However, pitfalls should be considered when translating gut microbiome research results from mouse models to humans.In this Special Article, we discuss the intrinsic similarities and differences that exist between the two systems, and compare the human and murine core gut microbiota based on a meta-analysis of currently available datasets. Finally, we discuss the external factors that influence the capability of mouse models to recapitulate the gut microbiota shifts associated with human diseases, and investigate whichalternative model systems exist for gut microbiota research.。
26416671_斑点福寿螺肠道菌群结构及功能研究
势菌为变形菌门( Ｐｒｏｔｅｏｂａｃｔｅｒｉａ) (４３.５２％) 和软壁菌门( Ｔｅｎｅｒｉｃｕｔｅｓ) ( １３.８２％) ꎻ在属水平上ꎬ主要优势菌为气单
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(２.Ｃｏｌｌｅｇｅ ｏｆ Ｂｉｏｌｏｇｙ ａｎｄ ＥｎｖｉｒｏｎｍｅｎｔꎬＮａｎｊｉｎｇ Ｆｏｒｅｓｔｒｙ ＵｎｉｖｅｒｓｉｔｙꎬＮａｎｊｉｎｇ ２１００３７ꎬＣｈｉｎａ)
(３.Ｓｃｈｏｏｌ ｏｆ Ｌｉｆｅ Ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅｓ ａｎｄ ＣｈｅｍｉｓｔｒｙꎬＪｉａｎｇｓｕ Ｓｅｃｏｎｄ Ｎｏｒｍａｌ ＵｎｉｖｅｒｓｉｔｙꎬＮａｎｊｉｎｇ ２１００４２ꎬＣｈｉｎａ)
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江苏省海安高级中学2018_2019学年高一英语3月月考试题创新班201904220240_5206
江苏省海安高级中学2018-2019学年高一英语3月月考试题（创新班）第I卷 (三部分共65分)一、单项选择（共15小题；每小题1分，满分15分）1. We regret to inform you that there are no tickets ______ for Friday’s performance.A. accessibleB. acceptableC. availableD. suitable2. —My Goodness! Somebody ______ my umbrella.—Don’t worry. You can share mine.A. tookB. has takenC. had takenD. is taking3. The number of smokers, ______ is reported, has dropped by 17 percent in just one year.A. itB. whichC. whatD. as4. Not until recently ______ the development of tourist-related activities in the rural areas.A. they had encouragedB. had they encouragedC. did they encourageD. they encourage5. Many young people, most ______ were well-educated, headed for remote areas to follow their dreams.A. of whichB. of themC. of whomD. of those6. It is one of the ugliest faces I have ever seen. I’ve never seen ______.A. an ugly oneB. an ugliest oneC. the ugliest oneD. an uglier one7. —The Spring Festival is coming. I am considering traveling in a small town, especially one with an ocean view.—I agree with you; I would appreciate ______ if you could take me there.A. itB. oneC. thatD. this8. They agreed to lend us the car ______ we returned it before the weekend.A. as long asB. as soon asC. as far asD. as well as9. --Brad was Jane's brother!-- ______ he reminded me so much of Jane.A. No doubtB. Above allC. No wonderD. No problem10. All the citizens here strongly insist those who are caught ______ “harmful” advertisements in the streets ______ punished strictly.A. putting up; will beB. putting out; should beC. putting out; shallD. putting up; be11. Jasper has put up “No Parking” _____ outside his gate, but these haven’t had any effect.A. labelsB. signalsC. signsD. notes12. If you really understood the difficulties facing the Russian government, you wouldn't be so ___________of its spending reductions.A conservative B. critical C. controversial D. cruel13. It is generally accepted that the experiences of the child in his first years largely ______ his character and later personality.A. determinedB. deservedC. demandedD. defended14. I was impressed by the way ______ he dealt with the problem.A. thatB. whichC. in thatD. with which15. Most Chinese people tend to ____some money for old age.A. put awayB. keep upC. give awayD. make up二、完形填空。
九年级英语健康饮食练习题40题
九年级英语健康饮食练习题40题1.Fresh fruits are rich in vitamins. Apples are a kind of fresh fruit. Oranges are also fresh fruits. Which one is rich in vitamin C?A.ApplesB.OrangesC.Both apples and orangesD.Neither apples nor oranges答案解析：C。
苹果和橘子都是新鲜水果，都富含维生素C。
k is a good source of calcium. Yogurt is also rich in calcium. Which one provides more calcium per serving?kB.YogurtC.Both provide the same amount of calciumD.It depends on the brand答案解析：D。
不同品牌的牛奶和酸奶中钙的含量可能不同。
3.Broccoli is known for being rich in fiber and vitamins. Spinach is also a vegetable high in nutrients. Which one has more iron?A.BroccoliB.SpinachC.Both have equal amounts of ironD.It's hard to tell答案解析：B。
菠菜比西兰花含有更多的铁。
4.Carrots are full of beta-carotene. Sweet potatoes also contain beta-carotene. Which one has a higher concentration of beta-carotene?A.CarrotsB.Sweet potatoesC.Both have the same concentrationD.It varies depending on the variety答案解析：D。
谈谈微生物与人类的关系英语作文高中
谈谈微生物与人类的关系英语作文高中Microorganisms and Human Beings: A Symbiotic RelationshipIntroductionMicroorganisms, commonly known as microbes, are microscopic organisms that play a vital role in the ecosystem and in the human body. They can be beneficial, harmful, or neutral to human health. In this essay, we will discuss the relationship between microorganisms and human beings, focusing on their symbiotic interactions.1. Benefits of Microorganisms to Human BeingsMicroorganisms are essential for the breakdown of organic matter, nutrient cycling, and soil fertility, which are crucial for agriculture. In the human body, they play a vital role in digestion, immune system function, and vitamin synthesis. For example, gut bacteria help with the digestion of food and the production of vitamins B and K. They also help in maintaining a healthy balance of good and bad bacteria in the gut, which is essential for overall health.2. Harmful Effects of Microorganisms on Human HealthWhile some microorganisms are beneficial, others can be harmful and cause diseases. Pathogenic microbes such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites can cause infections and illnesses in humans. Foodborne illnesses, respiratory infections, and sexually transmitted diseases are some examples of diseases caused by microorganisms. It is essential to practice good hygiene, proper food handling, and vaccination to prevent the spread of these diseases.3. The Human MicrobiomeThe human microbiome refers to the collection of microorganisms that inhabit the human body. These microbes reside in various parts of the body, such as the skin, mouth, gut, and reproductive organs. The microbiome plays a crucial role in maintaining human health and wellbeing. It helps in digestion, nutrient absorption, immune system regulation, and protection against harmful pathogens. Disruption of the microbiome can lead to various health problems, such as autoimmune diseases, allergies, and obesity.4. Impact of Microorganisms on Human EvolutionMicroorganisms have shaped human evolution in many ways. They have influenced the development of the immune system, digestive system, and brain function. The co-evolution ofhumans and microbes has led to the establishment of a mutually beneficial relationship. For example, the gut microbiota helps in the digestion of complex carbohydrates, which have been a significant source of energy throughout human evolution. Understanding the role of microorganisms in human evolution can provide insights into the prevention and treatment of modern diseases.5. Future PerspectivesAs the field of microbiology advances, scientists are discovering new ways in which microorganisms can benefit human health. Probiotics, prebiotics, and microbial therapy are some of the emerging technologies that are being used to manipulate the microbiome for therapeutic purposes. Microbial engineering and synthetic biology are also being explored for the development of new antimicrobial agents, vaccines, and biofuels. The study of microorganisms has the potential to revolutionize healthcare, agriculture, and environmental sustainability in the future.ConclusionIn conclusion, the relationship between microorganisms and human beings is complex and multifaceted. While some microbes are beneficial and essential for human health, otherscan be harmful and cause diseases. Understanding the interactions between humans and microbes is crucial for maintaining a healthy balance and preventing diseases. As we continue to explore the role of microorganisms in human health and evolution, we can harness their potential for improving human wellbeing and sustainability.。
《经济学人》杂志原版英文(整理完整版)之欧阳道创编
Digest Of The. Economist. 2006(6-7)Hard to digestA wealth of genetic information is to be found in the human gutBACTERIA, like people, can be divided into friend and foe. Inspired by evidence that the friendly sort may help with a range of ailments, many people consume bacteria in the form of yogurts and dietary supplements. Such a smattering of artificial additions, however, represents but a drop in the ocean. There are at least 800 types of bacteria living in the human gut. And research by Steven Gill of the Institute for Genomic Research in Rockville, Maryland, and his colleagues, published in this week's Science, suggests that the collective genome of these organisms is so large that it contains 100 times as many genes as the human genome itself.Dr Gill and his team were able to come to this conclusion by extracting bacterial DNA from the faeces of two volunteers. Because of the complexity of the samples,they were not able to reconstruct the entire genomes of each of the gut bacteria, just the individual genes. But that allowed them to make an estimate of numbers.What all these bacteria are doing is tricky to identify—the bacteria themselves are difficult to cultivate. So the researchers guessed at what they might be up to by comparing the genes they discovered with published databases of genes whose functions are already known.This comparison helped Dr Gill identify for the first time the probable enzymatic processes by which bacteria help humans to digest the complex carbohydrates in plants. The bacteria also contain a plentiful supply of genes involved in the synthesis of chemicals essential to human life—including two B vitamins and certain essential amino acids—although the team merely showed that these metabolic pathways exist rather than proving that they are used. Nevertheless, the pathways they found leave humans looking more like ruminants: animals such as goats and sheep that use bacteria to break down otherwise indigestible matter in the plants they eat.The broader conclusion Dr Gill draws is that peopleare superorganisms whose metabolism represents an amalgamation of human and microbial attributes. The notion of a superorganism has emerged before, as researchers in other fields have come to view humans as having a diverse internal ecosystem. This, suggest some, will be crucial to the success of personalised medicine, as different people will have different responses to drugs, depending on their microbial flora. Accordingly, the next step, says Dr Gill, is to see how microbial populations vary between people of different ages, backgrounds and diets.Another area of research is the process by which these helpful bacteria first colonise the digestive tract. Babies acquire their gut flora as they pass down the birth canal and take a gene-filled gulp of their mother's vaginal and faecal flora. It might not be the most delicious of first meals, but it could well be an important one.Zapping the bluesThe rebirth of electric-shock treatmentELECTRICITY has long been used to treat medical disorders. As early as the second century AD, Galen, a Greek physician, recommended the use of electric eels fortreating headaches and facial pain. In the 1930s Ugo Cerletti and Lucio Bini, two Italian psychiatrists, used electroconvulsive therapy to treat schizophrenia. These days, such rigorous techniques are practised less widely. But researchers are still investigating how a gentler electric therapy appears to treat depression.Vagus-nerve stimulation, to give it its proper name, was originally developed to treat severe epilepsy. It requires a pacemaker-like device to be implanted in a patient's chest and wires from it threaded up to the vagus nerve on the left side of his neck. In the normal course of events, this provides an electrical pulse to the vagus nerve for 30 seconds every five minutes.This treatment does not always work, but in some cases where it failed (the number of epileptic seizures experienced by a patient remaining the same), that patient nevertheless reported feeling much better after receiving the implant. This secondary effect led to trials for treating depression and, in 2005, America's Food and Drug Administration approved the therapy for depression that fails to respond to all conventional treatments, includingdrugs and psychotherapy.Not only does the treatment work, but its effects appear to be long lasting. A study led by Charles Conway of Saint Louis University in Missouri, and presented to a recent meeting of the American Psychiatric Association, has found that 70% of patients who are better after one year stay better after two years as well.The technique builds on a procedure called deep-brain stimulation, in which electrodes are implanted deep into the white matter of patients' brains and used to “reboot” faulty neural circuitry. Such an operation is a big undertaking, requiring a full day of surgery and carrying a risk of the patient suffering a stroke. Only a small number of people have been treated this way. In contrast, the device that stimulates the vagus nerve can be implanted in 45 minutes without a stay in hospital.The trouble is that vagus-nerve stimulation can take a long time to produce its full beneficial effect. According to Dr Conway, scans taken using a technique called positron-emission tomography show significant changes in brain activity starting three months after treatment begins. Thechanges are similar to the improvements seen in patients who undergo other forms of antidepression treatment. The brain continues to change over the following 21 months. Dr Conway says that patients should be told that the antidepressant effects could be slow in coming.However, Richard Selway of King's College Hospital, London, found that his patients' moods improved just weeks after the implant. Although brain scans are useful in determining the longevity of the treatment, Mr Selway notes that visible changes in the brain do not necessarily correlate perfectly with changes in mood.Nobody knows why stimulating the vagus nerve improves the mood of depressed patients, but Mr Selway has a theory. He believes that the electrical stimulation causes a region in the brain stem called the locus caeruleus (Latin, ironically, for “blue place”) to flood the brain with norepinephrine, a neurotransmitter implicated in alertness, concentration and motivation—that is, the mood states missing in depressed patients. Whatever the mechanism, for the depressed a therapy that is relatively safe and long lasting is rare cause for cheer.The shape of things to comeHow tomorrow's nuclear power stations will differ from today'sTHE agency in charge of promoting nuclear power in