Ch 26, 'The Declining Authority of States'
英语国家概况谢福之chapter
Confederation: In 1867, the British North America Act was passed, creating the Dominion of Canada as a self governing entity within the British Empire Since then, Canada has gradually assigned its independence and developed its own identity, while maintaining close ties with the United Kingdom and the United States
Federalism
The United States has a federal system, meaning power is shared between the federal government and the state governments The states have authority over certificate materials like education and health care, while the federal government has authority over others like foreign policy and interstate commerce
Climate
The United States has a wide range of climates, from the cold winters and hot summers of the north to the cold winters and hot summers of the south The west coast has a Mediterranean climate, with dry summers and rainy winters
Taxes, Loans, Credit and Debts in the 15th Century
Economics World, ISSN 2328-7144 April 2014, Vol. 2, No. 4, 281-289 Taxes, Loans, Credit and Debts in the 15th Century Towns ofMoravia: A Case Study of Olomouc and Brno *Roman ZaoralCharles University, Prague, Czech RepublicThe paper explores urban public finance in the late medieval towns on the example of two largest cities inMoravia—Olomouc and Brno. Its purpose is to define similarities and differences between them, to express changeswhich have taken place in the course of the 15th century, and to distinguish financial administration and types ofinvestments in the towns situated in the Eastern part of the Holy Roman Empire from those in the West. The primarysources (municipal books, charters, and Jewish registers) are analyzed using quantitative and comparative methodsand the concept of the 15th century financial crisis is reconsidered. The analysis proved that each town within theEmpire paid a fixed percentage of the total tax sum of central direct taxation through a system of repartition so thateach tax increase caused an ever growing pressure on its finances. New taxes collected in Brno and Olomouc after1454 were not proportional to the economic power and population of both cities and gave preferential benefit toOlomouc. At the same time the importance of urban middle classes as tax-farmers started to grow. They increasinglygained influence on the financial and fiscal regime, both through political emancipation as well as by serving asfinancial officials. The Jewish registers document a general lack of money in the 1430s and 1440s which played intohands of the Jewish usurers. Accounting records from the 1480s and 1490s, to the contrary, give evidence of thegrowth of loans, debts and credit enterprise. The restructuring of urban elites, caused by financial crises and socialconflicts, was centered round the wish for a more efficient management of urban financial resources and moreintensive control rights. It was a common feature of towns in the West just as in the East of the Empire. On the otherside, the tax basis in the West was rather created by indirect taxes, while direct taxes prevailed in the East. Tradeactivities played more important role in the West, whereas rich burghers in the East rather invested into land estates.From the research also emerged that the establishment of separate cashes is documented in the West only, themanagement of urban finance in the East remained limited to a single-entry accounting.Keywords: urban public finance, financial crisis, taxation, Jewish capital, late medieval towns, Moravia IntroductionThe study of public finances has received considerable attention during the last decade because of its key role in European state formation by serving as an instrument to extract the capital needed for the realization of political goals from the economic systems that formed the base of all public finances. With Stasavage (2011) * The paper was supported by The Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic—Institutional Support for Long-Term Development of Research Organizations—Charles University, Faculty of Humanities. Roman Zaoral, Ph.D., Faculty of Humanities, Charles University. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Roman Zaoral, Charles University, Faculty of Humanities, UAll Rights Reserved.TAXES, LOANS, CREDIT AND DEBTS IN THE 15TH CENTURY TOWNS OF MORA VIA 282recent publication States of credit, he has made a valuable contribution to the debate on the emergence ofpublic credit as a decisive element in the state formation processes that took place in late medieval and earlymodern Europe. In his work, Stasavage emphasizes the importance of geographic scale of political units and theform of political representation within polities for the access to capital markets and thus the possibility to createfunded public debt in order to finance the consolidation or expansion of their relative position within politicalnetworks and regions. The foundation of this public debt was provided by the fiscal revenues originating fromdirect or indirect taxation.Blockmans (1997) pointed out in this debate the importance of scale and timing with respect to local political representative structures. In the larger Flemish cities such as Ghent or Bruges, the participation ofmiddle classes in town governments and thus control over public finances developed in an earlier stage (the14th century), whereas these developments in less-urbanized regions with smaller urban populations such asHolland and Guelders (and in fact in the whole Holy Roman Empire) did not occur until the 15th century. Inthis way, the hypothesis can be stated tentatively that the position of urban elites influenced the managementof urban finances at large, and urban fiscal systems in particular. The degree to which urban elites were able tomonopolize urban government was also determining the room left for other intermediaries to have a say in thefinancial policies of a town and to function in the management of the fiscal systems that were the basis ofmost urban finances. The socio-political backgrounds and the interplay between the political elites, urbanofficials and tax farmers are thus an important topic for knowledge of the intricate mechanisms, which are atthe crossing point of the economic, social, political, and financial developments in the late-medieval urbansociety.All Rights Reserved.Research QuestionsThe author’s attention is paid to the towns situated in the East of the Holy Roman Empire, namely in the Czech lands, in order to show which similarities and differences can be found between towns in the Westernand Eastern part of the Empire, in which way and to what degree the 15th century economic and financial crisesand social conflicts influenced the management of urban fiscal systems (and the closely-linked system of publicdebt) of two traditional capitals1and at the same time the largest cities in Moravia—Brno and Olomouc, theeconomic potential of which remarkably started to differ, particularly during the second half of the 15th century.In the period between 1420 and 1500, Olomouc as the seat of Moravian bishopric grew from round 5,000 tomore than 6,000 inhabitants at the turn of the 16th century, whereas Brno as the former seat of MoravianMargraves decreased from round 8,000 to less than 6,000 inhabitants during the same time (Šmahel, 1995, p.360; Macek, 1998, p. 27).Research MethodsIt is the purpose of this paper to quantify data obtained from the analysis of municipal books, charters and Jewish registers relating to urban public finance in the late medieval cities of Moravia (Czech Republic),particularly in Olomouc and Brno, and to compare so the financial situation of towns situated in the Easternpart of the Holy Roman Empire with those in the West. The concept of the 15th century financial crisis isreconsidered.1The Moravian Diet, starting in the 13th century, the Moravian Land Tables and the Moravian Land Court were all seated in bothTAXES, LOANS, CREDIT AND DEBTS IN THE 15TH CENTURY TOWNS OF MORA VIA 283 The political and economic difficulties which troubled the Margraviate of Moravia during the 15th century (the Hussite wars in the 1420s and 1430s and the Bohemian-Hungarian wars in the 1460s and 1470s) did notonly influence the fiscal system itself, mainly by creation of new taxes and by increase of the tax burden tocover the growing urban public debt. The financial crises, bankruptcies, and financial reforms also had animpact on the official involvement of the burghers and guilds in the management of the urban fiscal systems,following their relatively late political emancipation in the 15th century (Marek, 1965). Until that time, thelocal elites had been formed from the closed merchant oligarchy, which monopolized the town government,defended its own particularistic interests through privileged autonomy and controlled the urban finances.In the 15th century, the importance of urban middle classes as tax-farmers started to grow, they increasingly gained influence on the financial and fiscal regime, both through political emancipation as well asby serving as financial officials. They also demanded more insight in the financial management, both ofindirect taxation and the management of urban debt. They were given a central role in the financial reformsnecessary to face the growing tension between economic stagnation and the financial demands. In this way, theimpact of these socio-political changes on the management of the urban fiscal systems can be displayed.The concept of a financial crisis has recently been addressed by what is now known as the “New fiscal history”. The emergence of public finance, fiscal systems, and the creation of public debt are at the heart ofthese discussions: In this sense, a financial crisis occurs when expenditure structurally outweighs the normalrevenues from taxation and the ability to borrow money in order to meet current financial obligations (Bonney,1995, pp. 5-8). The 15th century is generally seen as a period of structural political and economic crisis notonly in the West of the Empire, in the Low Countries (Van Uytven, 1975), but also in the East, in the Czech All Rights Reserved.lands (Šmahel, 1995, pp. 208-220). This crisis also had consequences for urban public finance and itsmanagement. Each town within the Empire had to pay a fixed percentage of the total tax sum of central directtaxation through a system of repartition and so the increased tax burden had forced several towns to sellannuities on an unprecedented scale, because these sums were paid directly through the urban finances(Blockmans, 1999, pp. 287, 297-304). Thus, central direct taxation indirectly tapped into the financial resourcesof the towns, which in turn led to an ever growing pressure on the urban finances causing an increase of urbanindirect taxation to cover the funded debt caused by these annuity sales.AnalysisUrban Public Finance During the 15th Century Financial CrisisOlomouc as leading royal city in Moravia, which exceeded Brno in population size at the end of the 15th century, represented a craft town producing for export on one side and a consume town on the other side(Marek, 1965, p. 125). The urban population grew particularly in the 1450s and 1460s due to new incomersfrom Silesia and North Moravia. Among them, there were craftsmen from 85 percent, mostly cloth weavers, butalso representatives of other textile, food, shoe, leather, and wood processing crafts, ranking into sociallyweaker groups, while the number of merchants was much smaller (Mezník, 1958, pp. 350-353). From theviewpoint of the economic structure, Olomouc was close to Breslau in Silesia.In the 1420s, catholic Olomouc spent a lot of money for its defense against attacks of the Hussite troops, for the building wooden fortifications and for its own mercenary troops. During fights, its burghers had todispatch city troops and to get armor for the king, all beyond the usual yearly tax. So for example, in 1424interests from the war debts of the city exceeded an amount of 200 marks which substantially strangled itsTAXES, LOANS, CREDIT AND DEBTS IN THE 15TH CENTURY TOWNS OF MORA VIA 284trading activities (Nešpor, 1998, p. 79). In connection with the blockade of Olomouc in the second half of the1420s, the long-distance trade was put at risk. The city council covered financial expenses by the sale of realestate, of yearly pays of altar servers and by loans from the Jews as well as from own burghers. The Jewishloans were, however, burdened with a high