TOEFL阅读系列3-3
tpo32三篇托福阅读TOEFL原文译文题目答案译文背景知识
tpo32三篇托福阅读TOEFL原文译文题目答案译文背景知识阅读-1 (2)原文 (2)译文 (5)题目 (7)答案 (16)背景知识 (16)阅读-2 (25)原文 (25)译文 (28)题目 (31)答案 (40)背景知识 (41)阅读-3 (49)原文 (49)译文 (53)题目 (55)答案 (63)背景知识 (64)阅读-1原文Plant Colonization①Colonization is one way in which plants can change the ecology of a site.Colonization is a process with two components:invasion and survival.The rate at which a site is colonized by plants depends on both the rate at which individual organisms(seeds,spores,immature or mature individuals)arrive at the site and their success at becoming established and surviving.Success in colonization depends to a great extent on there being a site available for colonization–a safe site where disturbance by fire or by cutting down of trees has either removed competing species or reduced levels of competition and other negative interactions to a level at which the invading species can become established.For a given rate of invasion,colonization of a moist,fertile site is likely to be much more rapid than that of a dry, infertile site because of poor survival on the latter.A fertile,plowed field is rapidly invaded by a large variety of weeds,whereas a neighboring construction site from which the soil has been compacted or removed to expose a coarse,infertile parent material may remain virtually free of vegetation for many months or even years despite receiving the same input of seeds as the plowed field.②Both the rate of invasion and the rate of extinction vary greatly among different plant species.Pioneer species-those that occur only in the earliest stages of colonization-tend to have high rates of invasion because they produce very large numbers of reproductive propagules(seeds,spores,and so on)and because they have an efficient means of dispersal(normally,wind).③If colonizers produce short-lived reproductive propagules,they must produce very large numbers unless they have an efficient means of dispersal to suitable new habitats.Many plants depend on wind for dispersal and produce abundant quantities of small,relatively short-lived seeds to compensate for the fact that wind is not always a reliable means If reaching the appropriate type of habitat.Alternative strategies have evolved in some plants,such as those that produce fewer but larger seeds that are dispersed to suitable sites by birds or small mammals or those that produce long-lived seeds.Many forest plants seem to exhibit the latter adaptation,and viable seeds of pioneer species can be found in large numbers on some forest floors. For example,as many as1,125viable seeds per square meter were found in a100-year-old Douglas fir/western hemlock forest in coastal British Columbia.Nearly all the seeds that had germinated from this seed bank were from pioneer species.The rapid colonization of such sites after disturbance is undoubtedly in part a reflection of the largeseed band on the forest floor.④An adaptation that is well developed in colonizing species is a high degree of variation in germination(the beginning of a seed’s growth). Seeds of a given species exhibit a wide range of germination dates, increasing the probability that at least some of the seeds will germinate during a period of favorable environmental conditions.This is particularly important for species that colonize an environment where there is no existing vegetation to ameliorate climatic extremes and in which there may be great climatic diversity.⑤Species succession in plant communities,i.e.,the temporal sequence of appearance and disappearance of species is dependent on events occurring at different stages in the life history of a species. Variation in rates of invasion and growth plays an important role in determining patterns of succession,especially secondary succession. The species that are first to colonize a site are those that produce abundant seed that is distributed successfully to new sites.Such species generally grow rapidly and quickly dominate new sites, excluding other species with lower invasion and growth rates.The first community that occupies a disturbed area therefore may be composed of specie with the highest rate of invasion,whereas the community of the subsequent stage may consist of plants with similar survival ratesbut lower invasion rates.译文植物定居①定居是植物改变一个地点生态环境的一种方式。
tpo36三篇托福阅读TOEFL原文译文题目答案译文背景知识
tpo36三篇托福阅读TOEFL原文译文题目答案译文背景知识阅读-1 (2)原文 (2)译文 (3)题目 (5)答案 (10)背景知识 (11)阅读-2 (12)原文 (12)译文 (14)题目 (15)答案 (20)背景知识 (20)阅读-3 (24)原文 (24)译文 (25)题目 (27)答案 (32)背景知识 (33)阅读-1原文Soil Formation①Living organisms play an essential role in soil formation. The numerous plants and animals living in the soil release minerals from the parent material from which soil is formed, supply organic matter, aid in the translocation (movement) and aeration of the soil, and help protect the soil from erosion. The types of organisms growing or living in the soil greatly influence the soil's physical and chemical characteristics. In fact, for mature soils in many parts of the world, the predominant type of natural vegetation is considered the most important direct influence on soil characteristics. For this reason, a soil scientist can tell a great deal about the attributes of the soil in any given area simply from knowing what kind of flora the soil supports. Thus prairies and tundra regions, which have characteristic vegetations, also have characteristic soils.②The quantity and total weight of soil flora generally exceed that of soil fauna. By far the most numerous and smallest of the plants living in soil are bacteria. Under favorable conditions, a million or more of these tiny, single-celled plants can inhabit each cubic centimeter of soil. It is the bacteria, more than any other organisms, that enable rock or other parent material to undergo the gradual transformation to soil. Some bacteria produce organic acids that directly attack parent material, breaking it down and releasing plant nutrients. Others decompose organic litter (debris) to form humus (nutrient-rich organic matter). A third group of bacteria inhabits the root systems of plants called legumes. These include many important agricultural crops, such as alfalfa, clover, soybeans, peas, and peanuts. The bacteria that legumes host within their root nodules (small swellings on the root) change nitrogen gas from the atmosphere into nitrogen compounds that plants are able to metabolize, a process, known as nitrogen fixation, that makes the soil more fertile. Other microscopic plants also are important in soil development. For example, in highly acidic soils where few bacteria can survive, fungi frequently become the chief decomposers of organic matter.③More complex forms of vegetation play several vital roles with respect to the soil. Trees, grass, and other large plants supply the bulk of the soil's humus. The minerals released as these plants decompose on the surface constitute an important nutrient source for succeeding generations of plants as well as for other soil organisms. In addition, trees can extend their roots deep within the soil and bring up nutrients from far below the surface. These nutrients eventually enrich the surface soil when the tree drops its leaves or when it dies and decomposes. Finally, trees perform the vital function of slowing water runoff and holding the soil in place with their root systems, thus combating erosion. The increased erosion that often accompanies agricultural use of sloping land is principally caused by the removal of its protective cover of natural vegetation.④Animals also influence soil composition. The faunal counterparts of bacteria are protozoa. These single-celled organisms are the most numerous representatives of the animal kingdom, and, like bacteria, a million or more can sometimes inhabit each cubic centimeter of soil. Protozoa feed on organic matter and hasten its decomposition. Among other soil-dwelling animals, the earthworm is probably the most important. Under exceptionally favorable conditions, up to a million earthworms (with a total body weight exceeding 450 kilograms) may inhabit an acre of soil. Earthworms ingest large quantities of soil, chemically alter it, and excrete it as organic matter called casts. The casts form a high-quality natural fertilizer. In addition, earthworms mix of soil both vertically and horizontally, improving aeration and drainage.⑤Insects such as ants and termites also can be exceedingly numerous under favorable climatic and soil conditions. In addition, mammals such as moles, field mice, gophers, and prairie dogs sometimes are present in sufficient numbers to have significant impact on the soil. These animals primarily work the soil mechanically. As a result, the soil is aerated broken up, fertilized, and brought to the surface, hastening soil development.译文土壤形成①活生物体在土壤形成中起着重要作用。
托福阅读TOEFL三篇tpo66原文译文题目答案背景知识
托福阅读TOEFL三篇tpo66原文译文题目答案背景知识阅读-1 (2)原文 (2)译文 (6)题目 (9)答案 (16)背景知识 (17)阅读-2 (23)原文 (23)译文 (27)题目 (30)答案 (38)背景知识 (39)阅读-3 (41)原文 (41)译文 (44)题目 (47)答案 (54)背景知识 (56)阅读-1原文The Actor and the Audience①Actors,even when they are well rehearsed,can never fully anticipate how well they will perform before an actual audience.The actor who has been brilliant in rehearsal can crumble before an audience and completely lose the“edge”of his or her performance in the face of stage fright and apprehension.The presence of an audience can affect performance in other ways as well.Or—and this is more likely —an actor who seemed fairly unexciting at rehearsal can suddenly take fire and dazzle the audience with unexpected energy,subtlety,and depth.One celebrated example of this phenomenon was achieved by Lee J.Cobb in the original production of Arthur Miller’s Death of a Salesman,in which Cobb had the title role.Roles rehearsed in all solemnity can suddenly turn comical in performance;conversely,roles developed for comic potential in rehearsal may be received soberly by an audience and lose their comedic aspect entirely.②Sudden and dramatic change,however,is not the norm as the performance phase replaces rehearsal:most actors cross over from final dress rehearsal to opening night with only the slightest shift;indeed,this is generally thought to be the goal of a disciplined and professional rehearsal schedule.Holding back until opening night,the once-popular acting practice of restraining emotional display until opening night,is universally disavowed today,and opening night recklessness is viewed as a sure sign of the amateur,who relies primarily on guts and adrenaline to get through the performance.Deliberate revision of a role in performance,in response to the first waves of laughter or applause,is similarly frowned upon in all but the most inartistic of theaters today.③Nevertheless,a fundamental shift does occur in the actor’s awareness between rehearsal and performance,and this cannot and should not be denied;indeed,it is essential to the creation of theater art.This shift is set up by an elementary feedback:the actor is inevitably aware,with at least a portion of his or her mind,of the audience’s reaction to his or her own performance and that of the other players;there isalways,in any acting performance,a subtle adjustment to the audience that sees it.The outward manifestations of this adjustment are usually all but imperceptible:the split-second hold for a laugh to die down,the slight special projection of a certain line to make sure that it reaches the back row,the quick turn of a head to make a characterization or plot transition extra clear.④In addition,the best actors consistently radiate a quality known to the theater world as presence.It is a quality difficult to describe,but it has the effect of making both the character whom the actor portrays and the self of the actor who represents that character especially vibrant and in the present for the audience;it is the quality of an actor who takes the stage and acknowledges,in some inexplicable yet indelible manner,that he or she is there to be seen.Performance is not a one-way statement given from the stage to the house;it is a two-way participatory communication between the actors and the audience members in which the former employ text and movement and the latter employ applause,laughter, silence,and attention.⑤Even when the audience is silent and invisible—and,owing to the brightness of the stage lights,the audience is frequently invisible to the actor—the performer feels its presence.There is nothing extrasensory about this:the absence of sound is itself a signal,for when several hundred people sit without shuffling,coughing,or muttering,their silence betokens a level of attention for which the actor customarily ughter,gasps,sighs,and applause similarly feed back into the actor’s consciousness—and unconsciousness—and spur(or sometimes,alas,distract)the actor’s efforts.The veteran actor can determine quickly how to ride the crest of audience laughter and how to hold the line just long enough that it will pierce the lingering chuckles but not be overridden by them;he or she also knows how to vary the pace and/or redouble his or her energy when sensing restlessness or boredom on the other side of the curtain line. Performance technique,or the art of reading an audience,is more instinctual than learned.The timing it requires is of such complexity that no actor could master it rationally;he or she can develop it only out of experience.译文演员和观众①演员，即使是经过充分排练，也无法完全预测他们在真实观众面前的表现。
TOEFL阅读历年考题分类：题材篇(三)
TOEFL阅读历年考题分类：题材篇（三）（三）自然科学：1.植物学，微生物2.动物学3.生理学4.地质学，地理学，天文学，气象学5.考古学，人类学6.物理，化学，医药，环境1.植物学S/P1树叶为何变颜色82/11海藻83/1地衣S1/P12386/1植物演化86/5藤蔓植物，86/10地衣S1/P788/1树的防御机理S1/P1788/5植物形成层和树皮结构S1/P99S/P69植物的根90/8浮游生物P3291/8植物学P54普样题192/8树的重要性P71P89/植物拟态的性质和作用P138/沙漠植物的生存95/10植物内部运水的机理96/1植物的防御机理北美题96/5兰花96/10一种野草和牛的传说98/5赤扬和森林环境的关系99/8菌类和植物的区别及破坏性和用途2.动物学81/11鸟类适应的演化82/1蝙蝠的生物声纳83/5蚊子利用水产卵83/5有机椎动物和无脊椎动物中ALLEOMIMETIC的作用S1/P95 83/8濑鱼S1/P6283/11海獭84/5响尾蛇的响声84/11旋木雀S1/P7885/5蜜蜂酿蜜S1/P8686/1牛胃S1/P6786/3蜜蜂结构适宜社会化S1/P7586/8恐龙绝迹的解释87/1鸟类学87/5动物为何不生轮子S1/P1687/8北美野牛S1/P10387/10猴子尾巴88/1蜜蜂意识测试S1/P20S/P24沼泽中的动物S1/P24S/P37蜜蜂的社会结构S1/P37S/P39美洲鳄鱼交配后S1/P39S/P52莺科鸣禽划分树上食物S1/P52S/P56食物网S1/P56S/P93考拉S1/P9388/5北极熊S1/P98S/P109灵长类动物的社会行为S1/P109S/P112猿S1/P11288/10鲸鱼S1/P13389/1树懒的习性P289/5美国蝗虫灾害P989/10河狸P1890/1马的进化P2290/8浮游生物P3291/5河狸的特征和习性P4892/1信鸽训练P6192/5病毒P67P80/细菌的特性P90/海葵P98/昆虫的伪装P105/候鸟飞行的高度和速度P116/动物导航P122/血液温度和动物分类P141海洋与生命P142黑猩猩的社会化生活P147贫齿类动物犰犹ARMADILLOS普样2候鸟迁徙的原因S1/P121普样3海葵95/12海洋生物多样性96/1海参96/8研究乌鸦的困难96/10猎狗的嗅觉物质97/1沙漠动物适应97/5鸟儿群居的原因97/10交喙鸟的鸟嘴结构98/1有机物如何对入侵者作出反应98/8动物行为认识99/10爬行动物和鸟类飞行的发展3．生理学99/8临床营养学的发展阶段84/5人类疾病的两个原理99/5有机椎动物的神经系统85/11大脑和中央神经系统的起源83/8大脑意识反应的听觉测试S/P53婴儿大脑成熟和感情发育S1/P53P118/新陈代谢中盐的演化P110/睡眠的阶段86/10睡眠的功能和分类S1/P11S/P136两类睡眠S1/P136 82/1休眠P101/人类肌肉解剖和动作P96/生物与电90/5荷尔蒙P284．地质学，地理学，天文学，气象学2000/1土壤结构的确定方法S/P107土壤的类型99/101994/7流星袭击木星90/10彗星P3999/5极光的形成和表象99/1火成岩98/10地球表面水S/P35大气中的水98/8地球表面的陨石P133/陨石分类S/P4陨石坑98/5宇宙中氦何时形成97/10星系P148/星的分类系统S/P49星的亮度97/1宇宙星体形状95/12地球板块运动96/12地球板块结构理论对地质学的贡献P94/地球板块结构理论S/P58地球板块96/10地震波与地球内部结构研究82/11地球冰河期S1/P12596/1飓风预报86/5气象学91/5飓风P4587/1飓风95/8海底探险普样3海底探索普样4太阳结构P56P82/太阳的演化89/5太阳发光和热P892/10地球和宇宙P7588/10宇宙的理解91/8加拿大省BRITISH COLUMBIA P50 87/8大峡谷的形成S1/P10495/12美国大盆地P145/阿拉斯加半岛S/P76气候决定动植物的分布P42/冰山的特征和起源S/P125冰河期82/8田那西洲东部地下湖82/11地球冰河期P121/洞冰起源96/5火山冰洞降雪的重要性5．考古学，人类学98/8骨化石比骨骼重的原因NA98/1化石足迹分析97/12化石保存条件NA95/10鱼龙胚胎化石96/8历史考古学96/1人类右手为主的考古学证据NAP99/左右手的形成P92/考古学和人类历史P86/考古学的工作方法6．物理，化学，医药，环境91/8降雨的机理普样195/10植物内部运水的机理96/1植物防御的机理北美NA97/5猫降落的机理98/8燃烧的解释98/8雪花的形成北美99/5极光的形成和表象97/8钢丝篱笆97/8一种新型显微镜97/12空气污染物定义98/8人类行为对地球生态系的影响98/1玻璃91/5统计学的发展和用途普样292/5海水盐度普样2？/制陶普样3 95/8戏剧起源95/10钢琴的历史发展95/12无声电影的音乐98/1爵士乐和其它音乐的区别95/12海洋生物多样性96/1N冰箱的发展北美96/5美国西部蒸汽船发动机97/5直接雕塑。
托福TPO3阅读Passage3原文文本+题目+答案解析
为了帮助大家高效备考托福，为大家带来托福TPO3阅读Passage3原文文本+题目+答案解析，希望对大家备考有所帮助。