America describes a new generation of reactors that will be “highly economical” with “enhanced safety”, that “minimise wastes” and will prove “proliferation resistant”. No doubt they will bake a mean apple pie, too.Unfortunately, in the world of nuclear energy, fine words are not enough. America got away lightly with its nuclear accident. When the Three Mile Island plant in Pennsylvania overheated in 1979 very little radiation leaked, and there were no injuries. Europe was not so lucky. The accident at Chernobyl in Ukraine in 1986 killed dozens immediately and has affected (sometimes fatally) the health of tens of thousands at the least. Even discounting the association of nuclear power with nuclear weaponry, people have good reason to be suspicious of claims that reactors are safe.Yet political interest in nuclear power is reviving across the world, thanks in part to concerns about globalwarming and energy security. Already, some 441 commercial reactors operate in 31 countries and provide 17% of the planet's electricity, according to America's Department of Energy. Until recently, the talk was of how to retire these reactors gracefully. Now it is of how to extend their lives. In addition, another 32 reactors are being built, mostly in India, China and their neighbours. These new power stations belong to what has been called the third generation of reactors, designs that have been informed by experience and that are considered by their creators to be advanced. But will these new stations really be safer than their predecessors?Clearly, modern designs need to be less accident prone. The most important feature of a safe design is that it “fails safe”. Fo r a reactor, this means that if its control systems stop working it shuts down automatically, safely dissipates the heat produced by the reactions in its core, and stops both the fuel and the radioactive waste produced by nuclear reactions from escaping by keeping them within some sort of containment vessel. Reactors that follow such rules are called “passive”. Most modern designs are passive to someextent and some newer ones are truly so. However, some of the genuinely passive reactors are also likely to be more expensive to run.Nuclear energy is produced by atomic fission. A large atom (usually uranium or plutonium) breaks into two smaller ones, releasing energy and neutrons. The neutrons then trigger further break-ups. And so on. If this “chain reaction” can be controlled, the energy released can be used to boil water, produce steam and drive a turbine that generates electricity. If it runs away, the result is a meltdown and an accident (or, in extreme circumstances, a nuclear explosion—though circumstances are never that extreme in a reactor because the fuel is less fissile than the material in a bomb). In many new designs the neutrons, and thus the chain reaction, are kept under control by passing them through water to slow them down. (Slow neutrons trigger more break ups than fast ones.) This water is exposed to a pressure of about 150 atmospheres—a pressure that means it remains liquid even at high temperatures. When nuclear reactions warm the water, its density drops, and the neutrons passing through it are no longer slowedenough to trigger further reactions. That negative feedback stabilises the reaction rate.Can business be cool?Why a growing number of firms are taking global warming seriouslyRUPERT MURDOCH is no green activist. But in Pebble Beach later this summer, the annual gathering of executivesof Mr Murdoch's News Corporation—which last year led to a dramatic shift in the media conglomerate's attitude tothe internet—will be addressed by several leading environmentalists, including a vice-president turned climatechangemovie star. Last month BSkyB, a British satellite-television company chaired by Mr Murdoch and run by hisson, James, declared itself “carbon-neutral”, having taken various steps to cut or offset its discharges of carboninto the atmosphere.The army of corporate greens is growing fast. Late last year HSBC became the first big bank to announce that itwas carbon-neutral, joining other financial institutions, including Swiss Re, a reinsurer, and Goldman Sachs, aninvestment bank, in waging war on climate-warminggases (of which carbon dioxide is the main culprit). Last yearGeneral Electric (GE), an industrial powerhouse, launched its “Ecomagination” strategy, aiming to cut its output ofgreenhouse gases and to invest heavily in clean (ie, carbon-free) technologies. In October Wal-Mart announced aseries of environmental schemes, including doubling the fuel-efficiency of its fleet of vehicles within a decade.Tesco and Sainsbury, two of Britain's biggest retailers, are competing fiercely to be the greenest. And on June 7thsome leading British bosses lobbied Tony Blair for a more ambitious policy on climate change, even if that involvesharsher regulation.The greening of business is by no means universal, however. Money from Exxon Mobil, Ford and General Motorshelped pay for television advertisements aired recently in America by the Competitive Enterprise Institute, with thedaft slogan “Carbon dioxide: they call it pollution; we call it life”. Besides, environmentalist critics say, some firmsa re engaged in superficial “greenwash” to boost the image of essentially climate-hurting businesses. Take BP, themost prominent corporate advocate of action on climatechange, with its “Beyond Petroleum” ad campaign, highprofileinvestments in green energy, and even a “carbon calculator” on its website that helps consumers measuretheir personal “carbon footprint”, or overall emissions of carbon. Yet, critics complain, BP's recent record profits arelargely thanks to sales of huge amounts of carbon-packed oil and gas.On the other hand, some free-market thinkers see the support of firms for regulation of carbon as the latestattempt at “regulatory capture”, by those who stand to profit from new rules. Max Schulz of the ManhattanInstitute, a conservative think tan k, notes darkly that “Enron was into pushing the idea of climate change, becauseit was good for its business”.Others argue that climate change has no more place in corporate boardrooms than do discussions of other partisanpolitical issues, such as Darfur or gay marriage. That criticism, at least, is surely wrong. Most of the corporateconverts say they are acting not out of some vague sense of social responsibility, or even personal angst, butbecause climate change creates real business risks andopportunities—from regulatory compliance to insuringclients on flood plains. And although these concerns vary hugely from one company to the next, few firms can besure of remaining unaffected.Testing timesResearchers are working on ways to reduce the need for animal experiments, but new laws mayincrease the number of experiments neededIN AN ideal world, people would not perform experiments on animals. For the people, they are expensive. For theanimals, they are stressful and often painful.That ideal world, sadly, is still some way away. People need new drugs and vaccines. They want protection fromthe toxicity of chemicals. The search for basic scientific answers goes on. Indeed, the European Commission isforging ahead with proposals that will increase the number of animal experiments carried out in the EuropeanUnion, by requiring toxicity tests on every chemical approved for use within the union's borders in the past 25years.Already, the commission has identified 140,000 chemicals that have not yet been tested. It wants 30,000 oftheseto be examined right away, and plans to spend between €4 billion-8 billion ($5 billion-10 billion) doing so. Thenumber of animals used for toxicity testing in Europe will thus, experts reckon, quintuple from just over 1m a yearto about 5m, unless they are saved by some dramatic advances in non-animal testing technology. At the moment,roughly 10% of European animal tests are for general toxicity, 35% for basic research, 45% for drugs andvaccines, and the remaining 10% a variety of uses such as diagnosing diseases.Animal experimentation will therefore be around for some time yet. But the hunt for substitutes continues, and lastweekend the Middle European Society for Alternative Methods to Animal Testing met in Linz, Austria, to reviewprogress.A good place to start finding alternatives for toxicity tests is the liver—the organ responsible for breaking toxicchemicals down into safer molecules that can then be excreted. Two firms, one large and one small, told themeeting how they were using human liver cells removed incidentally during surgery to test various substancesforlong-term toxic effects.PrimeCyte, the small firm, grows its cells in cultures over a few weeks and doses them regularly with the substanceunder investigation. The characteristics of the cells are carefully monitored, to look for changes in theirmicroanatomy.Pfizer, the big firm, also doses its cultures regularly, but rather than studying individual cells in detail, it counts cellnumbers. If the number of cells in a culture changes after a sample is added, that suggests the chemical inquestion is bad for the liver.In principle, these techniques could be applied to any chemical. In practice, drugs (and, in the case of PrimeCyte,food supplements) are top of the list. But that might change if the commission has its way: those140,000screenings look like a lucrative market, although nobody knows whether the new tests will be ready for use by2009, when the commission proposes that testing should start.Other tissues, too, can be tested independently of animals. Epithelix, a small firm in Geneva, has developed anartificial version of the lining of the lungs. According toHuang Song, one of Epithelix's researchers, thefirm'scultured cells have similar microanatomy to those found in natural lung linings, and respond in the same way tovarious chemical messengers. Dr Huang says that they could be used in long-term toxicity tests of airbornechemicals and could also help identify treatments for lung diseases.The immune system can be mimicked and tested, too. ProBioGen, a company based in Berlin, is developing anartificial human lymph node which, it reckons, could have prevented the near-disastrous consequences of a drugtrial held in Britain three months ago, in which (despite the drug having passed animal tests) six men sufferedmultiple organ failure and nearly died. The drug the men were given made their immune systems hyperactive.Such a response would, the firm's scientists reckon, have been identified by their lymph node, which is made fromcells that provoke the immune system into a response. ProBioGen's lymph node could thus work better than animaltesting.Another way of cutting the number of animalexperiments would be tochange the way that vaccines are tested, according to CoenraadHendriksen of the Netherlands Vaccine Institute. At the moment, allbatches of vaccine are subject to the same battery of tests. DrHendriksen argues that this is over-rigorous. When new vaccine culturesare made, belt-and-braces tests obviously need to be applied. But if abatch of vaccine is derived from an existing culture, he suggests that itneed be tested only to make sure it is identical to the batch from which itis derived. That would require fewer test animals.All this suggests that though there is still some way to go before drugs,vaccines and other substances can be tested routinely on cells ratherthan live animals, useful progress is being made. What is harder to see ishow the use of animals might be banished from fundamental research.Anger managementTo one emotion, men are more sensitive than women MEN are notoriously insensitive to the emotional world around them. At least, that is the stereotype peddled by athousand women's magazines. And a study by two researchers at the University of Melbourne, inAustralia,confirms that men are, indeed, less sensitive to emotion than women, with one important and suggestiveexception. Men are acutely sensitive to the anger of other men.Mark Williams and Jason Mattingley, whose study has just been published in Current Biology, looked at the way aperson's sex affects his or her response to emotionally charged facial expressions. People from all cultures agreeon what six basic expressions of emotion look like. Whether the face before you is expressing anger, disgust, fear,joy, sadness or surprise seems to be recognised universally—which suggests that the expressions involved areinnate, rather than learned.Dr Williams and Dr Mattingley showed the participants in their study photographs of these emotional expressions inmixed sets of either four or eight. They asked the participants to look for a particular sort of expression, andmeasured the amount of time it took them to find it. The researchers found, in agreement with previous studies,that both men and women identified angry expressions most quickly. But they also found that anger was morequicklyidentified on a male face than a female one.Moreover, most participants could find an angry face just as quickly when it was mixed in a group of eightphotographs as when it was part of a group of four. That was in stark contrast to the other five sorts of expression,which took more time to find when they had to be sorted from a larger group. This suggests that something in thebrain is attuned to picking out angry expressions, and that it is especially concerned about angry men. Also, thishighly tuned ability seems more important to males than females, since the two researchers found that men pickedout the angry expressions faster than women did, even though women were usually quicker than men to recognizeevery other sort of facial expression.Dr Williams and Dr Mattingley suspect the reason for this is that being able to spot an angry individual quickly hasa survival advantage—and, since anger is more likely to turn into lethal violence in men than in women, the abilityto spot angry males quickly is particularly valuable.As to why men are more sensitive to anger than women, it is presumably because they are far more likely togetkilled by it. Most murders involve men killing other men—even today the context of homicide is usually aspontaneous dispute over status or sex.The ability to spot quickly that an alpha male is in a foul mood would thus have great survival value. It would allowthe sharp-witted time to choose appeasement, defence or possibly even pre-emptive attack. And, if it is right, thisstudy also confirms a lesson learned by generations of bar-room tough guys and schoolyard bullies: if you wantattention, get angry.The shareholders' revoltA turning point in relations