interest and the council used them only once for the war with theHussites.2Loans from own burghers for the so-called fair credit up to 10 percent were more advantageous.The Role of Jewish CapitalYet the Jewish capital represented an important reservoir of financial means for many inhabitants. The surviving Olomouc Jewish register dated back to 1413-1428, which makes it possible to look into the practiceof lending money, gives evidence on the Jewish loans of craftsmen, merchants, and shopkeepers (Kux, 1905).3However, many other hidden loans, which had been going on with the active participation of Christianinhabitants, did not get into the register at all. The credit had three forms: loans in cash, pledge loans, or tradetransactions with goods. As it was necessary to sell unpaid pawns, the usurer became a shopkeeper and hissmall shop was a junk shop at the same time.The Jews usually required one groschen a week as the interest from each shock or mark of silver which they justified by high taxes and other charges. The average yearly credit taxation reached 86 percent from oneshock (= 60 Prague groschen), respectively 81 percent from one mark(= 64 Prague groschen, a half of pound).The debtor paid so 112 groschen per year from one shock and 116 groschen from one mark (Kux, 1905, pp.24-25). At lower installments, the interest could farther go up and when installments have not been paid at allthe debt grew in geometric progression.All Rights Reserved.Unless the debtor was not able to refund an amount, which he had loaned, the creditor could exact some goods in the loan value, such as expensive cloth, furs, gold jewels, silver dishes, horses, or cattle. Carpets,armor, wine barrels, or real estate are documented among pledges as well. A number of the Olomouc Jews,having been engaged in trade with money, ranged between 12 in 1413 and 20 in 1420. Some of them granted10, the others 100 and more loans. Forty percent of all deposits were entered by Solomon, the richest Jewishcreditor in Olomouc. The most frequently lent amounts ranged between one and six pounds, the lowest loanmade 10 groschen, the largest 100 marks, which was a value of two or even three houses located in the centerof Olomouc(Veselý & Zaoral, 2008, pp. 40-41).A general lack of money among inhabitants, particularly in the post-Hussite period in the 1430s and 1440s,played into hands of the Jewish usurers. A high number of small debts in range between one and 10 shocks(mostly three-five shocks) and a small number of big debts were typical for that period. The fact that amountsof the two thirds of debtors represented only 13 percent of all debts gave evidence on the general becomingpoor of population. On the other side, the only entry of the sum of 600 Hungarian florins, which Johann vonAachen owed to Johann Weigle, represented 42 percent of all declared owed money in the 1440s (Zaoral, 2009,p. 111). In the 1450s, a number of the highest (above 100 shock of silver) and of the lowest debts (under oneshock of silver) increased, which was the evidence on a slight economic recovery and on the graduallyincreasing social differentiation of the Olomouc inhabitants. Superiority in single-entry accounting, onedebtor-one creditor relations, attests, however, insufficiently developed finance in the milieu of guild craftsmenand shopkeepers. The Jewish credit represented, to the contrary, a source of more flexible forms of enterprise.2Olomouc District State Archive, Olomouc City Archive, books, sign. 164, fol. 235r.TAXES, LOANS, CREDIT AND DEBTS IN THE 15TH CENTURY TOWNS OF MORA VIA 285 Despite a danger of large indebtedness, some wealthy people were lending money from the Jews for more times. The owner of the magistrate mansion Wenceslas Greliczer is entered into the Jewish register even 26times. He made loans from more usurers at the same time, going once in cash, going twice he bought horses oncredit and at another time he pledged silk bedding or pearl bracelet of his wife. The Greliczer family, whichplayed a leading role in the city for some 10 years, had at the end to sell all its property and after 1430 itdisappeared out of stage (Kux, 1905, p. 27). The presence of a number of other prominent councilors in theJewish register was a symptom of their later financial bankruptcy, which strengthened anti-Jewish mood in thecity.A lack of money among burghers occurred again in the 1440s as it was evident from the Olomoucmemorial book dated back to 1430-1492 (Spáčilová & Spáčil, 2004). Particularly the year 1442 was critical formany inhabitants as it was evident from the number of loans. In response to rapidly worsening financialsituation, the council decided in 1446 to grant loans in an amount of 10 pounds of silver for damage reduction(Zaoral, 2009, p. 112). Some years later, in 1454, Ladislaus Posthumus, King of Bohemia (1453-1457),expelled the Jews from Moravian royal towns.Urban TaxesThe annual tax in an amount of 600 marks of groschen, collected in Brno and Olomouc, was slightly changing during the 15th century. In 1437 the margrave Albrecht II of Austria (1437-1439) cut Olomouc urbantaxes as a reward for help in fight against the Hussites. After 1454 the annual tax in Olomouc decreased from600 to 587 marks and 40 groschen and this amount remained unchanged until 1526. On the contrary, the tax in All Rights Reserved.Brno increased from 600 to 656 pounds 16 groschen as a recompense for the expelled Jews. Such a tax burdenwas not proportional to the economic power and population of both cities and gave preferential benefit toOlomouc (Dřímal, 1962, pp. 86-87, 116; Zaoral, 2009, pp. 107-109). The different economic potential ofOlomouc and Brno could be also seen from a number of yearly markets which increased in Olomouc from twoup to three and decreased in Brno from four to two (Šebánek, 1928, p. 51; Čermák, 2002, pp. 25-27).Despite the fact that the city had to pay war debts to private creditors with difficulty and for a long time, the standard of living of the urban population in Olomouc was gradually increasing during the 15th century.The municipal tax-payers growth was so big in the second half of the 15th century that collected moneyexceeded the municipal tax amount more than three times (Dřímal, 1962, pp. 122-123). To the contrary, anumber of taxpayers in Brno was decreasing during the whole 15th century and still in 1509 their number wasunder the level of the year 1432. At the same time a number of members of the middle strata, poor craftsmenand sole traders even decreased on one half of the state in 1365 (Dřímal, 1964, pp. 277-280).The administration of urban finances was characterized by a disorganized evidence of assets and liabilities.The municipal collection (the so-called losunga), collected from all town inhabitants with a sufficient propertybase, represented a relevant quota of municipal incomes. The “losunga” amount, paid from a concrete house,was determined by three criteria: a built-up surface, a house location, and an existence of the certain rightconnected with the house. This amount was intentionally undervalued; it did not reflect price fluctuations ofreal estates and remained more or less the same. Craft plying, beer and wine sale, lucrative cloth trade, andannuities were a subject of taxation as well. But only a part of collected money flew to the royal treasury, whichwas often used as pledges for aristocrats. In 1514, pledges in Olomouc were even higher than an amount of themunicipal tax (Dřímal, 1962, p. 93).TAXES, LOANS, CREDIT AND DEBTS IN THE 15TH CENTURY TOWNS OF MORA VIA 286The increasing purchases of houses on the basis of the Law of Emphytheusis4represented another serious problem. Some noblemen ignored compulsory payments from these properties. It caused conflicts withburghers, but the pressure put by the urban representation was only partly successful.In the 1490s, the citycouncil expressed concern about the fact that it supported high nobility and clergy from its own money andjoined insurgent burghers. In the early 16th century, the city found a solution how to get rid of unwelcomecreditors. In 1508, it offered the Bohemian king Vladislaus II (1471-1516) to pay off pledged revenues. Thecity used them to its own benefit for 20 years (Dřímal, 1962, pp. 89-94).Under these circumstances, taxes and administrative fees, which the town succeeded to buy back from the ruler, gained importance all the more. Provincial castle tolls, customs duties (ungelt), and bridge tolls belongedto the most important. The incomes from the town overhead business and from various financial operationsincreased. The town council bought up villages and yards in the immediate walls surroundings. However, thereal value of charges from the town villages was gradually decreasing because charges did not reflect adecrease of the payment power of money in circulation. Thanks to completion of the large farm system in thetown ownership at the end of the 15th century, Olomouc was offered a considerable space for series ofactivities. The incomes from brewing and fish farming were not negligible as well. But the main share ofmunicipal incomes was represented by money paid from the town property and toll (Kux, 1918, pp. 12-13).Despite a varied scale of incomes, the town was never endowed with large sums in cash. Practically all gained money was immediately given out. Particularly taxes as a relevant phenomenon of municipal economicswere draining big amounts of money from the city budget.Superiority of weight unites (marks) over numeric units (shocks of groschen) in all types of written All Rights Reserved.sources gave evidence on a general lack of quality coins. In the 1450s, when the financial crisis culminated, theking Ladislaus gave the burghers of Olomouc permission to repay loans in the petty coins and thereby made awidely used practice legal.5At the same time, gold coins, which replaced counting in marks, have started topenetrate into everyday life since the 1440s. The Olomouc burghers repaid two thirds of their loans in silverand one third in gold. The creditors accepted as a general rule groschen coins from the craftsmen andHungarian florins from the merchants. Payments in goldguldens occurred rarely in the sources. The increaseddemand for gold coins reflected a contradiction between a long-term lack of gross silver coins in circulationand a necessity of the financial covering of trade transactions with real estates and credit (Zaoral, 2009, pp.118-119).The oldest surviving tax register in Olomouc came from 1527. According to it, about two thirds of taxpayers paid less than eight groschen, middle class (about 25 per cent) paid 10 to 26 groschen from the taxbase of 1.5 to four marks and eight percent of wealthy people paid 32 to 102 groschen from the tax base of fiveto 16 marks. These 89 richest burghers owned more than 40 percent of all taxed property. The tax was paid by1,096 persons. Among that, there were about 25 percent of cottars, who did not own any immovable property.Even when it takes into account that most payers also paid the craft tax in an amount of six groschen, a totalaverage levy did not exceed 20 groschen per head (Szabó, 1983, p. 57). Thus the tax burden itself was not highin the case of at least minimal incomes. It ranged on the level of some percent of yearly income. Much bigger4The Law of Emphyteusis is a feudal form of a hereditary land lease. It is a right, susceptible of assignment and of descent,charged on productive real estate, the right being coupled with the enjoyment of the property on condition of taking care of theestate and paying taxes, and sometimes the payment of a small rent.TAXES, LOANS, CREDIT AND DEBTS IN THE 15TH CENTURY TOWNS OF MORA VIA 287 damage was caused to city population and to the royal treasury by reduction of the groschen value and by riseof prices. Unlike Brno, in the long-term low share of persons, having been unable to pay a municipal tax, andan increasing share of poor journeymen and cottars in the urban population are apparently other valuableindicators of growing prosperity in Olomouc (Veselý & Zaoral, 2008, pp. 48-51).Urban Public Finance at the Turn of the 16th CenturyLoans and debts started to increase after the overcoming of financial crisis and the losses reduction from the Bohemian-Hungarian war. The total volume of money in circulation increased particularly in the 1480s and1490s, when debt amounts usually reached even some hundreds of florins.6Since the second half of the 15thcentury, the credit enterprise