translation approach
阐释学派翻译理论
（1）理解即是翻译：领悟一种意义便是翻译 无论是从形式还是就其实际过程来看，任何一个交流 行为都隐含着翻译活动，他的“理解即翻译”论断的阐释 学意义在于指出了阐释是翻译的普遍特征，理解和阐释问 题即是译者最关注的根本问题。 （2）翻译的四个步骤 乔治·斯坦纳指出，翻译并不是“意义”简单复制的 过程，而是有“人”这一主体参与的过程，即译者的主体 性。
2.海德格尔阐释学翻译观
1）海德格尔（Martin Heidegger）反对一字一译，对号入座的 译法，认为翻译的关键在于表达词语后的“道说”，而“道说” 是无法通过字面的直译传达的。 2）区分了“翻译translation”和“转渡transfer”。 3）他认为每种翻译都是解释，而所有的解释是翻译。他把 “解释”与“翻译”等同起来。 4）他认为，理解受到历史和语言的双重影响。 5）准确的翻译还受缚于母语的前结构。 6）他倡导在翻译中以本意在先、审视词语的源流、重视被遮 蔽的思想。
二、理论特点
1、将阐释概念扩大，认为翻译，乃至语言研究都是阐 释过程。强调原文理解的普遍性与历史性。 2、广阔的研究视野，翻译研究涉及功能学、文化学、 比较文学、哲学、社会学；研究对象涉及口译与笔译、 文学翻译与机械翻译。 3、将翻译视为一门艺术，而非科学。
三、代表人物、作品及其理论内容提一步一步发展成为一门学科
1）中世纪的古典阐释学：用于逻辑学和辩论术，以及一些 宗教、文学经典著作的解释。 2）认识论和方法论阐释学（18世纪）：阐释所有文本，以 语法阐释、心理阐释为方法，强调阐释的客观性、能动性 和辩证法的一门特殊学科。
3）本体论（现代）阐释学：人类自身的历史的哲学阐释， 揭示了理解的相对性与历史性，批评了传统的阐释存在的 非历史性主义倾向，提高了人们对理解的自觉地反思水平。
翻译总结
翻译技巧英汉翻译对策①词汇把英汉词汇的词义做一比较，人们不难看出，英语词义比较灵活多变，含义内涵大，虽然一词多义现象比较普遍，但是词义一般较具体。
汉语词义相对稳定严谨，含义相对单一、固定并且词义较笼统。
因此翻译时，要视情况酌情处理。
②代词英语代词使用得多，这是因为英语为了避免重复，常常使用代词替代，而汉语代词使用得少。
这是英汉两种语言的词汇上的另一区别。
因此，汉译英时要多用代称，而英译汉时要少用代称。
例如：Read a city guidebook. Some are even specially designed for a 24-hour visit! If you don’t want to buy one, just look through the guidebooks in a store. They can give you hints on how to planyour trip.译文：参考城市旅游指南，有些旅游书甚至是专为一日游行程而写的呢！如果不想花钱买书，在书店里翻一翻也可以。
旅游指南会提出一些建议，帮助你规划行程。
英语有时在句子里先出代词，然后再出它所指的人或物。
汉语一般总是先出实词，然后才用代词。
例如：Once it is combined, nitrogen is not chemically inert any longer.译文：氮气一经化合，在化学上它就变得活跃了。
③连词就连词的使用频率而言，英语的连词的使用率远远高于汉语的连词，因为英语重形态结构，而汉语重内在联系。
英译汉翻译时，很多连词略而不译。
例如：Whenever he is free, he will come and see me.译文：他一有空就来看我。
（比较：每当他有空的时候，他就会来看我。
）④介词英语介词数量多，使用广泛，意义变化大，语法功能多；而汉语介词则比较少，使用面较窄，意义比较稳定。
例如：He was sitting on the grass. （on the grass指面积，即草是短的）译文：他坐在草坪上。
功能派翻译理论
功能派翻译理论一·主要观点：1．理想的翻译应该在概念性内容、语言形式和交际功能方面都与原文对等 2·翻译是以原文为基础的、有目的和有结果的行为，这一行为必须经过协商来完成；翻译必须遵循一系列法则，其中目的法则居于首位，即是说译文取决于翻译的目的。
此外，翻译还应遵循“语内连贯法则”(the intratextual coherence rule)和“语际连贯法则”(the intertextual coherence rule)，前者指译文必须内部连贯，在译入语接受者看来是可理解的，后者指译文与原文之间也应该有连贯性，有时称作“忠实法则”(the fidelity rule)。
3·将翻译视作受目的驱使的、以翻译结果为导向的人与人之间的相互作用把翻译看作包括文本、图片、声音、肢体语言等复合信息传递物(message-transmitter compounds)在不同文化之间的迁移，用“翻译行为”(translatorial action)来代替翻译(translation) 将翻译分为工具翻译(instrumental translation)和纪实翻译(documentary translation)，工具翻译的目的是在译语文化中实现新的交际功能，而纪实翻译是对作者和源语文本的读者之间的交际所做的记录二·代表人物，代表作及突出观点：1. 凯瑟林娜•赖斯(Kantharina Reiss)的翻译标准的功能分类说(the Functional Category of Translation Criticism)1971年凯瑟林娜•赖斯在《翻译批评的可能性与限制》(Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism)中首次提出翻译功能论(functional approach)，把“功能类型”这个概念引入翻译理论，并将文本功能列为翻译批评的一个标准。
十种教学方法
Grammar-Translation Approach In this method, classes are taught in the students' mother tongue, with little active use of the target language. Vocabulary is taught in the form of isolated word lists. Elaborate explanations of grammar are always provided. Grammar instruction provides the rules for putting words together; instruction focuses on the form and inflection of words. Little attention is paid to the content of texts. Drills are exercises in translating disconneபைடு நூலகம்ted sentences from the target language into the mother tongue, and vice versa. Little or no attention is given to pronunciation.