▉托福TPO3阅读Passage3原文文本： The Long-Term Stability of Ecosystems Plant communities assemble themselves flexibly, and their particular structure depends on the specific history of the area. Ecologists use the term “succession” to refer to the changes that happen in plant communities and ecosystems over time. The first community in a succession is called a pioneer community, while the long-lived community at the end of succession is called a climax community. Pioneer and successional plant communities are said to change over periods from 1 to 500 years. These changes—in plant numbers and the mix of species—are cumulative. Climax communities themselves change but over periods of time greater than about 500 years. An ecologist who studies a pond today may well find it relatively unchanged in a year’s time. Individual fish may be replaced, but the number of fish will tend to be the same from one year to the next. We can say that the properties of an ecosystem are more stable than the individual organisms that compose the ecosystem. At one time, ecologists believed that species diversity made ecosystems stable. They believed that the greater the diversity the more stable the ecosystem. Support for this idea came from the observation that long-lasting climax communities usually have more complex food webs and more species diversity than pioneer communities. Ecologists concluded that the apparent stability of climax ecosystems depended on their complexity. To take an extreme example, farmlands dominated by a single crop are so unstable that one year of bad weather or the invasion of a single pest can destroy the entire crop. In contrast, a complex climax community, such as a temperate forest, will tolerate considerable damage from weather to pests. The question of ecosystem stability is complicated, however. The first problem is that ecologists do not all agree what “stability” means. Stability can be defined as simply lack of change. In that case, the climax community would be considered the most stable, since, by definition, it changes the least over time. Alternatively, stability can be defined as the speed with which an ecosystem returns to a particular form following a major disturbance, such as a fire. This kind of stability is also called resilience. In that case, climax communities would be the most fragile and the least stable, since they can require hundreds of years to return to the climax state. Even the kind of stability defined as simple lack of change is not always associated with maximum diversity. At least in temperate zones, maximum diversity is often found in mid-successional stages, not in the climax community. Once a redwoodforest matures, for example, the kinds of species and the number of individuals growing on the forest floor are reduced. In general, diversity, by itself, does not ensure stability. Mathematical models of ecosystems likewise suggest that diversity does not guarantee ecosystem stability—just the opposite, in fact. A more complicated system is, in general, more likely than a simple system to break down.A fifteen-speed racing bicycle is more likely to break down than a child’s tricycle. Ecologists are especially interested to know what factors contribute to the resilience of communities because climax communities all over the world are being severely damaged or destroyed by human activities. The destruction caused by the volcanic explosion of Mount St. Helens, in the northwestern United States, for example, pales in comparison to the destruction caused by humans. We need to know what aspects of a community are most important to the community’s resistance to destruction, as well as its recovery. Many ecologists now think that the relative long-term stability of climax communities comes not from diversity but from the “patchiness” of the environment, an environment that varies from place to place supports more kinds of organisms than an environment that is uniform. A local population that goes extinct is quickly replaced by immigrants from an adjacent community. Even if the new population is of a different species, it can approximately fill the niche vacated by the extinct population and keep the food web intact. ▉托福TPO3阅读Passage3题目： Question 1 of 14 The word “particular ” in the passage is closest in meaning to A. natural. B. final. C. specific. D. complex. Question 2 of 14 According to paragraph 1, which of the following is NOT true of climax communities? A. They occur at the end of a succession..。
TOEFL托福阅读理解真题
TOEFL托福阅读理解真题为了让大家更好的预备托福考试，我给大家整理一些托福阅读真题，下面我就和大家共享，来观赏一下吧。
托福阅读真题1It is estimated that over 99 percent of all species that ever existed have become extinct. What causes extinction? When a species is no longer adapted to a changed environment, it may perish. The exact causes of a species death vary from situation to situation. Rapid ecological change may render an environment hostile to a species. For example, temperatures may change and a species may not be able to adapt. Food resources may be affected by environmental changes, which will then cause problems for a species requiring these resources. Other species may become better adapted to an environment, resulting in competition and, ultimately, in the death of a species.The fossil record reveals that extinction has occurred throughout the history of Earth. Recent analyses have also revealed that on some occasions many species became extinct at the same time — a mass extinction. One of the best-known examples of mass extinction occurred 65 million years ago with the demise of dinosaurs and many other forms of life. Perhaps the largest mass extinction was the one that occurred 225 million years ago, when approximately 95 percent of all species died,mass extinctions can be caused by a relatively rapid change in the environment and can be worsened by the close interrelationship of many species. If, for example, something were to happen to destroy much of the plankton in the oceans, then the oxygen content of Earth would drop, affection even organisms not living in the oceans. Such a change would probably lead to a mass extinction.One interesting, and controversial, finding is that extinctions during the past 250 million years have tended to be more intense every 26 million years. This periodic extinction might be due to intersection of the Earths orbit with a cloud of comets, but this theory is purely speculative. Some researchers have also speculated that extinction may often be random. That is, certain species may be eliminated and others may survive for no particular reason. A species survival may have nothing to do with its ability or inability to adapt. If so, some of evolutionary history may reflect a sequence of essentially random events.1. The word it in line 3 refers to(A) environment(B) species(C) extinction(D) 99 percent2. The word ultimately in line 8 is closest in meaning to(A) exceptionally(B) dramatically(C) eventually(D) unfortunately3. What does the author say in paragraph 1 regarding most species in Earths history(A) They have remained basically unchanged from their original forms.(B) They have been able to adapt to ecological changes.(C) They have caused rapid change in the environment.(D) They are no longer in existence.4. Which of the following is NOT mentioned in paragraph 1 as resulting from rapid ecologicalchange?(A) Temperature changes(B) Availability of food resources(C) Introduction of new species(D) Competition among species5. The word demise in line 12 is closest in meaning to(A) change(B) recovery(C) help(D) death6. Why is plankton mentioned in line 17?(A) To demonstrate the interdependence of different species.(B) To emphasize the importance of food resources in preventing mass extinction.(C) To illustrate a comparison between organisms that live on the land and those that live in theocean.(D) To point out that certain species could never become extinct.7. According to paragraph 2, evidence from fossils suggests that(A) Extinction of species has occurred from time to time throughout Earths history.(B) Extinctions on Earth have generally been massive(C) There has been only one mass extinction in Earths history.(D) Dinosaurs became extinct much earlier than scientists originally believed.8. The word finding in line 20 is closest in meaning to(A) published information(B) research method(C) ongoing experiment(D) scientific discovery9. Which of the following can be inferred about the theory mentioned in Line 21-23?(A) Many scientists could be expected to disagree with it.(B) Evidence to support the theory has recently been found.(C) The theory is no longer seriously considered.(D) Most scientists believe the theory to be accurate.10. In paragraph 3, the author makes which of the following statements about a species survival?(A) It reflects the interrelationship of many species.(B) It may depend on chance events.(C) It does not vary greatly from species to species(D) It is associated with astronomical conditions.11. According to the passage , it is believed that the largest extinction of a species occurred(A) 26 million years ago(B) 65 million years ago(C) 225 million years ago(D) 250 million years agoPASSAGE 77 BCDCD AADAB C托福阅读真题2Archaeological discoveries have led some scholars to believe that the first Mesopotamian inventors of writing may have been a people the later Babylonians called Subarians. According to tradition, they came from the north and moved into Uruk in the south. By about 3100 B.C.,they were apparently subjugated in southern Mesopotamia by the Sumerians, whose name became synonymous with the region immediately north of the Persian Gulf, in the fertile lower valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates. Here the Sumerians were already well established by the year 3000 B.C. They had invented bronze, an alloy that could be cast in molds, out of which they made tools and weapons. They lived in cities, and they had begun to acquire and use capital. Perhaps most important, the Sumerians adapted writing (probably from the Subarians) into a flexible tool of communication.Archaeologists have known about the Sumerians for over 150 years. Archaeologists working at Nineveh in northern Mesopotamia in the mid-nineteenth century found many inscribed clay tablets. Some they could decipher because the language was a Semitic one (Akkadian), on which scholars had already been working for a generation. But other tablets were inscribed in another language that was not Semitic and previously unknown. Because these inscriptions made reference to the king of Sumer and Akkad, a scholar suggested that the new language be called Sumerian.But it was not until the 1890s that archaeologists excavating in city-states well to the south of Nineveh found many thousands of tablets inscribed in Sumerian only. Because the Akkadians thought of Sumerian as a classical language (as ancient Greek and Latin are considered today),they taught it to educated persons and they inscribed vocabulary, translation exercises, and other study aids on tablets. Working from known Akkadian to previously unknown Sumerian, scholars since the 1890s have learned how to read the Sumerian language moderately well. Vast quantities of tablets in Sumerian have been unearthed during the intervening years from numerous sites.1. According to the passage , the inventors of written language in Mesopotamia were probablythe(A) Babylonians(B) Subarians(C) Akkadians(D) Sumerians2. The word subjugated in line 4 is closest in meaning to(A) distinguished(B) segregated(C) concentrated(D) conquered3. The phrase synonymous with in line 5 is closest in meaning to(A) equivalent to(B) important for(C) respected in(D) familiar with4. According to the passage , by the year 3000 B.C. the Sumerians had already done all of thefollowing EXCEPT:(A) They had abandoned the area north of the Persian Gulf.(B) They had established themselves in cities.(C) They had started to communicate through(D) They had created bronze tools and weapons.5. The word some in line 14 refers to(A) Archaeologists(B) Sumerians(C) years(D) clay tablets6. Which of the following can be inferred from the passage concerning the Sumerians?(A) They were descendants of the Persians.(B) They were the first people to cultivate the valley of the Tigris.(C) They were accomplished musicians.(D) They had the beginnings of an economy.7. According to the passage , when did archaeologists begin to be able to understand tabletsinscribed in Sumerian?(A) in the early nineteenth century(B) more than 150 years ago(C) after the 1890s(D) in the mid-eighteenth century8. According to the passage , in what way did the Sumerian language resemble ancient Greek andLatin?(A) It was invented in Mesopotamia.(B) It became well established around 3000 B.C.(C) It became a classical language.(D) It was used exclusively for business transactions.9. The word excavating in line 19 is closest in meaning to(A) living(B) digging(C) assembling(D) building10. According to the passage , how did archaeologists learn to read the Sumerian language?(A) by translating the work of the Subarians(B) by using their knowledge of spoken Semitic languages(C) by comparing Sumerian to other classical languages(D) by using their knowledge of AkkadianPASSAGE 78 BDAAD DCCBD托福阅读真题3Some animal behaviorists argue that certain animals can remember past events, anticipate future ones, make plans and choices, and coordinate activities within a group. These scientists, however, are cautious about the extent to which animals can be credited with conscious processing.Explanations of animal behavior that leave out any sort of consciousness at all and ascribe actions entirely to instinct leave many questions unanswered. One example of such unexplained behavior: honeybees communicate the sources of nectar to one another by doing a dance in a figure-eight pattern. The orientation of the dance conveys the position of the food relative to the suns position in the sky, and the speed of the dance tells how far the food source is from the hive. Most researchers assume that the ability to perform and encode the dance is innate and shows no special intelligence. But in one study, when experimenters kept changing the site of the food source, each time moving the food 25 percent farther from the previous site, foraging honeybees began to anticipate where the food source would appear next. When the researchers arrived at the new location, they would find the bees circling the spot, waiting for their food. No one has yet explained how bees, whose brains weigh four ten-thousandths of anounce, could have inferred the location of the new site.Other behaviors that may indicate some cognition include tool use. Many animals, like the otter who uses a stone to crack mussel shells, are capable of using objects in the natural environment as rudimentary tools. One researcher has found that mother chimpanzees occasionally show their young how to use tools to open hard nuts. In one study, chimpanzees compared two pairs of food wells containing chocolate chips. One pair might contain, say, five chips and three chips, the other four chips and three chips. Allowed to choose which pair they wanted, the chimpanzees almost always chose the one with the higher total, showing some sort of summing ability. Other chimpanzees have learned to use numerals to label quantities of items and do simple sums.1. What does the passage mainly discuss?(A) The role of instinct in animal behavior(B) Observations that suggest consciousness in animal behavior(C) The use of food in studies of animal behavior(D) Differences between the behavior of animals in their natural environments and in laboratoryexperiments.2. Which of the following is NOT discussed as an ability animals are thought to have?(A) Selecting among choices(B) Anticipating events to come(C) Remembering past experiences(D) Communicating emotions3. What is the purpose of the honeybee dance?(A) To determine the quantity of food at a site(B) To communicate the location of food(C) To increase the speed of travel to food sources(D) To identify the type of nectar that is available4. The word yet in line 15 is closest in meaning to(A) however(B) since(C) generally(D) so far5. What did researchers discover in the study of honeybees discussed in paragraph 2?(A) Bees are able to travel at greater speeds than scientists thought.(B) The bees could travel 25% farther than scientists expected.(C) The bees were able to determine in advance where scientists would place their food.(D) Changing the location of food caused bees to decrease their dance activity.6. It can be inferred from the passage that brain size is assumed to(A) be an indicator of cognitive ability(B) vary among individuals within a species(C) be related to food consumption(D) correspond to levels of activity7. Why are otters and mussel shells included in the discussion in paragraph 3?(A) To provide an example of tool use among animals(B) To prove that certain species demonstrate greater ability in tool use than other species(C) To illustrate how otters are using objects as tools(D) To demonstrate why mother chimpanzees show their young how to use tools8. The word rudimentary in line 20 is closest in meaning to(A) superior(B) original(C) basic(D) technical9. It can be inferred from the statement about mother chimpanzees and their young (lines 20-22)that young chimpanzees have difficulty(A) communicating with their mothers(B) adding quantities(C) making choices(D) opening hard nuts10. The phrase the one in line 24-25 refers to the(A) study(B) pair(C) chimpanzee(D) ability11. Scientists concluded from the experiment with chimpanzees and chocolate chips thatchimpanzees(A) lack abilities that other primates have(B) prefer to work in pairs or groups(C) exhibit behavior that indicates certain mathematical abilities(D) have difficulty selecting when given choicesPASSAGE 79 BDBDC AACDB C。
tpo45三篇托福阅读TOEFL原文译文题目答案译文背景知识