has been closely connected with trade. Bills of debt and entries into shopkeeper’sregisters became the most common record form of loans. Objections to Christian usurers, which lent moneyinstead of the Jews, were frequent. A number of wealthy burghers sold pays with interest, lent money on credit,or practised open usury. Some amounts were quite high, when, for example, the town Mohelnice borrowed 300marks of silver on 10 percent interest from Nicolas Erlhaupt, burgher of Olomouc.7The city council ofOlomouc also conducted financial business. In 1509, for example, it bought from Wolfgang of Liechtenstein(1475-1525), the owner of Mikulov (Nikolsburg), annuities from the South Bohemian town Pelhřimov(Pilgrams) and became a tax collector there (Zemek & Turek, 1983, p. 507).Tradesmen who could not invest money to trade started to speculate with land estates, for example, the Salzer family held a hereditary magistrate mansion and two villages. Speculations with land estates weretypical also for the city council. While in the early 15th century Olomouc owned six villages, at the end of the All Rights Reserved.same century the extent of the city landed property increased twofold to 12 villages and this upward trendcontinued also in the 16th century (Papajík, 2003, p. 51). A lot of money was spent for various buildingactivities (reconstruction of the municipal hall, new buildings of monasteries, churches and chapels) as well asfor hospitals and other forms of social care (Kuča, 2000, pp. 650-652).Corruption, monopolization of the brewing and other rights as well as bias in favor of guilds were the causes of disputes between elites and other segments of the urban population. It led to open revolts of thecommunity against shopkeepers in 1514 and once again in 1527. A letter of complaint, sent to the king in1514, referred to economic privileges of shopkeepers, free market right, beer prices, and mile right(Dřímal, 1963, pp. 133-142). A strong core of the old type patricians in Olomouc caused the craftsmengained control over urban finances only in the mid-16th century, while in Brno they occurred in the citycouncil already in the 15th century (Kux, 1942, pp. 190-197; Mezník, 1962, pp. 291, 302-306; Szabó, 1984,pp. 68-73).ConclusionsFinancial crises and social conflicts directed the aim of restructuring power of the old ruling elites, and finally were centered round the wish for a more efficient management of urban financial resources and moreintensive control rights for those urban social groups that provided the capital for the realization and protectionof “common” urban interests. It was a common feature for the cities in the West just as in the East of the6Disputes over repayments of debts, debated before the councillors of Breslau, can serve as an example. In 1485-1496 an amountof bills of debt of Olomouc burghers ranged between 30 and 700 florins. See Olomouc District State Archive, Olomouc CityArchive, books, sign. 6671, fol. 2r-18v.。
2017考研英语阅读：扑朔迷离的谋杀案
2017考研英语阅读：扑朔迷离的谋杀案每年考研英语阅读篇章很多都取材于经济学人，因此2017年考研复习之初，一定要从基础打好，稳扎稳打。
凯程考研频道分享《经济学人》文章，希望大家能够多看、多练，提升阅读能力！The Litvinenko inquiry利特维年科案的调查Murder most mystifying扑朔迷离的谋杀案Truth, perhaps, about a Kremlin hit-job—but littleprospect of justice也许会揭开克里姆林宫特工职务的真相，但取回公道的希望一片渺茫AN OBSCURE refugee from Russia when he died in London in 2006, Alexander Litvinenkobecame famous only after his death. The former security policeman mixed with murky figures.He had received an allowance from a fugitive Russian tycoon, Boris Berezovsky. He wasadvising Britain's Secret Intelligence Service in an Anglo-Spanish operation which investigatedlinks between Russian gangsterdom and the Kremlin's inner circle. He had made luridallegations about Vladimir Putin's private life and about the way the Russian leader had gainedpower. Any of those could have a bearing on his agonising fate—poisoning with polonium.来英寻求政治避难的俄国特工亚历山大·利特维年科一直是名不见经传。
【听力原文+精校译文】THE MAKING OF A NATION #016 - Transition to Constitution
THE MAKING OF A NATION #16 - Transition to Constitution (THEME)VOICE ONE:This is Frank Oliver.VOICE TWO:And this is Tony Riggs with the Special English history program THE MAKING OF A NATION.(THEME)VOICE ONE:Change has always been part of the history of the United States. Yet there has been very little national conflict. In more than two-hundred years, only one civil war was fought.变化一直是美国历史的一部分。
然而国家冲突很少。
在二百多年的时间里，只有一场内战爆发了。
In that war, during the Eighteen-Sixties, Northern states and Southern states fought against each other. Their bitter argument involved the right of the South to leave the Union and to deal with issues -- especially the issue of slavery -- in its own way.在那次战争中，十八世纪六十年代，北方各州和南方各州相互争斗。
他们激烈的争论涉及南方脱离联邦和以自己的方式处理问题——特别是奴隶制问题的权利。
VOICE TWO:America's civil war lasted four years. Six-hundred-thousand men were killed or wounded. In the end, the slaves were freed, and the Union was saved.美国内战持续了四年。
新视野大学英语第三版读写教程第二册Unit4翻译
U4 AHeroes among us我们身边的英雄Who's a hero these days? In an era of heightened heroism, the word hero has become more common. We use hero to describe both victims and survivors of all kinds of difficulties and tragedies. Who are the heroes among us?谁是当今的英雄？在一个英雄主义发扬光大的时代，“英雄”一词已经变得更加常见。
我们把各种困难和悲剧的受害者和幸存者都称为“英雄”。
那么，我们身边哪些人是英雄呢？In the days subsequent to a mass shooting in Tucson, Arizona, many described 20-year-old political associate Daniel Hernandez as a hero. During the horrible shooting, he courageously ran through the danger to save the life of one of the victims, his boss and friend, congresswoman Gabrielle Giffords. Daniel held her head up so she could breathe and applied pressure to her wounds. He spoke tender words of sympathy, telling her that he would find her husband and her parents and that everything would be fine. And he never left her side, staying beside her in the ambulance all the way to the hospital.在亚利桑那州图森市枪击案发生后的日子里，许多人都把20 岁的政界同事丹尼尔•赫尔南德兹描述为英雄。
William_jennings_bryan全文
The second time(1900) :approved anti-imperialism(反帝国主义) McKinley won the electoral college with a count of 292 votes compared to Bryan's 155.
The third time (1913):He lost the electoral college 321 to 162, his worst defeat yet.
Fundamentalism :a religious movement of conservative Protestants in the U.S.A. in the early 1920s;
Its purpose : to maintain the traditional Christian view of the Bible and to assert the literal interpretation of the Biblical narrative
Three times of Presidential election
In1896,at the age of 36, Bryan became (and still remains) the youngest presidential nominee of a major party in American history.
politician—democrat， the 41st United States Secretary of State
one of the best known orators
a Presbyterian(长老教会员)t(禁酒主义者)
Topic Four Acceptance & Order (接受与订货)
Topic Four Acceptance & Order(接受与订货)IntroductionAcceptance1) it refers to an oral or written confirmation, indicating an unreserved assent of a deal.2) Acceptance comes after inquires, offers and counter-offers.3) Before acceptance is given, the buyers or the seller has to take into careful consideration such elements as theprice and the quality.Order refers to an oral or written request to supply a specified quantity of goods.An Order Form1. Name of commodity, size, color, or any other relevant information2. Quantity3. Date and method of shipment4. Price per item5. Packing6. PaymentNotice:1. When the buyer sends the seller an order for some goods, he also sends him a confirmation of purchase induplicate to be countersigned, with one copy to be returned for file.2. When the seller receives an order, he must send a confirmation of sales in duplicate to the buyer to becountersigned with one copy to be returned for file.3. After receiving the seller’s confirmation, the buyer opens a letter of credit, whereas the seller gets the goods readyfor shipment after receiving the letter of credit.When a seller receives the “first” order from a new customer, he must write a letter to acknowledge the order.1) express pleasure at receiving the order2) add a favorable comment on the goods ordered3) include an assurance of prompt and careful attention4) draw attention to other products likely to be of interest5) hope for further orderNotice:If sellers cannot accept buyers’ orders for some reasons, it is advisable to recommend suitable substitutes, make counter-offers and persuade buyers to accept them.Useful Sentences1) 你方愿意立即订货的话，请使用随函所附的订购单。
2022年gre考试考生如何把握答题节奏
gre考试考生如何把握答题节奏如何提升考试分数?你首先需要把握的是gre考试答题节奏，下面我就和大家共享gre考试考生如何把握答题节奏，来观赏一下吧。
gre考试考生如何把握答题节奏?gre考试的时间安排和答题节奏始终是同学们关注的话题。
虽然每个人都知道时间和节奏的重要性，但在现实生活中，很难避开忽视细节。
gre考试的用途究竟是什么是许多同学都在问的一个问题，对于有些人来说是特别重要的，gre规章在复习时应当被理解，这一环节往往被忽视。
GRE考试时间如何安排和掌控，始终以来都是GRE考生绕不过去的一道坎。
哪怕是再简洁的题目，一旦扯上限时完成难度就会大增。
因此，掌握好考试时间和答题节奏就成了考生的必修课。
那么，考生怎样才能保证在长达4个小时的GRE考试中始终把握好gre考试答题节奏呢?对于同学来说，有三个gre考试答题技巧要点需要多加留意。
1. 学会区分时间消耗问题GRE考试最大的干扰之一就是耗时的问题。
GRE考试有各种各样的问题和不同程度的难度。
有些问题好像很简洁，但往往需要候选人花许多时间来解决。
这些是考生在考试中需要特殊留意的最耗时的问题，由于它们往往会打乱考试的节奏。
由于并不难所以不情愿放弃，这些问题往往是利用考生的心态来度过你珍贵的时间。
因此，我们必需学会识别这些问题并准时实行措施。
gre考试介绍,新gre考试策略无论是投入时间，还是查找一种快速的解决方法，或者只是猜想答案然后跳过它，都要确保你能尽快做出打算。
准时的决策可以关心考生摆脱因时间消耗问题造成的影响和损失。
没有练习就不要去考场答题节奏不同于学问点，有些考生可能上考场前某个题型或者详细学问点还没彻底把握，但考试中恰好没遇到因此侥幸没有受到影响。
但答题节奏PACE却不存在这种侥幸。
没练好PACE直接上考场后果往往很严峻。
难题花时间太多还没做好，简洁题目时间又不够用做不完，最终得分惨不忍睹。
许多第一次接触GRE考试的考生，只是复习了各类学问点，做了一些练习，在没有参与过水平测试实际体验过GRE时间压力的状况下，就直接上了考场。
China-U.S. Trade Issues
China-U.S. Trade IssuesWayne M. MorrisonSpecialist in Asian Trade and FinanceDecember 27, 2010Congressional Research Service7-5700RL33536SummaryU.S.-China economic ties have expanded substantially over the past three decades. Total U.S.-China trade rose from $2 billion in 1979 to an estimated $459 billion in 2010. China is currently the second-largest U.S. trading partner, its third-largest export market, and its biggest source of imports. Because U.S. imports from China have risen much more rapidly than U.S. exports to China, the U.S. merchandise trade deficit has surged, rising from $10 billion in 1990 to an estimated $273 billion in 2010.The rapid pace of economic integration between China and the United States, while benefiting both sides overall, has made the trade relationship increasingly complex. On the one hand, China’s large population and booming economy have made it a large and growing market for U.S. exporters. Over the past decade, China has been the fastest-growing market for U.S. exports. U.S. imports of low-cost goods from China greatly benefit U.S. consumers by increasing their purchasing power. U.S. firms that use China as the final point of assembly for their products, or use Chinese-made inputs for production in the United States, are able to lower costs and become more globally competitive. China’s purchases of U.S. Treasury securities (which stood at $907 billion in October 2010) help keep U.S. interest rates relatively low. On the other hand, many analysts argue that growing economic ties with China has exposed U.S. manufacturing firms to greater and what is often perceived to be, “unfair” competition from low-cost Chinese firms. They argue that this has induced many U.S. production facilities to re-locate to China, resulting in the loss of thousands of U.S. manufacturing jobs. Some policymakers have also raised concerns that China’s large holdings of U.S. government debt (which stood at $907 billion as of October 2010) may give China leverage over the United States.China’s incomplete transition to a free market economy and its use of distortive economic policies have contributed to growing trade friction with the United States over a number of issues, including China’s refusal to allow its currency to appreciate to market levels, its mixed record on implementing its World Trade Organization (WTO) obligations, its relatively poor record on protecting intellectual property rights (IPR), and its extensive use of industrial policies and discriminatory government procurement policies to subsidize and protect domestic Chinese firms at the expense of foreign companies. The United States initiated three WTO trade dispute resolution against China in 2010, dealing with such issues as China’s use of subsidies to promote its wind power industries, its use of trade remedy laws to protect domestic industries, and restrictions on electronic payment services. Some members have argued that, given the slow rate of U.S. economic growth and the high rate of unemployment, China’s distortive trade policies can no longer be tolerated and have called for tougher action to be taken against China to induce it to eliminate policies that hurt U.S. economic interests. These trade frictions may intensify in the future as China attempts to implement policies to increase the output of more advanced products. Numerous bills were introduced in the 111th Congress to address various Chinese economic and trade policies. For example, one bill, which passed the House (but was not taken up by the Senate), would have made certain fundamentally undervalued currencies (such as China’s) actionable under U.S. countervailing duty laws (which address government export subsidies). U.S.