between company owners and bosses?SOMETHING strange has been happening this year at company annual meetings in America:shareholders have been voting decisively against the recommendations of managers. Until now, mostshareholders have, like so many sheep, routinely voted in accordance with the advice of the people theyemploy to run the company. This year managers have already been defeated at some 32 companies,including household names such as Boeing, ExxonMobil and GeneralMotors.This shareholders' revolt has focused entirely on one issue: the method by which members of the boardof directors are elected. Shareholder resolutions on other subjects have mostly been defeated, as usual.The successful resolutions called for directors to be elected by majority voting, instead of by thetraditional method of “plurality”—which in practice meant that only votes cast in favour were counted,and that a single vote for a candidate would be enough to get him elected.Several companies, led by Pfizer, a drug giant, saw defeat looming and pre-emptively adopted a formalmajority-voting policy that was weaker than in the shareholder resolution. This required any director whofailed to secure a majority of votes to tender his resignation to the board, which would then be free todecide whether or not to accept it. Under the shareholder resolution, any candidate failing to secure amajority of the votes cast simply would not be elected. Intriguingly, the shareholder resolution wasdefeated at four-fifths of the firms that adopted a Pfizer-style majority voting rule, whereas it succeedednearly ninetimes out of ten at firms retaining the plurality rule.Unfortunately for shareholders, their victories may prove illusory, as the successful resolutions wereall“precatory”—meaning that they merely advised management on the course of action preferred byshareholders, but did not force managers to do anything. Several resolutions that tried to imposemajority voting on firms by changing their bylaws failed this year.Even so, wise managers should voluntarily adopt majority voting, according to Wachtell, Lipton, Rosen&Katz, a Wall Street law firm that has generally helped managers resist increases in shareholder power butnow expects majority voting eventually to “become universal”. It advises that, at the very least,managers should adopt the Pfizer model, if only to avoid becoming the subject of even greater scrutinyfrom corporate-governance activists. Some firms might choose to go further, as Dell and Intel have donethis year, and adopt bylaws requiring majority voting.Shareholders may have been radicalised by the success last year of a lobbying effort by managersagainst a proposal from regulators to make it easier for shareholders to put upcandidates in boardelections. It remains to be seen if they will be back for more in 2007. Certainly, some of the activistshareholders behind this year's resolutions have big plans. Where new voting rules are in place, they plancampaigns to vote out the chairman of the compensation committee at any firm that they think overpaysthe boss. If the 2006 annual meeting was unpleasant for managers, next year's could be far worse. Intangible opportunitiesCompanies are borrowing against their copyrights, trademarks and patentsNOT long ago, the value of companies resided mostly in things you could see and touch. Today it liesincreasingly in intangible assets such as the McDonald's name, the patent for Viagra and the rights toSpiderman. Baruch Lev, a finance professor at New York University's Stern School of Business, puts theimplied value of intangibles on American companies' balance sheets at about $6 trillion, or two-thirds ofthe total. Much of this consists of intellectual property, the collective name for copyrights, trademarksand patents. Increasingly, companies and their clever bankers are usingthese assets to raise cash.The method of choice is securitisation, the issuing of bonds based on the various revenues thrown off byintellectual property. Late last month Dunkin' Brands, owner of Dunkin' Donuts, a snack-bar chain, raised$1.7 billion by selling bonds backed by, among other things, the royalties it will receive from itsfranchisees. The three private-equity firms that acquired Dunkin' Brands a few months ago have used thecash to repay the money they borrowed to buy the chain. This is the biggest intellectual-propertysecuritisation by far, says Jordan Yarett of Paul, Weiss, Rifkind, Wharton & Garrison, a law firm that hasworked on many such deals.Securitisations of intellectual property can be based on revenues from copyrights, trademarks (such aslogos) or patents. The best-known copyright deal was the issue in 1997 of $55m-worth of “Bowie Bonds”supported by the future sales of music by David Bowie, a British rock star. Bonds based on the films ofDreamWorks, Marvel comic books and the stories of John Steinbeck have also been sold. As well asDunkin' Brands, several restaurant chains andfashion firms have issued bonds backed by logos andbrands.Intellectual-property deals belong to a class known as operating-asset securitisations. These differ fromstandard securitisations of future revenues, such as bonds backed by the payments on a 30-yearmortgage or a car loan, in that the borrower has to make his asset work. If investors are to recoup theirmoney, the assets being securitised must be “actively exploited”, says Mr Yarett: DreamWorks mustcontinue to churn out box-office hits.The market for such securitisations is still small. Jay Eisbruck, of Moody's, a rating agency, reckons thataround $10 billion-worth of bonds are outstanding. But there is “big potential,” he says, pointing out thatlicensing patented technology generates $100 billion a year and involves thousands of companies.Raising money this way can make sense not only for clever private-equity firms, but also for companieswith low (or no) credit ratings that cannot easily tap the capital markets or with few tangible assets ascollateral for bank loans. Some universities have joined in, too. Yale built a new medical complex withsome of the roughly $100m it。
细菌不都是坏的(英汉双语版)
Not All Bacteria Are Pathogenic细菌不都是坏的When it comes to bugs like bacteria and parasites, we've been trained to think that less is better. But there are some good guys in the microbial world — bugs that do the unglamorous work of keeping us regular and helping to relieve a range of disorders from diarrhea to irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). Now, a new study suggests that the same microbes may even help us stay slim.当谈到细菌和寄生虫的时候，我们习惯性的都认为越少越好。
实际上在微生物界中有一些好虫子的，它们做着枯燥无聊的工作来维持我们的身体正常运转，还能预防从腹泻到肠道紊乱综合症的病症。
现在新的研究发现这些微生物甚至帮助我们保持苗条。
In the Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, researchers at the University of Arizona and the Mayo Clinic in Arizona report a very small study of nine individuals — three of normal weight, three who were morbidly obese and three who underwent gastric bypass surgery. The team found that each group harbored a different intestinal zoo of microbes, and that following their surgery, the gastric bypass patients' gut bugs ended up looking much more similar to those of the normal weight patients.在一项美国国家科学院亚利桑那州大学和马奥诊所的研究者们进行的小范围试验中，有9个被观测者，三个正常体重，三个肥胖症，还有三个要做胃旁路手术的病人。
爱护动物英语作文
保护动物英语作文保护动物英语作文天生万物，都有其生存的权力。
身为文明的现代人，就该提倡“放生”的'观念，才是对待地球上芸芸众生的最正确方法，但事实上真的是这样吗？以下是保护动物英语作文，欢送阅读。
Many people think that the animals to set free to find the most suitable environment for animals, even in the protection and take good care of them, but the fact proved that such a concept is not absolutely right, when the animals into is not suitable for their own growth environment, most of the animals will be unable to adapt to the new environment and turning on the point of no return of death, to directly kill them like what's the difference? Even more brutal. Incident ", however, the indirect killing "constantly in our thought" merciful "" release" of the world, too many people without carefully to understand every kind of animal is most suitable for the growth of the environment, is wise for animals make the wrong decisions. "Man's most loyal friend" -- the dog, we surrender, lead to Taiwan every year nearly 100 to 200 poor stray dog died because of careless release the streets, and loved them, raising their I, is the most ruthless killer.So, some people began to advocate the concept of "ecological protection", emphasize "to" protect the ecological "" instead of" free ""," to the "adoption"instead of "buy", "" bird is the natural enemies of the pest, birds are friends of human", "protect animals is to protect our pany"... Slogans such as distributed, but also because the concept of clear, gradually, some people began to aept the notion of "protecting ecology", try to convert to help animals, just fall into the "love Enough to against the "false belief.I believe in everyone's heart with a love little passion for animals, and just because there is no enough knowledge and experience, will unconsciously hurt small animals, some avoidable damage and tragedy. I also think that everybody have no petency and obligation to protect small animals, but before learn to protect them, have to understand their behavior and living environment, let them back to their own environment, originally otherwise do not reject it, along with the raising it, take care of the environment, give them the most suitable living space, so that you truly care for the animals, the earth also can always exuberant, all kinds of species to flourish, the co-ourrence is abundant vitality and fun.Watched the birds fly in the sky, watching the fish swim in the water. Maybe you think there are many animalsin the world! But do you know that there are not only few animals, but some animals are rare, and even some animals are extinct. Biologists estimate that there are at leasthundreds of species that have been killed by humans for thousands of years. In this way, there are fewer and fewer animals in the world, and if we can't save them in time, then we will be the only animals in the world. Don't think I'm alarmist. If you don't believe me, I can tell you.In the case of the dodo, which lived on the Mauritius islands in the Indian Ocean, the meat was so delicious that it was hunted by humans at the time and died out in the seventeenth century. But if people had been protected by animals, it wouldn't have killed the dodo. Besides life in our country the qinghai-tibet plateau Tibetan antelope, because it is below its outer fur known as shahtoosh wool meticulously, can be used for woven shawl, killed off the poachers hunt. Because it takes 300 to 400 grams of raw velvet to weave a woman's shawl, it means sacrificing the lives of three Tibetan antelope. So in the early 1990s, the number of Tibetan antelopes was only 65,000 to 72,500, a tenth of the total of the Tibetan antelope 100 years ago. Fortunately, people are aware of the protection of endangered animals. Now, a number of volunteers in Beijing have e to koko to take care of the Tibetan antelope. The international fund for animal welfare at the same time every year since 1999 for donated $80000 to $100000 for the protection of Tibetan antelope in kekexili, qiangtang and altun nature reserve to carry out the anti-poaching actionand in the light of the promotion of the Tibetan antelope protection. We humans are slowly pulling the Tibetan antelope from the brink of extinction.Friends, animals are the priceless gift of nature. Itis our friend. Their demise is closely related to our human life. The mass destruction of animals will have serious adverse effects on human beings, resulting in serious ecological imbalance, which will destroy the human living environment. Let us start from now, from me, protect animals, make the world a better place!The national first-class protection animal giant panda, have you ever seen the giant panda? Come and see! The following is a lovely giant panda, see how delicious iteats! The smile is so lovely.You said, why so little panda, it is because of the destruction of the human disorderly cut down trees, don't take care of flowers and plants, destruction of the atmosphere, to lead to a drop in the panda, so we have to take care of the panda, the giant panda is herbivorous animals know, likes eating bamboo, but not as the giant pandas in the zoo keepers to feed their fruit. Wild panda anecdotes: in recent years, scientists found hidden cameras, male wild pandas left a breath marks on a tree, will lift a leg, like a male dog, and then the urine to the heights of the tree and. The higher the urine, the higher the socialstatus of the male giant panda. Good play! Like a dog! This is fun. Ax mountain in north of the city, we established a lush bamboo sea and the forest, form different from downtown chengdu "microclimate", in 1987, formally pleted, now has developed into a specialized in endangered wildlife research and breeding, protection of education and education tourism, a nonprofit organization.Do you know how pandas digest bamboo? The researchers found that the giant panda's digestive tract is short and simple, without the thin gut and plex stomach or developed caecum of a typical herbivore. In addition, the giant panda's genome sequences announced in xx, after they found the giant panda to the lack of some help in the digestive tract herbivores digest cellulose and hemicellulose (they are the main ponents of the fibrous plant diet) enzymes. This makes the researchers very confused. How does a giant panda without these necessary conditions digest bamboo?Researchers use of gene sequencing technology, analysis of more than 5000 ribosomal RNA sequences, eventually in the giant panda, found a variety of digestive tract bacteria and some microbes are very similar to grazing animals. These help animals digest cellulose, and seven of them are unique to the panda's digestive tract. Bye bye!Animals, they are our friends; Animals, we need to protect them; Animals, too, have dignity; Animal; There is flesh and blood; Animal, like us, is a life.People often kill the poor little animals, in their minds, only to kill them to make money, they seem to have lost their will. If I saw them killing animals, I would ask them, "don't they have family? You haven't experienced the taste of bone separation. Have you ever wondered what it is? They also have flesh and blood, and they know gratitude,and you think about what you will think about when they are about to be killed? You don't know that so many innocent animals have been killed by your hands, are they guilty? Should they be destroyed when they are born? Don't you deserve to be punished?You can the