New words formation
英语词的构成八种方式
Word Formation Processes of English1.Borrowing(外来词）-——One of the most common sources of new words in English, that is, the taking over of words from other languages。
Eg: alcohol（Arabic）boss（Dutch) piano（Italian）Tycoon(Japanese）yogurt（Turkish）Kunfu（Chinese）pounding（合成词)——-This is a very productive source of new terms. A joining of two separate words can produce a single form。
Eg: bookcase fingerprint sunburn wallpaper waterbed classmate wastebasket3.Blending（混成词）—--The beginning of one word is joined to the end of another word. The is the way how a Blending formed。
Eg: Chinese + English=Chinglish(中国式英语）Spanish + English = Spanglish（西班牙式英语）smoke + fog = smog(烟雾）breakfast + lunch = brunch(早午餐）Climb + maximum= climax(高潮）television + broadcast= telecast（电视广播）Motor + hotel= motel（汽车旅馆)information + entertainment= infotainment（信息娱乐)4.Clipping（缩略词）-—-Clipping comes from the element of reduction, which is also a commonly used way of new forms in English。
新编英语词汇学教程 第二版 Chapter 4 Word Formation
Word Formation
CONTENT
1
Introduction
2 Root, stem and affix
3 Inflection and derivation
4
Ordinary processes of word formation
5
Other processes of word formation
4.2 Root, stem and affix
• A free root is one which can stand alone as a word such as help, care and walk. Nevertheless, there are some roots that can not stand alone but combine with other morphemes to form words, such as -ceive in receive and conceive, -mit in permit and submit, -tain in retain and maintain, and -cur in incur and occur. Elements like -ceive, -mit, -tain, and -cur are all roots, but they are meaningless independent of other morphemes,and such roots are called bound roots. Bound roots are limited in number as opposed to free roots, but they are useful to enrich our the vocabulary.
《英语词汇学》串讲笔记2
Chapter 4Word Formation II一、【考情分析】本章主要考核的知识点为：词缀法，复合法，转类法，拼缀法，截短法，首字母缩略法，逆生法，专有名词普通化。
通过对本章的学习，考生应该了解现代英语的主要构词法，这些构词法在英语词汇发展中的地位，提高构词能力，自觉扩大词汇量。
在历年考试中：常常以选择题，名词解释，填空题的形式对本章知识点进行考核。
二、【知识串讲】重点知识锦集：1. The expansion of vocabulary in modern English depends chiefly on word-formation.2. According to the positions which affixes occupy in words, affixes falls into two subclasses:prefixation and suffixation.（前缀和后缀）3. Affixation is also known as derivation.4. Prefixes do not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning.5. Suffixes have only a small semantic role, their primary function being to change the grammatical function of stems. In other words, they mainly change the word class.6. We shall group suffixes on a grammatical basis into noun suffixes, verb suffixes, adjective suffixes, etc.7. Compounds can be written solid, hyphenated and open.（连写的，加连字符号的，不连写的）8. Most compounds consist of only two stems but are formed on a rich variety of patterns and the internal grammatical relationships within the words are considerably complex.9. Conversion is also known as functional shift.（功能转换）10. Words produced by conversion are primarily nouns, adjectives, and verbs.11. The most productive, however, is the conversion that takes place between nouns and verbs.12. Unlike verbs, not all adjectives which are converted can achieve a full noun status. Some are completely converted, thus known as full conversion,（完全转换）others are only partially converted, hence partial conversion.（部分转换）13. Blending（拼缀法）is a very productive process and many coinages resulting from blending have become well-established.14. As far as the structure is concerned, blends fall into four major groups: head+tail, head+head, head+word, word+tail.15. The overwhelming majority of blends are nouns.16. Blends are mostly used in writing related to science and technology, and to newspapers and magazines.17. There are four common types of clipping: front clipping, back clipping, front and back clipping, phrase clipping.18. Both intialisms and acronyms have become very popular since the Second World War and thus extremely productive.19. Words created through back-formation are mostly verbs.20. Stylistically, back-formed words are largely informal and some of them have not gained public acceptance.21. Open compounds look like free phrases as the elements forming each word are writtenseparately.22. As a rule, the stress of compounds falls on the first element.23. A compound functions as a single grammatical unit, so the internal structure can not be changed.24. Conversion（转换法）refers to the use of words of one class as that of a different class.25. Partial conversion and full conversion are concerned with adjectives when converted to nouns.名词解释：1. affixation（词缀法）: Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems.2. prefixation（前缀法）: Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.3. suffixation（后缀法）: Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems.4. compounding（合成法）: Compounding, also called composition, is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems. Words formed in this way are called compounds.5. conversion（转换法）: Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.6. blending（拼缀法）: Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. Words formed in this way are called blends or pormanteau words.7. clipping（截短法）: Another common way of making a word is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead. This is called clipping.8. acronymy（首字母拼音法）: Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.9. initialisms（首字母缩略词）: Initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter.10. acronyms（首字母拼音词）: Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word.11. back-formation（逆生法）: Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. It’s therefore the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes.论述问答题：1. In what aspects do compounds differ from free phrases?答：Compounds differ from free phrases in the following three aspects:1). Phonetic features. In compounds the word stress usually occurs on the first element whereas in noun phrases the second element is generally stressed if there is only one stress.2). Semantic features. Compounds are different from free phrases in semantic unity. Every compound should express a single idea just as one word.3). Grammatical features. A compound tends to play a single grammatical role in a sentence, for example, a verb, a noun, or an adjective.2. What is the best way to classify prefixes? Why?答：Prefixes do not usually change the word-class of the stem but only modify lts meaning. Although present-day English finds an increasing number of class-changing prefixes, they make up only an insignificant number in the huge contemporary vocabulary. It might be the best way to classify prefixes by their non-class-changing feature.3. In what way are compound verbs generally formed? Give examples to illustrate your point.答：Compound verbs are created either through conversion or back-formation. This could be illustrated by two words, nickname and chain-smoker. Nickname, which is originally a noun, can be used as a verb through conversion. Chain-smoker, which is originally a noun, can turn into a verb through back-formation.4. What is the difference between partial and full conversion? Explain them with examples. 答：When converted to nouns, not all adjectives can achieve a full noun status. Some are completely converted, thus known as full conversion, others are only partially converted, hence partial conversion. When a noun fully converted from an adjective has all the characteristics of a noun, it can take an indefinite article or-(e)s to indicate singular or plural number. For example, adjective “white”can be fully converted to a noun “white”, which can take indefinite article: a white. When a noun partially converted from adjectives do not possess all the qualities a noun does. They must be used together with the definite article, and they retain some of the adjective features. For example, the poor, the rich.5. Both back-formation（逆生法）and back-clipping（截后留前）are ways of making words by removing the endings of words. How do you account for the coexistence of the two? Can you explain the difference?答：Back-formation is the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes. It’s considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. For example, “loafer”may be assumed to derive from the verb “loaf”’on the analogy of known derivatives, such as “swimmer” from “swim” or “driver” from “drive”. By removing the supposed suffixes –er from “loafer”, a verb “loaf”‟is coined. Majority of back-formed words are verbs. Back-clipping is different. The deletion occurs at the end of the word(usually a noun). Both the original long word and its short form remain in the same word class. In diffe rent context, one could be used in other‟s place.6. After he comes back, he oiled machine.In above sentence, which word is the converted word? Explain the type of the conversion and the effect of the conversion.答：In this sentence, the word “oil”is the converted word. It is converted from a noun to a verb. When it was used as a noun, the meaning of it is that “油”. But in this sentence, it was used as a verb, the meaning is “给…加油”; As is often the case, a noun can be converted to a verb without any change. The use of the verb converted is both economical and vivid.Chapter 5Word Meaning一、【考情分析】本章主要考核的知识点为：“意义”的意义，词义的理据，词义的类别。
Word Formation 构词法
It is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword. Ex. WB → world bank EEC → European Economic Community
汉语中特有的构词法
重叠法 • 重叠法是汉藏语系诸语言中常见语法手段 之一。 • 重叠法就是把词语重叠起来使用。词语重 叠式汉语独特的现象，汉语中的各类实词 几乎都可以重叠使用。 • 词语重叠分为完全重叠和部分重叠两种方 式。
汉语中叠音构词法比较活跃，可分 为四种：
• AA型： 慢慢 、滔滔、爷爷 • ABB型：笑嘻嘻、阴森森 • AAB型： 毛毛雨 • ABAC型： 慌里慌张、傻里傻气 叠音词一般都是有某种情感意义，主要起描 写作业。另外，叠音词的使用还可以带来 音韵节律和谐的效果，渲染衬托气氛，增 强语言的表现力。
He downห้องสมุดไป่ตู้d his beer and left.