-China commercial issues may continue to be a major focus in the 112th Congress. This report provides an overview of U.S.-China trade relations. It describes the trends in commercial ties, indentifies major trade disputes, and surveys legislation that would affect economic relations. This report will be updated as events warrant.ContentsU.S. Trade with China (1)U.S. Merchandise Exports to China (4)Major U.S. Imports from China (7)China as a Major Center for Global Supply Chains (8)U.S.-China Investment Ties (10)China’s Holdings of U.S. Securities (11)Bilateral FDI Flows (13)Major U.S.-China Trade Issues (14)China’s Currency Policy (14)China’s Obligations in the World Trade Organization (16)WTO Implementation Issues (17)Pending U.S. Cases Against China (19)Resolved Cases and WTO Panel Rulings (19)Violations of U.S. Intellectual Property Rights (21)The U.S. WTO Cases Against China on IPR (23)Indigenous Innovation and Government Procurement Policies (24)Indigenous Innovation Policies (25)Chinese Government Procurement Issues (25)China and U.S. Trade Remedy Laws (26)The Chinese Tire Case (27)Health and Safety Concerns Over Certain Imports from China (27)Chinese Drywall (29)The U.S.-China Strategic and Economic Dialogue (30)The July 2009 Economic Track Session (31)May 2010 Economic Track Session (31)FiguresFigure 1. U.S. Trade With China: 2000-2010* (3)Figure 2. U.S. Trade Balances with the World and V arious Trading Partners: 2009 (4)Figure 3. Major U.S. Export Markets: 2009 (5)Figure 4. Share of U.S. Computer Imports from China: 2000-2009 (9)Figure 5. China’s Holdings of U.S. Securities: June 2002-June 2009 (12)TablesTable 1. U.S. Merchandise Trade with China: 1980-2010* (2)Table 2. U.S. Merchandise Trade Balances with Major Trading Partners: 2008-2009 (3)Table 3. Major U.S. Exports to China: 2005-2009 (5)Table 4. U.S. Merchandise Exports to Major Trading Partners in 2001 and 2009 (6)Table 5. Major U.S. Imports From China: 2005-2009 (7)Table 6. Major Foreign Suppliers of U.S. Computer Equipment Imports: 2000-2009 (9)Table 7. China’s Holdings of U.S. Treasury Securities: 2003-2009 and October 2010 (12)Table 8. U.S. and Chinese Bilateral FDI Flows, Annual and Cumulative: 2002-2008 (14)ContactsAuthor Contact Information (32)Economic and trade reforms (begun in 1979) have helped transform China into one of the world’s fastest-growing economies. China’s economic growth and trade liberalization,including comprehensive trade commitments made upon entering the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2001, have led to a sharp expansion in U.S.-China commercial ties. Yet, bilateral trade relations have grown increasingly strained in recent years over a number of issues, including a large and growing U.S. trade deficit with China, resistance by China to reform its currency policy, U.S. concerns over China’s mixed record on implementing its WTO obligations, and numerous Chinese industrial policies that appear to impose new restrictions on foreign firms. Several members of Congress have called on the Obama Administration to take a tougher stance against China to induce it to eliminate economic policies deemed harmful to U.S. economic interests and/or inconsistent with WTO rules. This report provides an overview of U.S.-China economic relations, surveys major trade disputes, and lists bills introduced in Congress that could affect bilateral commercial ties.U.S. Trade with China1U.S.-China trade rose rapidly after the two nations reestablished diplomatic relations (in January 1979), signed a bilateral trade agreement (July 1979), and provided mutual most-favored-nation (MFN) treatment beginning in 1980.2 In 1979 (when China’s reforms began), total U.S.-China trade (exports plus imports) was $2 billion; China ranked as the 23rd-largest U.S. export market and its 45th-largest source of U.S. imports. In 2010, bilateral merchandise trade was projected to reach $459 billion; China was the second-largest U.S. trading partner (after Canada), the third-largest U.S. export market (after Canada and Mexico), and the largest source of U.S. imports. In recent years, China has been one of the fastest-growing U.S. export markets, and the importance of this market is expected to grow even further, given the pace of China’s economic growth, and as Chinese living standards continue to improve and a sizable Chinese middle class emerges. The U.S. trade deficit with China has surged over the past two decades, as U.S. imports from China have grown much faster than U.S. exports to China. That deficit rose from $10 billion in 1990 to $266 billion in 2008, fell to $227 billion in 2009, and then rose to an estimated $273 billion in 2010 (see Table 1 and Figure 1).3 As can be seen in Table 2 and Figure 2,the U.S. trade deficit with China in 2009 was significantly larger than that with any other U.S. trading partner and several trading groups. It was larger than the combined U.S. trade deficits with the Organization of Petroleum Export Countries (OPEC), the 27 nations that make up the European Union (EU27), Mexico, Japan, and Canada (together they totaled $225 billion).1 For more information on China’s economy, see CRS Report RL33534, China’s Economic Conditions, by Wayne M. Morrison. For general information on U.S.-China ties, see CRS Report R41108, U.S.-China Relations: Policy Issues, by Thomas Lum.2 The United States suspended China’s MFN status in 1951, which cut off most bilateral trade. China’s MFN status was conditionally restored in 1980 under the provisions set forth under Title IV of the 1974 Trade Act, as amended (including the Jackson-Vanik freedom-of-emigration provisions). China’s MFN status (which was re-designated under U.S. trade law as normal trade relations status, or NTR) was renewed on an annual basis until January 2002, when permanent NTR was extended to China (after it joined the WTO in December 2001).3 Estimates for 2010 used in this report are based on actual trade data for January-October 2010.T able 1. U.S. Merchandise T rade with China: 1980-2010*($ billions)Year U.S. Exports U.S. Imports U.S. Trade Balance1980 3.8 1.1 2.71985 3.9 3.9 0.01990 4.8 15.2 -10.4199511.7 45.6 -33.8 200016.3 100.1 -83.8 2005 41.8 243.5 -201.6 2006 55.2 287.8 -232.52007 65.2 321.5 -256.32008 71.5 337.8 -266.32009 69.6 296.4 -226.82010 Projections a 93.3365.8 -272.5 Source: USITC DataWeb.a. Projections based on actual data for January-October 2010.Figure 1. U.S. T rade With China: 2000-2010**Data for 2010 estimated based on January-October 2010.Source: USITC DataWeb.T able 2. U.S. Merchandise T rade Balanceswith Major T rading Partners: 2008-2009($ billions)Country or Trading Group 2008 2009-500.9 World -800.0-226.8 China -266.3Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) -165.7 -61.8European Union (EU27) -93.4 -60.5-47.5 Mexico -64.4-44.8 Japan -72.7Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) -42.0 -38.2Canada -74.6 -20.2Source: USITC DataWeb.Figure 2. U.S. T rade Balances with the World and Various T rading Partners: 2009($ billions)Source: USITC DataWeb.U.S. Merchandise Exports to ChinaU.S. merchandise exports to China in 2009 were $69.6 billion (down 2.6% from 2008 levels).4 During the first 10 months of 2010, U.S. merchandise exports to China were up 34.1% over the same period in 2009, and are projected to have reached about $93 billion during the full year in 2010.5 China has been the third-largest U.S. merchandise export market since 2007, when it overtook Japan (see Figure 3). U.S. exports to China in 2009 accounted for 6.6% of total U.S. exports, compared to 1.6% in 1989. The top five U.S. exports to China in 2009 were oilseeds and grains, waste and scrap, semiconductors and electronic components, aircraft and parts, and resins and synthetic rubber and fibers (see Table 3).64 In addition U.S. exports of private services to China totaled $16 billion in 2009.5 Some U.S. analysts have expressed concern over the composition of U.S. exports to China, noting that much of it consists of scrap products and components, as opposed to more high-value assembled products. They contend that restrictive Chinese trade practices and industrial policies have a major impact on the composition of U.S. exports to China. Chinese officials counter that U.S. export controls on high technology significantly reduce potential U.S. exports to China.6 China was the second-largest export market for U.S. agricultural, fish, and forest products in 2009 (at $14.3 billion); major product categories included soybeans, cotton, and hides and skins.(Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Foreign Agricultural Service, Global Agricultural Trade System).Figure 3. Major U.S. Export Markets: 2009Source: USITC DataWeb.Over the past few years, China has been among the fastest-growing U.S. export markets, as can be seen in Table 4. Although U.S. exports to China in 2009 declined because of the global economic slowdown, they fell at a smaller rate than that to any other top 10 U.S. export market and much less than the decline in overall U.S. exports (-18.7%). From 2001 to 2009, U.S. exports to China increased by about 263%, which was significantly faster than U.S. exports to other major U.S. exports markets.T able 3. Major U.S. Exports to China: 2005-2009($ millions and percent change)2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 NAIC Number and Description Percent Change 2008–2009 (%)1111 Oilseeds and grains 2,339 2,593 4,145 7,316 9,376 28.1%9100Wasteandscrap 3,670 6,071 7,331 7,562 7,142 -5.5% 3344 Semiconductors and other electroniccomponents4,015 6,830 7,435 7,475 6,042 -19.2% 3364 Aerospace products and parts (mainly aircraft)4,535 6,309 7,447 5,471 5,344 -2.3%3252 Resin, synthetic rubber, and artificial &synthetic fibers & filament2,127 2,548 3,290 3,524 4,036 14.5% Source: USITC DataWeb. Top five U.S. exports to China in 2009.Note: North American Industry Classification system, 4-digit level.T able 4. U.S. Merchandise Exports to Major T rading Partners in 2001 and 2009($ billions and percent change)2001 2009 % Change from 2008-2009 % Change from2001-2009204.7 -21.5 25.0 Canada 163.7Mexico 101.5129.0 -14.9 27.169.6 -2.6 262.5 China 19.251.2 -23.1 -11.1 Japan 57.6United Kingdom 40.8 45.7 -15.0 12.043.2 -20.9 43.5 Germany 30.132.3 -19.6 65.6 Netherlands 19.5South Korea 22.2 28.6 -17.7 28.826.5 -9.1 33.2 France 19.926.2 -20.5 66.7 Brazil 15.91,056.9 -18.7 44.6 World 731.0Source: USITC DataWeb. Ranked by top ten U.S. export markets in 2009.Many trade analysts argue that China could prove to be a much more significant market for U.S.exports in the future. China is one of the world’s fastest-growing economies, and rapid economicgrowth is likely to continue in the near future, provided that economic reforms are continued.China’s goals of modernizing its infrastructure, upgrading its industries, and improving ruralliving standards could generate substantial demand for foreign goods and services. Finally,economic growth has substantially improved the purchasing power of Chinese citizens, especiallythose living in urban areas along the east coast of China. China’s growing economy, large foreignexchange reserves (at over $2.5 trillion as of June 2010), and large population of over 1.3 billionpeople make it a potentially enormous market. To illustrate:•China currently has the world’s largest mobile phone network and one of thefastest-growing markets, with an estimated 844 million mobile phone subscribersin 2010, up from 87 million subscribers in 2000.7•Boeing Corporation predicts that over the next 20 years (2009-2028), China willbe the largest market for commercial air travel outside the United States and thatit will buy 3,770 new aircraft (tripling the size of its current fleet), valued at $400billion.8•It is estimated that in 2008, China replaced the United States as the world’slargest Internet user. In 2009, China had an estimated 360.0 million internet usersversus 227.7 million in the United States.9 Yet, the percentage of the Chinese7 In comparison, the United States has 287 million mobile phone subscribers. Source: European InformationTechnology Observatory - ICT market reports, August 2010, /pressinformation_20100811.htm.8 Boeing Corporation, Current Market Outlook, 2009-2028, September 2009, p. 10.9 Internet World Stats, at /top20.htm.population using the Internet is small relative to the United States: 19% versus73%, respectively.