perspective-taking once, if you are an innocent little animals, in the moment you are born, do you see your mother died or killed, by the people who you would think in your hearts? Will you experience the separation? And now that you think of it, you should reflect upon it, and the innocent lives of those who deserve to be damned by those of you who are merciless? Even if they die, theywon't do it. I don't know if you know what those littlelives would look like before they die. You don't know, why? Because you have no blood and no meat, you have killed so many innocent animals, the damned people are not they, butyou, because when you give them something, they will know how to be grateful.You might think, well, a brute, what's so valuable?It's not only wrong, it's wrong, it's wrong. Yes, they are animals, they are life, right, they are not valuable, but they are not damn...Well, I don't want to say much, I hope that those who kill the little animals, you have changed a little earlier, or you will be punished sooner or later.Look, her smile of how happy ah, two eyes became a crescent moon, slightly tilted small nose upward erected, red small mouth with giggles a match, even the two littlein quivered. Do you know who she is? Tell you, that's me.I'm not tall, about one metre or so. I have many characteristics, the biggest characteristic is to like animals.In the early winter, I bought two chickens, a milky white and an orange, on the street. When they bought them, they thought their mother would be as happy as I was. But as soon as they walked in the door, my mother said, "why did you buy this little thing back? He'll freeze to death."I don't think so. I'm determined to feed them. I put them on the ground first, and then I brought them to them, but they just squealed and refused to eat. Mother came by and said, "it's cold. They're too cold to eat." I lookedcarefully, and sure enough, they were shivering with cold. So I put them on my palms, and they began to eat. In the evening, I wrote my homework at my desk, and the chickens did not eat the millet that I gave them. Every way, I had to put them in my cotton-padded clothes, and they didn't bark. I finished my homework at ease, took them out, and they began to bark again, and I had to sleep with them.Finally, the day of heating, the room became warm, the chicken feathers also grew. In the evening, I put them in the box, fearing that they would run away, and covered them with a layer of cloth. The next day, the chicken died. I cried bitterly, and for several days I was very sad.I was moved by zhao zhongxiang's "animal world", and hoped that when I grew up, I would promote the protection of animals. I was also enraged by the outlaws who laid down the animals, and shed tears for the innocent victims. On one oasion, I saw on TV the public security bureau arrested a number of animal smuggling crimes, happy, and sad, sad is there are so many animals were killed by the cruel, to the delight of the public security bureau's uncle finally captured, the brutal gang smuggling points lucky to survive a group of animals can be protected.This is me, a little girl who likes animals and loves animals.There are many animals around us, such as cats, dogs, birds... They are the objects of our love.I have a lovely dog, and I call it little black. He is my most loyal friend. Every time I e home from school, the puppy will squatting on the ground to shake its tail, Mimi smile, lovely! In the evening, I finished my meal and went to feed the dog. The dog ate with relish, and kept on woof! Wang! Wang! As if to say: "this rice is delicious, thank you friend!"The dog has another skill, you know? That is to catch a thief. In the evening the puppy was my "police". Once a thief es into our village, the dog will alert all the policemen to catch the thief, and when the thief finally capitulates, the dog will be on the list.There are many families in the world, and there are only lovely small animals in the family. They take good care of small animals and train them very wisely. But some people regard the cute little animal as their own enemy, abusing small animals all day, and the cruel "family law" to the small animals, really is very angry! I hope that in this "big family", everyone can protect every animal here, care about it, love it.Let us connect the love, love each animal here!If you were an animal and hunted by humans, what would you think, would you, would you be hunted? You definitelydon't want to. Some people say, "I'm not an animal." But have you ever wondered what the animals would think? Nowthat humans are killing animals in large Numbers, will the animals be reconciled? No, no, never. They don't want todie in human hands. Are they willing to be killed by you? No, they have a thousand not willing, ten thousand not willing, one hundred million not willing...Although some people know how to love animals, but they will only pretend to go to education, while they are still destroying the environment, they will enjoy the game. Inthe case of the dodo, which lived on the Mauritius islandsin the Indian Ocean, the meat was so delicious that it was hunted by humans at the time and died out in theseventeenth century. But if people had been protected by animals, it wouldn't have killed the dodo.And whale, a whale is not a let you kill, at the whaleis killed a head died a, not as much as fish, shrimp, if we put the whales to kill, that our children and grandchildren, they not see whales this animal?Now, some animals are extinct, the crocodile is fierce, but the human is more fierce. It is because the organs in some animals have outstanding economic value, which has bee the object of human exploitation and bee the main factor of the extinction of animals. Crocodile with sharp teeth, and huge appetite for food, we all said the crocodile, but moreafraid of human, the crocodile in the eyes of human, the crocodile can be made into the luggage, handbags, wallets, shoes and other goods, so the crocodile, has now bee almost extinct animals."Golden footprints", this article tells the is aso house caught a fox, two old fox try their best to save small fox, is aso sympathize with small fox, he secretly to old fox delivered food, then established the intimacy between them, the relationship of trust, then two old fox saved is aso, at last, the fox returned to nature, two old fox is how happy! This article praises the mutual trust, mutual help and harmonious relationship between people and animals, and also shows the strong affection between animals. We are going to learn from taro. He helps animals and animals save him. Isn't that great? Why do people still kill animals?Here, I appeal to people not to destroy the plants and trees in nature, not to kill a wild animal, to kill our friends, to protect the creatures of nature. To destroy animals is to destroy ourselves. If one day the world's animals were all gone, would humans survive? To protect the animals, cherish every creature in nature.Friends, animals are the priceless gift of nature. Itis our friend. Their demise is closely related to our human life. The mass destruction of animals will have seriousadverse effects on human beings, resulting in serious ecological imbalance, which will destroy the human living environment. Let us start from now, from me, protect animals, make the world a better place! To protect animals is to protect ourselves!One day, the forest lived in a ruthless woodcutter. Not only did he cut a lot of trees every day, but also to hunt, catch what he sell what fur merchant, and eat meat to cook soup with it, the animals in the forests are regarded him as the devil.This morning, the hateful woodcutter was carrying a large number of people to cut down the trees, which frightened the butterfly which had just been bathed in the warm sunshine. The little animals forted the frightened butterfly. But the woodcutter was cutting down trees with a large group of strong and strong men. The loggers did not cut the trees with axes but with machines. When the animals see their beautiful home, they will be destroyed by the horrid loggers and decide to defend their homes, whether they attack them or whatever, they are not afraid to die. Then a black bear said, "let me stop them." Then he jumped out of the room, and when he saw that the prey was shining, he tried to shoot it with a pistol. As soon as the woodcutter opened fire, a bullet came to him, the black bear flashed the bullet, and thousands of bullets flew intoit. Then it died, and its blood ran straight. At that moment, the humane society of the humane society arrived, stopped their behavior, and took those people away.After they had gone, the forest returned to their old song and laughter, and they lived happily ever after.This morning, it was sunny and cloudless, and some of my friends asked me to go out in the wild.The countryside is colorful. All kinds of wild flowers are colourful, happy and angry. The green grass was soft and soft, and the green grass was covered with crystal dewdrops, and it was dazzling in the sun. In the woods, the trees are tall and tall, and the green leaves are full of green leaves. Suddenly, we heard the clark that tactfully sound, we are looking for, finally saw it on a tree branch, this only the clark so lovely, two eyes twinkle, chest with crimson feathers, and her nose a skip. He saw us ing and flew to another tree. The friend saw the little sparrow and rushed out with the slingshot ready to attack it. I looked at it quickly: the bird is a good friend of man, how can we hurt it? I stopped my friend and said, "let's see how happy the bird is when it flies around freely. Let's not hurt it." The little friend heard, ashamed to put down the slingshot, and lowered the head.It is our duty and duty to care and care for small animals, because, like us, animals are the inhabitants of the earth.People know that animals are endangered, such as pandas, hawksbill and beluga whales. But now, the animals' living environment is shrinking a little, and environmental protection is increasingly needed.Students, do you know something about animals? The teacher has told us a lot! One day, the teacher told us: there is a man of slaughtering cattle, he bought from the market, a strong and fat cow, want to kill it, returned home, he was picked up in the hands of tu, was laid handson him, he saw a cow has watery eyes, but he slaughtered cattle, seen tears much cattle, and all of a sudden, thecow to the butcher, "flop" kneel down, butcher surprised, but his heart is not soft down, he picked up the knife, the cow slaughtered, instant, cow blood hua suddenly flow out, all the poor cow die like this. But when the butcher opened the cow, he found that there was a calf sleeping in thecow's stomach. The butcher was startled, and the sharpknife in his hand fell to the ground with a clang. Fromthen on, the butcher did not kill the ox anymore.After hearing this story, everyone must have a steelyard? There are many many touching story about animals, can let you are more beautiful, the classmates, you can besure to remember: the fear of life, to love animals, it is good for you, but also a lot!To create a better home is the desire of all of us. Today, animals want us to live in peace with animals. But not only did we not listen to the animals, but we were all screaming in the house. For us, killing every little animal is a big deal. But if one little animal is missing. As the bird loses its wings, the child loses his home. Let us love small animals, cherish every life.Many animals are endangered, but many people have no conscience. They kill and protect animals, and the police help them. Let them have no law in this world, no king, see the police to run away, do not know he will stare at which target. For example, the Siberian tiger, though fierce. But he did not do any harm to see their faces. I seem to feel the warmth of the world, a happy family. Who wants to destroy it? These hunters don't want to think about their families. Wouldn't you be sad if you were hurt a little? Will you be sad and will not care for others? What kind of person would you be if your family knew you had done something wrong? These are the questions you should think about before you fire. Don't you hesitate to fire?On earth, a lot of resources are already wasted. Our friends gradually lost, but, if not rare animals. In the future, you don't know where to plant it. You don't want todie, you just want to make a good impression. These hunters, in the future, your name will be an insult. Will you feel better in your heart? I think it's famous in the world. No matter how happy you are, anyway. You must be reviled bythe world if you hurt an animal that should not be harmed. That way, wherever it is. You can never lift your head. What do you think?Students, I just want to advocate you must love small animals, love yourself. Fear life, love small animals. Believe you, with you, the world will love more.I ask the question, do you think life is precious? You must have said, "it's too precious. You can't find it when you lose it." Yes, life is very precious indeed, but we always feel that life is precious. Have you ever thought about small animals such as sparrows, puppies, stray cats? They also feel that life is important.I'll give you a few examples of life: you see a sparrow, you take a bullet gun, you jump out of it with a bullet,you're happy! I think you're very uncivilized, and I guess the birds are animals, you hit it, and it's dead, but, have you ever thought about it, if someone shot you, would you? The same goes for birds.What would you do if you saw a sick dog that no one wanted, a stray dog, homeless? Would kick him, punch him, throw it with a stone? But, I will buy a ham sausage tofeed it, perhaps, it will be moved to shed tears, or follow you. I don't want to hurt this dying dog. It must be happy.Whenever see people eat dog meat, I will be very sad, see people kill dogs, my heart is like getting acupuncture at one fell swoop, especially to kill cattle, becausecattle are serve, so the most cattle are dedicated for human life, farmland, cart, can provide people with nutritious milk... the old cow died, also want to cut it by a master chop chop, please cut it is to eat, I think this to the old cow is too cruel.Nowadays, many animals are facing death and extinction, and there are many creatures who want to be free. Yes, if we eat less a pigeon, eat less a bullfrog, less to play a sparrow, less wearing a fur coat, can reduce the rate of animals perish, here, I want to appeal to the people: the fear of life for animal welfare.。