tpo45三篇托福阅读TOEFL原文译文题目答案译文背景知识阅读-1 (2)原文 (2)译文 (5)题目 (7)答案 (15)背景知识 (16)阅读-2 (16)原文 (16)译文 (19)题目 (23)答案 (30)背景知识 (31)阅读-3 (32)原文 (32)译文 (35)题目 (37)答案 (45)背景知识 (45)阅读-1原文The Beringia Landscape①During the peak of the last ice age,northeast Asia(Siberia)and Alaska were connected by a broad land mass called the Bering Land Bridge.This land bridge existed because so much of Earth’s water was frozen in the great ice sheets that sea levels were over100meters lower than they are today.Between25,000and10,000years ago,Siberia,the Bering Land Bridge,and Alaska shared many environmental characteristics.These included a common mammalian fauna of large mammals,a common flora composed of broad grasslands as well as wind-swept dunes and tundra,and a common climate with cold,dry winters and somewhat warmer summers.The recognition that many aspects of the modern flora and fauna were present on both sides of the Bering Sea as remnants of the ice-age landscape led to this region being named Beringia.②It is through Beringia that small groups of large mammal hunters, slowly expanding their hunting territories,eventually colonized North and South America.On this archaeologists generally agree,but that is where the agreement stops.One broad area of disagreement inexplaining the peopling of the Americas is the domain of paleoecologists,but it is critical to understanding human history:what was Beringia like?③The Beringian landscape was very different from what it is today. Broad,windswept valleys;glaciated mountains;sparse vegetation;and less moisture created a rather forbidding land mass.This land mass supported herds of now-extinct species of mammoth,bison,and horse and somewhat modern versions of caribou,musk ox,elk,and saiga antelope.These grazers supported in turn a number of impressive carnivores,including the giant short-faced bear,the saber-tooth cat,and a large species of lion.④The presence of mammal species that require grassland vegetation has led Arctic biologist Dale Guthrie to argue that while cold and dry, there must have been broad areas of dense vegetation to support herds of mammoth,horse,and bison.Further,nearly all of the ice-age fauna had teeth that indicate an adaptation to grasses and sedges;they could not have been supported by a modern flora of mosses and lichens. Guthrie has also demonstrated that the landscape must have been subject to intense and continuous winds,especially in winter.He makes this argument based on the anatomy of horse and bison,which do not have the ability to search for food through deep snow cover.They needlandscapes with strong winds that remove the winter snows,exposing the dry grasses beneath.Guthrie applied the term“mammoth steppe"to characterize this landscape.⑤In contrast,Paul Colinvaux has offered a counterargument based on the analysis of pollen in lake sediments dating to the last ice age.He found that the amount of pollen recovered in these sediments is so low that the Beringian landscape during the peak of the last glaciation was more likely to have been what he termed a"polar desert,"with little or only sparse vegetation,in no way was it possible that this region could have supported large herds of mammals and thus,human hunters. Guthrie has argued against this view by pointing out that radiocarbon analysis of mammoth,horse,and bison bones from Beringian deposits revealed that the bones date to the period of most intense glaciation.⑥The argument seemed to be at a standstill until a number of recent studies resulted in a spectacular suite of new finds.The first was the discovery of a1,000-square-kilometer preserved patch of Beringian vegetation dating to just over17,000years ago—the peak of the last ice age.The plants were preserved under a thick ash fall from a volcanic eruption.Investigations of the plants found grasses,sedges,mosses,and many other varieties in a nearly continuous cover,as was predicted by Guthrie.But this vegetation had a thin root mat with no soil formation,demonstrating that there was little long-term stability in plant cover,a finding supporting some of the arguments of Colinvaux.A mixture of continuous but thin vegetation supporting herds of large mammals is one that seems plausible and realistic with the available data.译文洞察白令地貌①在上一次冰期的高峰，东北亚地区（西伯利亚）和阿拉斯加曾由一片广阔的陆地相连，这片土地被叫做白令陆桥。
托福TPO3阅读真题原文题目及答案Part2
托福TPO3阅读真题原文题目及答案Part2托福TPO作为托福的模考工具，它的题目对于我们备考托福很有参考价值，为了帮助大家备考，下面小编给大家整理了托福TPO3阅读真题及答案Part2，望喜欢！托福TPO3阅读真题原文Part2Depletion of the Ogallala AquiferThe vast grasslands of the High Plains in the central United States were settled by farmers and ranchers in the 1880s. This region has a semiarid climate, and for 50 years after its settlement, it supported a low-intensity agricultural economy of cattle ranching and wheat farming. In the early twentieth century, however, it was discovered that much of the High Plains was underlain by a huge aquifer (a rock layer containing large quantities of groundwater). This aquifer was named the Ogallala aquifer after the Ogallala Sioux Indians, who once inhabited the region.The Ogallala aquifer is a sandstone formation that underlies some 583,000 square kilometers of land extending from northwestern Texas to southern South Dakota. Water from rains and melting snows has been accumulating in the Ogallala for the past 30,000 years. Estimates indicate that the aquifer contains enough water to fill Lake Huron, but unfortunately, under the semiarid climatic conditions that presently exist in the region, rates of addition to the aquifer are minimal, amounting to about half a centimeter a year.The first wells were drilled into the Ogallala during the drought years of the early 1930s. The ensuing rapid expansion of irrigation agriculture, especially from the 1950s onward, transformed the economy of the region. More than 100,000 wellsnow tap the Ogallala. Modern irrigation devices, each capable of spraying 4.5 million liters of water a day, have produced a landscape dominated by geometric patterns of circular green islands of crops. Ogallala water has enabled the High Plains region to supply significant amounts of the cotton, sorghum, wheat, and corn grown in the United States. In addition, 40 percent of American grain-fed beef cattle are fattened here.This unprecedented development of a finite groundwater resource with an almost negligible natural recharge rate-that is, virtually no natural water source to replenish the water supply-has caused water tables in the region to fall drastically. In the 1930s, wells encountered plentiful water at a depth of about 15 meters; currently, they must be dug to depths of 45 to 60 meters or more. In places, the water table is declining at a rate of a meter a year, necessitating the periodic deepening of wells and the use of ever-more-powerful pumps. It is estimated that at current withdrawal rates, much of the aquifer will run dry within 40 years. The situation is most critical in Texas, where the climate is driest, the greatest amount of water is being pumped, and the aquifer contains the least water. It is projected that the remaining Ogallala water will, by the year 2030, support only 35 to 40 percent of the irrigated acreage in Texas that is supported in 1980.The reaction of farmers to the inevitable depletion of the Ogallala varies. Many have been attempting to conserve water by irrigating less frequently or by switching to crops that require less water. Others, however, have adopted the philosophy that it is best to use the water while it is still economically profitable to do so and to concentrate on high-value crops such as cotton. The incentive of the farmers who wish to conserve water is reduced by their knowledge that many of their neighbors are profiting byusing great amounts of water, and in the process are drawing down the entire region's water supplies.In the face of the upcoming water supply crisis, a number of grandiose schemes have been developed to transport vast quantities of water by canal or pipeline from the Mississippi, the Missouri, or the Arkansas rivers.Unfortunately, the cost of water obtained through any of these schemes would increase pumping costs at least tenfold, making the cost of irrigated agricultural products from the region uncompetitive on the national and international markets. Somewhat more promising have been recent experiments for releasing capillary water (water in the soil) above the water table by injecting compressed air into the ground. Even if this process proves successful, however, it would almost triple water costs. Genetic engineering also may provide a partial solution, as new strains of drought-resistant crops continue to be developed. Whatever the final answer to the water crisis may be, it is evident that within the High Plains, irrigation water will never again be the abundant, inexpensive resource it was during the agricultural boom years of the mid-twentieth century.Paragraph 1: The vast grasslands of the High Plains in the central United States were settled by farmers and ranchers in the 1880s. This region has a semiarid climate, and for 50 years after its settlement, it supported a low-intensity agricultural economy of cattle ranching and wheat farming. In the early twentieth century, however, it was discovered that much of the High Plains was underlain by a huge aquifer (a rock layer containing large quantities of groundwater). This aquifer was named the Ogallala aquifer after the Ogallala Sioux Indians, who once inhabited the region.托福TPO3阅读真题题目Part21.According to paragraph 1, which of the following statements about the High Plains is true?○Until farmers and rancher s settled there in the 1880s, the High Plains had never been inhabited.○The climate of the High Plains is characterized by higher-than-average temperatures.○The large aquifer that lies underneath the High Plains was discovered by the Ogallala Sioux Indians.○Before the early 1900s there was only a small amount of farming and ranching in the High Plains.Paragraph 2: The Ogallala aquifer is a sandstone formation that underlies some 583,000 square kilometers of land extending from northwestern Texas to southern South Dakota. Water from rains and melting snows has been accumulating in the Ogallala for the past 30,000 years. Estimates indicate that the aquifer contains enough water to fill Lake Huron, but unfortunately, under the semiarid climatic conditions that presently exist in the region, rates of addition to the aquifer are minimal, amounting to about half a centimeter a year.2. According to paragraph 2, all of the following statements about the Ogallala aquifer are true EXCEPT:○The aquifer stretches from South Dakota to Texas.○The aquifer's water comes from underground springs.○Water has been gatheri ng in the aquifer for 30,000 years.○The aquifer's water is stored in a layer of sandstone.3. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.○Despite the current impressive size of the Ogallala aquifer, the region's climate keeps the rates of water addition very small.○Although the aquifer has been adding water at the rate of only half a centimeter a year, it will eventually accumulate enough water of fill Lake Huron.○Because of the region's present climatic conditions, water is being added each year to the aquifer.○Even when the region experiences unfortunate climatic conditions, the rates of addition of water continue to increase.Paragraph 3: The first wells were drilled into the Ogallala during the drought years of the early 1930s. The ensuing rapid expansion of irrigation agriculture, especially from the 1950s onward, transformed the economy of the region. More than 100,000 wells now tap the Ogallala. Modern irrigation devices, each capable of spraying 4.5 million liters of water a day, have produced a landscape dominated by geometric patterns of circular green islands of crops. Ogallala water has enabled the High Plains region to supply significant amounts of the cotton, sorghum, wheat, and corn grown in the United States. In addition, 40 percent of American grain-fed beef cattle are fattened here.4. The word "ensuing" in the passage is closest in meaning to○continuing○surprising○initial○subsequent5. In paragraph 3, why does the author provide the information that 40 percent of American cattle are fattened in the High Plains?○To suggest that crop cultivation is not the most importantpart of the economy of the High Plains○To indicate that not all economic activity in the High Plains is dependent on irrigation○To provide another example of how water from the Ogallala has transformed the economy of the High Plains○To contrast cattle-fattening practices in the High Plains with those used in other region of the United StatesParagraph 4: This unprecedented development of a finite groundwater resource with an almost negligible natural recharge rate-that is, virtually no natural water source to replenish the water supply-has caused water tables in the region to fall drastically. In the 1930s, wells encountered plentiful water at a depth of about 15 meters; currently, they must be dug to depths of 45 to 60 meters or more. In places, the water table is declining at a rate of a meter a year, necessitating the periodic deepening of wells and the use of ever-more-powerful pumps. It is estimated that at current withdrawal rates, much of the aquifer will run dry within 40 years. The situation is most critical in Texas, where the climate is driest, the greatest amount of water is being pumped, and the aquifer contains the least water. It is projected that the remaining Ogallala water will, by the year 2030, support only 35 to 40 percent of the irrigated acreage in Texas that is supported in 1980.6. The word "unprecedented" in the passage is closest in meaning to○difficult to control○without any restriction○unlike anything in the past○rapidly expanding7. The word "virtually" in the passage is closest in meaningto○clearly○perhaps○frequently○almost8. According to paragraph 4, all of following are consequences of the heavy use of the Ogallala aquifer for irrigation EXCEPT:○The recharge rate of the aquifer is decreasing.○Water tables in the region are becoming increasingly lower.○Wells now have to be dug to much greater depths than before.○Increasingly powerful pumps are needed to draw water from the aquifer.9. According to paragraph 4, compared with all other states that use Ogallala water for irrigation, Texas○has the greatest amount of farmland being irrigated with Ogallala water○contains the largest amount of Ogallala water underneath the soil○is expected to face the worst water supply crisis as the Ogallala runs dry○uses the least amount of Ogallala water for its irrigation needsParagraph 5: The reaction of farmers to the inevitable depletion of the Ogallala varies. Many have been attempting to conserve water by irrigating less frequently or by switching to crops that require less water. Others, however, have adopted the philosophy that it is best to use the water while it is still economically profitable to do so and to concentrate on high-value crops such as cotton. The incentive of the farmers who wish to conserve water is reduced by their knowledge that many of their neighbors are profiting by using great amounts of water, and in the process are drawing down the entire region's water supplies.10. The word "inevitable" in the passage is closest in meaning to○unfortunate○predictable○u navoidable○final11. Paragraph 5 mentions which of the following as a source of difficulty for some farmers who try to conserve water?○Crops that do not need much water are difficult to grow in the High Plains.○Farmers who grow crops that need a lot of water make higher profits.○Irrigating less frequently often leads to crop failure.○Few farmers are convinced that the aquifer will eventually run dry.Paragraph 6: In the face of the upcoming water supply crisis, a number of grandiose schemes have been developed to transport vast quantities of water by canal or pipeline from the Mississippi, the Missouri, or the Arkansas rivers. Unfortunately, the cost of water obtained through any of these schemes would increase pumping costs at least tenfold, making the cost of irrigated agricultural products from the region uncompetitive on the national and international markets. Somewhat more promising have been recent experiments for releasing capillary water (water in the soil) above the water table by injectingcompressed air into the ground. Even if this process proves successful, however, it would almost triple water costs. Genetic engineering also may provide a partial solution, as new strains of drought-resistant crops continue to be developed. Whatever the final answer to the water crisis may be, it is evident that within the High Plains, irrigation water will never again be the abundant, inexpensive resource it was during the agricultural boom years of the mid-twentieth century.12.According to paragraph 6, what is the main disadvantage of the proposed plans to transport river water to the High Plains?