Questions are answered in the target language. Grammar is taught inductively--rules are
generalized from the practice and experience with the target language. Verbs are used first and systematically conjugated much later after some oral mastery of the target language. Advanced students read literature for comprehension and pleasure. Literary texts are not analyzed grammatically. The culture associated with the target language is also taught inductively. Culture is considered an important aspect of learning the language.
四种语言测试方法概览(英文)
May 2019 中 国 民 航 飞 行 学 院 学 报V ol.30 No.3 Journal of Civil Aviation Flight University of China 47___________________________________________________*广东省高职院校公共英语课程教学指导委员会2018年项目（2018CE40）的部分研究成果An Overview of Four Language Testing Approaches *Li Zhuanggui（Guangzhou Civil Aviation College, Guangzhou 510403 Guangdong China ）Abstract: Language testing approach plays an increasingly important role in evaluating students’ learning efficiency. Considering the current testing methods in the classroom settings, the author attempts to analyze four major language testing approaches. This paper is essentially the elaboration of each testing approach in terms of feasibility and limitations. By studying the four testing approaches, the author hopes to provide some implications for English teaching.Keywords: Language testing approach Essay-translation approach Structuralist approach Integrative approach Communicative approach四种语言测试方法概览李壮桂（广州民航职业技术学院 广东广州 510403）摘 要：语言测试方法在评估学生的学习效率中起着越来越重要的作用。
英语学科知识与教学能力(高中)必背
英语学科知识与教学能力（高中）必背考点第二部分语言教学知识与能力第一章外语教学基本理论第二节英语教学法一语法翻译法（grammar translation method）（一）语言观：语言是书面语，语言是一种知识，是由语音，语法和词汇构成的符号体系。
（外语教学法史上最早的一个教学法体系）（二）教学目的：培养学生阅读外国文学作品的能力和模仿范文进行写作的能力（三）特点是：教师用母语授课，授课重点是讲解与分析句子成分和语音、词汇变化与语法规则。
（四）评价优点：母语翻译，强调语法学习，深刻理解外语抽象词义和复杂结构缺点：1. 忽视口语教学，学生的语音语调差，不利于培养学生用外语进行交际的能力；2. 教学方式单一，学生容易失去兴趣。
二直接法（direct method）（一）语言观：语言是一种技能或习惯，习惯的养成要靠大量的重复练习和模仿（二）教学目的：培养学生阅读外国文学作品的能力和模仿范文进行写作的能力。
（三）特点：直接学习，直接理解和直接应用（四）评价优点：1. 采用各种直观教具，接近实际生活，培养用外语思维能力；2. 注重语言实践练习，学生学习积极性高，学习兴趣浓厚；3. 重视口语和语音教学，能有效地培养学生的语言运用能力。
缺点：1. 排斥母语，使学生对一些抽象和复杂的概念难以理解；2. 没有明晰的语法解释，导致学生说出的话语法错误较多。
三听说法（audio-lingual method）（一）语言观：语言是口语，是说出来的话，而不是写出来的文字。
（二）特点：以句型操练为中心，着重培养儿童听说能力的外语教学法。
（三）评价优点：培养学生敢于大胆主动地使用所学语言进行交谈，口语能力较强；重听说，初级阶段帮助大，语音语调自然。
缺点：机械操练不利于发展创造性思维，重形式，轻读写，语境不利于灵活应用。
四情景法(the situational approach)（一）概念：情景法也叫视听法。
强调耳，眼等器官以及大脑整体地去感知和认识外语材料，培养学生的听说读写四种能力。
peternewmark与“文本翻译理论”与不同的翻译方法
翻译的种类自汉代佛经翻译开始，我国就有“直译”、“意译”之争，一直持续到现在。
所谓直译，就是在译文语言条件许可时，在译文中既保持原文的内容，又保持原文的形式。
汉语和英语两种语言存在共同之处，所以有些情况下直译是可能的。
但是，由于语言本身以及社会、文化等因素的差异，使用原文的形式无法表达原文的意思，这时就舍弃原文的形式，直接表达原文的意思，即意译。
纽马克(1988)根据译者侧重译出语还是译入语，把翻译方法分为以下几类：侧重译出语(程度由高到低)：·Word-for-word translation(逐字对译)·Literal translation(字面翻译)·Faithful translation(忠实翻译)·Semantic translation(语意翻译)侧重译入语(程度由低到高)：·Communicative translation(传意翻译)·Idiomatic translation(符合语言习惯的翻译)·Free translation(自由翻译)·Adaptation(改写)从逐字对译到改写是一个连续体，逐字对译与原文的形式最为对应，改写最强调译人语的流畅性。
与此类似，周兆祥根据“翻译的自由度”，把翻译分为以下几类：·逐字对译word-for-word translation)·字面翻译(1iteral translation)·语意翻译(semantic translation)·传意翻译(communicative translation)·编译（free translation)·改写(adaptation)可以通过下面一句话的翻译，体会几种翻译方法的区别：原文：Mr. Dewar slipped and fell outside his official Edinburgh residence on Tuesday morning．He picked himself up and went on to carry out two lunchtime engagements．(BBC news 11／10／2000)译文：逐字对译：杜瓦先生滑了和跌倒在外面他的官方爱丁堡居所在星期二早晨。
4翻译目的论视角下的汉语典籍英译——以《论语》英译为例
4翻译目的论视角下的汉语典籍英译——以《论语》英译为例The Analects of Confucius: A Translation from a Translational PerspectiveIntroductionThe Analects of Confucius is an ancient Chinese classic text composed of a collection of sayings and ideas attributed to Confucius, the founder of Confucianism. It has been highly regarded as an invaluable source of information regarding Confucian philosophy since its compilation some two thousand years ago. This text holds a special place in Chinese culture, as it serves not only as a source of wisdom for the individual but also carries important cultural values and traditions. It is therefore unsurprising that the translations of this text have been particularly scrutinized, with the aim of preserving its original core meanings and making them accessible to a wider audience.This paper will discuss the translation of The Analects of Confucius from a translational perspective, in order to provide an overview of the challenges and considerations necessary in this particular context. To support this discussion, an analysis of two existing translations of the text will be undertaken. The first translation is by Lionel Giles, published in 1910 by The Peking Monthly Magazine. The second is a new translation by Henry Rosemont Jr., published in 2019 by Hackett Publishing. Both of these translations will be critically evaluated from a 4-Way Translation perspective in order to examine how language, culture and context affect the translation of this text.BackgroundThe Analects of Confucius is a short text composed of approximately 500 aphorisms, divided into twenty books. It was originally written between 722 and 481 BCE and compiled in about 479 BCE by the followers of Confucius after his death. The primary purpose of the text is to provide guidance on personal virtue and moral values, such as the importance of filial piety, politeness and humility. It also includes various discussions on subjects such as politics, religion and education, among others. As a result, the text is significant not only as a source of spiritual and philosophical teachings, but also as a means to gain insight into the life and thought of Confucius and the beliefs of his time.Translation Approach – 4-Way TranslationWhen translating a text, it is essential to consider the language, culture and context in which the text has been composed in orderto ensure that the original intended meaning is conveyed accurately. This is known as the 4-Way Translation approach, which takes into account not only the form of the language (grammar, syntax and rhetoric) but also the cultural, religious and political implicationsof the text (from both the source and target language). For example, in the case of The Analects of Confucius, it is necessary to consider the differences between the Chinese and English languages and cultures in order to accurately convey the original meaning and intent of the text.Analysis of Existing TranslationsLionel Giles’ 1910 Transl ationLionel Giles’ translation of The Analects of Confucius is significant because it was one of the earliest English translations of the text. He provided his own interpretations of the text based on his own understanding of the Chinese language, without attempting to preserve any of the original connotations or cultural references. His translation is often criticized for being too literal and failing to capture the nuances of the text. For example, he translates 人之初, “the beginning of a person”, as “the first men”, as opposed to taking into account the culturally specific connotations of the original phrase. Similarly, he translates 礼尚往来, “ceremonies