Are you out to your parents? The company has bad its share of ups and downs.
英语特有的构词法
•Class shift •Borrowing •Blending •Bank-formation
复合式
•联合型或叫并列式：有两个意义相同，
相近或相关词根组成。
•如： •途径 体制 价值 关闭 骨肉 尺寸 国家 动静 质 量
偏正型
前一词根修饰限制后一词根
如： 秘制 蜡黄 火红 游记 新潮 壁纸
补充型
提高 车辆 马皮 人口 羊群
英语语言学概论Word Formation (12英语2班 陈楠组)
Front clipping: "phone" from telephone Back clipping: "ad" from advertisement Front and back clipping: "flu" from influenza ④Phrase clipping: "pub" from public house
narrow-minded（心胸狭窄的）
five-star
（五星的）
（3）复合动词 : dry-clean mass-produce sleepwalk air-drop
（干洗） （大批量生产） （夜游） （空投）
3.截成法(clipping):
Clipping is to shorten a long word by cutting a part off the original and use what has remained as a word.
Word formation can also be contrasted with the formation of idiomatic expressions, although words can be formed from multi-word phrases (see compound and incorporation).
converting words of one part of speech to the words of another part of speech, without changes in morphological structures. Words created are new only in a grammatical sense.
词汇学第四章word formation (课堂PPT)
An example has been done for you.
Word
prefix
root
retell
re
tell
ex-wife
misleading
multimedia
automobile
microcomputer
vice-chairman
Observe the words and their roots or stems, do you think
it is the formation of new words by adding prefix to stems.
• Features:
non-class changing
• Exceptions:
class-changing prefixes
In modern English, there are small part of
every word enjoys the same part of speech with its root or
stem?
2020/4/5
5
• On semantic basis, prefixes are divided into
ten groups:
① Negative Prefixes否定前缀 ② Reversative or privative prefixes逆反前缀 ③ Pejorative prefixes贬义前缀 ④ Prefixes of degree or size表范围和程度的前缀 ⑤ Prefixes of orientation and attitude表方向和态度的前缀 ⑥ Locative prefixes方位前缀 ⑦ Prefixes of time and order表时间和顺序的前缀 ⑧ Number prefixes数字前缀 ⑨ Conversion prefixes转化前缀 ⑩ Miscellaneous prefixes其他类型的前缀
Word-Formation 词汇学论文构词法-
Word-FormationAbstract : A further way besides borrowing in which the vocabulary of English has expanded to accommodate to the natural and social world in which it is used has been to employ means internal to the language itself for devising new word. This is the area of word-formation. Morphological productivity can be defined as the property of a given word formation process to be used to derive a new word in a systematic fashion. Most linguists divide the word-formation into major word-formation and minor word-formation .The major word-formational processes are :-Affixation-Compounding-ConversionThe minor word-formational processes are :-Abbreviation-Back formation-OnomatopoeiaKey Word : affixation, derivative, compounding, abbreviation, onomatopoeia1 AffixationAffixation, also called derivation, is a process in which a free morph is combined with a bound morph, a prefix, or a suffix. It is generally defined as the formation of words by adding derivational affixes to different types of bases . There are two types of derivative . One bases on free root with affix or bound root , the other bases on bound with affix or other bound root .1.1 Types of affixes- prefixes- suffixes- infixesModern English has a number of highly productive affixes. For example, the prefix over can be added to verbs which express activities to indicate that too much has taken place, i.e. something has been overdone, cf. overcook, overcoat, overstay. Likewise, the suffix –n ess can be added to an adjective make a noun designating the quality express by the adjective, its nouniness, so to speak.1.2Two types of derivative’s structure1.2.1 Free root + affix/bound root1) prefix + free roote.g.: In definite (a. uncertain), un forgettable (a. memorable) , mini bus (coach)2)free + suffixe.g. : wealth y (a. rich) , success ful (a, achieving aims) , extreme ly(adv, to a very high de.g.ree) , comfortab ly(adv. in a comfortableway)3)prefix +free root + suffixe.g. : en rich ment (a. sb/sth being rich or richer) , in ternation al (a.connected with two or more countries) , unchangeable (a. that can notbe changed)4)combining form + free roote.g. Afro-American , Afro-Asian , techno-chemistry , microwave1.2.2Bound root + affix/bound root1)prefix + bound root (without formation)e.g. contradict (v. to say sb has said is wrong) , descend (v. go down) ,despair (v. give up all hope)2)bound root (without formation)+ suffixe.g. confidence (n. trust in) , liberate (v. emancipation) , linguist (n. aperson who knows several foreign languages well)3)prefix + bound root (without formation)e.g. distinctive (a. special ) , intolerable (a. can’t bear) , contradiction(n. a lack of agreement between facts)24)combining form + combining forme.g. macrobiosis (n. long life) , microscope (n. an instrument used inscientific study for making very small thing look larger)2CompoundingComposition or compounding is a word-formation process consisting of joining two or more bases to form a new unit, that is, a compound. Compounding is perhaps the most common way of expanding the vocabulary of English. It allows users to combine two familiar words to form a new lexeme.Very often compounds are written as two words, which means that they are accepted into dictionaries a little reluctantly. Certainly, dictionaries seem not to list compounds in anything like the numbers in which they are in use. This may be justified perhaps because compounds are frequently transparent and their meanings are relatively accessible without a dictionary. Furthermore, many of them do not become lexicalized, but have a very transitory life.According to the words’characteristic, there are compound nouns, compound adjectives , compound pronouns , compound verbs , compound adverbs , etc .2.1Compound Nounsn. + n.: bar code , mouse mat , Websitea. + n.: blueprint , compact discadv. + n.: off chance , overdose , underclothes-ing + n.: learning strate.g.y , marketing campaign , parking metern. + v.: daybreak , earthquake , parking meteradv + n : downfall , income , offset , output , upliftv. + adv.: get-together , handout , makeupn. + -ing: air-conditioning , brainstorming , family planningprep.+n.: afternoon , by-product , overcoat2.2Compound AdjectivesAs adjective is a core : airsick , band-new ; dark-blue , icy-cold ;3all-mighty , evergreen , overripeAs noun is a core : blue-collar , present-day ; breaknecl , cross-country ;chicken-hearted , dog-eared , wine-coloredAs –ing or –ed is a core : energy-saving , epoch-marking ; easy-going ,far-reaching ; mass-produced , poverty-stricken ; absent-minded ,half-done , newly-built2.3Compound Verbs1)Formed by back-formation : house-keep from housekeeperwindowshop from window-shoppinghenpeck from henpecked2)Formed by conversion : to blue-printto cold-shoulderto honeymoon3) adv. + v. : cross-questionoffsetoverthrow3ConversionConversion is a word-formation whereby a word of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of another without the addition of an affix. It is also called zero derivation. In other words, conversion or zero derivation is a type word class change without the addition, removal ,or change of any element in the word. In this process a noun maybe used as a verb or a verb can be used as a noun. Furthermore, a noun can be used attributively as an adjective. The most frequent type of conversion is from noun to verb, probably because there are so relatively few verbalizing affixes in English.3.1 n.