益生菌肠道微生物的基因组学英文论文及翻译
The genomics of probiotic intestinal microorganismsSeppo Salminen1 , Jussi Nurmi2 and Miguel Gueimonde1(1) Functional Foods Forum, University of Turku, FIN-20014 Turku, Finland(2) Department of Biotechnology, University of Turku, FIN-20014 Turku, FinlandSeppo SalminenEmail: *********************Published online: 29 June 2005AbstractAn intestinal population of beneficial commensal microorganisms helps maintain human health, and some of these bacteria have been found to significantly reduce the risk of gut-associated disease and to alleviate disease symptoms. The genomic characterization of probiotic bacteria and other commensal intestinal bacteria that is now under way will help to deepen our understanding of their beneficial effects.While the sequencing of the human genome [1, 2] has increased ourunderstanding of the role of genetic factors in health and disease, each human being harbors many more genes than those in their own genome. These belong to our commensal and symbiotic intestinal microorganisms - our intestinal 'microbiome' - which play an important role in maintaining human health and well-being. A more appropriate image of ourselves would be drawn if the genomes of our intestinal microbiota were taken into account. The microbiome may contain more than 100 times the number of genes in the human genome [3] and provides many functions that humans have thus not needed to develop themselves. The indigenous intestinal microbiota provides a barrier against pathogenic bacteria and other harmful food components [4–6]. It has also been shown to have a direct impact on the morphology of the gut [7], and many intestinal diseases can be linked to disturbances in the intestinal microbial population [8].The indigenous microbiota of an infant's gastrointestinal tract is originally created through contact with the diverse microbiota of the parents and the immediate environment. During breast feeding, initial microbial colonization is enhanced by galacto-oligosaccharides in breast milk and contact with the skin microbiota of the mother. This early colonization process directs the microbial succession until weaning and forms the basis for a healthy microbiota. The viable microbes in the adultintestine outnumber the cells in the human body tenfold, and the composition of this microbial population throughout life is unique to each human being. During adulthood and aging the composition and diversity of the microbiota can vary as a result of disease and the genetic background of the individual.Current research into the intestinal microbiome is focused on obtaining genomic data from important intestinal commensals and from probiotics, microorganisms that appear to actively promote health. This genomic information indicates that gut commensals not only derive food and other growth factors from the intestinal contents but also influence their human hosts by providing maturational signals for the developing infant and child, as well as providing signals that can lead to an alteration in the barrier mechanisms of the gut. It has been reported that colonization by particular bacteria has a major role in rapidly providing humans with energy from their food [9]. For example, the intestinal commensal Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron has been shown to have a major role in this process, and whole-genome transcriptional profiling of the bacterium has shown that specific diets can be associated with selective upregulation of bacterial genes that facilitate delivery of products of carbohydrate breakdown to the host's energy metabolism [10, 11]. Key microbial groups in the intestinal microbiota are highly flexible in adapting to changes in diet, and thus detailed prediction of their actions and effects may be difficult. Although genomic studies have revealed important details about the impact of the intestinal microbiota on specific processes [3, 11–14], the effects of species composition and microbial diversity and their potential compensatory functions are still not understood.Probiotics and healthA probiotic has been defined by a working group of the International Life Sciences Institute Europe (ILSI Europe) as "a viable microbial food supplement which beneficially influences the health of the host" [15]. Probiotics are usually members of the healthy gut microbiota and their addition can assist in returning a disturbed microbiota to its normal beneficial composition. The ILSI definition implies that safety and efficacy must be scientifically demonstrated for each new probiotic strain and product. Criteria for selecting probiotics that are specific for a desired target have been developed, but general criteria that must be satisfied include the ability to adhere to intestinal mucosa and tolerance of acid and bile. Such criteria have proved useful but cumbersome in current selection processes, as there are several adherence mechanisms and they influence gene upregulation differently in the host. Therefore, two different adhesion studies need to be conducted on each strain and theirpredictive value for specific functions is not always good or optimal. Demonstration of the effects of probiotics on health includes research on mechanisms and clinical intervention studies with human subjects belonging to target groups.The revelation of the human genome sequence has increased our understanding of the genetic deviations that lead to or predispose to gastrointestinal disease as well as to diseases associated with the gut, such as food allergies. In 1995, the first genome of a free-living organism, the bacterium Haemophilus influenzae, was sequenced [16]. Since then, over 200 bacterial genome sequences, mainly of pathogenic microorganisms, have been completed. The first genome of a mammalian lactic-acid bacterium, that of Lactococcus lactis, a microorganism of great industrial interest, was completed in 2001 [17]. More recently, the genomes of numerous other lactic-acid bacteria [18], bifidobacteria [12] and other intestinal microorganisms [13, 19, 20] have been sequenced, and others are under way [21]. Table 1lists the probiotic bacteria that have been sequenced. These great breakthroughs have demonstrated that evolution has adapted both microbes and humans to their current state of cohabitation, or even symbiosis, which is beneficial to both parties and facilitates a healthy and relatively stable but adaptable gut environment.Table 1Lessons from genomesLactic-acid bacteria and bifidobacteria can act as biomarkers of gut health by giving early warning of aberrations that represent a risk of specific gut diseases. Only a few members of the genera Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium, two genera that provide many probiotics, have been completely sequenced. The key issue for the microbiota, for probiotics, and for their human hosts is the flexibility of the microorganisms in coping with a changeable local environment and microenvironments.This flexibility is emphasized in the completed genomes of intestinal and probiotic microorganisms. The complete genome sequence of the probiotic Lactobacillus acidophilus NCFM has recently been published by Altermann et al. [22]. The genome is relatively small and the bacterium appears to be unable to synthesize several amino acids, vitamins and cofactors. Italso encodes a number of permeases, glycolases and peptidases for rapid uptake and utilization of sugars and amino acids from the human intestine, especially the upper gastrointestinal tract. The authors also report a number of cell-surface proteins, such as mucus- and fibronectin-binding proteins, that enable this strain to adhere to the intestinal epithelium and to exchange signals with the intestinal immune system. Flexibility is guaranteed by a number of regulatory systems, including several transcriptional regulators, six PurR-type repressors and ninetwo-component systems, and by a variety of sugar transporters. The genome of another probiotic, Lactobacillus johnsonii [23], also lacks some genes involved in the synthesis of amino acids, purine nucleotides and numerous cofactors, but contains numerous peptidases, amino-acid permeases and other transporters, indicating a strong dependence on the host.The presence of bile-salt hydrolases and transporters in these bacteria indicates an adaptation to the upper gastrointestinal tract [23], enabling the bacteria to survive the acidic and bile-rich environments of the stomach and small intestine. In this regard, bile-salt hydrolases have been found in most of the sequenced genomes of bifidobacteria and lactic-acid bacteria [24], and these enzymes can have a significant impact on bacterial survival. Another lactic-acid bacterium, Lactobacillus plantarum WCFS1, also contains a large number of genes related to carbohydrate transport and utilization, and has genes for the production of exopolysaccharides and antimicrobial agents [18], indicating a good adaptation to a variety of environments, including the human small intestine [14]. In general, flexibility and adaptability are reflected by a large number of regulatory and transport functions.Microorganisms that inhabit the human colon, such as B. thetaiotaomicron and Bifidobacterium longum [12], have a great number of genes devoted to oligosaccharide transport and metabolism, indicating adaptation to life in the large intestine and differentiating them from, for example, L. johnsonii [23]. Genomic research has also provided initial information on the relationship between components of the diet and intestinal microorganisms. The genome of B. longum [12] suggests the ability to scan for nutrient availability in the lower gastrointestinal tract in human infants. This strain is adapted to utilizing the oligosaccharides in human milk along with intestinal mucins that are available in the colon of breast-fed infants. On the other hand, the genome of L. acidophilus has a gene cluster related to the metabolism of fructo-oligosaccharides, carbohydrates that are commonly used as prebiotics, or substrates to肠道微生物益生菌的基因组学塞波萨米宁，尤西鲁米和米格尔哥尔摩得（1）功能性食品论坛，图尔库大学，FIN-20014芬兰图尔库（2）土尔库大学生物技术系，FIN-20014芬兰图尔库塞波萨米宁电子邮件：seppo.salminen utu.fi线上发表于2005年6月29日摘要肠道有益的共生微生物有助于维护人体健康，一些这些细菌被发现显着降低肠道疾病的风险和减轻疾病的症状。
大学英语六级模拟测试题model-text10
Model Test FivePart I Writing(30minutes)Directions:For this part,you are allowed30minutes to write a short essay on social skills.Your essay should include the importance of social skills and measures to be taken to cultivate social skills.You are required to write at least150words but no more than200words.Part II Listening Comprehension(30minutes)Section ADirections:In this section,you will hear three news reports.At the end of each news report,you will hear two or three questions.Both the news report and the questions will be spoken only once.After you hear a question,you must choose the best answer from the four choices marked A),B),C)and D).Then mark the corresponding letter on Answer Sheet1with a single line through the centre.Questions1to4are based on the conversation you have just heard.1.A)A car accident.B)An earthquake.C)A train accident.D)A plane accident.2.A)He gave the man some water to drink.B)He called the ambulance immediately.C)He called the police first.D)He gave the man first aid.3.A)Those who are suffering from choking.B)Those who are suffering from minor scratches.C)Those who are suffering from cancer.D)Those who are suffering from diabetes.4.A)It may cure the disease.B)It may one from punishment.C)It may save one’s life.D)It may help one escape unhurt.Questions5to8are based on the conversation you have just heard.5.A)It has got its name from a style of architecture.B)It has got its name from a kind of music.C)It has got its name from a tribe named Goths.D)It has got its name from a special art.6.A)Priests and worshipers.B)Some non-human entities.C)Kings and knights.D)Successful businessmen.7.A)Because mankind is always in search of fame.B)Because mankind is greedy for gold and youth.C)Because mankind is after forbidden knowledge.D)Because mankind believes that they can achieve everything.8.A)The narrative spirals towards the hidden truth.B)The narrative directly reveals the truth.C)The narrative is often a third-person narrator.D)The narrative often hides his own secrets.Section BDirections：In this section,you will hear two long conversations.At the end of each conversation,you will hearfour questions.Both the conversation and the questions will be spoken only once.After you hear a question,you must choose the best answer from the four choices marked A),B),C),and D).Then mark the corresponding letter on Answer Sheet1with a single line through the centre.Questions9to11are based on passage you have just heard.9.A)An81-year-old Japanese woman’s technical life.B)An introduction to a traditional art in Japan.C)How exercise is linked to health.D)How to delay aging process.10.A)Because she is fond of new inventions.B)Because she is interested in preserving Japanese traditions.C)Because she is keen on technology and communication.D)Because she is good at keeping healthy.11.A)Keeping doing exercise.B)Playing computer games.C)Surfing the Internet.D)Having regular physical examination.Questions12to15are based on the passage you have just heard.12.A)Teaching non-native English learners.B)Providing various teaching methods to English teachers.C)Accepting more non-native English speaking students into kindergarten.D)Encouraging young students to spend more time learning English.13.A)There are more schools for Spanish-speaking students.B)More Spanish-speaking students think about going to college.C)The number of Spanish-speaking high school graduates has increased.D)More Spanish-speaking students can graduate from college.14.A)It attracts the federal’s attention to the issue.B)It makes federal money more accessible.C)It leads to better working conditions of teachers.D)It raises the number limit of new programs.15.A)Allowing them longer time to master the language.B)Teaching them reading and math in their native language.C)Using both English and their native language when teaching.D)Making them proficient in English before teaching them other subjects.Section CDirections:In this section,you will hear three recordings of lectures or followed by three or four questions.The recordings will be played only once.After you hear a question,you must choose the best answer from the four choices marked A),B),C),D).Then mark the corresponding letter on Answer Sheet1with a single line through the centre.Questions16to18are based on the recording you have just heard.16.A)Most people love reading books on smartphones.B)Most