• The Chinese government projects that by the year 2020, there will be 140 million cars in China (seven times the current level), and that the number of cars soldannually will rise from 8.63 million units (2008) to 20.7 million units in 2020.According to some estimates, China is now the world’s largest market for newcars. In 2009, General Motors (GM) and Ford reportedly sold 1.8 million (up67% over 2008 levels) and 441,000 vehicles (up 44%), respectively, in China.10Despite the current global economic crisis, China auto sales during 2009 were up44% over the previous year (to 13.6 million units), due largely to Chinesegovernment tax subsidies and incentives.Major U.S. Imports from ChinaChina was the largest source of U.S. imports in 2009 at $296 billion (down from $338 billion in2008), which was 19.0% of total U.S. imports (compared to 6.5% of total in 1996). During thefirst 10 months of 2010, U.S. imports from China increased by 23.4% over the same period in2009, and were projected to have reached $366 billion for the full year in 2010. The importance(ranking) of China as a source of U.S. imports has risen dramatically, from eighth-largest in 1990, to fourth in 2000, to second in 2004-2006, to first in 2007-2009. The top five U.S. imports fromChina in 2009 were computers and parts, miscellaneous manufactured articles (such as toys,games, etc.), communications equipment, apparel, and audio and video equipment (see Table 5).In 2009, China was the third-largest source of U.S. imports of U.S. agricultural, fish, and forestproducts, at $7.2 billion; major product categories included forest products, seafood, andprocessed fruit and vegetables.11T able 5. Major U.S. Imports From China: 2005-2009($ millions and percent change)NAIC Number and Description2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Percent Change 2008–2009 3341 computer equipment35,467 40,046 44,462 45,820 44,818 -2.2 3399 Misc. manufactured commodities26,449 28,888 34,827 35,835 30,668 -14.4 3342 Communications equipment14,121 17,977 23,192 26,618 26,362 -1.0 3152 Apparel16,362 19,228 22,955 22,583 22,669 0.4 3343 Audio and video equipment15,287 18,789 19,075 19,715 18,243 -7.4 Source: USITC DataWeb.Note: North American Industry Classification system, 4-digit level.10 According to GM’s website, it operates seven joint ventures and two wholly owned foreign enterprises and has morethan 20,000 employees in China.11 U.S. Department of Agriculture, Foreign Agricultural Service, Global Agricultural Trade System.Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, nearly all of U.S. imports from China were low-value, labor-intensive products, such as toys and games, consumer electronic products, footwear, and textiles and apparel. However, over the past few years, an increasing proportion of U.S. imports from China have been comprised of more technologically advanced products. For example, according to the U.S. Census Bureau, U.S. imports of advanced technology products (A TP) from China in 2009 totaled $89.7 billion; these accounted for 30.3% of total U.S. imports from China, compared with 19.2% ($29.3 billion) in 2003.12 In addition, China in 2009 accounted for 29.8% of total U.S A TP imports, compared with 14.1% in 2003.U.S. exports of A TP to China in 2009 were $17.2 billion; these accounted for 24.7% of total U.S. exports to China and 7.0% of U.S. global A TP exports. The United States ran $72.5 billion deficit in its A TP trade with China in 2009. Some see the large and growing U.S. trade deficit in A TP with China as source of concern, contending that it signifies the growing international competitiveness of China in high technology. Others dispute this, noting that a large share of the A TP imports from China are in fact relatively low-end technology products and parts, such as notebook computers.China as a Major Center for Global Supply ChainsMany analysts contend that the sharp increase in U.S. imports from China (and hence the growing bilateral trade imbalance) is largely the result of movement in production facilities from other (primarily Asian) countries to China. That is, various products that used to be made in such places as Japan, Taiwan, Hong Kong, etc., and then exported to the United States are now being made in China (in many cases, by foreign firms in China) and exported to the United States. To illustrate, in 1996, 38.8% of total U.S. imports were from Asia; U.S. imports from China were 6.5% of total U.S. imports. In 2009, the share of U.S. imports from Asia actually declined from 1996 levels to 37.6%; however, the share of total U.S. imports from China rose to 19%. Another illustration of the shift in production can be seen in the case of computer imports, which currently is the largest category imports from China. Table 6 lists U.S. imports of computer equipment and parts from 2000-2009. In 2000, Japan was the largest foreign supplier of U.S. computer equipment (with a 19.6% share of total shipments), while China ranked fourth (with a 12.1% share). In just nine years, Japan’s ranking fell to fourth, the value of its shipments dropped by 61%, and its share of U.S. computer imports declined to 6.7% (2009). China was by far the largest foreign supplier of computer equipment in 2009 with a 58% share of total U.S. imports, compared to 12% in 2000 (see Figure 4). While U.S. imports of computer equipment from China from 2000-2009 rose by 440%, the total value of U.S. computer imports worldwide rose by only 14%. Many analysts contend that a large share of the increase in Chinese computer production and exports has come from foreign computer companies that have moved manufacturing facilities to China. For example, Taiwan, one of the world’s leaders in sales of information technology, produces over 90% its information hardware equipment (such as computers) in China.1312 Census broadly defines ATP as products whose technology is from a recognized high technology field and represent leading edge technology in that field. Broad product categories include biotechnology, life sciences, opto-electronics, information and communications, electronics, flexible manufacturing (e.g., robots), advanced materials, aerospace, weapons, and nuclear technology.13 China’s accession to the WTO (with the reduction of trade and investment barriers) appears to have been a major factor behind the migration of computer production from other countries to China.T able 6. Major Foreign Suppliers of U.S. Computer Equipment Imports: 2000-2009($ billions and percent change)2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2009 2000-2009% change Total 68.5 62.3 73.9 83.8 85.4 77.9 13.7 China 8.3 12.0 29.5 40.0 45.8 44.8 440.0 Mexico 6.9 7.9 7.4 6.6 6.2 7.6 10.1 Malaysia 4.9 7.1 8.7 11.1 9.0 5.6 14.3 Japan 13.4 8.1 6.3 6.3 6.6 5.2 -61.2 Singapore 8.7 7.1 6.6 5.6 4.0 3.5 -59.8Source: U.S. International Trade Commission Trade DataWeb.Note: Ranked according to top five suppliers in 2009.Figure 4. Share of U.S. Computer Imports from China: 2000-2009 (percent)Source: USITC DataWeb.Global Supply Chains, China, and the Apple iPod: Who Benefits?Many U.S. companies sign contracts with Taiwanese firms to have their products manufactured (mainly in China), and then shipped to the United States where they are sold by U.S. firms under their own brand name. In many instances, the level of value-added that occurs in China (often it simply involves assemblage) can be quite small relative to the overall cost/price of the final product. One study by researchers at the University of California looked at the production of a 2005 Apple 30 gigabyte video iPod, which is made in China by Foxconn, a Taiwanese company, using parts produced globally (mainly in Asia). It estimated that it cost about $144 to make each iPod unit. Of this amount, only about $4, or 2.8% of the total cost, was attributable to the Chinese workers who assembled it; the rest of the costs were attributable to the numerous firms involved in making the parts (for example, Japanese firms provided the highest-value components—the hard drive and the display).14 From a trade aspect, U.S. trade data would have recorded the full value of each iPod unit imported from China at $144 (excluding shipping costs) as originating from China, even though the value added in China was quite small. The retail price of the iPod sold in the United States was $299, meaning that there was a mark-up of about $155 per unit, which was attributable to transportation costs, retail and distributor margins, and Apple’s profits. The study estimated that Apple earned at least $80 on each unit it sold in its stores, making it the single largest beneficiary (in terms of gross profit) of the sale of the iPod. The study concluded that Apple’s innovation in developing and engineering the iPod and its ability to source most of its production to low-cost countries, such as China, has helped enable it to become a highly competitive and profitable firm (as well as a source for high-paying jobs in the United States). The iPod example illustrates that the rapidly changing nature of global supply chains has made it increasing difficult to interpret the implications of U.S. trade data. Such data may show where products are being imported from, but they often fail to reflect who benefits from that trade. Chinese trade data indicate that over 50% of its exports are generated by foreign-invested firms in China. Thus, in many instances, U.S. imports from China are really imports from many countries.U.S.-China Investment Ties15Investment plays a major role in U.S.-China commercial ties.16 China’s investment in U.S. assets can be broken down into two categories: holdings of U.S. securities and foreign direct investment (FDI). A significant share of China’s investment in the United States has gone into U.S. securities, while FDI constitutes the bulk of U.S. investment in China. The Treasury Department defines foreign holdings of U.S. securities as “U.S. securities owned by foreign residents (including banks and other institutions) except where the owner has a direct investment relationship with the U.S. issuer of the securities.” These include long-term (LT) U.S. Treasury securities, LT U.S. government agency securities,17 LT corporate securities (some of which are asset-backed), equities (such as stocks), and short-term (ST) debt.18 The U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA) defines FDI (in the United States) as “the ownership or control, directly or indirectly, by one foreign resident of 10 percent or more of the voting securities of an incorporated U.S.14 Communications of the ACM, Who Captures Value in a Global Innovation Network? The Case of Apple’s iPod, March 2009.15 U.S. data on FDI flows to and from China differ sharply from Chinese data on FDI flows to and from the United States. This section uses U.S. data only.16 Investment is often a major factor behind trade flows. Firms that invest overseas often import machinery, parts, and other inputs from the parent company to manufacture products for export or sale locally. Other such invested overseas firms may produce inputs and ship them to their parent company for final production.17 Agency securities include both federal agencies and government-sponsored enterprises created by Congress (e.g., Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac) to provide credit to key sectors of the economy. Some of these securities are backed by assets (such as home mortgages).18 LT securities are those with no stated maturity date (such as equities) or with an original term to maturity date of more than one year. ST debt includes U.S. Treasury securities, agency securities, and corporate securities with a maturity date of less than one year.。
英美文化-英国部分