→ v.1)to put in/on, such as, bottle(n.)→to bottle(=to put …into a bottle)2)to give, to provide with, such as, butter(n.) →to butter(=to spread butteron)3)to deprive of, such as, skin(n.) →to skin(=to remove the skin from)44)to…with, such as, hammer(n.) →to hammer(=to strike with a hammer)5)to be/act as …with respect to, such as, ape(n) →to ape(=to imitate like aape)6)to make/change…into, such as, fool(n.) →to fool(=to make a fool of)7)to send…/go by, such as, bicycle(n.) →to bicycle(=to go by bicycle)3.2adj.→ v.bare(adj.) →to bare, calm(adj.) →to clam, brave(adj.) →to brave3.3v.→ n.Verb converting into noun express the verb’s original action or condition mostly, such as, attempt, look, swim, smile, walk, etc.3.4adj.→ n.Most adjective can be used as noun, such as, an American, an Canadian,etc. There are three type of conversion, full conversion, partial conversionand special conversion.3.5n.→ adj.a brick garage (The garage is brick.)a cotton dress (The dress is cotton.)a gold watch, an iron box, the job market4ShorteningAbbreviation or shortening is the way of shortening or simplifying syllables to make new words. There are various forms of abbreviation, but main forms are four: clipped word, initialism, acronym, blend.4.1 ClippingsSpeakers of English have a great tendency to shorten words. This term refers to the process by which a word of two or more syllables is shortened without a change in its function taking place. It includes apocope, aphaeresis, front and back clipping, and syncope.1) Apocopeapprox.← approximately, auto← automobile52) Aphaeresisburger→ hamburger, bus→ omnibus3) Front and back clippingsThe shortening may occur at the start and the end of the word. e.g., flu(=influenza) / fridge(=refrigerator) / tec(=detective)4) Syncopefluidics← fluidonics, fossilation← fossilizationContractions which is the clipping word with punctuation also can be regarded as this type.4.2 Initialisms and AcronymsInitialisms are words from the initial letters of words which are pronounced as sequences of letters e.g., EEC. Acronyms are also formed from the initial letters of words, but are pronounced as a word, e.g. radar(radio detecting and ranging). Acronyms have always been an integral part of computer culture, and they have since spawned a new language on the Internet. Commonly thought of as a series of letters that make up a “word” there is a distinction between acronyms and shorthand.4.3BlendsBlends are words formed by combining the first element of the first word and the last element of the second word. Blends are created originally for comic effect. Following are some examples:Chunnel(=channel + tunnel) / brunch(=breakfast + lunch) / motel(=motorist+hotel)5Back-formationBack-formation is the process of word-building by which elements are subtracted from a complex word.e.g. beggar---beg burglar---burgleThe majority of backformed words are verbs. There are two types of syntactic relation in verb compounds formed by backformation:1)Object + verb as sightsee (from sight-seeing) meaning somebody sees6sights. Similar examples are: globe-trot(from globe-trotter orglobe-trotting).2)Adverbial + verb, as spring-clean (from spring-cleaning) meaningsomebody cleans in the spring.Back-formations of all kinds are more frequently found in informal than in formal language.6OnomatopoeiaOnomatopoeia is a word-formation which imitate the sound. Imitative words are words formed by imitation of sound. Imitative words divide into primary onomatopoeia and secondary onomatopoeia.The barking of a dog.The crack of a whip.The roll of thunder.The tinkling of bells.There are three types of words formed by imitation of sound:1)The repetition of words: quack; ticktack2)The repetition of words with a vowel change: clitter-clatter; ping-pong;tick-tack.3)Repeating one or more syllables with a consonant change : rub-a-dubt;ran-danReference: Wang Rongpei, Wang Zhijiang, An Advanced Reader of English Lexicology, Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2006汪榕培，王之江，《英语词汇学》，上海外语教育出版社，2008789。
Word Formation：词汇构成 详解
Word Formation：词汇构成详解Word formation is the process of constructing words from their constituent parts. It involves both the creation and alteration of existing words, which are known as morphological operations. Word formation includes the use of prefixes, suffixes, infixes, compounding, reduplication and more.Prefixes are word elements added to the beginning of a word that modify its meaning. They come from other languages, such as Latin and Greek, and have been adapted into English. Examples of common prefixes include “un-” (not), “dis-” (opposite or reverse), and “re-” (again).Suffixes are word elements added to the end of a word that modify its meaning. Examples of common suffixes in English include "-ing" (present participle), "-ed" (past tense), and "-ize" (to make).Infixes are word elements that are added within a word, usually to modify its meaning. In English, there are few true infixes; most examples are truncated versions of words, such as the informal past tense form "-ed" ("I walk-ed").Compounding is the process of combining two or more words to create a new, single word. Examples of compound words in English include "sunflower," "sunlight," and "sunshine." Reduplication is a type of word formation that involves either repeating part or all of a word. Reduplication can be used to convey emphasis or to add a humorous effect. Examples of reduplication in English include "pitter-patter" and "fancy-shmancy."Blending is another type of word formation in which two words are combined to create a new one. Commonly used blends include "chillax" (chill+relax) and "bromance" (brother+romance).Clipping is a type of word formation in which part of a word is removed. This is done to create a shorter version of the word, often for convenience or to reduce ambiguity. Examples of clipped words used in English include "fridge" (refrigerator) and "fax" (facsimile).Back-formation is a process of word formation in which a “new” word is created by removing a suffix from an existing word. Often the resulting word has a different meaning than the original. Examples of back-formation in English include "edit" (from editor) and "burgle" (from burglar).Conversion is a type of word formation in which a word changes its part of speech without any changes to its spelling or pronunciation. It involves taking a verb or noun and turning it into an adjective or adverb. Examples of conversion in English include "careless" (from "to care"), "homely" (from "home"), and "slowly" (from "slow").Word formation is an important part of language, as it allows us to expand our vocabulary and communicate more effectively. By understanding the various processes involved in word formation, we can communicate more accurately and clearly.。
基础英语学习 WORD FORMATION
Backformation
A word of one type(usually a noun) is reduced to form a word of another type (usually a verb)
Example = aspirin, nylon, vaseline and teflon.
An eponym is the name of a person or thing, whether real or fictitious, after which a particular place, tribe, era, discovery, or other item is named or thought to be named.
Kamhmu
We could view these inserted forms as a special version of infixing in English. However, a much better set of examples can be provided from Kamhmu, a language spoken in South East Asia.