people love reading The New York Times.C)Most people still love printed books.D)Most people have changed their taste for printed books.17.A)Visit a magnificent Gilded Age Manhattan library.B)Spend much time in book stores of all kinds.C)Borrow a lot of books from libraries.D)Buy a lot of books from book stores.18.A)He is a librarian.C)He is a businessman.B)He is an author.D)He is a bookseller.Questions19to22are based on the recording you have just heard.19.A)Those who can show their love romantically.B)Those who can speak American English.C)Those who can speak more than one language.D)Those who can learn a new language quickly.20.A)About one in four.C)About nine out of ten.B)About one in eight.D)About two-thirds.21.A)The one that has similar pronunciation with their mother tongue.B)The one that has similar spelling with mother tongue.C)The one that has similar grammar with their mother tongue.D)The one that is part of the same family as their mother tongue.22.A)Its use of a special pronunciation.B)Its use of the Cyrillic alphabet system.C)Its use of a totally different spelling.D)Its use of too many grammatical rules.Questions23to25are based on the recording you have just heard.23.A)Favorable.B)Doubtful.C)Critical.D)Reserved.24.A)Women are likely to have a longer life expectancy than men because of parenthood.B)Men’s life expectancy increases more than women because of parenthood.C)Women can expect to live18months longer than men because of parenthood.D)Men can expect to live2years longer than women because of parenthood.25.A)Married women.C)Unmarried women.B)Married men.D)Unmarried men.PartⅢReading Comprehension(40minutes)Section ADirections:In this section,there is a passage with ten blanks.You are required to select one word for each blank from a list of choices given in a word bank following the passage.Read the passage through carefully before making your choices.Each choice in the bank is identified by a letter.Please mark the corresponding letter for each item on Answer Sheet2with a single line through the centre.You may not use any of the words in the bank more than once.Questions26to35are based on the following passage.If you had to guess the organ that has undue influence on your emotions,your mood,even your choices,what would you guess?The brain?Sure,but what else?The heart—that__26__seat of the soul?Not quite.The stomach? You’re getting warmer.Would you believe it’s the trillions of bacteria—the microbiota(微生物群)—than live in your gut.Each of us__28__up to four and a half pounds of bacteria around in our guts at any given time.More than100trillion microbes live down there.That’s as many cells as make up the rest of your body.Now,this crowd is mostly good guys,and they do important work,to the extent that some scientists__29__classifying these collective microbiota as its own__30__.Aside from helping digest our food, they protect us from disease,neutralize some of the toxic by-products of the__31__process,and make it harder for bad bacteria to set up shop.In short,your gut does way more than just digest everything from Cheetos to Camembert.But it turns out gut bacteria may also__32__how we feel.Who knew the next__33__in mental well-being would lead right to the toilet?With that lively__34__in mind,we know here are various ways our microbiota are__35__to our mental health.A)advocate I)gathersB)affect J)imageC)attached K)irreplaceableD)carries L)mythicalE)collectively M)notoriouslyF)connected N)organG)digestive O)resultH)frontierSection BDirections:In this section,you are going to read a passage with ten statements attached to it.Each statement contains information given in one of the paragraphs.Identify the paragraph from which the information is derived. You may choose a paragraph more than once.Each paragraph is marked with a letter.Answer the questions by marking the corresponding letter on Answer Sheet2.Is Nutritious Food Really Pricier,and,If so,Is That Really the Problem?[A]Nobody disagrees:We Americans eat badly.We eat too many calories,too much highly processed food and not nearly enough vegetables.Why is that?Ask the question,and you get a lot of answers,which is appropriate for a lot of answers,which is appropriate for a matter as complex as a country’s diet.But one of the answers that bubbles to the top almost every time is that nutritious food just costs more.Does it?There are two relevant questions here.The first is empirical:Is healthful food more expensive?The second is behavioral:Is cost what stands between people and a better diet?[B]By one very straightforward measure,healthful eating does indeed cost more.If you look at cost per calorie,nutrient-dense vegetables and fruits cost far more on average,than the ubiquitous(普遍存在的)，nutrition-sparse sources of calories:refined grains(细粮)，sugar and vegetable oil.[C]The fact that vegetables are,on average,more expensive than,say,Doritos doesn’t mean you have to abandon the idea of healthful eating and head for the snack food aisle.Sugar-snap peas and asparagus may bring up the average price of produce,but there are inexpensive calories in the category,too.Think sweet potatoes.[D]An ordinary supermarket offers a variety of affordably priced calories to meet the daunting challenge of making your daily menu come in at under$4per person,the average benefit under the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program,informally referred to as food stamps.Sure enough,there are the usual suspects:the processed foods that are a microwave away from being a microwave away from being a microwave away from being a meal.Similarly,there was a frozen burrito(玉米煎饼)for14cents,canned beef ravioli for17cents and hot dogs for10cents.But the rock-bottom-cheapest meal option was instant ramen,at6cents,a price point so irresistible that I almost bought some.As inexpensive as it is,ramen isn’t the cheapest source of calories at the grocery store.That honor belongs to all-purpose flour and vegetable oil,both of which cost all of2cents per100 calories.[E]No matter how cheap the processed foods are,the raw materials that go into them are even cheaper.And, if those raw materials are so very cheap for us,imagine how cheap they are for Kraft.So cheap that the company can manufacture a food out of them,box it,ship it and market it,and still sell it for pennies.Even so,you almost always do better,cost-wise,when you buy the ingredients and cook them yourself,which is one of the reasons that upgrading to a decent may cost less than you think.A2013review of studies quantifying the price of a healthful vs. unhealthful diet found that the healthful version cost$1.48more per person,per day.[F]Although$1.48doesn’t sound like enough to make much difference in the quality of your diet,it can buy a variety of cheap,nutritious staples:peanut butter,whole-grain pasta,whole-wheat flour,eggs,rolled oats, pearled barley,corn flour,brown rice,dried black beans and unpopped popcorn.[G]In that list,we find the crux of the issue.The healthful meals you can make at a price point that competes with ramen are anchored by rice,beans and whole grains.And,if you have time and skill,you can combine thosewith foods that cost a more,such as chicken thighs(13cents),sweet potatoes(38cents),carrots(30cents),frozen corn(25cents),walnuts(30cents),yogurt(36cents)or frozen broccoli(63cents),and eat pretty well for under$4per day.[H]Before we go on,let’s spend a moment on subsidies.Although farm subsidies have certainly had an impact on the price of staples,that impact is dwarfed by the inherent costs of growing crops as different as corn and broccoli.In that particular case,broccoli costs50times what corn does to grow.It’s also important to note that the same commodity programs that affect corn and soy subsidize rolled oats,pearled barley,lentils,peanut butter and whole-wheat bread.Although I’m in favor of revamping(修改)those programs,they can’t shoulder all the blame for ramen.[I]Back to our dinner of chicken,carrots and black beans,and to the single parent on a very limited budget, who has the challenge of trying to carve out the time to make it,only to have her kids complain that what they really want is instant ramen.[J]Adam Drewnowski,director of the University of Washington’s Center,tells me in an email,“Obesity is almost entirely an economic issue,and the higher cost of healthier foods is the main problem,”but he acknowledges that factors other than money come into play.He mentions two in particular:skill and time,which can feed you well if money is short supply.[K]So,sure,it’s possible to make a healthful dinner on a SNAP budget,but the other resources required—time and skill—may be in short supply as well.Tonja Nansel,a senior investigator at the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development,points out that,if cost were the major barrier,we’d expect higher-income groups to eat much better than lower-income groups.“The difference in diet quality isn’t that big,”says Nansel,although it’s hard to determine exactly what the difference is because of the limitations of data based on people’s ability to remember what they ate yesterday.A2013study that attempted to quantify that difference found that the lowest-income group did indeed eat less-nutritious diets than the wealthiest group,but if you compare the lowest with the next group up,the diets are extremely similar.It’s not until you get to five times the poverty level that diets improve,and even then it’s not a big jump.If cost were the primary driver of poor diets,we’d expect a significant income boost to correspond to a significant improvement in diet,particularly since a meaningful improvement can be had for$1.48per day.[L]Nobody I’ve talked to disputes that cost is an issue.Likewise,nobody disputes that convenience and preference are also issues.But it’s hard to say what’s most important.“Most people prefer the taste of ramen to brown rice.They prefer chips to kale,”says Nansel.“The fact that we would rather not have to look at some of those other reasons is part of reason cost gets so much traction.”Food isn’t just nutrition.Food is pleasure, something very-low-income people have very few sources of,says Nansel.That doesn’t mean we shouldn’t tackle cost at a policy level,she adds.“If we can make healthful food more affordable and accessible,we ought to.”[M]Looking at cost as a barrier to eating well is much more comfortable than looking at preference,which smacks of blaming the victim.The idea that our lousy diet was perpetrated on us,with the poor as the most vulnerable,gets around that problem.But until we acknowledge that we—rich and poor—are complicit in our food supply,that we help shape it every time we buy food we want to eat,we’re unlikely to improve it.36.A study indicates that no significant price differences were seen between nutritious diet and unwholesomeone.37.According to one expert,the differences in diet quality between the rich and the poor are not as obvious asexpected.pared with the farm subsidies,the built-in costs of growing crops have a bigger impact on the price ofstaples.39.For the poor,food can bring satisfaction and a sense of pleasure in addition to nutrition.40.It’s easier to blame on costs and other external factors than on our own preference on food for our unhealthydiet.41.It’s generally thought that the main reason for the American’s unhealthy eating habits is the cost of nutritiousfood.42.No food is cheaper than all-purpose flour and vegetable oil as sources of calories in a common supermarket.43.One expert claimed that higher cost of healthier foods was the leading reason of obesity,but it can be compensated by skill and time.44.When taking time to cook despite a busy schedule,a single mom probably will find her kids would rather eatinstant ramen.45.Having time and cooking skill,one could enjoy a wholesome meal on a very limited budget.Section CDirections:There are2passages in this section.Each passage is followed by some questions or unfinished statements.For each of them there are four choices marked A),B),C)and D).You should decide on the best choice and mark the corresponding letter on Answer Sheet2with a single line through the centre.Passage OneQuestions46to50are based on the following passage.Business cards have been around a long time in one form or another.The Chinese invented calling cards in the15th century to give people notice that they intended to visit.European merchants invented trade cards in the 17th century to act as miniature advertisements.Lots of companies try to turn their cards into miniature plugs for their products.Employees at Lego give out miniature plastic figures with their contact details stamped on them.McDonald’s business cards are shaped like a portion of fries.A Canadian divorce lawyer once gave out cards that can be torn in two—one half for each of the feuding spouses.Such tricks can quickly pall.For techno-utopians,they just go to show that the physical business card is in its death throes(垂死挣扎).After all,why bother exchanging bits of thick paper at all when you can simply swap electronic versions by smartphone?However,one can just as well argue the opposite:that business cards are here to stay,and in a blizzard(大风雪)of meetings and correspondence,it is more important than ever that your card stands out.Attempts to reinvent business cards for the digital age have got nowhere.That business cards are thriving in a digital age is a forceful reminder that there is much about business that is timeless.Take,for instance,the eternal and inescapable question of whether you can trust someone.The number of things that machines can do better than humans grows by the day.But they cannot look people in the eye and decide what sort of person they are.And they cannot transform acquaintanceships into relationships.A good deal of business life will always be about building social bonds—having dinner with people,playing sport with them,even getting drunk with them—and the more that machines take over the quantitative stuff more human beings will have to focus on the touchy-feely.The rapid advance of both globalization and virtualization means that this trust-building process is becoming ever more demanding.Managers have to work harder at establishing trust with people from different cultures: chief executives of global organizations routinely spend three out of every four weeks traveling.They also have to get better at using personal meetings to reinforce bonds that were first formed over the phone or internet.Here,business cards are doubly useful.They can be a quick way of establishing connections,and can also act as a physical reminder that you have actually met someone rather than just Googled them.Rifling(搜索)through piles of different cards helps to summon up memories of meetings in ways that simply looking through uniform electronic lists never would.46.The example of divorce lawyer’s cards is mentioned to_______.A)reveal the historical change of business cardsB)illustrate the function of cards as advertisementsC)display the ingenious designs of business cardsD)testify the effect of business cards is declining47.The word“pall”(Line1,Para.3)most probably means_______.A)to have effect B)to make troubles C)to become popular D)to lose appeal48.The reason why business cards cannot be replaced lies in_________.A)they help to build actual social bonds in business lifeB)they make the trust-building process more urgentC)they set people free from their quantitative routinesD)they bring more sentiments into the business contact49.It is implied in the last two paragraphs that_______.A)people from different cultures can hardly trust each otherB)it is impossible to establish trust over the phone or internetC)business cards remind people of their face-to-face contactD)uniform electronic lists may not help people get acquainted50.What is this passage mainly about?A)Why business cards thrive in digital age.B)When business cards will be replaced.C)How elaborately the cards can be designed.D)What business cards can help managers do.Passage TwoQuestions51to55are based on the following passage.A hard Brexit poses risks to the integrity of financial markets and could make it harder to protect consumers from wrongdoing by banks,the head of the city regulator has warned MPs.Andrew Bailey,chief executive of the Financial Conduct Authority,said a cliff-edge Brexit—one in which the regulatory framework changes the instant the UK leaves the EU—also presented competition risks,alongside threats to legal and market stability.In his latest letter to the Treasury Select Committee,Bailey said a sudden exit from the EU could make it difficult for regulators to obtain information about the firms they regulate.