○The rivers cannot supply sufficient water for the farmer's needs.○Increased irrigation costs would make the products too expensive.○The costs of using capillar y water for irrigation will increase.○Farmers will be forced to switch to genetically engineered crops.Paragraph 5: The reaction of farmers to the inevitable depletion of the Ogallala varies. Many have been attempting to conserve water by irrigating less frequently or by switching to crops that require less water. █Others, however, have adopted the philosophy that it is best to use the water while it is still economically profitable to do so and to concentrate on high-value crops such as cotton. █The ince ntive of the farmers who wish to conserve water is reduced by their knowledge that many of their neighbors are profiting by using great amounts of water, and in the process are drawing down the entire region's water supplies. █Paragraph 6: In the face of the upcoming water supply crisis, a number of grandiose schemes have been developed totransport vast quantities of water by canal or pipeline from the Mississippi, the Missouri, or the Arkansas rivers. █Unfortunately, the cost of water obtained through any of these schemes would increase pumping costs at least tenfold, making the cost of irrigated agricultural products from the region uncompetitive on the national and international markets. Somewhat more promising have been recent experiments for releasing capillary water (water in the soil) above the water table by injecting compressed air into the ground. Even if this process proves successful, however, it would almost triple water costs. Genetic engineering also may provide a partial solution, as new strains of drought-resistant crops continue to be developed. Whatever the final answer to the water crisis may be, it is evident that within the High Plains, irrigation water will never again be the abundant, inexpensive resource it was during the agricultural boom years of the mid-twentieth century.13.Look at the four squares [█] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passageBut even if uncooperative farmers were to join in the conservation efforts, this would only delay the depletion of the aquifer.Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square to add the sentence to the passage.14.Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.The Ogallala aquifer is a large underground source of water in the High Plains region of the United States.●●●Answer choices○The use of the Ogallala for irrigation has allowed the High Plains to become one of the most productive agricultural regions in the United States.○Given the aquifer's low recharge rate, its use for irrigation is causing water tables to drop and will eventually lead to its depletion.○Releasing capillary water and introducing drought-resistant crops are less-promising solutions to the water supply crisis than bringing in river water○The periodic deepening of wells and the use of more-powerful pumps would help increase the natural recharge rate of the Ogallala.○In Texas, a great deal of attention is being paid to genetic engineering because it is there that the most critical situation exists.○Several solutions to the upcoming water supply crisis have been proposed, but none of them promises to keep the costs of irrigation low.托福TPO3阅读真题答案Part2参考答案：1. ○42. ○23. ○14. ○45. ○36. ○37. ○48. ○19. ○310. ○311. ○212. ○213. ○314. The use of the Ogallala for…Given the aquifer's low recharge…Several solutions to the upcoming…托福TPO3阅读翻译Part2奥加拉拉蓄水层的枯竭19世纪80年代，在美国中部北美大平原的广阔草原上定居着农场主们和牧场主们。
新托福TPO3阅读原文(三)The Long-Term Stability of Ecosystems及译文
新托福TPO3阅读原文(三):The Long-Term Stability of Ecosystems TPO-3-3：The Long-Term Stability of EcosystemsPlant communities assemble themselves flexibly, and their particular structure depends on the specific history of the area. Ecologists use the term “succession”to refer to the changes that happen in plant communities and ecosystems over time. The first community in a succession is called a pioneer community, while the long-lived community at the end of succession is called a climax community. Pioneer and successional plant communities are said to change over periods from 1 to 500 years. These changes—in plant numbers and the mix of species—are cumulative. Climax communities themselves change but over periods of time greater than about 500 years.An ecologist who studies a pond today may well find it relatively unchanged in a year’s time. Individual fish may be replaced, but the number of fish will tend to be the same from one year to the next. We can say that the properties of an ecosystem are more stable than the individual organisms that compose the ecosystem.At one time, ecologists believed that species diversity made ecosystems stable. They believed that the greater the diversity the more stable the ecosystem. Support for this idea came from the observation that long-lasting climax communities usually have more complex food webs and more species diversity than pioneer communities. Ecologists concluded that the apparent stability of climax ecosystems depended on their complexity. To take an extreme example, farmlands dominated by a single crop are so unstable that one year of bad weather or the invasion of a single pest can destroy the entire crop. In contrast, a complex climax community, such as a temperate forest, will tolerate considerable damage from weather to pests.The question of ecosystem stability is complicated, however. The first problem is that ecologists do not all agree what “stability”means. Stability can be defined as simply lack of change. In that case, the climax community would be considered the most stable, since, by definition, it changes the least over time. Alternatively, stability can be defined as the speed with which an ecosystem returns to a particular form following a major disturbance, such as a fire. This kind of stability is also called resilience. In that case, climax communities would be the most fragile and the least stable, since they can require hundreds of years to return to the climax state.Even the kind of stability defined as simple lack of change is not always associated with maximum diversity. At least in temperate zones, maximum diversity is often found in mid-successional stages, not in the climax community. Once a redwood forest matures, for example, the kinds of species and the number of individuals growing on the forest floor are reduced. In general, diversity,by itself, does not ensure stability. Mathematical models of ecosystems likewise suggest that diversity does not guarantee ecosystem stability—just the opposite, in fact. A more complicated system is, in general, more likely than a simple system to break down. A fifteen-speed racing bicycle is more likely to break down than a child’s tricycle.Ecologists are especially interested to know what factors contribute to the resilience of communities because climax communities all over the world are being severely damaged or destroyed by human activities. The destruction caused by the volcanic explosion of Mount St. Helens, in the northwestern United States, for example, pales in comparison to the destruction caused by humans. We need to know what aspects of a community are most important to the community’s resistance to destruction, as well as its recovery.Many ecologists now think that the relative long-term stability of climax communities comes n ot from diversity but from the “patchiness”of the environment, an environment that varies from place to place supports more kinds of organisms than an environment that is uniform. A local population that goes extinct is quickly replaced by immigrants from an adjacent community. Even if the new population is of a different species, it can approximately fill the niche vacated by the extinct population and keep the food web intact.译文：TPO-3-3 生态系统的长期稳定植物群体可以自由地聚集，它们特殊的结构取决于聚集区域的具体历史。
老托福阅读100篇passage33试题及答案
老托福阅读100篇passage33试题及答案为了帮助大家备考托福阅读，提高成绩，下面小编给大家带来老托福阅读100篇passage 33试题及答案，希望大家喜欢!老托福阅读100篇passage 33试题及答案PASSAGE 33Researchers in the field of psychology have found that one of the best ways to make an important decision, such as choosing a university to attend or a business to invest in, involves the utilization of a decision worksheet. Psychologists who study optimization compare the actual decisions made by people to theoretical ideal decisions to see how similar they are. Proponents of the worksheet procedure believe that it will yield optimal, that is, the best decisions. Although there are several variations on the exact format that worksheets can take, they are all similar in their essential aspects. Worksheets require defining the problem in a clear and concise way and then listing all possible solutions to the problem. Next, the pertinent considerations that will be affected by each decision are listed, and the relative importance of each consideration or consequence is determined. Each consideration is assigned a numerical value to reflect its relative importance. A decision is mathematically calculated by adding these values together. The alternative with the highest number of points emerges as the best decision.Since most important problems are multifaceted, there are several alternatives to choose from, each with unique advantages and disadvantages. One of the benefits of a pencil and paper decision-making procedure is that it permits people to deal with more variables than their minds can generally comprehend andremember. On the average, people can keep about seven ideas in their minds at once. A worksheet can be especially useful when the decision involves a large number of variables with complex relationships. A realistic example for many college students is the question What will I do after graduation? A graduate might seek a position that offers specialized training, pursue an advanced degree, or travel abroad for a year.A decision-making worksheet begins with a succinct statement of the problem that will also help to narrow it. It is important to be clear about the distinction between long-range and immediate goals because long-range goals often involve a different decision than short-range ones. Focusing on long-range goals, a graduating student might revise the question above to What will I do after graduation that will lead to successful career?1. What does the passage mainly discuss?(A) A tool to assist in making complex decisions.(B) A comparison of actual decisions and ideal decisions(C) Research on how people make decisions(D) Differences between long-range and short-range decision making2. The word essential in line 7 is closest in meaning to(A) introductory(B) changeable(C) beneficial(D) fundamental3. The word pertinent in line 9 is closest in meaning to(A) relevant(B) preceding(C) insightful(D) responsive4. Of the following steps, which occurs before the others in making a decision worksheet?(A) Listing the consequences of each solution(B) Calculating a numerical summary of each solution(C) Deciding which consequences are most important(D) Writing down all possible solutions5. According to decision-worksheet theory, an optimal decision is defined as one that(A) has the fewest variables to consider(B) uses the most decision worksheets(C) has the most points assigned to it(D) is agreed to by the greatest number of people6. The author develops the discussion in paragraph 1 by means of(A) describing a process(B) classifying types of worksheets(C) providing historical background(D) explaining a theory7. The author states that On the average, people can keep about seven ideas in their minds atonce (lines 17-18) to explain that(A) most decisions involve seven steps(B) human mental capacity has limitations(C) some people have difficulty making minor as well as major decisions(D) people can learn to keep more than seven ideas in their minds with practice8. The word succinct in line 24 is closest in meaning to(A) creative(B) satisfactory(C) personal(D) concise9. Which of the following terms is defined in the passage ?(A) Proponents (line 5)(B) Optimal (line 5)(C) Variables (line 17)(D) Long-range goals (line 25)10. The word it in line 24 refers to(A) worksheet(B) problem(C) distinction(D) decision11. The word revise in line 26 is closest in meaning to(A) ask(B) explain(C) change(D) predictPASSAGE 33 ADADC ABDBB C托福阅读怎么抓住定位词首先介绍一下，什么是定位词?其实很简单，打个比方，你和朋友约好了去酒吧，朋友和你说酒吧在沈阳新东方正对面，这个酒吧你是不知道地点的，也就是你的目的地;而新东方却很熟知，那么你只需找到新东方便可以找到酒吧了。
托福TPO33阅读Passage3原文文本+题目+答案解析
为了帮助大家高效备考托福，为大家带来托福TPO33阅读Passage3原文文本+题目+答案解析，希望对大家备考有所帮助。
Extinction Episodes of the Past 【1】It was not until the Cambrian period,beginning about 600 million years ago,that a great proliferation of macroscopic species occurred on Earth and produced a fossil record that allows us to track the rise and fall of biodiversity.Since the Cambrian period,biodiversity has generally risen,but there have been some notable exceptions.Biodiversity collapsed dramatically during at least five periods because of mass extinctions around the globe.The five major mass extinctions receive most of the attention,but they are only one end of a spectrum of extinction events.Collectively,more species went extinct during smaller events that were less dramatic but more frequent.The best known of the five major extinction events,the one that saw the demise of the dinosaurs,is the Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction. 【2】Starting about 280 million years ago,reptiles were the dominant large animals in terrestrial environments.In popular language this was the era“when dinosaurs ruled Earth,”when a wide variety of reptile species occupying many ecological niches.However,no group or species can maintain its dominance indefinitely,and when,after over 200 million years,the age of dinosaurs came to a dramatic end about 65 million years ago,mammals began to flourish,evolving from relatively few types of small terrestrial animals into the myriad of diverse species,including bats and whales,that we know today.Paleontologists label this point in Earth’s history as the end of the Cretaceous period and the beginning of the Tertiary period,often abbreviated as the K-T boundary.This time was also marked by changes in many other types of organisms.Overall,about 38 percent of the families of marine animals were lost,with percentages much higher in some groups Ammonoid mollusks went from being very diverse and abundant to being extinct.An extremely abundant set of planktonic marine animals called foraminifera largely disappeared,although they rebounded later.Among plants,the K-T boundary saw a sharp but brief rise in the abundance of primitive vascular plants such as ferns,club mosses,horsetails,and conifers and other gymnosperms.The number of flowering plants(angiosperms)was reduced at this time,but they then began to increase dramatically. 【3】What caused these changes?For many years scientists assumed that a cooling of the climate was responsible,with dinosaurs being particularly vulnerable because,like modern reptiles,they were ectothermic(dependent on environmental heat,or cold-blooded).It is now widely believed that at least some species of dinosaurs had a metabolic rate high enough for them to be endotherms(animals that maintain a relatively consistent body temperature by generating heat internally).Nevertheless,climatic explanations for the K-T extinction are not really challenged by the ideas that dinosaurs may have been endothermic,because evenendotherms can be affected by a significant change in the climate. 【4】Explanations for the K-T extinction were revolutionized in 1980 when a group of physical scientists led by Luis Alvarez proposed that 65 million years ago Earth was stuck by a 10-kilometer-wide meteorite traveling at 90,000 kilometers per hour.They believed that this impact generated a thick cloud of dust that enveloped Earth,shutting out much of the incoming solar radiation and reducing plant photosynthesis to very low levels.Short-term effects might have included huge tidal waves and extensive fires.In other words,a series of events arising from a single cataclysmic event caused the massive extinctions.Initially,the meteorite theory was based on a single line of evidence.At locations around the globe,geologists had found an unusually high concentration of iridium in the layer of sedimentary rocks that was formed about 65 million years ago.Iridium is an element that is usually uncommon near Earth’s surface,but it is abundant in some meteorites.Therefore,Alvarez and his colleagues concludedthat it was likely that the iridium in sedimentary rocks deposited at the K-T boundary had originated in a giant meteorite or asteroid.Most scientist came to accept the meteorite theory after evidence came to light that a circular formation,180 kilometers in diameter in diameter and centered on the north coast of the Yucatan Peninsula,was created by a meteorite impact about 65 million years ago. 1.The word"proliferation"in the passage(paragraph 1)is closest in meaning to A.decline. B.extinction. C.increase. D.migration. 