Example : “young urban professional”,plus the –ie suffix, as in hypocorism,to produce the word yuppie
THANKS FOR YOUR ATTENTION…
Example : telly ( television), movie ( moving pictures)
英语词汇学 章节整理
英语词汇学笔记之-----章节部分2010.1.11===================================第一章1. Word —— A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.2. There is no logical relationship between sound and meaning as the symbolic connection between them is arbitrary and conventional. E.g. ―woman‖ means ’Frau’ in German，’Femme’ in French and ’Funv ’in Chinese. On the other hand，the same sound /rait/ can mean right，rite and write，though denoting different things，yet have the same sound.3. The difference between sound and form result from 4 major factors.（At least 80%of the English words fit consistent spelling patterns）a）. the internal reason is English alphabet does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language.b）. Pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spellingc）. Influence of the work of scribes/printing freezes the spelling of words in 1500d）. Borrowing of foreign language4. Vocabulary —— Vocabulary is most commonly used to refer to the sum total of all the words of a language. It can also refer to all the words of a given dialect，a given book，a given subject and all the words possessed by an individual person as well as all the words current in a particular period of time in history.The general estimate of the present day English vocabulary is over 1 million words.5.Classification of Words—by use frequency，by notion，by origin1）. Basic word stock – the foundation of the vocabulary.1. all national character （most important）– natural phenomenamost common things and phenomena of the human body and relationsworld around us names of plants and animalsaction，size，domain，statenumerals，pronouns，prep. ，conj.2. stability – they donate the commonest thing necessary to life，they are like to remain unchanged. Only relative，some are undergoing some changes. But the change is slow.e.g. arrow，bow，chariot，knight – pastelectricity，machine，car，plane —— now3. productivity – they are mostly root words or monosyllabic words，they can form new words with other roots and affixes.e.g. foot – football，footage，footpath，footer4. polysemy – often possess more than one meaning. Become polysemous.e.g. take to move or carry from one place to anotherto remove5. collocability – quite a number of set expressions，idiomatic usages，proverbial saying and otherse.g. heart – a change of heart，a heart of goldNon-basic vocabulary ——1. terminology – technical termsphotoscanning，hepatitis，indigestion，penicillin，algebra，trigonometry，calculus2. jargon – specialized vocabulary in certain professions.Bottom line，ballpark figures，bargaining chips，hold him back，hold him in，paranoid3. slang —— substandard words often used in informal occasionsdough and bread，grass and pot，beaver，smoky，bear，catch，holler，Roger，X-rays，Certain words are labeled slang because of their usage.4. argot – words used by sub-cultured groupscan-opener，dip，persuadercant，jargon ，argot are associated with，or most available to，specific groups of the population.5. dialectal words – only by speakers of the dialectbeauty，chook，cocky，station，auld，build，coo，hame，lough，bog6. archaisms – words no longer in common use or restricted in use. In older poems，legal document and religious writing or speech.7. neologism – newly created words with new meaning e.g. microelectronics，futurology，AIDS，internet，E-mailold meaning acquired new meaning e.g. mouse，monitor2）. Content word （notional word）– denote clear notions.Functional word （empty word，form word）– do not have notions of their own，express the relation between notions，words and sentences.a. Content words constitute the main body of the English vocabulary are numerous.Functional words are in a small number.b. Content words are growing.Functional words remain stable.c. Functional words do far more work of expression than content words.3）. Native words – are words brought to Britain in the 15 century by the German tribes. Ango-Saxon Words，50，000-60，000What is true of the basic word stock is also true of native world. More are1. neutral in style （not stylistical specific ）2. 2.frequent in use （in academic fields and science French，Latin or Greek are used）（usage 70-90%）Borrowed words （loan words，borrowing）– words taken over from foreign language. 80%According to the degree of assimilation and manner of borrowing，we can bring the loan words under 4 classes.1.Denizens – words borrowed early and now are well assimilated into English language.e.g. port from portus（L）shift，change，shirt，porkcup from cuppa（L）2.Aliens – retained their original pronunciation and spellinge.g. décor（F）blitzkreeg（G）emir，intermez，rowtow，bazaar，rajar，status quo3.translation loans – formed from the existing material in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken from another language.1）. Word translated according to the meaninge.g. mother tough from lingua maternal（L）black humor from humor noirlong time no see，surplus value，master piece2）. Words translated according to the sounde.g. kulak from kyrak（Russ）lama from lama（Tib）ketchuptea4. Semantic loans – their meaning are borrowed from another languagee.g. stupid old dumpnew sassydream old joy and peacepioneer old explorer/person doing pioneering worknew a member of the young pioneerfresh old impertinent，sassy，cheeky++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++第二章1.Indo-European language family （Europe，the Near East，India）Balto –Slavic Indo-Iranian Italic GermanicPrussian Persian Portuguese NorwegianLithuanian Hindi Spanish IcelandiePolish Italian DanishBulgarian Roumanian SwedishSlovenian French EnglishRussian GermanAlbanian Armenian Celtic HellenicIrish GreekBretonScottish2. History （时间，历史事件，特征）1）Old English （450-1150）totally 50，000-60，000 wordsThe 1st people known to inhabit England were Celts，the language was Celtic.The second language was the Latin of the Roman Legions.The Germanic tribes called angles，Saxons and Jutes and their language，Anglo-Saxon dominated and blotted out the Celtic. Now people refer toAnglo-Saxon as old English.At the end of 6th century，the introduction of Christianity has a great impact on the English vocabulary.The common practice was to create new words by combining two native words.In the 9th century，many Scandinavian words came into English. At least 900 words of Scandinavian are in modern English，our daily life and speech.特点：highly inflected languagecomplex endings or vowel changes （full ending）2）Middle English （1150-1500）English，Latin，FrenchUntil 1066，although there were borrowings from Latin，the influence on English was mainly Germanic. But the Norman Conquest started a continual flow of French words into English.By the end of the 13th century，English gradually come back into public areas.Between 1250 and 150 about 9000 words of French origin come into English. 75% of them are till in use today.As many as 2500 words of Dutch origin come into English.特点：fewer inflectionsleveled ending3）Modern English （1500-up to now）early modern English （1500-1700）late modern English（1700-up to now）The Renaissance，Latin and Greek were recognized as the languages of the Western world’s great literary heritage.The Industrial Revolution was in the mid-17 century. With the growth of colonization，British tentacles began a stretching out of to every corner of the globe，thus enabling English to absorb words from all major languages of the world.After World War II，many new words have been created to express new ideas，inventions and scientific achievements.More words are created by means of word-formation.thousands and thousands of new words have been entered to express new ideas inventions，and scientific achievements.more words are created by means of word-formation.in modern English，word endings were mostly lost with just a few exceptions English has evolved from a synthetic language to the present analytic language.science and technology terms make up about 45% of new words. words associated with life-style constitute of 24% and social and economic terms amount to over 10% .mention should be made of an opposite process of development i.e. old words falling out if use.特点：ending are almost lost.3. Three main sources new words1.The rapid development of modern science and technology2.Social，economic and political changes3.The influence of other cultures and languages4. Three modes of vocabulary development1. Creation – the formation of new words by using the existing materials，namely roots，affixes and other elements. （This is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.）2. Semantic change - an old form which take on a new meaning to meet the new need.3. Borrowing – to take in words from other languages.（particularly in earlier time）4. （Reviving archaic or obsolete）French 30%，Latin 8%，Japanese Italian 7%，Spanish 6%，German Greek 5%，Russian Yiddish 4%++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++第三章1. Morpheme —— A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of a language. （The smallest functional unit in the composition of words.）2.Morph—— A morpheme must be realized by discrete units. These actual spoken minimal carriers of meaning are morphs.3.Monomorphenic words – morphemes are realized by single morphs.4.Allomorph——Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position. Such alternative morphs are allomorphemes. E.g. the morpheme of plurality （-s）has a number if allomorphemes in different sound context，e.g. in cats/s/，in bags/z/，in matches/iz/.5. Free morphemes or Free root —— The morphemes have complete meaning and van be used as free grammatical units in sentences，e.g. cat，walk. They are identical with root words. morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free.6. Bound Morphemes —— The morphemes cannot occur as separate words. They are bound to other morphemes to form words，e.g. recollection（re+collect+ion）collect – free morpheme re-and –ion are bound morphemes. （include bound root and affix）Bound morphemes are found in derived words.7. Bound root —— A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root，it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. Take -dict- for example：it conveys the meaning of ―say or speak‖ as a Latin root，but not as a word. With the prefix pre-（=before）we obtain the verb predict meaning ―tell beforehand‖。
语言学-Types of Word Formation
构成具有抽象含义的名词
-age 表示“状态、行为、身份及其结果、总称”，eg：courage, storage 表示“状态、行为、身份及其结果、总称” ： -ance, -ence 表示“性质；状况；行为；过程；总量；程度”，eg： 表示“性质；状况；行为；过程；总量；程度” ： importance, diligence, difference 。 -dom 表示“等级，领域，状态”，eg： freedom, kingdom, wisdom. 表示“等级，领域，状态” eg： -hood 表示“资格；身份；年纪；状态”，eg： manhood, fatherhood 。 表示“资格；身份；年纪；状态” ： -ice 表示“行为；性质；状态”，eg： notice, justice, service 。 表示“行为；性质；状态” ： -or, -our 表示“动作；性质；状态”，eg： favor, error 。 表示“动作；性质；状态” ： -ship 表示“情况；性质；技巧、技能及身份，职业”，eg： hardship, 表示“情况；性质；技巧、技能及身份，职业” ： -th 表示“动作；性质；过程；状态”，eg： depth, wealth, truth 。 表示“动作；性质；过程；状态” ：
表示空间位置、方向关系的前缀 空间位置 关系的前缀： B. 表示空间位置、方向关系的前缀
a- 表示“在……之上 向……”，eg:aboard, aside 。 表示“ 之上,向 之上 ， inter-表示“在……间;相互”，eg: international, 表示“ 相互” 表示 间 相互 interaction 。 out- 表示“在上面；在外部”，eg:outline,outside 表示“在上面；在外部” trans- 表示“跨越”，eg: translate, transform, 表示“跨越” under- 表示“在……下面”，eg:underline, 表示“ 下面” 下面 underground, underwater 。 up- 表示“向上；向上面；在上”，eg:upward, 表示“向上；向上面；在上” uphold
(词汇学)Word_Formation
There are three major processes of word formation: derivation, compounding and conversion.