“Any lack of certainty with regard to the regulatory framework may affect the ability of the FCA,and perhaps other regulators,to take enforcement action as a means of both addressing and deterring misconduct,”said Bailey.He also highlighted the risks associated with the sudden loss of the“passport”that firms based in the EU use to operate freely within the28member states.Bailey has previously told the committee that5,476 UK-registered firms hold at least one passport to do business in another EU or EEA member state while just over8,000companies authorized in other EU states use these rules to do business in the UK.There was a risk,he said,that firms could and end up without the correct permissions to sell products or find themselves vulnerable to legal action if they were not able to meet pledges to provide services for customers.The FCA may not have enough time to process applications-which take about23weeks-if the loss of passporting is only agreed late in the negotiations.Former shadow chancellor Chris Leslie,a leading supporter of the Open Britain campaign,said:“The last thing post-Brexit Britain needs is to tie the hands of the Financial Conduct Authority behind their back.A hard Brexit doesn’t just risk pushing our economy over a cliff edge,it risks throwing robust regulation into the void as well.”“If we learned anything from the2008global economic crash,it is that a clear system of regulation for financial services is essential.It is deeply worrying that the people responsible for that in country are saying they will not be able to do their job properly if Britain crashes out of the EU without a transitional deal in place.”“When the financial watchdogs are themselves saying they will not be able to properly protect consumersfollowing a hard Brexit,the government needs to sit up and take notice.”“If the watchdog cannot watch financial transactions properly,we are leaving both peoples’finances and markets vulnerable to abuse.”51.What do we know about Andrew Bailey?A)He strongly opposes the hard Brexit.B)He calls for a clear regulatory system.C)He requires enhanced financial regulation.D)He predicts some post-Brexit problems.52.The data quoted in Paragraph Four illustrates______.A)the extensive influence of Brexit on businessB)the large amount of workload of the FCAC)the significance of acquiring the“passport”D)the enormous scale of the overseas market53.What may be the problem posed by a sudden loss of firms’“passport”?A)Restriction on travel around EU member states.B)Influence on the firms’ability to provide service.C)Increase of legal disputes in international trade.D)Extended time to deal with passport application.54.In the last two paragraphs,Chris Leslie emphasizes______.A)the urgency to reinforce the function of FCAB)the importance of a manifest regulatorsC)the responsibility of the financial regulatorsD)the necessity of the government’s involvement55.What can we learn about Chris Leslie’s position on the result of a hard Brexit?A)He provides proofs for Bailey’s view.B)He challenges Bailey’s conclusion.C)He poses a whole new insight.D)He echoes Bailey’s opinion on the issue.PartⅣTranslation(30minutes)Directions:For this part,you are allowed30minutes to translate a passage from Chinese intoEnglish.You should write your answer on Answer Sheet2.中国结（Chinese knot）是中国特有的手工编织工艺品，在中华民族艺术文化遗产中占据重要的地位。
婴儿菌群英文文章
婴儿菌群英文文章以下是一篇关于婴儿菌群的英文文章：Title: The Importance of Gut Microbiota in InfantsIntroduction:The human gut is home to a vast array of microorganisms, collectively known as gut microbiota. These microbes play a crucial role in maintaining our health, particularly in the early stages of life. In this article, we will explore the significance of gut microbiota in infants and its long-term implications.Understanding Gut Microbiota:Gut microbiota refers to the diverse community of microorganisms that reside in the digestive tract. It includes bacteria, viruses, fungi, and other microscopic organisms. The balance and diversity of these microbes are essential for maintaining a healthy gut and overall well-being.Formation of Infant Gut Microbiota:The colonization of gut microbiota in infants starts at birth and continues to develop over the first few years of life. Factors like the mode of delivery, breastfeeding, early diet, environment, and maternal factors all contribute to the establishment of a healthy gut microbiota in infants.Benefits of a Healthy Gut Microbiota in Infants:1. Immune System Development: A diverse and balanced gut microbiota helps in the development of a strong immune system in infants. It helps educate and train the immune system, reducing the risk of allergies, autoimmune diseases, and infections.2. Nutrient Absorption: Certain gut bacteria aid in the digestion and absorption of nutrients, such as vitamins and minerals. They also promote the synthesis of essential compounds and metabolites that support healthy growth and development.3. Gut Health: An abundance of beneficial gut bacteria promotes a healthy gut environment. They help prevent the overgrowth of harmful bacteria and maintain the integrity of the gut lining, reducing the risk of gastrointestinal issues like diarrhea and constipation.Long-Term Implications:The establishment of a healthy gut microbiota in infancy can have long-lasting effects. Studies have shown that an imbalance or disruption in early gut microbiota may contribute to the development of various health conditions later in life, including obesity, asthma, allergies, and even mental health disorders.Promoting a Healthy Gut Microbiota:To foster a healthy gut microbiota in infants, several practices can be followed:1. Encourage breastfeeding: Breast milk contains essential prebiotics that promote the growth of beneficial gut bacteria.2. Avoid unnecessary antibiotics: Overuse of antibiotics can disrupt the natural balance of gut microbiota. Only use antibiotics when necessary under the guidance of healthcare professionals.3. Introduce a diverse diet: As infants start solid foods, gradually introduce a variety of nutrient-rich foods that support the growth of beneficial gut bacteria.Conclusion:The gut microbiota plays a pivotal role in the overall health and well-being of infants. Establishing a healthy and diverse gut microbiota in early life sets the stage for a strong immune system, proper nutrient absorption, and long-term health benefits. Paying attention to factors that contribute to a healthy gut microbiota can have a significant impact on the lifelong health of infants.。
肠道菌群移植英语
肠道菌群移植英语The human gut is home to a diverse array of microbes, each playing a crucial role in our health. The concept of fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) has emerged as a groundbreaking treatment for certain gastrointestinal disorders.This procedure involves transferring the gut microbiota from a healthy donor to a recipient, aiming to restore a balanced microbial ecosystem. It has shown remarkable success in treating conditions like Clostridium difficile infection, which can be resistant to traditional antibiotic therapies.Advancements in FMT are not limited to gastrointestinal health; research is exploring its potential in treating a range of other conditions, including metabolic disorders and even neurological diseases. The idea that our gut bacteria can influence our brain function is a fascinating frontier in medical science.However, the practice is not without its challenges. Ensuring the safety and efficacy of FMT requires rigorous screening of donors and careful consideration of potential risks. The ethical implications and regulatory frameworks surrounding this treatment are also areas of ongoing debate.Despite these complexities, the potential of FMT is undeniable. As our understanding of the gut microbiomedeepens, so too does the promise of this innovative approach to healthcare. The future of medicine may well be shaped by the tiny organisms that call our bodies home.。
The-Power-of-Fermented-Meat-A-Probiotic-Rich-Food
The Power of Fermented Meat A Probiotic-Rich FoodThe Power of Fermented Meat: A Probiotic-Rich Food Fermented foods have gained popularity in recent years due to their numerous health benefits. One such food that deserves recognition is fermented meat. While fermented meat may not be as commonly consumed as other fermented foods like yogurt or sauerkraut, it is a probiotic-rich food that offers unique advantages. In this article, we will explore the power of fermented meat and its potential impact on our health. First and foremost, let's understand what fermented meat is. Fermentation is a process that involves the breakdown of carbohydrates by bacteria or yeast, resulting in the production of beneficial compounds. In the case of fermented meat, this process occurs when meat is left to age in controlled conditions. During fermentation, bacteria break down the proteins in the meat, making it easier to digest and enhancing its nutritional profile. One of the key advantages of fermented meat is its probiotic content. Probiotics are live microorganisms that confer health benefits when consumed in adequate amounts. They promote a healthy gut microbiome, aid in digestion, and boost the immune system. While most people associate probiotics with dairy products, fermented meat can also be a significant source of these beneficial bacteria. By consuming fermented meat, we can introduce a diverse range of probiotic strains into our gut, promoting overall gut health. Additionally, fermented meat is known for its high nutrient density. During the fermentation process, the bacteria produce enzymes that break down the proteins in meat, making it easier for our bodies to absorb essential amino acids. These amino acids are the building blocks of protein and play a crucial role in muscle growth and repair. Fermented meat also contains vitamins and minerals such as iron, zinc, and B vitamins, which are essential for our overall health and well-being. Furthermore, fermented meat offers potential benefits for individuals with lactose intolerance or dairy allergies. Many probiotic-rich foods, like yogurt or kefir, are derived from dairy, making them unsuitable for those who cannot tolerate lactose or have dairy allergies. Fermented meat provides an alternative source of probiotics for these individuals, allowing them to enjoy the benefits of thesebeneficial bacteria without any adverse reactions. From a culinary perspective, fermented meat adds a unique flavor profile to dishes. The fermentation process enhances the umami taste of meat, resulting in a more complex and savory flavor. This can elevate the taste of various recipes, making them more enjoyable and satisfying. Additionally, fermented meat can be a versatile ingredient, used in a variety of dishes such as stews, sausages, or even as a topping for pizzas or salads. Despite the numerous advantages of fermented meat, it is essential to consume it in moderation and choose high-quality, properly fermented products. Improperly fermented meat can pose health risks due to the potential growth of harmful bacteria. Therefore, it is crucial to purchase fermented meat from reputable sources and ensure that it has been properly prepared and stored. In conclusion, fermented meat is a probiotic-rich food that offers unique advantages for our health. Its probiotic content promotes a healthy gut microbiome, aids in digestion, and boosts the immune system. Fermented meat is also highly nutritious, providing essential amino acids, vitamins, and minerals. It serves as an alternative source of probiotics for individuals with lactose intolerance or dairy allergies. Moreover, fermented meat adds a delightful flavor to dishes and can be used in various culinary creations. However, it is important to consume fermented meat in moderation and choose high-quality products to avoid any potential health risks. So, why not consider incorporating fermented meat into your diet and experience the power of this probiotic-rich food firsthand?。
碳水对身体的作用与功效英语作文