2.Paragraph 1 supports which of the following statements about life on Earth before the Cambrian period? A.Biodiversity levels were steady,as indicated by the fossil record. B.Levels of biodiversity could not be tracked. C.The most dramatic extinction episode occurred. D.Few microscopic species existed. 3.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage?Incorrect choices change the meaning in importantways or leave out essential information. A.The dominance of dinosaurs came to an end 65 million years ago,at which time mammals began to flourish and diversify. B.Because no group of species can remain dominant forever,mammals became the dominant group when dinosaurs became extinct. C.After being the dominant group for more than 200 million years,the age of dinosaurs came to a dramatic end 65 million years ago. D.The diverse group of mammals that we know today,including bats and whales,evolved from small terrestrial forms that had been dominated by dinosaurs. 4.According to paragraph 2,why are dinosaurs popularly said to have"ruled Earth"during the Cretaceous period? A.Dinosaurs were the only species of reptile that existed during the whole of the Cretaceous period. B.Dinosaurs won the battle for food resources over mammals during the Cretaceous period. C.Dinosaurs survived extinction during the Cretaceous period,whereas many other animal species did not. D.Dinosaurs were the physically and ecologically dominant animals during the Cretaceous period. 5.According to paragraph 2,which of the following species initially increased in number at the K-T boundary? A.Dinosaurs. B.Foraminifera. C.Ferns. D.Ammonoid mollusks. 6.Why does the author note that"even endotherms can be affected by a significant change in the climate"(paragraph 3)? A.To argue that there was a significant climate at the time that endothermicdinosaurs became extinct. B.To argue that climate change caused some dinosaurs to evolve as endotherms. C.To support the view that at least some of the dinosaurs that became extinct were endotherms. D.To defend climate change as possible explanation for the extinction of dinosaurs. 7.The word"generated"(paragraph 4)in the passage is closest in meaning to A.collected. B.produced. C.spread. D.added. 8.The word"extensive"(paragraph 4)in the passage is closest in meaning to A.widespread. B.sudden. C.numerous. D.subsequent. 9.According to paragraph 4,all of the following contributed to the massive extinctions of the K-T period EXCEPT: A.tidal waves. B.fires. C.insufficient solar radiation. D.iridium. 10.According to paragraph 4,which of the following statements explains the importance of the discovery of high levels of iridium rocks? A.It provided evidence that overexposure to solar radiation led to the K-T extinction. B.It showed that more than one cataclysmic event was responsible for the K-T extinction. C.It suggested that the cause of the K-T extinction may have been a meteorite striking Earth. D.It provided evidence that the K-T extinction occurred 65 million years ago. 11.According to paragraph 4,which of the following is true about the Yucatan Peninsula? A.The circular formation there was caused by a meteorite impact 65 million years ago. B.Sedimentary rocks from that area have the lowest iridium concentration of any rocks on Earth. C.There is evidence that a huge tidal wave occurred there 65 million years ago. D.Evidence found there challenged the meteorite impact theory. 12.Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 4 about the meteorite theory? A.The data originally presented as evidence for the theory were eventually rejected. B.Many scientists did not accept it when it was first proposed. C.It has not been widely accepted as an explanation for the K-T extinction. D.Alvarez subsequently revised it after a circular formation was found in the Yucatan Peninsula. 13.Look at the four squares[■]that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.Where would the sentence best fit?This focused on the chemical composition of ancient rocks. Explanations for the K-T extinction were revolutionized in 1980 when a group of physical scientists led by Luis Alvarez proposed that 65 million years ago Earth was stuck by a 10-kilometer-wide meteorite traveling at 90,000 kilometers per hour.Theybelieved that this impact generated a thick cloud of dust that enveloped Earth,shutting out much of the incoming solar radiation and reducing plant photosynthesis to very low levels.Short-term effects might have included huge tidal waves and extensive fires.In other words,a series of events arising from a single cataclysmic event caused the massive extinctions.■【A】Initially,the meteorite theory was based on a single line of evidence.■【B】At locations around the globe,geologists had found an unusually high concentration of iridium in the layer of sedimentary rocks that was formed about 65 million years ago.■【C】Iridium is an element that is usually uncommon near Earth's surface,but it is abundant in some meteorites.■【D】Therefore,Alvarez and his colleagues concluded that it was likely that the iridium in sedimentary rocks deposited at the K-T boundary had originated in a giant meteorite or asteroid.Most scientist came to accept the meteorite theory after evidence came to light that a circular formation,180 kilometers in diameter in diameter and centered on the north coast of the Yucatan Peninsula,was created by a meteorite impact about 65 million years ago. 14.Prose Summary The K-T extinction 65 million years ago is the best known of the five major extinction episodes since the Cambrian period. A.Collectively,the five major extinction episodes resulted in the elimination of a larger number of species than did all the minor extinction events. B.The K-T extinction eliminated the dinosaurs and ammonoid mollusks but was followed by the diversification of mammals and gymnospermous plants. C.An extreme cooling of the climate could not have caused the K-T extinction of dinosaurs,because,while most dinosaurs depended on environmental heat,some did not. D.The K-T extinction of the dinosaurs is the only mass extinction that has been explained by the impact of a meteorite. E.In 1980 Luis Alvarez proposed that the K-T extinction was caused by ecological disasters brought about by the impact of a meteorite striking Earth. F.A high concentration of iridium in sedimentary rocks at the K-T boundary and a large impact crater in the Yucatan Peninsula from 65 million years ago strongly support Alvarez'hypothesis. 1.proliferation，繁殖，激增，对应C。
托福阅读原文题目及答案汇总
托福阅读原文题目及答案汇总提升阅读速度，把握做题技巧，是拿到托福阅读高分必需要突破的两个方面，那么详细的托福备考的过程中，大家应当运用哪些资料来备考呢?学习啦为大家带来了托福阅读原文题目及答案汇总，供大家练习。
托福阅读真题1Cities develop as a result of functions that they can perform. Some functions result directly from the ingenuity of the citizenry, but most functions result from the needs of the local area and of the surrounding hinterland (the region that supplies goods to the city and to which the city furnishes services and other goods). Geographers often make a distinction between the situation and the site of a city. Situation refers to the general position in relation to the surrounding region, whereas site involves physical characteristics of the specific location. Situation is normally much more important to the continuing prosperity of a city. If a city is well situated in regard to its hinterland, its development is much more likely to continue. Chicago, for example, possesses an almost unparalleled situation: it is located at the southern end of a huge lake that forces east-west transportation lines to be compressed into its vicinity, and at a meeting of significant land and water transport routes. It also overlooks what is one of the worlds finest large farming regions. These factors ensured that Chicago would become a great city regardless of the disadvantageous characteristics of the available site, such as being prone to flooding during thunderstorm activity.Similarly, it can be argued that much of New York Citys importance stems from its early and continuing advantage of situation. Philadelphia and Boston both originated at about the same time as New York and shared New Yorks location at the western end of one of the worlds most important oceanic trade routes, but only New York possesses aneasy-access functional connection (the Hudson-Mohawk lowland) to the vast Midwestern hinterland. This account does not alone explain New Yorks primacy, but it does include several important factors. Among the many aspects of situation that help to explain why some cities grow and others do not, original location on a navigable waterway seems particularly applicable. Of course, such characteristic as slope, drainage, power resources, river crossings, coastal shapes, and other physical characteristics help to determine city location, but such factors are normally more significant in early stages of city development than later.1. What does the passage mainly discuss?(A) The development of trade routes through United States cities(B) Contrasts in settlement patterns in United States(C) Historical differences among three large United States cities(D) The importance of geographical situation in the growth of United States cities2. The word ingenuity in line 2. is closest in meaning to(A) wealth(B) resourcefulness(C) traditions(D) organization3. The passage suggests that a geographer would consider a citys soil type part of its(B) situation(C) site(D) function4. According to the passage , a citys situation is more important than its site in regard to thecitys(A) long-term growth and prosperity(B) ability to protect its citizenry(C) possession of favorable weather conditions(D) need to import food supplies5. The author mentions each of the following as an advantage of Chicagos location EXCEPT its(A) hinterland(B) nearness to a large lake(C) position in regard to transport routes(D) flat terrain6. The word characteristics in line 14 is closest in meaning to(B) attitudes(C) qualities(D) inhabitants7. The primary purpose of paragraph 1 is to(A) summarize past research and introduce a new study(B) describe a historical period(C) emphasize the advantages of one theory over another(D) define a term and illustrate it with an example8. According to the passage , Philadelphia and Boston are similar to New York City in(A) size of population(B) age(C) site(D) availability of rail transportation9. The word functional in line 20 is closest in meaning to(A) alternate(B) unknown(C) original(D) usable10. The word it in line 21 refers to(A) account(B) primacy(C) connection(D) hinterland11. The word significant in line 26 is closest in meaning to(A) threatening(B) meaningful(C) obvious(D) availablePASSAGE 71 DBCAD CDCDA B托福阅读真题2The Harlem Renaissance, a movement of the 1920s, marked the twentieth centurys first period of intense activity by African Americans in the field of literature, art, and music in the United States. The philosophy of the movement combined realism, ethnic consciousness, and Americanism. Encouraged by the example of certain Americans ofEuropean descent such as Thomas Eakins, Robert Henri, and George Luks, who had included persons of African descent in their paintings as serious studies rather than as trivial or sentimental stereotypes, African American artists of this period set about creating a new portrayal of themselves and their lives in the United States. As they began to strive for social and cultural independence. Their attitudes toward themselves changed, and, to some extent, other segments of American society began to change their attitudes toward them. Thus, though the Harlem Renaissance was a short-lived movement, its impact on American art and culture continues to the present.The district in New York City known as Harlem was the capital of the movement. In 1925 an issue of Survey Graphic magazine devoted exclusively to Harlem and edited by philosopher Alain Locke became the manifesto of the African American artistic movement. Locke strongly suggested that individuals, while accepting their Americanism, take pride in their African ancestral arts and urged artists to look to Africa for substance and inspiration. Far from advocating a withdrawal from American culture, as did some of his contemporaries, Locke recommended a cultural pluralism through which artists could enrich the culture of America. African Americans were urged by Locke to be collaborators and participators with other Americans in art, literature, and music; and at the same time to preserve, enhance, and promote their own cultural heritage.Artists and intellectuals from many parts of the United States and the Caribbean had been attracted to Harlem by the pulse and beat of its unique and dynamic culture. From this unity created by the convergence of artists from various social and geographical backgrounds came a new spirit, which, particularly in densely populated Harlem, was to result in greater group awareness and self-determination. African American graphic artists took their place beside the poets and writers of the Harlem Renaissance and carried on efforts to increase and promote the visual arts.1. What does the passage mainly discuss?(A) African American paintings in the 1920s(B) An arts movement of the 1920s(C) The influence of Alain Locke on African American art(D) Some ways in which African culture inspired American literature, art and music2. According to the passage , Tomas Eakins, Robert Henri, and George Luks were important because of(A) the philosophical contributions they made to the Harlem Renaissance(B) their development of a new style of African American art(C) they way in which they depicted African Americans in their paintings(D) their independence from European artistic traditions3. The word them in line 11 refers to(A) Americans of European descent(B) paintings(C) African American artists(D) attitudes4. According to the passage , African American artists of the 1920s differed from earlier AfricanAmerican artists in terms of their feelings about(A) themselves(B) other artists(C) their impact on American art(D) stereotypes5. The word urged in line 17 is closest in meaning to(A) prepared(B) defined(C) permitted(D) encouraged6. Alain Locke believed all of the following to be important to the African American artisticmovement EXCEPT(A) pride in African art(B) cultural pluralism(C) collaboration with other artists(D) withdrawal from American culture7. In mentioning the pulse and beat (line 25) of Harlem during the 1920s, the author ischaracterizing the district as one that(A) depended greatly on its interaction with other parts of the city(B) grew economically in a short period of time(C) was an exciting place to be(D) was in danger of losing population8. The word convergence in line 26 is closest in meaning to(A) gathering(B) promotion(C) expression(D) influence9. According to the passage , all of the following were true of Harlem in the 1920s EXCEPT:(A) Some Caribbean artists and intellectuals lived there.(B) It attracted people from various regions of United States.(C) It was one of the most expensive neighborhoods in New York City.(D) It was a unique cultural center.10. The phrase carried on in line 30 is closest in meaning to(A) continued(B) praised(C) transformed(D) connectedPASSAGE 72 BCCAD DCACA托福阅读真题3ffeterd spanning in line 18d- The interrelationship of science, technology, and industry is taken for granted today — summed up, not altogether accurately, as research and development. Yet historically this widespread faith in the economic virtues of science is a relatively recent phenomenon, dating back in the United States about 150 years, and in the Western world as a whole not over 300 years at most. Even in this current era of large scale, intensive research and development, the interrelationships involved in this process are frequently misunderstood. Until the coming of the Industrial Revolution, science and technology evolved for the most part independently of each other. Then as industrialization became increasingly complicated, the craft techniques of preindustrial society gradually gave way to a technology based on the systematic application of scientific knowledge and scientific methods. This changeover started slowly and progressed unevenly. Until late in the nineteenth century, only a few industries could use scientific techniques or cared about using them. The list expanded noticeably after 1870, but even then much of what passed for the application of science wasengineering science rather than basic science.Nevertheless, by the middle of the nineteenth century, the rapid expansion of scientific knowledge and of public awareness — if not understanding — of it had created a belief that the advance of science would in some unspecified manner automatically generate economic benefits. The widespread and usually uncritical acceptance of this thesis led in turn to the assumption that the application of science to industrial purposes was a linear process, starting with fundamental science, then proceeding to applied science or technology, and through them to industrial use. This is probably the most common pattern, but it is not invariable. New areas of science have been opened up and fundamental discoveries made as a result of attempts to solve a specific technical or economic problem. Conversely, scientists who mainly do basic research also serve as consultants on projects that apply research in practical ways.In sum, the science-technology-industry relationship may flow in several different ways, and the particular channel it will follow depends on the individual situation. It may at times even be multidirectional.1. What is the authors main purpose in the passage ?