<Ⅰ>. Derivation: 〔派生
Derivation or affixation is generally defined as a word-formation process by which new words are created by adding a prefix, or suffix, or both, to the base.
<2> vt﹢object:
pickpocket, reading-material,haircut,letter-writing,
chopstick, pastime, <3> Subject﹢object:
gas-light〔汽灯："gas produces light," sugar-cane〔甘蔗："cane produces sugar,"
7. "time and order"prefixes <fore-, pre-, post-, ex-, > eg: forecast <v,n> 预报, foresee <v> 预见, forehead <n> 前额 preview <v> 预习, pre-read <v> 预先阅读, prepay <v> 预付, postwar <adj> 战后的, postgraduate <n> 研究生, postscript <n> 附言, ex-president <n> 前任总统, ex-monitor <n> 前任班长, ex-wife <n> 前妻,
Word formation
构词法概述语言的基本要素之一是词汇。
在语言发展的最初阶段，人们使用的是少量而简单的词汇，这些词汇只表示日常简单的事物和概念，构成语言中最基本的词，称之为原生词，也叫基本词或词根。
英语里的原生词大都是单音节的，例如：sun, man, head, foot, fish, see, run等，其数量有限。
随着社会的发展与进步，语言的扩充与融合使语言变得复杂，原有的有限的原生词已不够用，人们便创造了一些新词来表示新生的事物和概念。
按照一定的语言规则创造新词的方法，称之为构词法(word-formation or word-building)。
一、英语主要有三种构词法1. 转化(Conversion)：不用借助构词词缀，把一个单词从一种此类转化成另一种词类。
由于词类转化的结构，英语中就形成了大量外形相同但词类不同的词，即同形异类词water水n. →water浇水v. film 电影n.→film 拍电影v.2. 派生(Derivation):通过加前缀和后缀构成另一个词happy→unhappy 加前缀→happiness 加后缀3. 合成(Compounding)：由两个或更多词构成一个词black黑的+board板→blackboard黑板happy + go + lucky→happy-go-lucky无忧无虑的pick摘，挖+ pocket口袋→pickpocket 扒手二、英语还有一些次要构词法1. 截短法(Clipping)：把一个词的一部分去掉，构成一个新词bicycle→cycle2. 混合(Blending)：把两个词各取一部分，混合成一个新词motor + hotel→motel汽车旅馆3. 缩写(Abbreviation)：把几个词的首字母连在一起International Monetary Fund→IMF国际货币基金组织4. 反转构词法(Backformation)：把带词尾的名词去掉词尾构成动词editor (n.)→edit(v.)三、构词法的运用要学好英语，掌握构词法直观重要。
Chapter 3 Word formation
Chapter 3 Word formation( the three major process of word-formation)1.Explain :Word-formation rules:Word-formation rules define the scope and methods whereby speakers of a language may create new words.Rules themselves are not fixed but undergo changes.2.Root,stem and base. （词根、词干和词基）Analyze the word denationalized into root,base and stem1)Root: A root is the basic unchangeable part of a word,and it conveys the main lexical meaningof the word.Free root: A root which can stand itself and can be used seperately to form a new word. A word consisting of one free root or one morhpeme is a simple word.e.g., man,talk,red,etc. A free root is a free morpheme.Bound root: A root which cannot stand itself and cannot be used seperately,but as an attachment to be added to a word to fo rm a new word. such as “tain,ceive”.Bound roots must be usedtogether with other elements to form a word, e.g. “con+tain” = “contain”2)Stem: A stem refers to the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme (曲折詞素)ina word with inflectional morphemes.e.g. 'worker' in 'workers' is a stem.3)Base(词基）:A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added;it may also be definedas ''a form to which a rule of word-formation is applied.''This means that any root or stem can be termed a base.Such as,desirable is a base in undesirable.4) The differences between root,stem,base:A root is the basic unchangeable part of a word,no further analysis.Such as nation is a root ininternational.A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectionalmorphemes,can be further analyszed,it sometimes could be a root. e.g. desire is a stem in desired.A base is a form to which a rule of word-formation is applied,it could be a root or a stem.Such asinternation is a base in international.pounding Composition or Compounding (27%) （复合法）Definition: Compounding consists of combining two or more words into one which now expressesa single idea and functions as a separate lexical pounding is the most productiveword-formation process in contemporary English.4.what are the relative criteria of a commound?Orthographic criterion(书写标准) :Compounds are written in three ways,e.g. solid:airmail;hyphenated:air-conditioning; open: air force, air raid.Phonological criterion(语音标准) :Semantic criterion(语义标准)5.Affixation or Derivation (17.5%) （派生法或词缀法）@It is a process of forming new words by the addition of a word element,such as a prefix,suffix,or combining form,to an already existing word. e.g. :tele- --telephone, telescope6.What is the difference between prefixation and suffixation?Prefixation: the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems. It does not change theword-class of the stem but change its meaning.Suffixation --Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems. Change the grammatical function of stems (the word class). Suffixes can be grouped on a grammatical basis.7.How are the marjor living prefixes classified?1)''nagative ''否定prefixes:un-,non,in-,dis,a- etc.2)''reversative相反or privative否定的前缀''prefixes:un-,de-dis etc.3)''pejorative变坏的, 轻蔑的''prefixes: mis-, mal-, pseudo- etc.4)''degree or size ''prefixes:arch-, super-,out-,sub-,over-,under-,hyper-,ultra-,mini- etc.5)''attitude态度''prefixes:co-,counter-,anti-,pro- etc.6)''locative位置格''prefixes:super-,sub-,inter-,trans- etc.7)''time and order ''prefixes:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc.8)''number ''prefixes:uni-/mono-,bi-/di-,tri-,multi-/poly- etc.8.How can you form deverbal nouns,denominal nouns,deadjective verbs,and denominal adjectivesby suffixation?Deverbal nouns:來自動詞的名詞a. Denoting people -- -ant （assistant）, -ee (trainee), -ent (respondent), -er(-or)b. Denoting action, result, process, state, ect. -- -age (linkage), -al (dismissal), -ance (attendance),-ation(-ition, -tion, -sion, -ion), -ence (existence), -ing (savings), -mentDenominal nouns:來自名詞的名詞a.Concrete -- -eer (engineer), -er (teenager), -ess (hostess), -ette (cigarette), -let (booklet)b. Abstract -- -age (wastage), -dom (处于…状态)(officialdom), -ery (slavery), -ery (-ry), -hood(childhood), -ing (farming), - ism（…主义）(terrorism), -ship（状态）(sportsmanship) Deadjective verbs:來自形容詞的動詞-ity (popularity), -ness (happiness)Denominal adjectives:來自名字的形容詞ese (Chinese), -an (Australian), -ist (主义) (socialist)Denominal suffixes -- -ed (wooded), -ful (successful), -ish (foolish), -less (priceless), -like(lady-like), -ly (friendly), -y (smoky)-al(-ial, -ical) (cultural, residential), -esque (picturesque), -ic (economic), -ous(-eous, -ious)(coutageous)-ic and –ical can be affixed to the stem in some cases, but differ in meaning.Historic (important in history) historical (of history)Classic (great, memorable) classical (of Latin or Greek)Comic (of comedy) comical (funny)Economic (in the economy) economical (money-saving)Electric (powered by electricity) electrical (of electricity)Deverbal suffixes -- -able (-ible) (washable), -ive(-ative, -sive) (active, decisive)Adverb suffixes -- -ly (calmly), -ward(s) (homewards), -wise (clockwise)Verb suffixes -- -ate(originate), -en (darken), -(i)fy (beautify), -ize (ise) (modernize)9.Conversion or Functional shift (10.5%) （转成法或功能转换法）It's a word-formation process whereby a word of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of another word-class without the additon of an affix.radio n. -- to radio v.cry v. -- cry n.10.what is the difference between conversion and suffixation?Suffixation@: It's the formation of a new word by adding a suffix or a combining form to the base,and usually changing the word-class of the base.e.g. boy n. + -ish -- boyish adj. boy n.