英美⽂化-英国部分英国部分HistoryIberiansCelts, Gaels, Britons - Irish, Scottish, Welsh culture and language Romans - Alphabet, Roman civilization, Christianity Anglo-Saxons - English race and languageVikings & Danes - New dialectsNormans (France) - French language2.2 The Magna Carta/The Great Charter (1215)The Great Council of barons(贵族) forced King John to sign the Magna Carta limiting his powerThe King could not levy extra taxes without people' s consentKing could not change lawsIf King refused to obey laws, the vassals could resort to civil war Freedom of trade and self-government to townspeople Beginning of civil rightsNo imprisonment unless convicted by a juryLife and property protectedFirst step towards constitutional government2.3 The Hundred Years War with France (1337-1453)Reasons: Territorial and economicEnglish kings possession of land in France; t he cloth manufacturing towns in Flanders were importers of English wool, but owed political allegiance to the French king; France gave support to the Scots; a growing sense of national consciousnessEdward III claimed the French crown in 1337.By 1453, France had won back their land (with gunpowder) except for city of Calais.2.4 Richard II (1377-1399): The cause of the War of the Roses(1455-1485) (Lancastrian and Yorkist Houses) Lancastrians: Red rose as the symbolYorkists: White rose as the symbolFighting for the throne in EnglandMany nobles killedHenry VII strengthened his claim to the throne by marrying Elizabeth, a daughter of Yorkist Edward IV. The union of the two houses ended the war.The Tudors (1485-1603): sea power and ProtestantismThe Tudor dynasty saw the transition of England from a feudal countr y to modern state. Capitalism replaced feudalism Textile industryEnclosure Movement –cheap laborHenry VIII (1509-1547)The Tudor era in England started from the reign of King Henry VIII. Sho rtly after becoming king, Henry VIII took Catherine of Aragon as his brid e on 11 June 1509. He inherited ￡1.5 million pounds from his father and succeeded in the first peaceful transition of power after the Wars of the Roses.The Reformation: the Church of England 1534He divorced his wife, Catherine, on the grounds that their marriage w as invalid.He married Anne Boleyn.Pope excommunicated Henry, who replied with the Act of Supremacy, which recognized the king as the supreme head of the Church of England.Elizabeth I ( Anne's daughter) becomes Queen1558-1603" Virgin queen"Seen by many as the" Illegitimate Queen"King Philip of Spain said Mary Queen of Scots ( Mary' s cousin) was r eal QueenPhilip sent Spanish Armada(⽆敌舰队) to attackSpanish Armada destroyed in North Sea (1588) and England became master of the seas海上霸主4.1 The Civil War(Stuart House)4.1.1James I: rising dissentionElizabeth I died childless, the throne passed to her distant Stuart rela tive, James VI.Major problemsLack of moneyBitter religious dissension4.1.2 Charles I (1625-1649)Successful rebellionInvolved in the wars against Spain, France and ScotlandParliament passed resolutions against illegal taxes and his religious po licyCharles I dissolved Parliament and imprisoned the leaders.4.1.3 The Civil War (1642-1649)War broke out in 1642Cavaliers for KingRoundheads for the ParliamentRadicals: Puritans for the ParliamentModerates: presbyters and Anglicans for the ParliamentOn January 30 1649, Charles I was beheadedOliver Cromwell(1649-1660)England now a republic called CommonwealthA dictatorship of a radical minorityTitled Lord Protector (of the Commonweath)The Glorious Revolution (1688-1689)Charles II : The Restoration (1660-1688): the monarchy returnsThe Bill of Rights 1689William and Mary: King and Queen of EnglandParliamentary supremacyThe Industrial Revolution 18th-19thCThe Industrial Revolution was a period from the 18th to the 19th century where major changes in agriculture, manufacturing, mining, transport, and technology had a profound effect on the socioeconomic and culturalconditions starting in the United Kingdom, then subsequently spreading throughout Europe, North America, and eventually the world. The use of steam-powered machines, led to a massive increase in the number offactories. The Industrial Revolution marks a major turning point in human history; almost every aspect of daily life was eventually influenced in some way.Three arms of the StateHead of State the Monarch (non-political)Legislative Branch (political))Executive Branch (political)Judiciary Branch (non-political)Structure of the central government659 elected MPs ( Member of Parliament)⽬前全国共设659个选区（constituency, MP?s seat）；每5年⼀次普选（general elections）；Electoral system:First-past-the-post (abbreviated FPTP or FPP) system1;主要两党为Conservative & Labor;Voting:100% along party lines mostly●House of LordsHereditary peer/peeress 世袭贵族+ Life peer/peeress 终⾝贵族Executive Branch1An election won by the candidate(s) with the most votes. The winning candidate does not necessarily receive an absolute majority of all votes cast.Section: The individual parts of an Act are known as sections.Inside the court●Judges: Appointed by her majesty the Queen, on the advice of the Prime Minister.●Lay peopleMagistrates：No jury in a magistrate?s court JP：Justice of the Peace治安官Jury:12 lay people Decides guilty or innocentOutside the court●Barristers（England & Wales）; Advocates (Scotland)Plead the case in court有资格出庭辩护的律师●SolicitorsPrepare the case for the barrister before the court hearing主要负责整理法律⽂件，提供法律咨询的律师EducationSystem:From Tripartite System: It was not until the Education Act in 1944 that all children were given the right to free secondary (middle school) education.A “tripartite” system of secondary modern, technical and grammar schools selected11-year-old children at the end of their primary education by means of an exam called the eleven plus.To Comprehensive System: In the 1950s, the tripartite system: Not ensure equal educational opportunities or a meritocracy. In the 1960s, Comprehensive schools were introduced with the idea that pupils should not be selected & streamed at such an early age.Types of schools:State schools: Operated by public funds, totally funded by the government and are free to all British children. Independent (Private) schools: Privately financed, funded by the fees charged to the parents. They are both more expensive and more exclusive, and tend to give their students a better-quality education overall.Britain has more than 100 universities, which can be categorized into four types:1. The ancient universities: existed for centuries, and for a long time the only universities, all of them restricted to men. (E.g. Oxford, Cambridge, St Andrew?s苏格兰, Glasgow苏格兰, Edinburgh苏格兰)2. The redbrick universities: founded mainly in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century (E.g. Birmingham, Leicester, Liverpool, Sheffield)3. The universities founded in the 1960s: often in rural areas (e.g. Bath, Essex Surrey, Sussex, East Anglia)4. The …new universities?: once vocational polytechnics but were given university status in 1992 (e.g. Greenwich, Thames Valley, Manchester Metropolitan, West of England)The less happy trends British universities are faced with:1. A reduction in staff numbers2. A reduction in research funding from the government3. A declining share of top-level research output4. The use of a Research Assessment Exercise (RAE) by which the work of every university researcher is assessed in order to decide how much government funding universities will receive5. A deterioration in the quality of buildings and other facilities6. A brain drain as academics have left to work overseasThe Welfare StateThere have been elements of a welfare system in place since the 16th century.1942 comprehensive welfare systemA welfare state is a system of government-run organizations that help everyone to have a good quality of life by providing a safety net of provisions to ensure people?s welfare (well-being).Welfare state aims to offer its citizens: A life with certain specified standards of living which it considers reasonable and possible for all, and protection against the unexpected hazards of life.HealthThe NHS Act (NHS, National Health Service) became law in 1946 but did not come into effect until 1948. There existed great opposition from doctors who feared the loss of their private practices. The government compromised and allowed consultants to continue their practices on a part-time basis.The two health trends which are causes for increased concern:1. Britain has one of the most serious drug problems in Europe.2. Britain is witnessing the emergence of a public health problem that until recently has mainly been associated with the United States: The rising incidence of obesity.NHS: The core of British …welfare state?: All services are free of charge;Services are provided on the basis of need instead of the ability to pay;General Practitioner (GP); …waiting list?.MediaBasic Principles for Broadcasting: Impartial and neutral in dealing with social and political affairs; Entertaining, informing and educating the nation.The five so-called “quality papers”: The Times, Telegraph, Independent, Guardian, Financial Times (all read predominantly by higher socio-economic class)The “qualities” provide a broader range of news and comments, several with a particular political or social bias.The five mass circulation tabloids: The Daily Mail, the Daily Express (read mainl y by the middle class), the Sun, the Daily Mirror, the Daily Star (read mainly by th e working class)The tabloids tend to be more openly partisan and to offer an often simplified and exaggerated picture of politics.。
查尔斯一世英文介绍
Thank you
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演讲人姓名
• Charles has many good qualities, he is easy-going and serious, is a cute, loyal husband and father, a devout Christian. He is an aesthetic person, willing to pay for good things. He had many outstanding artists and writers who go to court. But he also has serious weaknesses, not diligent, lack of a sense of humor. He also believes that as long as we can win the war and regain their absolute authority, any means are correct (similar to Machiavelli's point of view). So he to the elders of Scotland sent, British Anglican Church, Irish Roman Catholics and the parliamentarian army of the Puritan leaders make various contradictory and do not intend to keep the promise. In this way, he has lost all his trust.
英文版《李尔王》
suspicion between gloucester earl and his eldest son and
loathed .
9
Plot Summary
◆HOW?
◆HOW?
1：After the regular script in
between two daughters, while two eldest daughter to show the real features. Lear was driven out of the house, and his entourage gloucestershire met with poor Tom in the wind and rain, also is in gloucester Edmund intrigue and expelling son Ed. Lear thinks this is his daughter misunderstanding, should be punished with two daughters. When he was blaming yourself , came to comfort him by the hand of a saint. The saint is cordelia.
historical play：
The Sonnets ：
5
Beyond books
The four tragedies
Aeschylus Sophocles Euripides Shakespeare
6
Writing background
●political：At the beginning of the 17th century, queen
英国政治制度 The Political System
CABINET, SHADOW CABINET; FRONT BENCHER, BACK BENCHER (HANDOUT)
PM TONY BLAIR (1997-2007)
PM GORDON BROWN (2007-2010)
THE CURRENT PRIME MINISTER DAVID
CAMERON (2010-)
COLLECTIVE CABINET RESPONSIBILITY
See Handout 部长负责制 内阁集体负责制
PARLIAMENT: THE LEGISLATURE
The Stranger’s Gallery Television coverage since 1985
FOCUS POINTS FOR TODAY
History of constitutional monarchy British constitution the structure of British central government constitutional monarchy: the role of the sovereign the roles of the Prime Minister and Cabinet collective Cabinet responsibility the roles of Parliament and the reform of the House of Lords the three main political parties in the UK today; the party in power; the main
‘The Queen reigns but does not rule.’
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGE
契约法和成文法.Common-Law-and-Statute-LawPPT演示课件
Common Law – The Doctrine of Precedence【优先主义】
The DOCTRINE OF PRECEDENCE requires that an inferior court always follows the decisions of a higher court. Thus, once a judgment has been made in a particular case, that decision will apply in any future cases which match the particulars of the first. 下级法院与上 级法院{法的适用，遵循先例，推翻先例，避开先 例}
据】 by decisions in the courts【法院】.
Statute law - legislation【立法】 contained in precise written statements of
requirements emanating from parliament【国会立法】.
This allows the law to be continually
revised and reinterpreted “in the light of current values and experiences.”
【法的不断完善，例子，遵循先例。】
Common Law – The Doctrine of Precedence
It is often the case that an Act sets out the general principles and empowers the government or some other official body to issue further requirements which provide the detail.
Official says hostage takers shoot themselves in Taiwan prison.