碳水对身体的作用与功效英语作文Carbohydrates, commonly referred to as carbs, are a fundamental component of nutrition and a vital source of energy for our bodies. Structurally, they are classified into simple carbohydrates, such as sugars, and complex carbohydrates, which include starches and fibers. The role and effects of carbohydrates on the body are multifaceted and have significant implications for our overall health.Energy Production: The primary role of carbohydrates is to provide energy. During digestion, sugars and starches are broken down into glucose, which is then used by the body's cells for energy. For immediate energy needs, glucose is the body's preferred source, especially for the brain and muscles during exercise.Metabolic Intermediary: Glucose also serves as a metabolic intermediary; it can be converted into other substances such as amino acids or can be stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles for later use. This storage form of glucose ensures that energy is available during times when dietary intake might not meet the body's demands, such as between meals or during physical activity.Dietary Fiber: Carbohydrates also include dietary fibers, which are indigestible by human enzymes. Fiber plays a crucial role in maintaining digestive health by adding bulk to the stool, which aids in regular bowel movements and prevents constipation. Additionally, certain types of fiber can act as prebiotics, providing nourishment for beneficial gut bacteria, which in turn contribute to a healthy gut microbiome.Blood Glucose Regulation: The body's ability to regulate blood glucose levels is essential for maintaining homeostasis. Insulin, a hormone produced by the pancreas, facilitates the uptake of glucose into cells. A balanced intake of carbohydrates, particularly those with a low glycemic index, can help maintain steady blood glucose levels, which is important for preventing spikes and crashes in energy levels.Impact on Health: The quality and quantity of carbohydrates consumed can have profound effects on health. Diets rich in high-fiber, whole-grain carbohydrates areassociated with a lower risk of chronic diseases such as type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and certain types of cancer. Conversely, diets high in refined sugars and low in fiber are linked to increased risks of these conditions.Weight Management: Carbohydrates can also play a role in weight management. High-fiber foods tend to be more filling, which can help reduce overall calorie intake. However, excessive consumption of calorie-dense, low-nutrient carbohydrates can contribute to weight gain.Athletic Performance: For athletes, carbohydrates are especially important. They are the main fuel source during prolonged, moderate to high-intensity exercise. Adequate carbohydrate intake before, during, and after exercise can help optimize performance and recovery.In conclusion, carbohydrates are a key nutrient that serves multiple functions within the body. From providing energy to regulating blood glucose levels and supporting digestive health, the impact of carbohydrates on bodily functions is extensive. A balanced diet that includes a variety of carbohydrates can contribute to overall health and well-being. It is important to choose carbohydrates wisely, focusing on whole grains, fruits, vegetables, and legumes, while limiting the intake of added sugars and refined carbs to maintain optimal health.。
细菌的衣食住行读后感50字
细菌的衣食住行读后感50字英文回答：Bacteria are fascinating organisms that play a crucial role in our world. They are found everywhere, from the depths of the ocean to the insides of our bodies. In termsof their lifestyle, bacteria have very simple needs. They require a source of food, a suitable environment to live in, and a way to move around.When it comes to their diet, bacteria are incredibly versatile. Some bacteria are autotrophs, meaning they can produce their own food through photosynthesis or chemosynthesis. Others are heterotrophs and rely on consuming organic matter for their energy. For example, E. coli, a common bacterium found in the human gut, obtains nutrients by breaking down carbohydrates and proteins.In terms of their living conditions, bacteria canthrive in a wide range of environments. They can be foundin extreme habitats such as hot springs, acidic lakes, and even deep-sea hydrothermal vents. Bacteria are able toadapt to these harsh conditions by developing uniquesurvival mechanisms. For instance, thermophilic bacteria, which can withstand high temperatures, produce specialheat-resistant enzymes.When it comes to mobility, bacteria have developed various strategies. Some bacteria use flagella, whip-like structures, to propel themselves through liquids. Otherscan move by extending and retracting appendages called pili. Some bacteria even have the ability to glide on surfaces using a slime-like substance. For example, the bacterium Myxococcus xanthus uses a combination of gliding and social behavior to form multicellular structures called fruiting bodies.Overall, bacteria are incredibly diverse and adaptable organisms. They have evolved different ways to obtain food, survive in extreme environments, and move around. Their ability to thrive in a wide range of conditions has allowed them to colonize almost every corner of our planet.中文回答：细菌是一类令人着迷的生物，它们在我们的世界中起着至关重要的作用。
对微生物的态度英语作文
对微生物的态度英语作文Microorganisms are an integral part of our world, existing everywhere from the depths of the ocean to the soil beneath our feet. While some may view them with caution or even fear due to their potential to cause disease, it is important to remember that not all microorganisms are harmful. In fact, many play vital roles in maintaining ecosystems and even contribute to our own well-being.微生物是我们世界的重要组成部分，它们存在于海洋深处到我们脚下的土壤中。
尽管由于它们可能引起疾病的潜力，有些人可能对它们持谨慎或甚至恐惧的态度，但重要的是要记住，并非所有微生物都是有害的。
事实上，许多微生物在维持生态系统中发挥着至关重要的作用，甚至对我们自身的健康也有贡献。
From breaking down organic matter to producing antibiotics, microorganisms are essential for the functioning of ecosystems. For example, bacteria in the soil help to decompose dead plants and animals, releasing nutrients back into the environment for new growth. In the ocean, phytoplankton play a crucial role in the carbon cycle by converting carbon dioxide into organic matter throughphotosynthesis. Without these microbial processes, our planet would not be able to sustain life as we know it.从分解有机物到生产抗生素，微生物对生态系统的运作至关重要。
ruminobacter作用 -回复
ruminobacter作用-回复Ruminobacter, together with other bacteria, plays a crucial role in the process of rumen fermentation in herbivorous animals. Specifically, Ruminobacter contributes to the breakdown of complex carbohydrates, such as cellulose and hemicellulose, into simple sugars that can be further fermented and metabolized by other microorganisms in the rumen. This article will delve into the functions of Ruminobacter, its significance in the rumen ecosystem, and its potential applications in various industries.Ruminobacter is a genus of bacteria that belongs to the family Ruminococcaceae. It has been widely studied due to its essential role in rumen fermentation. The rumen, found in ruminant animals such as cows, sheep, and goats, is a specialized fermentation chamber that allows these animals to efficiently digest and derive nutrition from plant material. Ruminobacter, along with other cellulolytic bacteria, fungi, and protozoa, work in symbiosis to break down plant fibers, primarily cellulose and hemicellulose, into simpler compounds.The main function of Ruminobacter is the hydrolysis of complex carbohydrates. Cellulose, the primary constituent of plant cell walls,consists of long chains of glucose molecules connected bybeta-1,4-glycosidic bonds. Animals lack the necessary enzymes to break down these bonds, so they rely on the microbial community in their rumen to perform this crucial step. Ruminobacter produces various enzymes, such as cellulases and hemicellulases, that can cleave these bonds and release glucose molecules.The breakdown of cellulose by Ruminobacter and other microbes is a complex process involving multiple enzymatic steps and fermentation reactions. First, Ruminobacter adheres to and colonizes the plant material present in the rumen. It then secretes cellulases and hemicellulases, which break down cellulose and hemicellulose into smaller sugar units, such as glucose, xylose, and arabinose. These simple sugars are further metabolized by other rumen microorganisms, primarily bacteria and protozoa, through fermentation processes such as glycolysis and the citric acid cycle. The end products of these fermentation reactions include volatile fatty acids (VFAs), such as acetate, propionate, and butyrate, which are the main sources of energy for the animal.The significance of Ruminobacter in the rumen ecosystem cannot be understated. Without the activity of this and other cellulolyticbacteria, ruminant animals would be unable to utilize the energy stored in plant cell walls. Instead, the majority of their diet, consisting of fibrous plant material, would pass through their digestive system undigested, resulting in nutrient deficiencies and inefficient utilization of feed. Ruminobacter is thus pivotal in providing ruminants with a sustainable energy source derived from otherwise indigestible materials.Furthermore, the activity of Ruminobacter has implications beyond the rumen ecosystem. The breakdown of cellulose and hemicellulose by Ruminobacter produces VFAs that can be used as feed additives or converted into valuable products. Acetate, for example, can serve as a precursor for the production of ethanol, a biofuel. Propionate is vital for the synthesis of glucose in the animal's liver and is also utilized in the production of polypropylene, a versatile plastic. Butyrate has been shown to have positive effects on gut health in animals and could potentially be used as a dietary supplement for humans.In conclusion, Ruminobacter plays a crucial role in the rumen fermentation process by hydrolyzing complex carbohydratespresent in plant material. Its enzymatic activity enables ruminant animals to efficiently digest and derive nutrition from fibrous plant material that would otherwise be indigestible. Understanding the functions of Ruminobacter and other rumen microorganisms provides opportunities for improving animal nutrition, developing sustainable energy sources, and exploring new applications in various industries.。
bacteria的用法
bacteria的用法一、bacteria的基本用法“bacteria”是“bacterium”的复数形式，是名词，意为“细菌”。
它可以在句中作主语、宾语、表语等。
例如：二、固定搭配1. “types of bacteria”（细菌的种类）2. “bacteria colony”（细菌菌落）3. “harmful bacteria”（有害细菌）4. “beneficial bacteria”（有益细菌）5. “bacteria growth”（细菌生长）三、双语例句1. There are so many bacteria in that dirty water. It's just like a whole army of tiny invaders! (那脏水里有好多细菌呢。
就像一整支微小的侵略者大军啊！)2. You should be careful of bacteria when you eat raw food. Man, they can be real trouble - makers! (你吃生食的时候得小心细菌。
天哪，它们可真是捣蛋鬼！)3. Bacteria are everywhere. I wonder if they are having a party on my kitchen counter? (细菌无处不在。
我都在想它们是不是正在我厨房台面上开派对呢？)4. Some bacteria can make you sick. It's as if they are little devils trying to mess with your body. (有些细菌会让你生病。
就好像它们是小恶魔，试图扰乱你的身体。
)5. The scientist is studying different types of bacteria. He's like a detective exploring a mysterious world. (这位科学家正在研究不同种类的细菌。
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Gut bacteria may be a source of male steroid hormones
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Cortisol metabolism by the human gut microbiome. Members of the human gut microbiome are capable of reducing, and epimerizing the 3-oxogroup, reducing the Δ4-bond, oxidation/reduction of the 20-oxo-group, removing the side-chain by steroid-17,20-desmolase, 21α-dehydroxylation, and epimerizing the 17-oxo-group of 11β-OHAD. Click on the image to see a larger version of it.
By Rajendrani Mukhopadhyay
Looks like there is more than one fount for male steroid hormones in the body. In a paper recently out in the Journal of Lipid Research, researchers show that a bacterial species converts glucocorticoids into androgens, a group of male steroid hormones. The implication is that the host endocrine system may not be the only source of androgens and other regulatory molecules: The gut microbiome may be another.
Phillip Hylemon at the Virginia Commonwealth University explains that there has been evidence since the 1960s that secondary bile acids, which are microbial products made from the primary bile acids secreted by the gallbladder, are associated with gastrointestinal diseases, such as colon cancer and cholesterol gallstones. “A small number of microbes inhabiting the (gastrointestinal) tract are the sole source o f these molecules,” he explains.
His group and others have worked out how the bacterium Clostridium scindens carries out the primary-to-secondary bile acid transformation. But it turns out C. scindens also can make androgens from glucocorticoids. Why is this important?
Hylemon explains that, in the gut, androgens can be further modified by other members of the gut microbiota to make testosterone-type derivatives. “It is possible that these steroid metabolites interact with host nuclear receptors or other gut organisms. In males, for instance, the prostate gland is against the rectum wall. Therefore, androgens produced by gut bacteria are capable of passively diffusing into this organ, perhaps altering the physiology of cells in the prostate,” he says.
C. scindens is the only bacterium in the human GI tract known to convert glucocorticoids into androgens, but how does it do it?
Hylemon and colleagues decided to use high-throughput nucleic acid sequencing to identify the genes encoding the enzymes involved in this biotransformation. They knew the genes were turned on by cortisol, a stress-induced steroid hormone. By comparing levels of mRNA from C. scindens cultivated in broth with and without cortisol, the investigators reasoned that they would be able to identify candidate genes.
They identified a cluster of genes that encode a transketolase whose sequence is different from those involved in carbohydrate metabolism. A question now is if the C. scindens transketolase evolved to carry out the biotransformation of glucocorticoids into androgens specifically.
The implication of the work is that a bacterium like C. scindens could play an important role in the endocrine system. “It is generally agreed in the field that the gut microbiota constitute a virtu al organ. We believe that, like other organs in the body, this organ has specialized cells that produce hormones that may be derived from host-synthesized bile acids and steroid hormones,” says Hyle mon. Because the gut microbiome can produce hormones, Jason Ridlon, the first author on the paper, says, “we consider the gut microbiome to be an endocrine organ.”
The investigators now would like to see if androgen-like molecules produced by the gut microbiome have the same effects on physiology as do the ones generated by the host endocrine system. Hylemon says, “Our next step is to screen bacterial-generated bile acids and steroid hormone metabolites for their ability to bind to and activate host G-protein-coupled receptors and nuclear receptors.”。