+ hood -- boyhood n.11.In a convrsion pair, how can you determine which of the two is the base and which the derivedword?Wirter---a deverbal noun with er suffixSpy –a deverbal noun without suffixDerivation by zero suffix12.Illustrate the axiom,the actural grammatical classification of any word is depent upon its usei.e. the second round was exciting(n)any round plate will do (adj)some drivers round coners too rapidly(v.)the sound goes round and round13.why is the conversion from noun to verb the most productive process of conversion?1.first in contemporary English,there is tendencey of “a preponderance (优势)of nouns over verbs.2.there are only a few verb-forming affixes in english . they are be-,en-,ify,ize and en is nowscarcely productive, while ize is the ohly highly productively one. More over, new verbs formed by other word-formation processes are also very few , except by back-fromation,which is,however , not a very productive word-formation process iteself. We might therefore more andmore new verbs to be coined by means of conversion14.what are the marjor semantic types(语义)under noun to verb conversion1.to put in/on N: the nouns are usually locative nouns denoting a place ,a contianer or a speciallocation. the workers canned apples=the workers put apples in cans2.to give N, to provide NThey sheltered the orphans认为不太重要, 不想往下写15.why is “the poor” an example of partial conversionsome adjectives are used as nouns when preceded by the definite article such as the poor,thewounded:yet these conveted nouns take only some of the features of noun, i.e. they do not take plural(复数) and genitive（所有格）inflections, nor can they be preceded by determiners like a , this ,my .such adjective—noun conversion is particalChapter 3Morphological structure of English wordsObjectives: Discuss morphemes, their classification and identification;Explain the relationship between morphemes and word-formationTeaching focus:Definition of morphemesDefinition of allomorphsTypes of Types of morphemesfree morphemebound morphemeDefinitions of root, stem and baseOn the morphemic level,Word, according to the number and type of morpheme they, can be classified into the below itema.the simple words: those consisting of a single morpheme,such as man, work, kindb.derived words: those which are the result of a derivational process, such words usually consist of afree morpheme and one(or more than one)bound morpheme, such as fruitless,fruitful,unfruitful, fruitfulness,pound wors: those which are composed of two or more free morpheme, e.g: deep structure,specesuit,forget-me-not,maid-of-all-work,and jack of all trades.1. MorphemeWhat is a morphemeIt is the minimal meaningful unit of English language, possesses both sound and meaning. Or it is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words.语素是最小的有意义的单位.它是语言中最小的构词单位2. Morph and allomorphThe definition of morphs:The phonetic or orthographic strings or segments which realize morphemes are termed 'morphs'.语素的语音或拼写法的体现叫形素.Morphs are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning.形素是口语中最小的意义载体.What is an allomorphAn allomorph is one of the variants of the same morpheme.语素/形位变体是同一个语素的不同形式.For exampleWhen the plural marker {s} is added to cat, dog, and horse, it is pronounced differently as /-s, -z, -iz/ and thus has three phonological forms; the three forms are just the variants of the samemorpheme {s}, i.e. the allomorphs of morpheme {s}.3. Classifications of morphemesFree vs. bound morphemes in terms of their capacity of occurring aloneDerivational vs. inflectional morphemesapplying to affixes onlyContent / lexical vs. grammatical morpheme on a semantic and syntactic basisFree vs. bound morphemes自由语素与粘着语素Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are free. Free morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences.自由语素是能独立运用的语素,它有完整的意义,在句中充当一个自由的语法单位.E.g., man, wind, open, tourMorphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound. They are bound to other morphemes to form words or to perform a particular grammatical function.粘着语素不能独立成词,只能依附于其他语素上以构成词或担当一定的语法功能.Free morphemes are all roots /free roots, which are capable of being used as words or asword-building elements to form new words.自由语素都是词根, 也叫自由词根, 能用作词或作为构成新词的构词要素.Bound morphemes consist of either roots (bound roots) or affixes.粘着语素包括词根(粘着词根)和词缀.E.g., bound root: -dict-, -ced-affix: -ion, -ist, -icA multitude of words made up of merely bound morphemes, eg:-ced- 是词根,'接近',ante- 是前缀,'在…前',-ent 是后缀,'人,物',Derivational vs. inflectional morphemes派生语素与屈折语素What are derivational and inflectional morphemesDerivational morphemes are used to derive new words when they are added to another morpheme. In English derivatives and compounds are all formed by such morphemes.派生语素附着于其它语素可派生出新词.英语中派生词和合成词都是由这样的语素构成的. Inflectional morphemes indicate the syntactic relationships between words and function as grammatical markers. Inflectional morphemes are confined to suffixes.屈折语素作为语法标记表示词的语法意义,屈折语素只限于词缀.What's the difference between themInflectionalDoesn't change meaning or part of speech of the stem. (work—works)Indicates syntactic relations between different words in a sentence. ( grammatical meaning)Occurs with all members of some large class of morphemes.Occurs at margins of words. (radio—radios)DerivationalChanges meaning or part of speech of the stem.( like--dislike, sleep—asleep)Indicates semantic relations within the word.(specific lexical meaning,e.g., un-)Occurs with only some members of a class of morphemesOccurs before any inflectional suffixes added.Content / lexical vs. grammatical morphemesLexical 词汇/ content实义morphemes are morphemes used for the construction of new words as in compound words (blackbird is coined on the basis of 2 lexical morphemes: black and bird.), and derivational morphemes such as –ship, -ize.Grammatical morphemes function primarily as grammatical markers. They encompass both inflectional affixes(-books) and free morphemes ( in, and, do, have, they…functional words)3.4 Identifying MorphemesHow to identify morphemesThey should be identifiable by their forms, meaning and distribution.e.g.,mono-morphemic: skydouble-morphemic: chill + y, boy + ishtriple-morphemic: un+dress+ed, care+less+nessfour-morphemic: un+fruit+ful+nessover-four-morphemic: un+gentle+man+li+nessIn what situation do morphemes mismatch between form and meaning1) Inconsistent in form and meaning:singer ( one who)er clearer ( the comparative degree)eraser (one object)2) Meaningless in isolation but meaningful in some wordscran-huckle- berryboysen-3) Difficult to define the meaning-ceive in conceive/perceive/receive3.5 Morpheme and Word-formationIn word-formation, morphemes are labeled root, stem, base and affix.在构词法中, 语素被分为词根,词干,词基和词缀.AffixAffixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. All affixes are bound morphemes.词缀都是粘着语素,依附在词根上构成新词或表示词的语法意义.Two types of affixes:Inflectional affixes and Derivational affixes屈折词缀和派生词缀Inflectional affixes (or inflectional morphemes) serve to indicate the syntactic relationships between words and function as grammatical markers. 表示词的语法意义的是屈折词缀.They express the following meanings:Plurality名词复数The genitive case名词所有格The comparative and superlative degrees形容词/副词比较级,最高级The verbal endings动词词尾变化e.g. -s in chairs, pens;-es in boxes, tomatoes;-en in oxene.g. 's in boy's,children'se.g. -er in words like smaller; -est in words like smallest.a. -(e)s in words like eats, teaches shows the third person singular present tense.b. -ing in words like eating, shows the present participle or gerund.c. -(e)d in words like worked shows the past tense or past participle.Derivational affixes or derivational morphemesThey can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes.(1) Prefixes are affixes before the root.e.g., unjust, rewrite.As a rule, most prefixes modify the meaning of roots, but not their parts of speech.(2) Suffixes are affixes after the rootBy the addition of the suffix, the word is usually changed from one part of speech into another, e.g. liberation, modernize.Root, stem, base词根,词干,词基A root is that part of a word form that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed.词根是所有屈折词缀和派生词缀被去掉后所剩余的那部分.A stem is that part of the word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed.词干是所有屈折词缀被去掉后所剩余的那部分.A base refers to a form to which affixes of any kind (both derivational and inflectional) can be added. It can be a root or a stem.词基是任何一种词缀都可加在上面的形式.词根,词干,词基词根是所有屈折词缀和派生词缀被去掉后所剩余的那部分.词干是所有屈折词缀被去掉后所剩余的那部分.词基是任何一种词缀都可加在上面的形式.它与词根有区别,因为它是可以从派生角度进行分析的形式,在上面可以加上派生词缀.但是词根则不容许做进一步的分析.词基与词干也是不同的,因为派生词缀和屈折词缀都可以加在词基上,而只有屈折词缀可以加在词干上.Task: Analyse the word in terms of root, stem and base.e.g., (root/base) (derivational suffix)desire able(derivational prefix) ( base)un desirable (a.)(stem/base) (inflectional suffix)undesirable (n.) s (root/stem/base) (inflectional suffix)desire (v.) d1. desire (v.): 是词根(不可再分解),是词干(可以加屈折词缀,如过去时态-ed),是词基.2. desirable (adj.): 不是词根(可再分解);不是词干(不可以加屈折词缀),是词基(既可以加词缀,又能再分解下去).3. undesirable (n.): 不是词根(可再分解);是词干(可以加屈折词缀,如名词复数-s),也是词基.。