(A) To show how technology influenced basic science(B) To describe the scientific base of nineteenth-century American industries(C) To correct misunderstandings about the connections between science, technology, and industry(D) To argue that basic science has no practical application2. The word altogether in line 2 is closest in meaning to(A) completely(B) realistically(C) individually(D) understandably3. The word intensive in line 5 is closest in meaning to(A) decreased(B) concentrated(C) creative(D) advanced4. The list mentioned in line 13 refers to(A) types of scientific knowledge(B) changes brought by technology(C) industries that used scientific techniques(D) applications of engineering science5. The understanding of research and development in the late nineteenth century is based onwhich of the following?(A) Engineering science is not very important.(B) Fundamental science naturally leads to economic benefits.(C) The relationship between research and development should be criticized.(D) Industrial needs should determine what areas fundamental science focuses on.6. The word it in line 16 refers to(A) understanding(B) public awareness(C) scientific knowledge(D) expansion7. The word assumption in line 19 is closest in meaning to(A) regulation(B) belief(C) contract(D) confusion8. Why does the author mention consultants in line 25?(A) To show how new areas of science have given rise to new professions(B) To distinguish between scientists who work in industry and those who do not(C) To explain the ways in which scientists find financial support for their work(D) To show how scientists who work in basic research contribute to applied science9. Which of the following statements does the passage support?(A) The development of science and of industry is now interdependent.(B) Basic scientific research cannot generate practical applications.(C) Industries should spend less money on research and development.(D) Science and technology are becoming more separate.PASSAGE 73 CABCB CBDA托福阅读真题4Glaciers are large masses of ice on land that show evidence of past or present movement. They grow by the gradual transformation of snow into glacier ice.A fresh snowfall is a fluffy mass of loosely packed snowflakes, small delicate ice crystals grown in the atmosphere. As the snow ages on the ground for weeks or months, the crystals shrink and become more compact, and the whole mass becomes squeezed together into a more dense form, granular snow. As new snow falls and buries the older snow,the layers of granular snow further compact to form firm, a much denser kind of snow, usually a year or more old, which has little pore space. Further burial and slow cementation — a process by which crystals become bound together in a mosaic of intergrown ice crystals — finally produce solid glacial ice. In this process of recrystallization, the growth of new crystals at the expense of old ones, the percentage of air is reduced from about 90 percent for snowflakes to less than 20 percent for glacier ice. The whole process may take as little as a few years, but more likely ten or twenty years or longer. The snow is usually many meters deep by the time the lower layers are converted into ice.In cold glaciers those formed in the coldest regions of the Earth, the entire mass of ice is at temperatures below the melting point and no free water exists. In temperate glaciers, the ice is at the melting point at every pressure level within the glacier, and free water is present as small drops or as larger accumulations in tunnels within or beneath the ice.Formation of a glacier is complete when ice has accumulated to a thickness (and thus weight) sufficient to make it move slowly under pressure, in much the same way that solid rock deep within the Earth can change shape without breaking. Once that point is reached, the ice flows downhill, either as a tongue of ice filling a valley or as thick ice cap that flows out in directions from the highest central area where the most snow accumulates. The trip down leads to the eventual melting of ice.1. Which of the following does the passage mainly discuss?(A) The effect of glaciers on climate(B) Damage from glaciers(C) Glacier formation(D) The location of glaciers2. Which of the following will cause density within the glacier to increase?(A) Increased water and air content(B) Pressure from the weight of new snow(C) Long periods of darkness and temperature variations(D) Movement of the glacier3. The word bound in line 9 is closest in meaning to(A) covered(B) chosen(C) planned(D) held4. Which of the following will be lost is a glacier forms?(A) Air(B) Pressure(C) Weight(D) Rocks5. According to the passage , which of the following is the LEAST amount of time necessary forglacial ice to form?(A) several months(B) several years(C) at least fifty years(D) a century6. The word converted in line 15 is closest in meaning to(A) changed(B) delayed(C) promoted(D) dissolved7. What is the purpose of the material in paragraph three?(A) To define two types of glaciers(B) To contrast glacier ice with non-glacier ice(C) To present theories of glacier formation(D) To discuss the similarities between glacial types8. In temperate glaciers, where is water found?(A) Only near the surface(B) In pools of various depths(C) In a thin layer below the firm(D) In tunnels9. The word it in line 21 refers to(A) formation(B) ice(C) thickness(D) weight10. It can be inferred from the last paragraph that a glacier(A) can revert to a fluffy mass(B) maintains the same shape throughout the glacial process(C) is too cold to be thoroughly studied(D) can contribute water to lakes, rivers, or oceans PASSAGE 74 CBDAB AADBD托福阅读原文题目及答案汇总。
12月13日托福阅读答案解析
12月13日托福阅读答案解析Obviously=clearlyWidespread=commonDense=thickThus=consequentlyresultantShallow=smalldepthexerciseProfound=very strongEmergence=riseTactic=strategyAdjacent to=near toParallel=match12月13日托福阅读第一篇题材划分：生物类主要内容：板块运动可以改变生物多样性，提到生物区的划分，少于百分之二十的物种相似度就是不同的区越多说明那里的多样性越高。
比如板块分开的时候，多样性增加，反之亦然。
一个山脉可以把原本的湿润风给挡了，就变成沙漠不适合生长了。
或者一个障碍的形成可以把本来的一个物种分成两个，一南一北，等到在合并的时候，发现北部的可以到南部生活，但南部的很少到北部生活。
相似TPO练习推荐TPO31- Speciation in Geographically Isolated Populations相关背景知识：Speciation is the evolutionary process by which new biological species arise. The biologist Orator F. Cook was the first to coin the term ‘speciation’ for the splitting of lineages or “cladogenesis,” as opposed to “anagenesis” or “phyletic evolution” occurring within lineages. Charles Darwin was the first to describe the role of natural selection in speciation.There is research comparing the intensity of sexual selection in different clades with their number of species.There are four geographic modes of speciation in nature, based on the extent to which speciating populations are isolated from one another: allopatric, peripatric, parapatric, and sympatric. Speciation may also be induced artificially, through animal husbandry, agriculture, or laboratory experiments. Whether genetic drift is a minor or major contributor to speciation is the subject matter of much ongoing discussion.All forms of natural speciation have taken place over the course of evolution; however, debate persists as to the relative importance of each mechanism in driving biodiversity.One example of natural speciation is the diversity of the three-spined stickleback, a marine fish that, after the last glacial period, has undergone speciation into new freshwater colonies in isolated lakes and streams. Over an estimated 10,000 generations, the sticklebacks show structural differences that are greater than those seen between different genera of fish including variations in fins, changes in the number or size of their bony plates, variable jaw structure, and color differences.During allopatric speciation, a population splits into two geographically isolated populations (for example, by habitat fragmentation due to geographical change such as mountain formation). The isolated populations then undergo genotypic and/or phenotypic divergence as: (a) they become subjected to dissimilar selective pressures;(b) they independently undergo genetic drift; (c) different mutations arise in the two populations. When the populations come back into contact, they have evolved such that they are reproductively isolated and are no longer capable of exchanging genes. Island genetics is the term associated with the tendency of small, isolated genetic pools to produce unusual traits. Examples include insular dwarfism and the radical changes among certain famous island chains, for example on Komodo. The Galápagos Islands are particularly famous for their influence on Charles Darwin. During his five weeks there he heard that Galápagos tortoises could be identified by island, and noticed that finches differed from one island to another, but it was only nine months later that he reflected that such facts could show that species were changeable. When he returned to England, his speculation on evolution deepened after experts informed him that these were separate species, not just varieties, and famously that other differing Galápagos birds were all species of finches. Though the finches were less important for Darwin, more recent research has shown the birds now known as Darwin’s finches to be a classic case of adaptive evolutionary radiation.12月13日托福阅读第二篇题材划分：生物类主要内容：主要讲关于夏威夷岛上的Noendemic animals and plants是如何移民到岛上的，主要通过风，动物皮毛和消化，以及通过人类的船只等。
TPO53托福阅读Passage3题目及答案解析
TPO53托福阅读Passage3题目及答案解析TPO对于我们的托福备考非常有用，大家还在苦于找不到资料吗？下面小编给大家带来TPO53托福阅读Passage3题目及答案解析，希望可以帮助到你们。
TPO53托福阅读Passage3文本+题目+答案解析Paleolithic Cave PaintingsIn any investigation of the origins of art, attention focuses on the cave paintings created in Europe during the Paleolithic era (c. 40,000-10,000 years ago) such as those depicting bulls and other animals in the Lascaux cave in France. Accepting that they are the best preserved and most visible signs of what was a global creative explosion, how do we start to explain their appearance? Instinctively, we may want to update the earliest human artists by assuming that they painted for the sheer joy of painting. The philosophers of Classical Greece recognized it as a defining trait of humans to "delight in works of imitation"—to enjoy the very act and triumph of representation. If we were close to a real lion or snake, we might feel frightened. But a well- executed picture of a lion or snake will give us pleasure. Why suppose that our Paleolithic ancestors were any different?This simple acceptance of art for art's sake has a certain appeal. To think of Lascaux as a gallery allows it to be a sort of special viewing place where the handiwork of accomplished artists might be displayed. Plausibly, daily existence in parts of Paleolithic Europe may not have been so hard, with an abundance of ready food and therefore the leisure time for art. The problems with this explanation, however, are various. In the first place, the proliferation of archaeological discoveries—and this includes some of the world's innumerablerock art sites thatcannot be dated—has served to emphasize a remarkablylimited repertoire of subjects. The images that recur are those of animals.Human figures are unusual, and when they do make an appearance, they are rarely done with the same attention to form accorded to the animals. If Paleolithic artists were simply seeking to represent the beauty of the world around them, would they not have left a far greater range of pictures—of trees, flowers, of the Sun and the stars?A further question to the theory of art for art's sake is posed by the high incidence of Paleolithic images that appear not to be imitative of any reality whatsoever. These are geometrical shapes or patterns consisting of dots or lines. Such marks may be found isolated or repeated over a particular surface but also scattered across more recognizable forms. A good example of this may be seen in the geologically spect acular grotto of Pêche Merle, in the Lot region of France. Here we encounter some favorite animals from the Paleolithicrepertoire—a pair of stout-bellied horses. But over and around the horses' outlines are multiple dark spots, daubed in disregard for the otherwise naturalistic representation of animals. What does such patterning imitate?There is also the factor of location. The caves of Lascaux might conceivably qualify as underground galleries, but many other paintings have been found in recesses totally unsuitable for any kind of viewing—tight nooks and crannies that must have been awkward even for the artists to penetrate, let alone for anyone else wanting to see the art.Finally, we may doubt the notion that the Upper Paleolithic period was a paradise in which food came readily, leaving humans ample time to amuse themselves with art. 【_For Europe it was still the Ice Age. 【_An estimate of the basic level ofsustenance then necessary for human survival has been judged at 2200 calories per day. 【_This consideration, combined with the stark emphasis upon animals in the cave art, has persuaded some archaeologists that the primary motive behind Paleolithic images must lie with the primary activity of Paleolithic people: hunting. 【_Hunting is a skill. Tracking, stalking, chasing, and killing the prey are difficult, sometimes dangerous activities. What if the process could be made easier—by art? In the early decades of the twentieth century, Abbé Henri Breuil argued that the cave paintings were all about “sympathetic magic. ” The artists strived diligently to make their animal images evocative and realistic because they were attempting to capture the spirit of their prey. What could have prompted their studious attention to making such naturalistic, recognizable images?According to Breuil, the artists may have believed that if a hunter were able to make a true likeness of some animal, then that animal was virtually trapped.Images, therefore, may have had the magical capacity to confer success or luck in the hunt.TPO53托福阅读Passage2题目Question 1 of 14According to paragraph 1, what is significant about the paintings in the Lascaux caves?A. They provide accurate depictions of the bulls and other animals living in Paleolithic France.B. They are the best available source of information about daily life during the Paleolithic era.C. They are some of the best surviving examples of what was possibly one of the world's earliest artistic movements.D. They are the only evidence of creative expression amongPaleolithic human beings.Question 2 of 14In paragraph 1, why does the author mention the views of the philosophers of Classical Greece?A. To show how explanations about the appearance of cave painting during the Paleolithic have changed over timeB. To present a theory about humans and art that may be applicable to the Paleolithic eraC. To argue that Paleolithic paintings were created for the joy of painting, while Classical art was created to accurately represent the natural worldD. To demonstrate that the Greek philosophers were the first to accurately understand Paleolithic artQuestion 3 of 14Paragraph 2 suggests that the Lascaux cave paintings could have been created as art for art's sake only if which of the following were true?A. Caves were often used as viewing places for handiwork of all kinds.B. Artists during the Paleolithic era were especially accomplished.C. Paleolithic people were able to satisfy their basic needs fairly easily.D. People in Paleolithic Europe learned about art from people living in other areas.Question 4 of 14The word “Plausibly ” in the passage is closest in meaning toA. SimilarlyB. ObviouslyC. IdeallyD. PossiblyQuestion 5 of 14Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.A. The limited variety in the subjects of rock art paintings has become