carry the exchange of benefits”, as “ceremonies are the basis of return for kindness”, conveying the idea of transactions, rather than the concept of mutual beneficial relationships which is implied by the original Chinese phrase.Henry Rosemont Jr.’s 2019 TranslationHenry Rosemont Jr’s translation of The Analects of Confucius is a more contemporary interpretation which seeks to preserve the original connotations and implications of the text. In comparison to Giles’ translation, Rosemont’s translation captures more of the nuances and cultural specificity of the text. For example, he translates 人之初, “the beginning of a person”, as “the initiation of humanity”, taking into account the implications of Confucius’ view of man as the most noble and perfect being. Similarly, he translates 礼尚往来, “ceremonies carry the exchange of benefits”, as “etiquette celebrates reciprocity”, recognizing the important role of rituals in Confucian philosophy.ConclusionOverall, the 4-Way Translation approach is essential for the accurate and effective translation of texts. It is important to consider not only the form of the language but also the cultural, religious and political implications of the text in order to properly convey the original intended meaning of the text. The differences between the two translations of The Analects of Confucius discussed in this paper illustrate how varying approaches to translation can change the effect of the text. Consequently, it is clear that when attempting to translate a text, a great deal of thought and consideration is necessary in order to preserve the original meaning of the text.。
《 英汉互译(一)》第1课教案
广西师范学院《英汉互译（一）》课程教案编号: 15-1 开课单位：外语系授课教研室：翻译写作课程名称：《英汉互译（一）》授课教师：唐旭光教材：《新编英汉互译教程》，授课对象：06级英语专业2、3、5班《英汉互译（一）》第一讲翻译简论与主要翻译方法（A Brief Discussion of Translation and Major Translation Approaches）1. IntroductionTranslation studies started along with translation practice. Translation theories developed flourishingly in the 20th century, especially in the second half of the last century.In fact, translation, which is a very complex phenomenon, is related to different disciplines, such as linguistics, psychology, sociology, cultural anthropology, communication theory, literary criticism, aesthetics, and semiotics. As translation study is a cross-discipline and cross-culture subject involving many aspects of human knowledge, the lack of a fully acceptable theory of translation should not come as a surprise. Meanwhile, quite a number of translation approaches and strategies have become universally acceptable and widely applicable. They are, of course, the fruits of many translation theorists and translation practitioners at home and abroad.2.The Origin of TranslationLanguage makes it possible for people to communicate with one another freely so as to complete important tasks in human life. Translation makes it possible for people from different languages to communicate with one another so as to complete important tasks in their life.Theodore Savory points out, “Translation is almost as old as original authorship and has a history as honorable and as complex as that of any other branch of literature”(申雨平, 2002:4).In Zhou Dynasty there were different forms of address for translators in different places. “Translators are called Ji in the east, Xiang in the south, Didi in the west, andYi in the north(东方曰寄，南方曰象，西方曰狄鞮，北方曰译)”（陈福康, 2000:3）.3. Function of TranslationIt has helped people to better communicate with one another, and in the mean time it has facilitated the development of culture and civilization of all nations, such as the Sutra translation （佛经翻译）in China and the Bible translation in Western countries.Actually, translation, as a means to bridge different cultures, has been playing a very important role in promoting global economic and cultural development, and China in particular benefits a great deal from translation, which is obvious to all.4. Nature of translationOne school of theorists maintain that any interpretation is translation. Translation thus defined includes intra-lingual rewording（语言内的重新措辞）, inter-lingual （语言之间的翻译或语际翻译）translation and inter-semiotic transmutation（符号转换）.But most scholars who are interested in translation maintain that translation is a communicative activity which entails a most adequate or identical reproduction in a target language of a written message or text in a source language.5. Definition of translation in our textbook as follows: Translation or translating is a communicative activity or dynamic process in which the translator makes great effort to thoroughly comprehend a written message or text in the source language and works very hard to achieve an adequate or an almost identical reproduction in the target language version of the written source language message or text. In terms of its nature or character, translation is both an art and a science as well, since it calls for a good command of at least two languages, a flexible application of their rules, and some knowledge of at least two cultures, as well as a good grasp of the necessary translation theories.6. Other scholars’ viewpoints about the translation1). The traditional viewpoint about the nature of translation is that translation is an art only. This viewpoint is still maintained by Xu Yuanchong（许渊冲）, a well-known professor at Beijing University, and a few other scholars.2). Professor Liu Zhongde vigorously advocates that translation is a science as well as an art mainly because of the following reasons:Firstly, like any other art and science, translation requires a good grasp and a flexible use of the necessary specialized knowledge and skills.Secondly, like any other art and science, translation calls for independent, honest and creative effort.Thirdly, just like any other art and science, translation demands that the translator be very careful about and highly responsible for his or her work.7. Principle for translationThe 13 statements on page 81). A translation must reproduce the words of the SLT(Source Language Text).2). A translation must reproduce the ideas (meaning) of the SLT.3). A translation should read like an original work.4). A translation should read like a translation.5). A translation should reflect the style of the original.6). A translation should possess the style of the translator.7). A translation should retain the historical stylistic dimension of the SLT.8). A translation should read as a contemporary piece of literature.9). A translation may add to or omit from the original.10). A translation may never add to or omit from the original.11). A translation should let the readers of the SLT and the target language text (TLT) have essentially the same response.12). A translation should convey what the SLT author intends to convey.13). A translation should satisfy the need of the client.Evidently, though each of the above statements is right in a certain sense, yet it is not adequate or comprehensive enough to serve as a translation principle. Some of