TheSignificanceofEnglishWordFormation
TheSignificanceofEnglishWordFormationThe Significance of English Word FormationAbstract:Nowadays, English plays an increasingly important role in the international communication. For many countries, English is regarded as their second language, even though it is inferior to their mother one. As for English learners, especially Chinese students, learning English is an extremely important task with the economic globalization and the rapid communication with the world. However, learning English is difficult for us in some aspects, such as history, culture, grammar, especially lexicon. The study of word building is clearly in the area of vocabulary development. Although the enlargement of vocabulary depends on many aspects such as historical, cultural, and social factors, one of the best ways to enlarge our vocabulary is to analyze and understand how words are formed. That is to say, the more effective way to facilitate the development of English vocabulary is word formation.Key Words: word formation; language; significanceIntroduction:As for English learners, especially Chinese students, learning English is an extremely important task wish the economic globalization and the rapid communication with the world. The first big change was in vocabulary. However, V ocabulary is one of the main holdbacks of English study. In order to master English word correctly and efficiently in the short time, learners should use the best way to learn English. Among them, word formation is the strongest one to form a great rang of vocabulary. This paper discusses the advantages of word formation from the development of English word formation, word formation rules and styles and the significance.Chapter 1The development of English word formatio n:English language has developed with the process of the human society all the time. The out- date of some old words means that we need to create some new words tocatch up with our demands, while the coinage of new words, to a large extent has conformed with some grammatical principles and has some rules in it .So, the continuous consummation and development of language " replacing the old with the new " has behaved a kind of principle named "word formation".Nowadays, the terms …word formation? does not have a clear cut, universally accepted usage. It is sometimes referred to all processes connected with changing the form of the word by, for example, affixation, which is a matter of morphology. In its wider sense word formation denotes the processes of creation of new lexical units. Although it seems that the difference between morphological change of a word and creation of a new term is quite easy to perceive, there is sometimes a dispute as to whether blending is still a morphological change or making a new word. There are, of course, numerous word formation processes that do not arouse any controversies and are very similar in the majority of languages .The English language has increased its resources not only through the adoption of words from other languages, but also through the formation of new words with the material available in the language. Before we discuss the word-formation, we need to have a basic knowledge of morphological structure of words and gain something about the different word forming elements which are to be used to create new words.Chapter 2Word formation rules and styles:Word-formation rules define the scope and methods whereby speakers of a language may create new word rules themselves are not fixed but undergo changes. Root: A root is the basic unchangeable part of a word and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word.Free root: A root which can stand itself and can be used separately to form a new word. A word consisting of one free root or one morpheme is a simple word. A free root is a free morpheme.Bound root: bound root is a root which cannot occur as a separate word apart from any other morpheme.Stem: A stem refers to the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes Base: A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added. It may also be defined as ''a form to which a rule of word-formation is applied. This means that any root or stem can be termed a base. Such as, desirable is a base in undesirable. The differences among root and stem and base:A root is the basic unchangeable part of a word, no further analysis. Such as nation is a root in international.A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes, can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root. E.g. desire is a stem in desired.A base is a form to which a rule of word-formation is applied; it could be a root or a stem. Such as integration is a base in international.Compounding Composition or Compoundin g:Compounding consists of combining two or more words into one which now expresses a single idea and functions as a separate lexical unit. Compounding is the most productive word-formation process in contemporary English.The lexical meaning of compounds is determined by the lexical meanings of its bases and the structural meaning of its distributional pattern. The distributional pattern shows the order and arrangement of the bases. Two compounds that have the same bases but different distributional patterns will have different meanings (a finger-ring, a ring-finger). As a rule a second base determines the part of speech meaning of the compound. The lexical meaning of a compound doesn't coincide with the combined meanings of its bases. There is always some additional semantic element that reflects among objects and phenomena in the outer world.If the meaning of the compound and the semantic relations between the bases are clear then the compound is motivated If the meaning of the compound and the semantic relations between the bases are not clear then the compound is non-motivated.Affixation or Derivation.Affixation, also called derivation, is a process in which a free morph is combined with a bound morph, or a suffix. It is generally defined as the formation of words by adding derivational affixes to different types of bases. There are two types of derivative. One bases on free root with affix or bound root, the other bases on boundwith affix or other bound root.Types of affixes- Prefixes- Suffixes- InfixesTwo types of derivative?s structure- Free + affix/bound rootPrefix + free rootFree + suffixPrefix + free root + suffixCombining form + free root-Bound root + affix/bound rootPrefix + bound root (with formation)Bound root (with formation) + suffixPrefix + bound root (without formation)Combining form + combining formChapter 3The significance:1. By understanding the structure of the word we can consolidate what we have learned.When we read some articles such as technical or professional passages, or some complicated novels, we may meet some new words. If we know some information of word formation, we can not only analyze the word structure and the denotation of the word, but guess the meaning of the word as well. For examples:If we know the meaning of the root of anthrop-[man] is human being ,we will guess some word related to it according to our knowledge. Such as: anthropology（⼈类学）、anthropoid（类⼈的）、anthropologist（⼈类学家）、anthropological（⼈类学的）、philanthropist（慈善家）、misanthropist（厌世者）etc.2. Getting a deeper understanding of a word by analyzing each part of the word. Getting a deeper understanding of a word by analyzing each part of the wordso that we can not only learn about the surface meaning but also the deeper connotation of the word. Word formation is a simple and efficient way to help students grasp a lot of English and build up their vocabulary in a short time so as to greatly improve