increasingly evident in the many sites discovered.B. The limited repertoire of subjects found in rock art has made it difficult for archaeologists to determine when each painting was created.C. In the first place, there is little new archaeological information on the subject of rock art because of the limited number of recent discoveries.D. Because many rock art sites cannot be dated, archaeologists have limited information about how rock art varied from period to period.Question 6 of 14According to paragraph 2, which of the following is true about human figures as subjects of rock art?A. Human figures almost always appear alone and never appear with animals.B. Images of humans are both rarer and less accurately drawn than those of animals.C. Some of the most beautiful images in Paleolithic rock art are of human figures.D. There is more variety in how humans are depicted in cave art than in how animals are.Question 7 of 14The word “spectacular ” in the passage is closest in meaning toA. uniqueB. impressiveC. isolatedD. shelteredQuestion 8 of 14In paragraph 3, why does the author include a description of a painting of horses from the grotto of Pêche Merle?A. To emphasize that stout-bellied horses were the most commonly found animals in that region at the time the painting was madeB. To provide evidence that Paleolithic artists created realistic images more often than they created paintings of dots or linesC. To give an example of a cave painting that contains elements that do not imitate realityD. To demonstrate that Paleolithic artists captured many details of the animals they painted, such as the spots on the horses' coatsQuestion 12 of 14The word “prompted ” in the passage is closest in meaning toA. brought aboutB. interfered withC. increasedD. transformedQuestion 9 of 14According to paragraph 3, which of the following is true of the paintings located in the Lascaux caves?A. They are all found in recesses that are difficult for viewersto reachB. They fill every nook and cranny of a large underground galleryC. Their location was probably more convenient for viewers than for the artistsD. They are easier to view than cave paintings at other locations.Question 10 of 14The word “diligently ” in the passage is closest in meaning toA. with no successB. with talent and skillC. with mixed resultsD. with persistence and hard workQuestion 11 of 14According to paragraph 5, Breuil proposed which of the following theories about the purpose of cave paintings?A. They were used to teach young hunters the skills they needed to hunt.B. They were images created to help people forget about the dangers and difficulties of their daily lives.C. They were used in magic rituals to increase people's understanding of the natural world.D. They were meant to capture the spirits of animals and thus bring success in the hunt.Question 13 of 14Look at the four squares[_ to add the sentence to the passage.Obtaining this level of nourishment from such a harsh environment must have consumed most of Paleolithic people’s time and attention..Question 14 of 14Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. Drag your answer choices to the spaces where they belong. To remove an answer choice, click on it. To review the passage, click VIEW TEXT.There are a number of arguments against the idea that Paleolithic cave paintings were created for the sheer joy of paintingA.It is generally agreed that art as imitation arose during the age of Classical GreeceB.Paleolithic artists often chose to paint pictures that were intended to frighten peopleC.People in the Paleolithic era may not have had time for art, and the placement of the paintings does not indicate that they were meant to be looked atD.Paleolithic artists chose to represent only a small segment of the natural world, and their paintings were not always strict imitations of natureE.Hunting was central to Paleolithic life, and animals are central to cave art, leading some to believe that the paintings were created to bring luck to hunters.F.Humans were rarely the subjects of cave paintings because it was thought that capturing the image of a hunter would cause the hunter to be virtually trapped.TPO53托福阅读Passage3答案解析正确答案：C题目解析：本题定位到原文：Accepting that they are the best preserved and most visible signs of what was a global creative explosion这半句话。
托福阅读TOEFL三篇tpo75原文译文题目答案背景知识
托福阅读TOEFL三篇tpo75原文译文题目答案背景知识阅读-1 (2)原文 (2)译文 (5)题目 (8)答案 (16)背景知识 (17)阅读-2 (21)原文 (21)译文 (24)题目 (27)答案 (35)背景知识 (36)阅读-3 (40)原文 (40)译文 (44)题目 (47)答案 (53)背景知识 (54)阅读-1原文Clutch Size in Birds①Each year the emperor penguin lays one egg,the pigeon lays one or two eggs,the gull typically lays three eggs,the Canada goose four to six eggs,and the American merganser ten or eleven eggs.What determines clutch size in birds?The ultimate factors that determine clutch size are the requirements for long-term(evolutionary)survival. Clutch size is viewed as an adaptation under the control of natural selection.②Natural selection will favor those birds that leave the most descendants to future generations.At first thought we might hypothesize that natural selection favors a clutch size that is the physiological maximum the bird can lay.We can test this hypothesis by taking eggs from nests as they are laid.When we do this,we find that some birds,such as the common pigeon,are determinate layers;they lay a given number of eggs,no matter what.The pigeon lays two eggs, if you take away the first,it will incubate the second egg only.If you add a third egg,it will incubate all three.But many other birds areindeterminate layers;they will continue to lay eggs until the nest is "full".If eggs are removed once they are laid,these birds will continue laying.When this subterfuge was used on a mallard female,she continued to lay one egg per day until she had laid100of them. Evidence from other,similar experiments suggests that most birds under normal circumstances do not lay their physiological limit of eggs but that ovulation is stopped long before this limit is reached.③The British ornithologist David Lack was one of the first ecologists to recognize the importance of evolutionary thinking in understanding adaptations in life history traits.In1947Lack put forward the idea that clutch size in birds was determined by the number of young that parents can provide with food.If his hypothesis is correct,the total production of young ought to be highest at the normal clutch size.And if one experimentally increased clutch size by adding eggs to nests, increased clutches should suffer greater losses because the parents could not feed the extra young in the nest.④One way to think about this problem of optimum clutch size is to usea simple economic approach.Everything an organism does has somecosts and some benefits.The benefits of laying more eggs are very clear--more descendants in the next generation.The costs are less clear.There is an energy cost to make each additional egg,and there is a further cost to feed each additional nestling.If the adult birds must work harder to feed their young,there is also a potential cost in adult survival-the adults may not live until the next breeding season.If adults are unable to work harder,there is a risk of reduction in offspring quality.Models of this type are useful because they help us think about the costs and benefits for a particular ecological strategy. No organism has an infinite amount of energy to spend on its activities. The reproductive rate of birds can be viewed as one sector of a bird's energy balance,and the needs of reproduction must be maximized within the constraints of other energy requirements.The total requirements involve metabolic maintenance,growth,energy used for predator avoidance,competitive interactions,and reproduction. According to Lack's hypothesis,if enough additional eggs are placed in a bird's nest,reproductive energy requirements escalate and the whole brood will suffer from starvation so that,in fact,fewer young birds will fledge from nests containing large numbers ofeggs.⑤In England,the blue tit normally lays a clutch of nine to eleven eggs.What would happen if blue tits had a brood of twelve or thirteen?A researcher artificially manipulated broods at hatching by adding or subtracting chicks and found that the survival of the young blue tits in manipulated broods was poor.Blue tits feed on insects and apparently cannot feed additional young adequately,so more of the young starve. Consequently,it would not benefit a blue tit in the evolutionary sense to lay more eggs and the results are consistent with Lack's hypothesis. Individual birds appear to produce the clutch size that maximizes their reproductive potential.译文鸟窝的大小①每年，皇帝企鹅会产下一枚蛋，鸽子会产下一颗或两颗蛋，海鸥通常会产下三颗蛋，加拿大鹅会产下四到六颗蛋，而美洲红颈潜鸭则会产下十到十一颗蛋。
tpo53三篇托福阅读TOEFL原文译文题目答案译文背景知识
tpo53三篇托福阅读TOEFL原文译文题目答案译文背景知识阅读-1 (2)原文 (2)译文 (5)题目 (8)答案 (16)背景知识 (18)阅读-2 (21)原文 (21)译文 (24)题目 (27)答案 (34)背景知识 (36)阅读-1原文Evidence of the Earliest Writing①Although literacy appeared independently in several parts of the prehistoric world, the earliest evidence of writing is the cuneiform Sumerian script on the clay tablets of ancient Mesopotamia, which, archaeological detective work has revealed, had its origins in the accounting practices of commercial activity. Researchers demonstrated that preliterate people, to keep track of the goods they produced and exchanged, created a system of accounting using clay tokens as symbolic representations of their products. Over many thousands of years, the symbols evolved through several stages of abstraction until they became wedge-shaped (cuneiform) signs on clay tablets, recognizable as writing.②The original tokens (circa 8500 B.C.E.) were three-dimensional solid shapes—tiny spheres, cones, disks, and cylinders. A debt of six units of grain and eight head of livestock, for example might have been represented by six conical and eight cylindrical tokens. To keep batches of tokens together, an innovation was introduced (circa 3250 B. C. E.) whereby they were sealed inside clay envelopes that could be brokenopen and counted when it came time for a debt to be repaid. But because the contents of the envelopes could easily be forgotten, two-dimensional representations of the three-dimensional tokens were impressed into the surface of the envelopes before they were sealed. Eventually, having two sets of equivalent symbols—the internal tokens and external markings—came to seem redundant, so the tokens were eliminated (circa 3250-3100 B.C.E.), and only solid clay tablets with two-dimensional symbols were retained. Over time, the symbols became more numerous, varied, and abstract and came to represent more than trade commodities, evolving eventually into cuneiform writing.③The evolution of the symbolism is reflected in the archaeological record first of all by the increasing complexity of the tokens themselves. The earliest tokens, dating from about 10,000 to 6,000 years ago, were of only the simplest geometric shapes. But about 3500 B.C.E., more complex tokens came into common usage, including many naturalistic forms shaped like miniature tools, furniture, fruit, and humans. The earlier, plain tokens were counters for agricultural products, whereas the complex ones stood for finished products, such as bread, oil, perfume, wool, and rope, and for items produced in workshops, such as metal, bracelets, types of cloth, garments, mats, pieces of furniture, tools, and a variety of stone and pottery vessels. The signs marked onclay tablets likewise evolved from simple wedges, circles, ovals, and triangles based on the plain tokens to pictographs derived from the complex tokens.④Before this evidence came to light, the inventors of writing were assumed by researchers to have been an intellectual elite. Some, for example, hypothesized that writing emerged when members of the priestly caste agreed among themselves on written signs. But the association of the plain tokens with the first farmers and of the complex tokens with the first artisans—and the fact that the token-and-envelope accounting system invariably represented only small-scale transactions—testifies to the relatively modest social status of the creators of writing.⑤And not only of literacy, but numeracy (the representation of quantitative concepts) as well. The evidence of the tokens provides further confirmation that mathematics originated in people’s desire to keep records of flocks and other goods. Another immensely significant step occurred around 3100 B.C.E., when Sumerian accountants extended the token-based signs to include the first real numerals. Previously, units of grain had been represented by direct one-to-one correspondence―by repeating the token or symbol for a unit of grain the required number of times. The accountants, however, devisednumeral signs distinct from commodity signs, so that eighteen units of grain could be indicated by preceding a single grain symbol with a symbol denoting “18.”Their invention of abstract numerals and abstract counting was one of the most revolutionary advances in the history of mathematics.⑥What was the social status of the anonymous accountants who produced this breakthrough? The immense volume of clay tablets unearthed in the ruins of the Sumerian temples where the accounts were kept suggests a social differentiation within the scribal class, with a virtual army of lower-ranking tabulators performing the monotonous job of tallying commodities. We can only speculate as to how high or low the inventors of true numerals were in the scribal hierarchy, but it stands to reason that this laborsaving innovation would have been the brainchild of the lower-ranking types whose drudgery is eased.译文最早文字的证据①虽然读写能力是在史前世界的几个地方分别出现的，但书写的最早证据是古代美索不达米亚泥板上的苏美尔楔形文字，根据考古探查工作揭示，它起源于商业活动的会计实践。
2021年11 18托福考试解析之三 阅读
11 18托福考试解析之三阅读文章详情1.北极的住民原来被认为是从 ___迁徙过去的，但是后来发现他们起源就是北极。
有的迁徙到 ___，有的留在了那里，并拥有了抗冻能力。
他们有冰刀之类的工具和冰房子。
这些原住民因为气候而导致动物稀少，所以需要去海边捕捞食物。
有几个原因在当时影响了原住民，第一个是气温升高后迫使他们要改变一些捕鱼方式;还有就是爱摩斯基人 ___进来，他们有更为发达的捕鱼业，所以人数暴增。
不过没有证据表明他们和原住民有过战争活动。
他们可能和原住民接触，因为他们的工具和房屋都是一样的。
2.珊瑚礁。
过去的珊瑚礁和现在的珊瑚礁构成不同(此处有题)。
珊瑚礁被破坏主要原因是一些物理的自然灾害。
但是它们数量暴增造成不好影响的可能原因有三个，可能和人类活动有关。
捕食者数量减。
海边植物遭到破坏，并被异常大的降雨冲进海里，造成了大量的营养被幼体吸收。
3.植物的自我保护机制shedding剪枝，即一些枝条脱落。
一个原因是有限枝条消耗掉碳物质比生产的多。
另一个原因是有时候气候干燥，减少水耗。
4.早期欧洲工业。
主要讲形成的原因，人口的增长。
人们都聚集去城市，买了很多消耗品，促进欧洲的收入、农业商业化等。
___采取了措施，促进技术的进步。
5.夏威夷的动物和植物。
大概说，夏威夷是孤岛，动物和植物都要通过其他方式到夏威夷，比如通过鸟，有些小动物在鸟的羽毛里来到夏威夷。
还有些seeds是通过鸟吃了它们到了夏威夷。
还有些是通过海水到夏威夷比如coconut。
6.恐龙。
通过比较两种en和ec的差别来判断研究恐龙。
比如，是否是冷血动物，骨头是否有骨纹。
7.对各个kings的记录来研究埃及历史。
主要说因为埃及国王都会记录他们的历史，并且很多国王还会记录之前的历史，所以研究人员对这些record进行研究。
但是有一个国王虽然有很大的贡献，可他的文献都是second hand。
还有一个国王会记录所有的信息，无论之前的国王掌权多久。
TOEFL模拟题阅读考题分类：题材篇(三)
（三）自然科学：1.植物学，微生物2.动物学3.生理学4.地质学，地理学，天文学，气象学5.考古学，人类学6.物理，化学，医药，环境1.植物学S/P1树叶为何变颜色82/11海藻83/1地衣S1/P12386/1植物演化86/5藤蔓植物，86/10地衣S1/P788/1树的防御机理S1/P1788/5植物形成层和树皮结构S1/P99S/P69植物的根90/8浮游生物P3291/8植物学P54普样题192/8树的重要性P71P89/植物拟态的性质和作用P138/沙漠植物的生存95/10植物内部运水的机理96/1植物的防御机理北美题96/5兰花96/10一种野草和牛的传说98/5赤扬和森林环境的关系99/8菌类和植物的区别及破坏性和用途2.动物学81/11鸟类适应的演化82/1蝙蝠的生物声纳83/5蚊子利用水产卵83/5有机椎动物和无脊椎动物中ALLEOMIMETIC的作用S1/P95 83/8濑鱼S1/P6283/11海獭84/5响尾蛇的响声84/11旋木雀S1/P7885/5蜜蜂酿蜜S1/P8686/1牛胃S1/P6786/3蜜蜂结构适宜社会化S1/P7586/8恐龙绝迹的解释87/1鸟类学87/5动物为何不生轮子S1/P1687/8北美野牛S1/P10387/10猴子尾巴88/1蜜蜂意识测试S1/P20S/P24沼泽中的动物S1/P24S/P37蜜蜂的社会结构S1/P37S/P39美洲鳄鱼交配后S1/P39S/P52莺科鸣禽划分树上食物S1/P52S/P56食物网S1/P56S/P93考拉S1/P9388/5北极熊S1/P98S/P109灵长类动物的社会行为S1/P109 S/P112猿S1/P11288/10鲸鱼S1/P13389/1树懒的习性P289/5美国蝗虫灾害P989/10河狸P1890/1马的进化P2290/8浮游生物P3291/5河狸的特征和习性P4892/1信鸽训练P6192/5病毒P67P80/细菌的特性P90/海葵P98/昆虫的伪装P105/候鸟飞行的高度和速度P116/动物导航P122/血液温度和动物分类P141海洋与生命P142黑猩猩的社会化生活P147贫齿类动物犰犹ARMADILLOS普样2候鸟迁徙的原因S1/P121普样3海葵95/12海洋生物多样性96/1海参96/8研究乌鸦的困难96/10猎狗的嗅觉物质97/1沙漠动物适应97/5鸟儿群居的原因97/10交喙鸟的鸟嘴结构98/1有机物如何对入侵者作出反应98/8动物行为认识99/10爬行动物和鸟类飞行的发展3．生理学99/8临床营养学的发展阶段84/5人类疾病的两个原理99/5有机椎动物的神经系统85/11大脑和中央神经系统的起源83/8大脑意识反应的听觉测试S/P53婴儿大脑成熟和感情发育S1/P53 P118/新陈代谢中盐的演化P110/睡眠的阶段86/10睡眠的功能和分类S1/P11S/P136两类睡眠S1/P13682/1休眠P101/人类肌肉解剖和动作P96/生物与电90/5荷尔蒙P284．地质学，地理学，天文学，气象学2000/1土壤结构的确定方法S/P107土壤的类型99/101994/7流星袭击木星90/10彗星P3999/5极光的形成和表象99/1火成岩98/10地球表面水S/P35大气中的水98/8地球表面的陨石P133/陨石分类S/P4陨石坑98/5宇宙中氦何时形成97/10星系P148/星的分类系统S/P49星的亮度97/1宇宙星体形状95/12地球板块运动96/12地球板块结构理论对地质学的贡献P94/地球板块结构理论S/P58地球板块96/10地震波与地球内部结构研究82/11地球冰河期S1/P12596/1飓风预报86/5气象学91/5飓风P4587/1飓风95/8海底探险普样3海底探索普样4太阳结构P56P82/太阳的演化89/5太阳发光和热P892/10地球和宇宙P7588/10宇宙的理解91/8加拿大省BRITISHCOLUMBIAP50 87/8大峡谷的形成S1/P10495/12美国大盆地P145/阿拉斯加半岛S/P76气候决定动植物的分布P42/冰山的特征和起源S/P125冰河期82/8田那西洲东部地下湖82/11地球冰河期P121/洞冰起源96/5火山冰洞降雪的重要性5．考古学，人类学98/8骨化石比骨骼重的原因NA98/1化石足迹分析97/12化石保存条件NA95/10鱼龙胚胎化石96/8历史考古学96/1人类右手为主的考古学证据NA P99/左右手的形成P92/考古学和人类历史P86/考古学的工作方法6．物理，化学，医药，环境91/8降雨的机理普样195/10植物内部运水的机理96/1植物防御的机理北美NA97/5猫降落的机理98/8燃烧的解释98/8雪花的形成北美99/5极光的形成和表象97/8钢丝篱笆97/8一种新型显微镜97/12空气污染物定义98/8人类行为对地球生态系的影响98/1玻璃91/5统计学的发展和用途普样292/5海水盐度普样2？/制陶普样395/8戏剧起源95/10钢琴的历史发展95/12无声电影的音乐98/1爵士乐和其它音乐的区别95/12海洋生物多样性96/1N冰箱的发展北美96/5美国西部蒸汽船发动机96/8激光97/5直接雕塑。
托福阅读TPO3（试题+答案+译...