the principles proposed by various translation theorists can find their expression in the statements given above. Interlinear translation is an illustration of the first statement. Yan Fu’s three-character principle can be a combination of statements 2, 3 and 6. Nida’s functional equivalence is best express ed in statement 11.8. Yan Fu’s Considerations for translation?Strictly speaking, a translation theory in its true sense in China originated from Yan Fu(严复). He proposed the famous triple principle for translation, namely, faithfulness(信), expressiveness(达) and elegance(雅).1). His faithfulness means that the translated text should be faithful to the original text, ie, the version should keep the content or ideas of the original.2). His expressiveness means that the translated text should be expressive and coherent without anything awkward. In other words, his expressiveness requires that the version should be fluid, smooth, and easy to read and understand.3). His elegance demands that the translated text should be exquisite and that its style ought to be very graceful.9. Professor Liu Zhongde argues against “elegance” as a principle for translation of the original styleHe argued eloquently against “elegance” as a principle for translation of the original style. We all know that not all works are characterized by the elegant style. Different writers display different styles. For instance, Lenin wrote in a bold style, and Hemingway wrote in a simple, symbolic style. Even the same writer shows different styles on different occasions for different purposes. Naturally, different works demonstrate different styles. Thus, it is impossible & absolutely wrong to achieve the effect of elegance in the translated text if the style of the original is not elegant.10. The compiler of the textbook in favor of “closeness”1). We are in favor of Professor Liu’s triple translation principle. He changed Yan Fu’s “elegance” into “closeness”, which represents his contribution to the translation theory. His “closeness” is central in meaning. It is suitable for translation of all types of texts with different styles.2). If the original text is characterized by the elegant style, the translator should do his utmost to render it into a graceful text in the target language whose style is close to the original elegant style.If the original style is highly technical with a wealth of technical terms, thetranslator ought to employ plenty of corresponding technical terms in the target language and make the translated style as close to the original technical style as possible.3). If the original style is colloquial with a lot of informal words and colloquial sentences, the translator should translate it into a text with an informal style as close as possible to the original one by using many colloquial words and informal sentences.If the original style is ornate, the translator should follow suit and make effort to render the translated style as close to the original as possible.If the original text contains some vulgar words and sentences, the translator is not entitled to replace them with elegant words or sentences, and he should reproduce the original by using some corresponding vulgar words and sentences in the receptor language. Translators are duty-bound to do so, for the simple reason that they are translators.4). As we know, Yan Fu’s triple translation principle is highly concise and well rhymed and quite easy to learn by heart, which is one of the reasons why it is still very popular in China today.Professor Liu’s triple principle is similar to Yan Fu’s in that it is equally concise and easy to remember.Though Professor Liu’s triple principle is n ot rhymed, yet it is very forceful and impressive, for the Chinese character “切” is uttered in the falling tone, carrying the implication that faithfully conveying the original style or rendering the translated style as close to the original as possible is absolutely necessary and worth the translator’s great effort.11. Nida’s principle for translationEugene A. Nida and Taber stated emphatically (1969:12): “Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.His dynamic equivalence is defined as a translation principle, according to which the translator seeks to translate the meaning of the original in such a way that the target language text wording will produce the same impact on the target text audience as the original wording does upon the source text audience. Later on, Nida changed “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”, because it seemed much more satisfactory to use the expression “functional equivalence” in describing the degree of adequacy of a translation.12. The literal translation approachProfessor Liu Zhongde (1994: 172) defines literal translation as follows: “In the process of translation, literal translation treats sentences as basic units and at the same time takes the whole passage into consideration; a translator who attaches great importance to literal translation does his or her best to reproduce the ideas and writing style of the original work, retaining in the version as many rhetorical devices and sentence structures of the original as possible.”ExamplesHe is said to be a rough diamond.人们说他是一块浑金璞玉。
翻译学词典术语
1.绝对翻译。
Absolute Translation。
按照古阿德克的解释，指专业译员为应付不同翻译要求而采用的七种翻译类型之一。
According to Gouadec,one of 7 types of translation which can be used by professional translators to respond to the various translation requirements2.摘要翻译。
Abstract Translation古阿德提出的用以对付不同翻译要求的七种翻译策略之一。
One of seven strategies proposed by Gouadec to fulfil the various translation needs which arise in a professional environment。
3.滥译。
Abusive Translation。
路易斯用来表示文学翻译中极端做法的一个术语。
A term used by Lewis to refer to a radical approach to literary translation。
4.可接受性。
Accetability。
图里采用的术语，用来指可以从翻译作品中观察到的两种倾向之一。
A term used by Toury to denote one of two tendencies which can be observed in translated texts。
5.准确。
Accuracy。
翻译评估中用来表示译文与原文相符程度的术语。
A term used in translation evaluation to refer to the extent to which a translation matches its original。
6.改编Adaptation。
The Translation Shift Approach
Transposition
• A change of one part of speech for another without changing the sense. • n. →v./ adj./ adv. • v. →n. adj . →v. • e.g. It‘s my conviction that… 我坚信 the correctness of this policy 这个政策是正确的
Borrowing
• The SL word is transferred directly to the TL. • Used to fill a semantic gap in the TL • e.g. sofa 沙发 coffee 咖啡
Examples: From Latin:
January 一月 Iānus 象征结束和开始的神 February 二月 febris 发烧（二月是容易感冒的季节） March 三月 Mars 玛尔斯（罗马神话中的战神） May 五月 Maia 春天之神 June 六月 Iunō 神后；生育和妇女之神 July 七月 Iulius 恺撒的名字（G. Iulius Caesar） August 八月 Augustus 奥古斯都，古罗马王
An important parameter
• Servitude: obligatory transpositions and modulations due to a difference between the two language system. • Option: non-obligatory changes that are due to the translator‘s own style and preference. • The role of the translator is to choose from among the available options to express the nuances of the message.