their ability to read English literature.3. Increasing our vocabulary:Enlarging English vocabulary is of great significance in English acquisition. Learning the rules of word-formation helps to enlarge our vocabulary If we consciously increase our vocabulary we will unconsciously raise yourself to a more important station in life, and the new and higher position we have won will, in turn, give our a better opportunity for further enriching our vocabulary. The significance of studying English word formation mainly lies in these aspects. First of all, neologism is a mirror of society, which reflects its development and needs, it meets the developing situation. We can learn some new words by word formation easier. Second, the study of English word formation can be used in translation effectively. So, learning English word formation helps one do the translation works correctly. Finally, it is also very important for English learners to study English neologisms. through the study of word formation, we are able to recognize a complex word as a unit made up of organic parts and know how different parts are put together to form new words. Besides, English vocabularies changes along with society's development, and we must study English word formation to catch up with the times in order to improve our English abilities.The extension of meaning refers to enlarge the range of the lexical meaning.ConclusionAs a famous American translation theorist Eugene A. Nada said, “One of the most important characters in English is which could be easily changed.” With the development of society and the technical advancement, there are a great many neologisms emerging in the English vocabulary Word formation is that branch of lexicology which studies the patterns on which a language. Compounding is the most productive word forming process in contemporary English. The process of derivation or affixation forms new words by the addition of a word element, such as a prefix, suffix or combining from, to an already existing word.Conversion means the transferof a word from one word to another. The converted words are new not in form but in function. By functional shift, an old noun may come to be a new verb. Today the commonest conversions are from nouns into verbs, and from verbs into nouns. In this way old words are rejuvenated. The English language is thus endowed with a fresh vitality, variety, and power. We work hard at English so as to have a good command of word formation. .Enlarging English vocabulary is of great significance in English acquisition. Based on meaningful learning English word formation, attempting to some details about word formation in English language and learning English vocabulary: on the one hand, by analyzing the morphological structure of words, students can recognize the connections of the words with the same morphemes, and in this way students can: 1. draw inferences about other words from one instance; 2. have a better grasp of the form and its meaning; 3. reduce the spelling mistakes and distinguish the similar words efficiently; On the other hand, by analyzing its cognitive motivation, students can get a deeper understanding of the meaning.Works CitedBauer, L. English Word Formation, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.1983 Holley, Shawn. The New Word Revolution. Beijing: Qinghia University Press, 2000. Pyles, How to Increase Y ou Word Power, Reader’s digest, New Y ork, 2000.陈林华, An Introduction To Linguistics,吉林⼤学出版, 1999.卢春媚, 浅谈英语构词法, ⼴州⼤学学报, 2002.汪榕培,王之江:《英语词汇学》,上海外语教育出版社, 2008.汪榕培,《英语词汇调查》, 上海:上海外语教育出版社,1997.。
word_formation
Suffixation
• Noun suffixes 1) concrete nouns 2) abstract nouns • Verb suffixes • Adjective suffixes • Adverb suffixes
Roots
• ced / ceed / cess = walk e.g. inaccessible adj. 不可接近的，不可进入的 《in- (not) + ac-(to) + cess + -ible (adj.)》 unprecedented adj. 史无前例的 《un-(not)+pre-(before)+cede+-ent (adj.)+ed(adj.)》 • ceive / cept / cip = to take e.g. deceivable adj. 易受骗的 《de- (away) + ceive (take) + -able (adj.)》 • tain / ten / tin = to hold, to keep e.g. sustainable adj.可支撑的；可持续的；可忍耐的 《sus- = sub- (under) + tain (hold) + -able (adj.)》
Compounding (复合法)
• Compounding, also called composition is a word-formation process by which new words are created by putting two or more words together. The words formed in this way are called compounds.
英语词汇学chapter3wordformation(1)
The percentage of firmly
established new words since World
War II
1. The three major processes of word-formation: 2. a) Compounding or composition (about 27%): raindrop, snow-white, baby-sit; (b) Derivation or affixation (about 17.5 %): Prefixation: deescalate（逐步缓和，逐渐降级）,
and less about them. ③
③ The encyclopedia provides a comprehensive survey of formal education and lifelong learning.
④ Given China's long history, the new gender balance is something recent.
(h) Others (about 3%): pizzazz(时髦派头), gazump(索高价).
Words formed by these minor processes account for 26.5% of the new vocabulary. The remaining 18.5% is from borrowing, e.g. discotheque,
1) “negative” prefixes (un-, non-, in-, dis-, a-); 2) “reversative or privative”(“非” “缺”)
prefixes (un-, de-, dis-); 3) “pejorative” prefixes (贬损) (mis-, mal-);
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Abbreviation（缩略法）
Blending（拼缀法） Clipping（截短法）
Initialization（首字母缩略法）
Acronym（首字母拼音法）
medicare breathalyse brunch motel camcorder
medical + care breath + analyse breakfast + lunch motor + hotel camera + recorder
两个词的某些部分结合在一起构成新词 的方法叫做拼缀法。
lab polio flu fridge photo doc
laboratory poliomyelitis influenza refreigerator photograph doctor
把原来较长的单词截去一部分，用剩下的 那一部分来构词的方法称为截短法。
Formation of New Medical Terms
外国语与国际交流学院 许瑾
Set rules for new medical words
Derivation
(派生法)
Conversion
(转类法)
(合成法)
Composition
Abbreviation
(缩略法)
Derivation（派生法）
After-class Reading
周连鸿.
医学英语术语学入门[M]. 上海: 上 海翻译出版社, 1991. 杨明山. 医学英语术语教程[M]. 上海: 上海 中医药大学出版社, 2000.
Composition （合成法）
outbreak overdose nearsighted crybaby pear-shaped bottle-feed
虚词+实词 实词+实词
复合名词 复合形容词 复合动词
Word
The
Word
combination of two or more words is called composition. In most medical words formed by composition, the first component word usually defines or modifies the second component word.
-cardi-my-itis -um -ac pericardi-ac my-cardi-um peri-cardi-um my-cardi-ac peri-cardi-ac my-cardi-itis peri-cardi-itis cardiac myocardium pericardium myocardiac pericardiac myocarditis pericarditis
Combining Vowel
Prefix
The
Root
Suffix
combination of root and affixes (prefixes and suffixes) is called derivation. The such formed new words are derivatives. There are various combining forms between roots and affixes.
WHO MRI ECG I.V.
World Health Organization Meganetic Resonance Imaging electrocardiogram intravenous
把单词或词根词缀的第一个字母结合起来 构成一个新的单词代表原来单词或词组的 构词方法称为首字母缩略法。
The
variation of the word function is called conversion. The new word by conversion is a grammatically new word.
cushion
seat
cushion cushion effect The reversal of protective arm movements in the elderly may reflect an adaptive strategy to cushion the fall. sweat Sweat losses during tennis can be considerable. Animals sweat and the body cools.
Summary（小结）
• Derivation
• Composition
• Conversion
• Abbreviation
Blending
Clipping Initialization Acronym
After-class Exercises
1. Try to clarify the differences between derivation and composition with examples. 2. Try to clarify the differences between initialization and acronym with examples.
acquired immune deficiency syndrome AIDS severe acute respiratory syndrome SARS ecdovirus enteric cytopathic dog orphan virus MEDLARS Medical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System 首字母缩略词可以顺利拼读成一个单词，这 就构成了首字母拼音词。
Conversion（转类法）
flood Our hypothesis was that flood and hurricane victims have different medical needs. The completion of the human genome sequencing project has provided a flood of new information that is likely to change the way scientists approach the study of complex biological systems. Dangerous byproducts flood the bloodstream.