托福阅读TPO3(试题+答案+译文)第1篇:Arch托福阅读TPO3(试题+答案+译文)第1篇:Architecture为了帮助大家备考托福。
提高阅读成绩，打有准备的仗，下面小编给大家带来托福阅读TPO3(试题+答案+译文)第1篇:Architecture 建筑，希望大家喜欢。
托福阅读原文Architecture is theart and science of designing structures that organize and enclose space forpractical and symbolic purposes. Because architecture grows out of human needsand aspirations, it clearly communicates cultural values. Of all the visualarts, architecture affects our lives most directly for it determines thecharacter of the human environment in major ways.Architecture is athree-dimensional form. It utilizes space, mass, texture, line, light, andcolor. To be architecture, a building must achieve a working harmony with avariety of elements. Humans instinctively seek structures that will shelter and enhance their way of life. It is the work of architects to createbuildings that are not simply constructions but also offer inspiration anddelight. Buildings contribute to human life when they provide shelter, enrichspace, complement their site, suit the climate, and are economically feasible.The client who pays for the building and defines its function is an importantmember of the architectural team. The mediocre design of many contemporarybuildings can be traced to both clients and architects.In order for thestructure to achieve the size and strength necessary to meet its purpose,architecture employs methods of support that, because they are based onphysical laws, havechanged little since people first discovered them—even while building materials havechanged dramatically.Theworld’s architecturalstructures have also beendevisedin relation to the objectivelimitations of materials. Structures can be analyzed in terms of how they dealwith downward forces created by gravity. They are designed to withstand theforces of compression (pushing together), tension (pulling apart), bending, ora combination of these in different parts of the structure.Even development in architecture has been the result of major technological changes. Materials andmethods of construction are integralparts of the design of architecturestructures. In earlier times it was necessary to design structural systemssuitable for the materials that were available, such as wood, stone, brick.T oday technology has progressed to the point where it is possible to invent newbuilding materials to suit the type of structure desired. Enormous changes inmaterials and techniques of construction within the last few generations havemade it possible to enclose space with much greater ease and speed and with aminimum of material. Progress in this area can be measured by the difference inweight between buildings built now and those of comparable size built onehundred years ago.Modernarchitectural forms generally have three separate components comparable toelements of the human body: a supporting skeleton or frame, an outer skinenclosing the interior spaces, and equipment, similar to the body’s vital organs and systems. Theequipment includes plumbing, electrical wiring, hot water, andair-conditioning. Of course in early architecture—suchas igloos and adobe structures—there was no suchequipment, and the skeleton and skin were often one.Much of the world’s great arch itecture has beenconstructed of stone because of its beauty, permanence, and availability. Inthe past, whole cities grew from thearduoustask of cutting and pilingstone upon. Some of the world’s finest stonearchitecture can be seen in the ruins of the ancient Inca city of Machu Picchuhigh in the eastern Andes Mountains of Peru. Thedoorways andwindowsare made possible by placing over the open spaces thick stone beamsthat support the weight from above. A structural invention had to be madebefore the physical limitations of stone could be overcome and newarchitectural forms could be created. That invention was the arch, a curvedstructure originally made of separate stone or brick segments. The arch wasused by the early cultures of the Mediterranean area chiefly for undergrounddrains, but it was the Romans who first developed and used the arch extensivelyin aboveground structures. Roman builders perfected the semicircular arch madeof separate blocks of stone. As a method of spanning space, the arch cansupport greater weight than a horizontal beam. It works in compression todivert the weight above it out to the sides, where the weight is borne by thevertical elements on either side of the arch. The arch is among the manyimportant structural breakthroughs that have characterized architecturethroughout the centuries.托福阅读试题1. According toparagraph 1, all of the following statements about architecture are true EXCEPT:A.Architecture isvisual art.B.Architecturereflects the cultural values of its creators.C.Architecture hasboth artistic and scientific dimensions.D.Architecture hasan indirect effect on life.2. The word “feasible”in the passage (paragraph 2) is closest in meaning toA.in existenceB.without questionC.achievableD.most likely3. The word “enhance”in the passage (paragraph 2) is closest in meaning toA.protectB.improveanizeD.match4. Which of thesentences below best expresses the essential information in thehighlightedsentencein the passage (paragragh 3) ? Incorrect choices change themeaning in important ways or leave out essential information.A.Unchangingphysical laws have limited the size and strength of buildings that can be madewith materials discovered long ago.B.Buildingmaterials have changed in order to increase architectural size and strength,but physical laws of structure have not changed.C.When people firststarted to build, the structural methods used to provide strength and size wereinadequate because they were not based on physical laws.D.Unlike buildingmaterials, the methods of support used in architecture have not changed overtime because they are based on physical laws.5. The word “devised”in the passage (paragragh 3) is closest in meaning tobinedB.createdC.introducedD.suggested6. The word “integral”(paragraph 4) is clos est in meaning toA.essentialB.variableC.practicalD.independent7. According toparagraph 4, which of the following is true about materialsused in theconstruction of buildings?A.Because newbuilding materials are hard to find, construction techniques have changed verylittle from past generations.B.The availabilityof suitable building materials no longer limits the types of structures thatmay be built.C.The primarybuilding materials that are available today are wood, stone, and brick.D.Architects inearlier times did not have enough building materials to enclose large spaces.8. In paragraph 4,what does the author imply about modern buildings?A.They occupy muchless space than buildings constructed one hundred years ago.B.They are not verydifferent from the building of a few generations ago.C.They weigh lessin relation to their size than buildings constructed one hundred years ago.D.They take a longtime to build as a result of their complexconstruction methods.9. Which of thefollowing correctly characterizes the relationship between the human body andarchitecture that is described in paragraph 5?plex equipmentinside buildings is the one element in modern architecture that resembles acomponent of the human body.B.The components inearly buildings were similar to three particular elements of the human body.C.Modern buildingshave components that are as likely to change as the human body is.D.In general,modern buildings more closely resemble the human body than earlier buildingsdo.10. The wor d “arduous”in the passage (paragraph 6) is closest in meaning toA.difficultB.necessaryC.skilledD.shared11. Why does theauthor include a description of how the “doorways and windows”(paragraph 6) ofMachu Picchu were constructed?A.To indicate thatthe combined skeletons and skins of the stone buildings of Machu Picchu weresimilar to igloos and adobe structuresB.To indicate thedifferent kinds of stones that had to be cut to build Machu PicchuC.To provide anillustration of the kind of construction that was required before arches wereinventedD.To explain howancient builders reduced the amount oftime necessary to construct buildingsfrom stone12. According toparagraph 6, which of the following statements is true ofthe arch?A.The Romans werethe first people to use the stone arch.B.The invention ofthe arch allowed new architectural forms to be developed.C.The arch workedby distributing the structural load of a building toward the center of thearch.D.The Romansfollowed earlier practices in their use of arches.13. Look at thefour squares [█] that indicate wherethe following sentence could be added to the passage.█ 【A】Modern architectural forms generally have three separate componentscomparable to elements of the human body; a supporting skeleton or frame, anouter skin enclosing the interior spaces, and equipment, similar to the body’s vital organs and systems. █ 【B】The equipment includes plumbing, electrical wiring, hot water, andair-conditioning. █ 【C】Ofcourse in early architecture—such as igloos and adobestructures—there was no such equipment, and theskeleton and skin were often one. █ 【D】Where would thesentence best fit?14. Directions: Anintroductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided plete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express themost important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in thesummary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or areminor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.Architecture usesforms and space to express cultural values.A.Architects seekto create buildings that are both visuallyappealing and well suited for humanuse.B.Over the courseof the history of building, innovations in material and methods of constructionhave given architects ever greater freedom to express themselves.C.Throughouthistory buildings have been constructed like human bodies, needing distinct “organ”systems inorder to function.D.Both clients andarchitects are responsible for the mediocre designs of some modern buildings.E.Modern buildingstend to lack the beauty of ancient stone buildings such as those of MachuPicchu.F.The discovery anduse of the arch typifies the way in which architecture advances by developingmore efficient types of structures.托福阅读答案1.EXCEPT题排除法，以visual art做关键词定位至本段最后一句，A对，不选;以cultural values做关键词定位至第二句，B对，不选;以artistic and scientific dimensions做关键词定位至第一句，C对，不选;D选项与A选项在同一句，indirect effect和directly的原文说反，错，选2.feasible可行的，原文说了建筑的若干优点，比如提供遮风避雨的场所，丰富了空间，经济上怎么样，肯定是个正面的词，A存在中性，错;B没有问题，虽然是正面但太过，不选，C正确，D非常可能虽然正面，但程度不足，不选3.词汇题，问的是第二段第三句中的enhance，备选项分别是protect, improve, organize, match，enhance提高，原文中与enhance their way of life并列的动词是shelter，庇护之意，所以再选protect的话重叠，而且也不应该是保护他们的生活方式;organize 组织match搭配都不能与庇护并列，所以improve改善生活方式最靠谱4.In order for只是一个表目的的状语，暂时放弃不看，同时because那部分插入语不看，整个句子就变成了建筑师们采用的方法是不变的，尽管建筑材料发生了很大变化。
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Paragraph 1: Since 1980, the use of wind to produce electricity has been growing rapidly. █In 1994 there were nearly 20,000 wind turbines worldwide, most grouped in clusters called wind farms that collectively produced 3,000 megawatts of electricity. █Most were in Denmark (which got 3 percent of its electricity from wind turbines) and California (where 17,000 machines produced 1 percent of the state’s electricity, enough to meet the residential needs of a city as large as San Francisco). █In principle, all the power needs of the United States could be provided by exploiting the wind potential of just three states—North Dakota, South Dakota, and Texas. █
一定是有粘连的 步骤：通读原句，敲定关系，构造内容，寻求对应
Paragraph 1: Since 1980, the use of wind to produce electricity has been growing rapidly. █In 1994 there were nearly 20,000 wind turbines worldwide, most grouped in clusters called wind farms that collectively produced 3,000 megawatts of electricity. █Most were in Denmark (which got 3 percent of its electricity from wind turbines) and California (where 17,000 machines produced 1 percent of the state’s electricity, enough to meet the residential needs of a city as large as San Francisco). █In principle, all the power needs of the United States could be provided by exploiting the wind potential of just three states—North Dakota, South Dakota, and Texas. █
Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Some companies in the power industry are aware of this wider possibility and are planning sizable wind-farm projects in states other than (译为而不 只是，本句前一定有California)California. Where would the sentence best fit?
----Insertion questions -----Sentence Simplification questions
Paragraph 1: Since 1980, the use of wind to produce electricity has been growing rapidly. █In 1994 there were nearly 20,000 wind turbines worldwide, most grouped in clusters called wind farms that collectively produced 3,000 megawatts of electricity. █Most were in Denmark (which got 3 percent of its electricity from wind turbines) and California (where 17,000 machines produced 1 percent of the state’s electricity, enough to meet the residential needs of a city as large as San Francisco). █In principle, all the power needs of the United States could be provided by exploiting the wind potential of just three states—North Dakota, South Dakota, and Texas. █
Tips:
任何情况下，做插入题应该先句子(待插入句子)，后读段落 正常来说，段落本身是完整的，不缺句子，待插入的句子本身可有可无，不是中 心句
不能使用语感做题，一定要去黑体字中寻找具体的粘连（this, other than） 松紧程度不一致，先使用紧凑粘连(this),后使用松散粘连（other than） 紧凑粘连：代词性粘连，代词不能隔句子指代 松散粘连：非代词性粘连，只要求前文出现，不要求紧跟