外语教学方法之语法翻译法、直接发、听说法、交际法
几种外语教学方法比较(一)摘要：外语教学法是研究、教授和学习外语规律的科学。
本文旨在选取不同历史发展阶段影响较大的四种外语教学方法做一比较，对其做出评价，辨析利与弊，以便教师在教学中能够扬长避短，提高自己的教学水平。
关键词：翻译法（ＴｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎＭｅｔｈｏｄ），直接法（ＤｉｒｅｃｔＭｅｔｈｏｄ），听说法（Ａｕｄｉｏ－ｌｉｎｇｕａｌａｐ－ｐｒｏａｃｈ），交际法（ＣｏｍｍｕｎｉｃａｔｉｖｅＡｐｐｒｏａｃｈ）为了使我们的教师能自觉主动地驾驭各种教学法，提高教学质量，本文旨在向同行们介绍一下各种教学法产生的历史背景，理论基础，基本原则及其评价，目的在于提高对教学法理论的的认识和加强对教学实践的指导。
一、翻译法（ＴｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎＭｅｔｈｏｄ）翻译法成为一种科学的教学法体系是近一百年的事。
中世纪希腊语和拉丁语在欧洲盛行，拉丁语是当时欧洲文化教育、著书立说的国际语言及教会和官方语言，当时的教学方法就是翻译法。
到十八、十九世纪，英语、法语兴起，学校开始开设英语、法语等现代语言课程。
由于找不到新的教学方法，语言教学就自然地沿用教授希腊、拉丁语等古典语的翻译法。
翻译法，也有称它为语法翻译法，它的最简单的定义是：用母语教授外语的一种方法。
它的特点是：在外语教学过程中母语与所学外语经常并用。
例如：老师说“ａｐｐｌｅ”，学生马上说出“苹果”。
翻译法是外语教学的原始方法，它是历史的产物，它的产生是外语教学发展的必然。
它培养了大批符合当时社会需要掌握阅读外语能力的人材。
它在外语教学法方面的主要成就是：１、创建了外语教学中利用母语的理论，在教学实践中把翻译既当成教学目的，又当成教学手段。
２、主张讲授语法知识，重视理性，注意磨练学生的智慧，强调在教学中发展学生的智力。
３、主张通过阅读外语名著学习外语，进而培养学生阅读外语的能力。
翻译法所遵循的教学基础原则：１、语音、语法、词汇教学相结合。
２、阅读领先，着重培养阅读与翻译能力，兼顾听说训练。
translation翻译解读
Three key words from the definitions • 2. natural (it is not enough to produce grammatically correct sentencs but idiomatic, natural sentecnces.) Eg. When things happen that you don’t like, you have two choices: You get bitter or better. 发生你不喜欢的事情时，你有两种选择： 要么痛苦不堪，要么痛快达观。
1. Definition of Translation
(P1-3)
英国The Oxford English Dictionary: to turn from one language into another
International Dictionary of the English Language: to turn into one’s own or
• 江 雪 • 柳宗元 • 千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。 • 孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。 • 许渊冲先生译: • Fishing in Snow • From hill to hill no bird in flight, • From path to path no man in sight. • A straw- cloak’d man afloat, behold! • Is fishing snow on river cold. （许先生的形式传译可谓传神,在前两句诗的翻 译上,他不仅用介词短语取代名词词组,而且还替换了 原诗中表动作意义的词,既没有违背目的语的语言规范, 又表达出了原诗空旷孤寂的意境。这正好体现了真正 意义上的“形式对等”。）
阐释学派翻译理论..