Official says hostage takers shoot themselves in Taiwan prisonA justice official says six armed inmates who held a warden and a head guard hostage at a prison in southern Taiwan have committed suicide after releasing the hostages.Taiwan's administrative deputy chief of justice Chen Ming-tang said during a television interview that the hostage takers shot themselves in the early morning Thursday.The justice authorities said the inmates were serving long sentences for burglary, murder and drug crimes and took four rifles, six handguns and more than 200 bullets from the prison's armory. They had been demanding safe exit from the prison in the port city of Kaohsiung.Authorities did not offer any video or other evidence Thursday morning of the reported suicides, but a news conference about the standoff is under way.Within hours, armed police had surrounded the prison. Authorities also had called on relatives of the inmates to plea for the release of the hostages, but the two sides remained in a standoff more than six hours after the inmates rebelled.Authorities said they turned down the inmates' demands that the police force be withdrawn and that two fully fueled vehicles be provided to allow the felons to leave in exchange for the safety of the detainees.The confrontation leader, Cheng Li-te, belongs to the notorious mafia-type organization Bamboo Union and is serving a 28-year sentence for homicide. The other five inmates are serving sentences ranging from 25 years to life.The inmates used the need for medical care as a pretense to lure prison guards before kidnapping them, the central news agency said.The United Daily News said it got on the phone with Cheng, who said the act had been long planned and that he was prepared to die for it. The newspaper said Cheng complained about the tendency of judges to presume guilt, insufficient allowances for inmates and unfairness in granting medical paroles.Authorities said deputy warden Lai Chen-jung and head guard WangShih-tsang volunteered to swap with the two guards who were initially takenhostage. Later, Chen, the prison warden, offered to exchange with Lai as a hostage.。
英语国家概论简答完整版
英概一句话简答完整版（余志远版本）1. What is the full name of the United Kingdom?It is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.2. What are the two large island that make up the British Isles?They are Great Britain and Ireland.3. What are the four political divisions of the United Kingdom?They are England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.4. Why does the United Kingdom have a mild climate, even though it lies farther north than our Heilongjiang Province?Because Britain’s climate is in fluenced by the Gulf Stream.5. How many metropolitan areas does England have?England has seven metropolitan areas.6. What is the backbone of England?It is the Pennines.7. What is the largest lake in the British Isles?It is Lough Neagh.8. From what languages is English derived?England is mainly derived from the Anglo-Saxon and Norman-French languages.9. What is an eisteddfod?An eisteddfod is a Welsh festival of poetry, music and other arts.10. What have the Scottish people been famous for?The Scottish people have been famous for their close-knit clans, colorful plaid kilts, and skill as fierce warriors.11. How long was Britain under the Roman occupation?Britain was under the Roman occupation for nearly 400 years.12. Why was the Roman impact upon the Britons surprisingly limited?The Roman impact on the Britons was surprisingly limited because the Romans always treated the Britons as a subject people of slave class and they never intermarried with the native Britons.13. When did the Anglo-Saxons begin to settle in Britain?The Anglo-Saxons began to settle in Britain in the 5th century.14. When did England begin to be Christianized?England began to be Christianized in 579.15. What was the result of the Synod of Whitby in Yorkshire in 664?The result of the Synod of Whitby was that the Roman missionaries gained the upper hand over the Celtic missionaries.16. What was Harold doing when he was informed of the invasion of Northumbria by Tostig and Harold Hardrada?He was in the south preparing to resist the expected attack from Normandy.17. Where did Harold defeat Tostig and Hardrada?Harold defeated Tostig and Harold Hardrada at Stanford Bridge.18. By whom was William crowned King of England in Westminster Abbey?William was crowned King of England in Westminster Abbey by the Archbishop of York.19. What did William do after he suppressed the Saxon risings in the north?He built a string of defense castles to ensure his military control of the whole country.20. Was the Norman Conquest the last successful invasion of England?Yes. The Norman Conquest was the last successful invasion of England because England has never been invaded since.21. Why did William I give his barons large estates in England?William I gave large estates to his barons because he wanted to get a promise of military service and a proportion of the land’s produce.22. What was the peculiar feature of the feudal system of England?All landowners, big and small, took the oath of allegiance for the land they held, not only to their immediate lord, but also to the king.23. Why did William I have the Domesday Book compiled?William I had the Domesday Book compiled because he wanted to have a reliable record of all his land, his tenants and their possessions and to discover how much his tenants could be asked to pay by way of taxes.24. What was William I ‟s policy towards the church?He wanted to keep it completely under his control, but at the same time to uphold its power.25. Why did Henry II make Thomas Becket Archbishop of Canterbury?He thought that Thomas Becket would assist him in carrying out legal reforms.26. What brought Henry II into collision with Thomas Becket, the Archbishop of Canterbury? The exceptional privileges enjoyed by the clergy brought Henry II into collision with Thomas Becket. 27. What are the two aspects of the Norman legacy that contributed to great domestic unrest in England in the 12th and 13th centuries?One was England’s possession of territor y in France. The other was Norman adherence to Roman Catholicism.28. Who was the French national heroine during the Hundred Year‟s War who helped the French to drive the English out of France?Joan of Arc.29. When did the government establish rules for the first time to keep down wages?The government established rules for the first time to keep down wages in 1351.30. How many peasant in Kent and Essex were killed by Richard II ‟s troops?40,000 peasants in Kent and Essex were killed by Richard II’s troops.31. What were the emblems of the Houses of York and Lancaster?The emblem of the House of York was a white rose and the emblem of the House of Lancaster was a red rose.32. What was the impact of the Wars of the Roses on feudalism in England?The Wars of the Roses dealt a death blow to feudalism in England.33. How did Elizabeth I try to avoid troubling Parliament too often for pounds?She tried to avoid troubling Parliament by making strict economies at Court.34. What questions did Elizabeth I treat as personal and private?These questions were her religion, her marriage, her foreign policy, the succession to the throne, and her finance.35. How did Elizabeth I manage to maintain in friendly relationship with France?She managed to maintain a friendly relationship with France through her marriage alliances which were never materialized.36. When was Mary Queen of Scots executed?Mary Queen of Scots was executed in 1587.37. What did the destruction of the Spanish Armada show?It show ed England’s superiority as a naval power.38. What was the long-term result of the Gunpowder Plot?The long-term result of the Gunpowder Plot has been an annual celebration of November 5, when a bonfire is lit to burn a guy and a firework display is arranged.39. What was Puritanism noted for?It was noted for simple dress, high moral standards and very egalitarian attitudes.40. What is a constitutional monarchy?A constitutional monarchy is one whose power is limited by Parliament.41. What did the Whigs stand for in the early 19th century?They stood for a reduction in Crown patronage, sympathy towards Nonconformists, and care for the interests of merchants and bankers.42. Why did changes in farming methods affect lives of millions in the 18th century? Changes in farming methods affected lives of millions in the 18th century England because village and agriculture were the backbone of England at that time.43. What did the land owners want to do in the late 18th and early 19th centuries?They wanted to replace the small farms cultivated on the “open-field” system by larger, economically more efficient farms with hedge-divided fields.44. Why was King George III nicknamed “Farmer George”?King George III was nicknamed “Farmer George” because he was very enthusiastic about agricultural changes at Winsor.45. What were the two events which most alarmed the British ruling classes in the closing decades of the 18th century?They were the American War of Independence and the French Revolution.46. When did the British begin to transport convicts to Australia?The British began to transport convicts to Australia in 1788.47. What was the result of the general strike of 1926?The strike failed. The miners were forced to return to work with longer hours and lower wages even than before. Yet, outside the mining district, the strike seemed to have improved relations between the workers and the middle classes.48. Why d4id Edward VIII abdicate in 1936 after a reign of 10 months?Edward VIII abdicated because he wanted to marry Wallis Simpson, a twice-divorced American.49. When did Britain finally become a full member of the European Economic Community? Britain finally became a full member of the European Economic Community in January,1973.50. Why was Mrs. Thatcher removed from office in 1990?It was because of her opposition to European Union and her imposition of an extremely unpopular flat-rate “poll tax” in place of property taxes to pay or local government service.51. What are the economic problems Britain is now faced with?Britain is now faced with a low rate of industrial growth, unemployment, and a rising inflation rate. 52. What percentage of British workers are employed in service industries?More than 70% of British workers are employed in service industries.53. Why were early factories located near the coal fields?Because coal powered the steam engines that moved the machinery.54. In which British industry did the Industrial Revolution begin?The Industrial Revolution bega n in Britain’s textile industry.55. Where are oil and natural gas found in Britain?Oil and natural gas are found under the North Sea.56. Why is it that Britain imports more clothing than it exports?Because many countries with lower labor costs can produce clothing more cheaply than the British can.57. Which area in Britain is called the “Silicon Glen”?The area between Glasgow and Edinburgh in Scotland is called the “Silicon Glen”.58. What is the county of Kent in southeastern England famous for?It is famous for its beautiful blossoms of its apple and cherry orchards in springtime.59. What are Britain‟s most important imports?British imports include chemicals, clothing, foods, machinery, metals, motor vehicles, paper and newsprint, petroleum products, and textiles.60. What are Britain‟s most important exports?British exports are aerospace equipment, chemicals and pharmaceuticals, foods and beverages, machinery, motor vehicles, petroleum, and scientific and medical equipment.61. Where does the Sovereign‟s coronation take place?The Sovereign’s coronation takes place at Westminster Abbey in London.62. When is the Sovereign‟s birthday officially celebrated?It is officially celebrated in June every year.63. What does the Duke of Edinburgh do when the Queen pays state visits to foreign governments?He accompanies her.64. Where does the Queen‟s expenditure arising from public duties come from?The Queen’s expenditure arising from public duties comes from the Civil List and governm ent departments.65. What does the term “parliament” originally mean?The term “parliament” originally means a meeting for a parley or discussion.66. What is the main function of the House of Lords?The main function of the House of Lords is to bring the wide experience of its members into the process of law-making.67. What is the Speaker‟s task in the House of Commons?His task is to preside over the House and enforce the rules of order.68. How many counties are there in England and Wales?There are 53 counties in England and Wales.69. What are the three island areas where single-tier authorities were introduced in Scotland?They are the Orkneys, the Shetlands and the Western Isles.70. How do local authorities in Great Britain raise revenue?They raise revenue through the council tax.71. What are the two main branches of the law in Britain?They are criminal law and civil law.72. How many types of criminal courts are there in Scotland?There are three types of criminal courts in Scotland. They are the High Court of Justiciary, the sheriff court, and the district court.73. What is the difference between solemn procedure and summary procedure?In solemn procedure, a defendant is tried by a judge sitting with a jury. In summary procedure the judge sits without a jury.74. What are the three divisions of the High Court?They are the Family Division, the Chancery Division, and the Queen’s Bench Division.75. What is the ultimate court of appeal in civil cases throughout the United Kingdom?It is the House of Lords.76. Who directly controls London‟s Metropolitan Police Force?The Home Secretary controls London’s Metropolitan Police Force.77. What are the chief aims of the penal system?The chief aims are to deter the potential law-breaker, and to reform the convicted offender.78. How many prisons are there in Northern Ireland?There are 4 prisons in Northern Ireland.79. How long can a court probation order last?A court probation order can last between 6 months and 3 years.80. What courses (or schemes) and services are provided in all prisons?Training courses, educational schemes, medical services and welfare services are provided in all prisons.81. Are British people obliged to use the National Health Service?No. They are not obliged to use the service.82. What are services for elderly people aimed at?Services for elderly people are aimed at helping them live at home whenever possible.83. What is the aim of the social security system?The aim of the social security is to secure a basic standard of living for people in financial need.84. At what age do men and women generally retire?Men generally retire at the age of 65, and women at the ate of 60.85. What are the two established churches in Britain?They are the Church of England in England and the Church of Scotland in Scotland.86. How many provinces does the Church of England have?The Church of England has two provinces: Canterbury and York.87. When were the first women priests ordained in Britain?They were ordained in March 1994.88. Who founded the Salvation Army in the East of London in 1865?William Booth, a great follower of John Wesley, founded the Salvation Army.89. Where do the people in London go to see the Christmas decorations?They go to Oxford Street, Regent Street and Piccadilly to see the Christmas decorations.90. Why is December 26th called “Boxing Day”?December 26th is called Boxing Day because it was formerly the custom to give “Christmas boxes”, or gifts of money, to servants and tradesmen on this day.91. How many kinds of state secondary schools are there in Great Britain?Three. They are grammar school, secondary modern school and comprehensive school.92. When was the Open University founded? When did it begin its first courses?It was founded in 1969, and it began its first courses in 1970.93. Why is the Open University so named?It is so named because it is “open” to all to become students.94. How much money is spent on press advertising every year in Great Britain?About ￡5,100 million.95. How much time do British people spend a day watching television?People spend an average of over three and a half hours a day watching television.96. How are the state-run television channels BBC1 and BBC2 financed?They are financed from the sale of television licences.97. How are independent channels ITV and C4 funded?They are funded entirely by advertising.98. When did the BBC begin to provide regular television broadcasts?The BBC began to provide regular television broadcasts in 1936.99. Which sport is regarded as typically English?Cricket is the most typically English sport.100. What is a “copyright” library?It is a library which is entitled to receive a free copy of every book published in the United Kingdom.1. How does the United States rank among the countries of the world in population and area? The United States of America is the third-largest country in the world in population and the fourth-largest country in area.2. What are the two major mountain ranges in the United States?They are the Appalachian Highlands and the Rocky Mountains.3. What is the Continental Divide, or Great Divide?The Continental Divide, or Great Divide, is an imaginary line that separates streams that flow into the Pacific Ocean from those that flow into the Atlantic.4. What are the five Great Lakes of the United States?They are Erie, Huron, Michigan, Ontario, and Superior.5. How many geographical regions can be found in the United States? What are they? There are seven geographical regions in the United States. They are New England, the Middle Atlantic States, the southern States, the Midwestern States, the Rocky Mountain states, the Southwestern States, and the Pacific Coast States and the New States.6. What states are in New England?New England is made up of six states of the North-East. They are Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut.7. Apart from Now York City, what other large cites are located in the Middle Atlantic region? Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Buffalo, and Newark.8. What is the Midwest famous for?The Midwest is famous for its large stretches of fertile soil.9. What states make up the Pacific Coast Region?The region known as the Pacific Coast includes the western parts of Washington and Oregon and nearly all of California.10. What role does tourism play in Hawaii‟s economy?Tourism is Hawaii’s most important industry.11. What is the population of the United States? How does it rank in the world?The United States is the third most populous country in the world after China and India, with a population of 267 million (estimated) in April 1997.12. What is the reason for the growth of population in Florida?It is because of its warm climate and convenience in doing business with and traveling to Central and South America.13. Which are the five biggest cities, in terms of population, in the United States?New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, San Francisco, Philadelphia.14. Why are people moving so often in the United States?People often move from one place to another for various reasons: to look for better job opportunity or for better climate or for other goals.15. What are some of the consequences of the outflow of city residents to the suburbs?The movement brings serious consequences to big cities: rising unemployment rate, the increase of the number of poor people, the worsening of city living conditions and the fall of government revenues. 16. Which are the three largest groups of Hispanics?The Chicanos, the Puerto Ricans and the Cuban-Americans.17. Why do many Puerto Ricans go to the United States?They are drawn to the United States by better job opportunities.18. What explanation do experts give for the success of Asian-Americans?The experts attribute the success to Asian cultural tradition: emphasis on education, hard work and family.19. What was the fate of Japanese-Americans in WWII?The Japanese-Americans were taken to relocation centers in isolated parts of the western mountain and plains states and stayed behind barbed wires.20. Can you give an example to show the awakening of American Indians?Many Indians are taking legal steps to demand compensation for land and resources grabbed from them illegally.21. What is one of the explanations of how the early Indians came to the Americans?One of the explanations is the Indians crossed from Asia on the landbridge that connected Siberia and Alaska.22. How did the Plymouth settlers manage to survive?The neighboring Indians came to teach them how to grow corn and they succeeded in having a good harvest.23. In what way were the Puritans different from the Pilgrims?The Pilgrims were mostly poor, labouring people while the Puritans were wealthy, well-educated gentlemen.24. Did the War of Independence start with the adoption of the Declaration of Independence? No. It started when clashes took place at Concord and Lexington.25. What was the chief weakness of the Articles of Confederation?The chief weakness was the document failed to set up a government that could function.26. What was the significance of the adoption of the Bill of Rights?The adoption of the Bill of Rights in addition to the Constitution completed the foundation of the American constitutional system.27. Why did American territorial expansion threaten British interest?Because some Americans wanted to take advantage of the war in Europe to expand into Canada. This ran counter to British interest.28. What was the Compromise of 1850?The Compromise of 1850 was an arrangement which kept a balance between free and slave states in the Senate.29. Why did the Civil War break out?The Civil War broke out because the southern states left the Union and formed a new nation but president Lincoln was determined to maintain the Union.30. How did the government help in the development of American economy?The government carried out the policy of trade protectionism.31. What were the three features in the growth of American economy at the beginning of the 20th century?Large corporation, urbanization and new technology were the three features.32. What was the basic demand of the Progressive Movement?The basic demand was government regulation of economic and social conditions.33. Why did the United States pursue a policy of pro-Ally partiality in the early part of WWI? Because of ethnic ties, cultural tradition, social background, economic interests and successful British propaganda, the U.S. government pursued such a policy.34. What were the immediate causes that led the United States into the war?The immediate causes were Germany’s unlimited submarine warfare and Germany’s attempt to get Mexico into the war against the United States.35. What government policies in the 1920s helped big business?The policies of tariff protection, favorable tax rates and little government restrictions contributed to high profits of big businesses.36. How did many Americans view their country after WWI?They believed that American political, economic and social institutions were the best in the world.37. What was the experience of WWI veterans demanding payment of bonuses in Washington D.C. in 1932?They were driven out of the capital by military force directed by General McArthur.38. What were some of the personal characteristics of F.D.R. that helped him in doing his work as president?He had a sure sense of what was practical or possible, a strong sense of timing and was a great communicator.39. What were the two guiding principles underlying American diplomatic activities in WWII? The first was to win the war; the second was to bring the Soviet Union into a postwar world order under American leadership.40. What was the basic reason for the postponement of the opening of the Second Front?It was a reflection of the desire of not letting the Soviet Union expand into eastern and central Europe too quickly.41. What was the postwar strategy of the United States?The strategy was American leadership of the world and open market for American goods and capital. 42. What was the theory put forward by the Soviet Union in around 1946?There could be no long-term peaceful co-existence between socialism and capitalism.43. What was the immediate cause of the Berlin crisis in 1948?The Soviet Union cut off Western routes to West Berlin.44. What decision did President Truman make to deal with the Berlin crisis?He decided to mobilize all possible American cargo planes to airlift supplies into West Berlin.45. What effect did the Berlin blockade have on the people in West Berlin and western occupied zones?it pushed the people in West Berlin and western occupied zones further to the side of the United States because they were grateful for American airlifts.46. What measure did the United States take in the Cuban Missile Crisis?The United States introduced a naval blockade around Cuba and demanded the dismantlement and withdrawal of the missiles from Cuba.47. Did the allies of the United States give their full support to the U.S. in the Vietnam War? No , some criticized the United States for escalation of the war, some refused to support American war efforts.48. What is the significance of the Shanghai Communique?The key thing is American commitment to a one China policy.49. What is the importance of the Civil Rights Act of 1964?The Act outlawed racial discrimination in housing and employment.50. What is the Port Huron Statement about?The Port Huron Statement was the platform of the Students for a Democratic Society ( SDS ) which condemned racism, poverty amidst plenty, big corporations and the Cold War.51. How does the United States rank among the countries of the world in the total value of its economic production?The United States ranks first among the countries of the world in the value of its economic production.52. What kind of system is the United States economy based on?The United States economy is based on a free enterprise system.53. What are the factors that have helped build the United States into the economic giant it is today?The United States has one of the world’s most varied populations, and the vast space and resources of the land, the ideals of freedom and economic opportunity, and hard work by the people have helped build the United States into the economic giant it is today.54. What are the major natural resources in the United States?Fertile soil, forests, water, and minerals are the major natural resources in the United States.55. What are some of the leading farm products in the United States?They are corn, wheat, beef cattle, milk, soybeans, cotton, chickens and eggs, and hogs.56. What has helped make U.S farms the most efficient in the world?The use of modern farm machinery and agricultural methods has helped make U.S. farms the most efficient in the world.57. What areas have long been major U.S centers of manufacturing?The Midwest and Northeast.58. How does California rank among the states in the value of its manufactured goods? California ranks first among the states in the value of its manufactured goods.59. What are the problems the U.S economy has faced form time to time?They are recessions, depressions and inflation.60. Why is the poverty rate higher in the United States than in several other industrialized nations, including Canada, Australia, and Germany?Because they have more generous social programs for the poor and a higher minimum wage than theUnited States.61. What role has the Constitution played?The Constitution has been the basis for the evolution of governmental institutions and for political stability, economic growth and social progress in the United States.62. What were the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation?The weaknesses were: there was no national executive to enforce the laws and there was no national court system and Congress had no power to tax, nor to regulate trade between states.63. What mechanism did the writers of the Constitution introduce to provide safeguards? They introduced the mechanism of separation of powers and checks and balances.64. What are the three branches of the government?They are the legislative, the executive and the judicial.65. How is the American president elected?The voters vote for the electors and the electors vote for the president. But as soon as the votes of the voters are counted the number of electors for each candidate is known and who has won the election is known.66. According to the Constitution, what judicial power does the President have?He has the power to give reprieves and pardons in federal criminal cases.67. How are the two chambers of Congress made up?The Senate is composed of two members from each state, with a total number of 100 while membership in the House of Representatives is based on population. Currently the House has 435 members.68. What are the two special powers of the Senate?One is to confirm presidential appointments and the other is to ratify treaties by a tow-thirds vote. 69. What is the composition of the federal court system?The federal court system consists of a supreme court, 11 courts of appeals, 91 district courts ( including one for the District of Columbia and one for Puerto Rico ) and three courts of special jurisdiction.70. What is the cause for the decline of the influence of political parties?The near destruction of the patronage system and the wide use of direct primaries in the selection of delegates to the party national conventions contribute to the decline of the influence of political parties.71. Is there any single sex educational institution in the U.S.?Yes, there are quite a number.72. Why is it that responsibility for education fall on the state?Because it is laid down in the Tenth Amendment to the Constitution.73. Why are there many variations in the education system of the 50 states?Because each state is expected to develop policies for the education within its boundary.74. Who is the chief executive officer under the local board of education?The superintendent of schools.75. What are the three types of high schools?They are comprehensive, academic, vocational and technical schools.76. Why does the number of graduate school enrollment keep climbing?Because an advanced degree is viewed as a major way to move ahead in the career.77. What are the fields favored by postgraduates?Those fields that would not only make students easily employed but would provide them with rewarding jobs.78. What is the guiding principle of community college?。
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# 2: While gov’ts of established states are losing real authority, more & more societies want to establish their own states
Includes ethnic groups repressed within ex-USSR and hundreds of minorities and aboriginal peoples throughout world But once statehood is achieved, new states have little real control over society or economy; autonomy seems superficial
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#I: State power is declining while gov’t intervention in daily lives of citizens seems to be growing
less and less of daily life seems immune from the activities & decisions of gov’t bureau Nhomakorabearacies
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The state-market balance of power has shifted to the market
"Where states were once the masters of markets, now it the markets which, on many crucial issues, are the masters over the government of states" (229) The reversal of the state-market balance of power has created three key paradoxes
various gov’t agencies have been created to deal with matters such as inspections, permits, planning, employment services
states seem less effective on basic matters that markets, left to themselves, have been unable to provide
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The Neglected Factor: Technology
The pace of technological change has rapidly accelerated Technology has undermined one of the primary reasons for the existence of the state – its capacity to repel attack
Here, we can say Strange’s 1996 prediction proved correct, as deregulation soon spread through the region and, according to Stiglitz et al., precipitated the “Asian financial crisis” of 1997
Impersonal forces of world markets are now more powerful than the states to whom ultimate political authority over society and economy is supposed to belong Authority is shifting from states to other institutions, both above and below the state – to international organizations and to local and regional bodies
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#3: "Asian state" has stayed strong while N.A./Eur. states have weakened
This is a product of exceptional circumstances – geostrategic position during Cold War and related exemption from norms of open liberal economy Exceptionalism of Asian state during Cold War will continue to erode
Ch. 26, "The Declining Authority of States"
Susan Strange, pp. 228-334 (excerpted from Strange, in The Retreat of the State, Cambridge, 1996)
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State sovereignty is under attack
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State sovereignty
"A state (more commonly called "gov’t" in the USA) is the sovereign authority in a specified territory, with the right to use force both to maintain internal order and to defend its territory against aggression. Sovereignty, in turn, implies that the state is the ultimate authority in its territory, exercising legal jurisdiction over its citizens and the groups and organizations they form in the conduct of daily life. The sovereign state is not subject to any higher authority – no state has the right to expect compliance from any other state, and no allencompassing world state has emerged with authority overall all national states.“ (Lechner & Boli, p. 219)
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They esp neglect the role of markets (as compared with other governments) as suppliers of credit
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Politics, Power and Legitimacy
1)
2)
3)
There’s growing asymmetry among allegedly sovereign states in the authority they exercise over the economy The authority of all states, large & small, strong & weak, has been eroded as a result of technological & financial change and accelerated integration of national economies into a single global market economy Some fundamental responsibilities of the state in a market economy are being abandoned
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The Second Neglect - Finance
Capital cost of most technological innovations is increasing
creates barriers to economic growth for poorer states, promoting alliances with TNCs, which then may chip away at state authority
Technology costs in production structure increase salience of money in int’l political economy Scholars have neglected political aspects of credit creation & changes to global financial structure
security against violence, stable money for trade & investment, a clear system of law & means to enforce it, a sufficiency of public goods (drains, water supplies, infrastructure for transport & communication – and, in today’s US, public education)