（1）理解即是翻译：领悟一种意义便是翻译 无论是从形式还是就其实际过程来看，任何一个交流 行为都隐含着翻译活动，他的“理解即翻译”论断的阐释 学意义在于指出了阐释是翻译的普遍特征，理解和阐释问 题即是译者最关注的根本问题。 （2）翻译的四个步骤 乔治·斯坦纳指出，翻译并不是“意义”简单复制的 过程，而是有“人”这一主体参与的过程，即译者的主体 性。
阐释学的四个翻译步骤： ①信赖trust：是根据以往的经验，读者相信原文是严肃的作品， 言之有物，有翻译的价值。 ②侵入aggression：就是侵占与发掘，可理解为译者知觉中两 种语言之间，两种思想形式之间的冲突。 ③吸收incorporation：是指译者对原文意思进行吸收，给译 文注入新的活力。 ④补偿restitution：是指对翻译过程中的走失进行补偿，即把 原有的东西归还到原来的地方。 斯坦纳的四个翻译步骤，具有深奥的哲理性，贯穿着这样 的观点：在实际翻译过程中，译者不可避免地将个人的生活经 验，文化和历史背景渗入了原文，使翻译变成了对原文的再创 造。并且重视通过词源的研究来解释作品，同时将历时与共时 的概念引入语言研究中，这样翻译便始终贯穿于历时与共时的 语言现象中，而语言交流正是通过翻译来实现的，人类的交流 都等同于翻译。
施莱尔马赫的四点创新之处 （1）他是西方第一个把笔译和口译活动明确区分并加以 阐述的人； （2）他区分了真正的翻译和机械的翻译。前者是指文学 作品和自然科学的翻译，后者指的是实用性的翻译； （3）他看到了人类在语言自由和语言制约之间的辨证关 系：一方面，每个人的思想概念的形成、说话人的智能和 想象等都受到所说语言的制约，另一方面，凡是思想自由、 智能独立的人都能创造语言； （4）他从阐释学的观点切入了翻译和翻译中的诸多问题。
翻译的阐释学派
阐释学理解观 与海德格尔和伽达默尔
一、西方现代阐释学代表任务海德格尔和伽达 默尔的哲学解释学
1、翻译是对原文本的阐释与理解，阐释的过程极 富主观性。 2、翻译研究必须寻回译者这一主体，赋予译者对 理解和阐释文本一定的主观能动性。
二、海德格尔从哲学和阐释学的角度阐述的翻 译思想
1、他这种注意翻译的普遍性与将理解视为人的存 在的本质特点的观点联系起来，体现了阐释学的 广泛适用性。
2、反对一字一译，对号入座的译法，认为翻译的 关键在于表达词语后的“道说”，而“道说”是 无法通过字面的直译传达的。
3、区分了“翻译”和“转渡” 1）认为“转渡”一词与“翻译”一词是“同一 者”，但不是“相同者”； 2）他推崇“意义转渡”代替“字面翻译”； 3）明确指出了翻译的困难——时间的迁移，语言 的畸变，理解的误差以及原意的消隐； 4）语言的本质不是“在场”，在于“缺席”。
新之处）； 最后一章讨论有关文化的各种类型学。
２、主要目的：
阐明翻译乃是语言的基本因素，翻译和语言理 解不可分割的观点。
３、主要观点：
１）理解即是翻译
①翻译包括语内翻译、语际翻译和符际翻译；
②语言的产生和理解过程，实际上乃是翻译过程；
③在传统框架中，语言文学或话语行为造成的理解 困难有三个：作品的“节奏”，词汇，“个人语 汇”；
3）“完美”的翻译就是与原文完全平衡的译作， 即既无不及，又不超越，这应是译者自始自至终追 求的目标。
4）斯坦纳的四个翻译步骤，具有深奥的哲理性， 贯穿着这样的观点：在实际翻译过程中，译者不可 避免地将个人的生活经验，文化和历史背景渗入了 原文，使翻译变成了对原文的再创造。
4、斯坦纳的贡献：
斯坦纳对翻译与理解的关系，造成理解的困难， 译者应追求的目标以及四个翻译模式的论述不乏新 意，对于翻译实践有着重要的参考和借鉴价值。
translation approach
翻译中对文化因素的处理： （1）主要以目的语文化为归宿
（归化：译 者不打扰读 者，尽可能 让作者靠拢 读者）
（2）主要以源语文化为归宿
（异化：译者尽量 不打扰作者，让读 者靠拢作者）
归化(domestication)： 在译文中把源语的文化观念和价值观， 用目的语中的文化观念和价值观来替代， 特别是把原文的比喻、形象和民族地方色 彩等用相应的目的语中的比喻、形象和民 族地方色彩来替代。 异化(foreignization)： 在译文中保留源语的文化观念和价值 观，特别是保留原文的比喻、形象和民族 地方色彩等。
3 .John would not come out of his shell and talk to others at the party. 直译:晚会上，约翰不愿从壳里钻出来与其他人说话。 意译:晚会上，约翰不愿丢掉矜持与别人交谈。 4 He is a rough-and-ready character 直译:他是个粗兽并有准备的人. 意译:他是个粗鲁但尚能顶用的人。
直译，还是意译？这是古今中外翻译界争论 的焦点之一。在我国，自东汉翻译佛经开始 就出现了直译之争；在西方，圣经翻译中也 围绕直意问题大费口舌。时至今日，仍然是 各抒己见，莫衷一是。
(1) 许渊冲的观点：a. 译文和原文相同的形式能表达和原文相同的内容 许渊冲的观点： 可以直译； 时，可以直译；b. 译文和原文相同的形式不能表达和原文相同的内 容时，一般意译； 译文的表达形式比原文精确、有力时， 容时，一般意译；c. 译文的表达形式比原文精确、有力时，可以意 译。 (2) 刘重德的观点：a. 应当直译为主，意译为辅，实事求是，灵活运用。 刘重德的观点： 应当直译为主，意译为辅，实事求是，灵活运用。 b. 凡是能够保存原文意义、形象和语法结构而译文明白通顺的，才 凡是能够保存原文意义、形象和语法结构而译文明白通顺的， 称得上正当的直译；凡是脱离原文的形象或语法结构但对原文意义 称得上正当的直译； 无所损益的，才称得上正当的意译。 对那些结构近似、 无所损益的，才称得上正当的意译。c. 对那些结构近似、取譬相当 的句子，一般说来就应采用直译法；对那些结构和取譬都大相悬殊 的句子，一般说来就应采用直译法； 的句子，就不妨采用意译法；对那些部分相同、部分不相同的句子， 的句子，就不妨采用意译法；对那些部分相同、部分不相同的句子， 则最好把两种方法结合起来。 则最好把两种方法结合起来。 (3) 观点：a. 初学者应注重学习意译方法；b. 不能笼统地说直译比意译 观点： 初学者应注重学习意译方法； 更忠实于原作，更不能处处以直译为第一选择； 更忠实于原作，更不能处处以直译为第一选择；c. 意译不是不得已 而为之的翻译方法，不是在直译不奏效时才可使用的翻译方法。 而为之的翻译方法，不是在直译不奏效时才可使用的翻译方法。
四种英语语言测试法
多项选择题
Multiple-choice questions
多项选择题的构成
• 题干 stem • 备选项 options / responses / alternatives / choices • 正确选项 answer / correct option / key • 干扰项 distractors
四种英语语言测试法
• 写作----翻译法（the essaytranslation approach) • 结构主义/心理测量法(the structuralist-psychometric approach) • 综合法(the integrative approach) • 交际法(the communicative appr• • • 水平测试 proficiency tests 成绩测试 achievement tests 分班测试 placement tests 诊断测试 diagnostic tests 直接性测试 direct tests 间接性测试 indirect tests
测试关键词汇
写作----翻译法(the essaytranslation approach
• 对测试的技能或专长没有专门要求，主 要是依靠教师的主观判断力 • 试卷通常包括翻译、写作和语法等项目 • 内容带有较浓厚的文学或文化色彩 • 试题一般采用书面回答形式，试卷需人 工评阅
结构主义/心理测量法(the structuralist-psychometric approach)
注意事项
• 备选项的内容应合乎逻辑或情理。 e.g. John was highly praised by his teacher because he ____. A. won the first prize at the competition B. participated in the football match C. was able to fly in the air D. could move a container truck
1听力教学教学法与教学模式
1.The Grammar-Translation ApproachTraditionally, listening was not taught in language classes. The first language taught in modern classroom settings were Latin and Greek. The purpose of learning these languages was primarily to learn their grammars. The grammar-translation approach viewed language as a descriptive set of finite rules that, once learned, gave access to language. A grammar-translation syllabus consisted of two components: grammar and lexical items.Learning goals related to listening: None.Comment:the focus of any listening would have been on translation of lexical items or grammar structures.2.The Direct-Method ApproachThe direct-method approach tolanguage teaching (also known asboth the natural and theconversational method> came about as a reaction to the grammar-translation approach. Whereas the grammar-translation approach wasorganized around a step-by-stepmethod if learning the rules of alanguage, often through the use of thefirst language, the direct-methodapproach was based on the idea thatlearners can best learn what is “natural” to them and an oral system of teaching them was appropriate for this purpose. This oral method relied for its effectiveness on the use of monolingual teaching, that is, the L2 was the only language used in the class by the teacher and students. Learning goals related to listening: Listen and answer questions.Comment:It appears that the direct-method approach truly focused on teaching listening skills first and other language skills later.However, it seems that there is no systematic attempt at teaching listening or at developing listening strategies in the learners.It is a difficult method to use above intermediate level because the complexities of the language became too challenging for the approach.3.The Grammar ApproachA grammar approach to listening usually has students look at a written text while they listen to a recording. This forces them to do several things: identify words by their position in the sentence, work out the relationship between words and phrases, use forward and backward inference cues, and make intelligent guesses based on textual cues. This approach is often favored as a classroom approach to listening. The listening exercises are treated aspurely classroom-based activities, which usually have little or no relevance to the outside world, and the tasks students are asked to perform have no real-life function.Learning goals related to listening:To pattern match。
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Literal Translation and Liberal Translation
直译认为，译文应尽力复制原文的语言形式，因为 表达形式反映了表达内容，形式的改变意味着意义 的改变。只有保留原文的表达形式，才能忠实地转 达原文的思想内容。 意译则认为，原语和译语各有自己的表达方式，要 如实传达原文的思想内容，必须改变原文的表达方 式，改变成符合译语习惯的表达方式，否则，译文 就表示不了原文的精神实质。 简言之，主张直译者着重点在于“准确”，而主张 意译者着重点在于“通顺”。
英语句子结构和表达方式与汉语差异较大 的句子
英语句子重“形合”，往往用词形变化、连接词、 分词、定语从句和独立主格结构等表示成分之间的 各种语法关系，句子的外形很严谨；而汉语句子则 重“意合”，由于没有词形变化、定语从句和独立 结构、连接词和分词，所以往往用隐性连贯方式即 “意合”表示各种语法关系，句子的外形看似松散， 动词使用较多。鉴于英汉有上述不同的特点，汉译 时要想完全复制其形式是十分困难的。勉强复制， 势必造成译文词不达意或佶屈聱牙，甚至误解。如：
直译，还是意译？这是古今中外翻译界争论 的焦点之一。在我国，自东汉翻译佛经开始 就出现了直译之争；在西方，圣经翻译中也 围绕直意问题大费口舌。时至今日，仍然是 各抒己见，莫衷一是。
(1) 许渊冲的观点：a. 译文和原文相同的形式能表达和原文相同的内容 许渊冲的观点： 可以直译； 时，可以直译；b. 译文和原文相同的形式不能表达和原文相同的内 容时，一般意译； 译文的表达形式比原文精确、有力时， 容时，一般意译；c. 译文的表达形式比原文精确、有力时，可以意 译。 (2) 刘重德的观点：a. 应当直译为主，意译为辅，实事求是，灵活运用。 刘重德的观点： 应当直译为主，意译为辅，实事求是，灵活运用。 b. 凡是能够保存原文意义、形象和语法结构而译文明白通顺的，才 凡是能够保存原文意义、形象和语法结构而译文明白通顺的， 称得上正当的直译；凡是脱离原文的形象或语法结构但对原文意义 称得上正当的直译； 无所损益的，才称得上正当的意译。 对那些结构近似、 无所损益的，才称得上正当的意译。c. 对那些结构近似、取譬相当 的句子，一般说来就应采用直译法；对那些结构和取譬都大相悬殊 的句子，一般说来就应采用直译法； 的句子，就不妨采用意译法；对那些部分相同、部分不相同的句子， 的句子，就不妨采用意译法；对那些部分相同、部分不相同的句子， 则最好把两种方法结合起来。 则最好把两种方法结合起来。 (3) 观点：a. 初学者应注重学习意译方法；b. 不能笼统地说直译比意译 观点： 初学者应注重学习意译方法； 更忠实于原作，更不能处处以直译为第一选择； 更忠实于原作，更不能处处以直译为第一选择；c. 意译不是不得已 而为之的翻译方法，不是在直译不奏效时才可使用的翻译方法。 而为之的翻译方法，不是在直译不奏效时才可使用的翻译方法。
5_He got into trouble when he paid his bills with rubber checks.
直译:他用橡皮支票付账，并给自己带来了麻烦
意译:他用空头支票结账，并给自己带来了麻烦
6 .Frank ran circles around the other boys on the basketball team. 直译:弗兰克绕着篮球队的其他男孩儿转圈。 意译:在篮球队里弗兰克的技术最好 7 .On a rainy day the children sometimes ran their mother ragged. 直译:在雨天，孩子们有时候把他们的母亲跑得衣衫槛楼。 意译:在雨天，孩子们有时候把他们的母亲闹得筋疲力尽。
3 .John would not come out of his shell and talk to others at the party. 直译:晚会上，约翰不愿从壳里钻出来与其他人说话。 意译:晚会上，约翰不愿丢掉矜持与别人交谈。 4 He is a rough-and-ready character 直译:他是个粗兽并有准备的人. 意译:他是个粗鲁但尚能顶用的人。
Translation Approach
Kirsten Qi Hebei University of Engineering
Literal Translation and Liberal Translation Foreignization and Domestication Formal Equivalence and Dynamic Equivalence
直译:没有经验的人一想到改善世界就会眼睛里面冒 星星。
意译:没有经验的人一想到改善世界就迫不及待。
在翻译具有文学艺术性的文字时， 一般要采取比较自由的翻译方法， 即意译的方法，使原作的艺术特征 和文字美尽可能地体现出来。试看 下例：
As far as sight could reach, I feasted my eyes on a vastness of infinite charm, which presented itself in a profound of color, in verdant luxuriance, in dulcet warbling, in pervading perfume, in rippling undulation, in cataract sprays, in hilly waves, in field criss-cross and verily in vitality and variety.
假如对上面两句采取直译法，译文只能诘誳聱牙， 不堪卒读。但是，凡事皆有度。过分强调直译，势 必走向死译、机械翻译的极端；过分强调意译，也 有可能走向歪译、胡译的另一个极端。只要肯下功 夫，两者可以结合好。例如 Water is king in Californian farmlands. (Whitney Otto: How to Make an American Quit) 水是加利福尼亚农田的命脉。（林乙兰译：《编织 恋爱梦》）
go to one’s external rest 安息； the long sleep 长眠； see Marx 见马克思； go west 上西天； go to heaven 上天堂；
Significance of Liberal Translation
Adam’s apple 喉结 at sixes and sevens 乱七八糟 One boy is a boy, two boys half a boy, three boys no boy. 一个和尚跳水吃，两个和尚抬水吃，三个和尚没水吃
翻译中对文化因素的处理： （1）主要以目的语文化为归宿
（归化：译 者不打扰读 者，尽可能 让作者靠拢 读者）
（2）主要以源语文化为归宿
（异化：译者尽量 不打扰作者，让读 者靠拢作者）
归化(domestication)： 在译文中把源语的文化观念和价值观， 用目的语中的文化观念和价值观来替代， 特别是把原文的比喻、形象和民族地方色 彩等用相应的目的语中的比喻、形象和民 族地方色彩来替代。 异化(foreignization)： 在译文中保留源语的文化观念和价值 观，特别是保留原文的比喻、形象和民族 地方色彩等。
例1．You have my sympathy. 直译：你有我的同情。 意译：我同情你。
例2．Nothing has been done that can not be done better. 直译：没有什么已被做过的事情 不能被做得更好。 意译：任何事情都有改进的余地。
例3．March 1990 found me working in a small construction firm. 直译：1990年3月发现我在一家小型建 筑公司工作。 意译：1990年3月我在一家小型建筑公 司工作。
纵目眺望，我饱览了一片无限娇媚 的风光：万紫千红。郁郁葱葱，鸟 语悦耳，花香袭人，涟漪荡漾，瀑 布飞流，层峦起伏，阡陌纵横，真 是生机勃勃，气象万千。
Foreignization and Domestication
翻译界直译(literal translation)与意译(liberal translation)之争,可谓由来已久。而归化 (domesticating translation)与异化 (foreignizing translation)之争,则是直译与意 译之争的延伸。随着文化日益成为翻译的重 心,归化异化孰优孰劣的争论声也越来越大。
Successful literal translation
Armed to the teeth 武装到牙齿 Gentlemen’s agreement 君子协定 Chain reaction 连锁反映 Crocodile’s tears 鳄鱼泪 Borrowed garment never fits well. 借来的衣服不合体 The proof of the pudding is in the eating 要知道布丁的滋味，就要亲自吃一吃。When toFra bibliotekUse Them
我们认为：（1）方式和方法要服从于目的的要求； （2）在方式、方法问题上，不一定采取非此即彼 的态度。从根本上说，直译或意译都是表达方式问 题。在翻译过程中，那种方式能较好体现“忠实、 通顺”的翻译标准，就采取那种方式。能直译时则 直译，不能直译则意译；需要直意结合时，那就在 直译的基础上意译，或曰直意参半。正如矛盾先生 所说：“直译的意义就浅处来说，只是‘不枉改原 文的字句’；就深处说‘能保留原文的情调与风 格’。
Choice of The Two Approaches
英语句子结构和表达方式与汉语相似的句子 英语句子结构和表达方式与汉语差异较大的句子
英语句子结构和表达方式与 汉语相似的句子
英语和汉语在句子结构方面有一定的相似性。 从句成分来看，英语和汉语都有主语、谓语、 宾语、定语、状语。尤其是主语和谓语，从 本质上讲都是英语和汉语句子的主干部分， 它们的基本句型也无太大的区别。在英汉句 子结构基本对应的情况下，应以直译为主。 如：