Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics

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Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics语言学

Hadumod Bussmann (1996) in Routledge Dictionary
of Language and Linguistics views language as "vehicle for the expression or exchange of thoughts, concepts, knowledge, and information as well as the fixing and transmission of experience and knowledge. It is based on cognitive processes, subject to societal factors and subject to historical change and development".
“Language is a means of verbal communication”. It is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act.
-- Hu zhuanglin(2010)

Language is an integral part of our life. Some of our most damaging racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic prejudices are based on our linguistic ignorance and wrong ideas about language. Language plays a central role in our lives Language is a vital human resource that all of us share.

语言学教程课后习题答案第一章资料(最新整理)

Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1. Define the following terms:design feature: the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals.function: the role language plays in communication (e.g. to express ideas, attitudes) or in particular social situations (e.g. religious, legal).synchronic: said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical ‘point’ in time.diachronic: said of the study of development of language and languages over time. prescriptive: to make authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language.descriptive: to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety.arbitrariness: the absence of any physical correspondence between linguistic signals and the entities to which they refer.duality: the structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units (e.g. words) and meaningless segments (e.g. sounds, letters).displacement: the ability of language to refer to contexts removed from the speaker’s immediate situation.phatic communion: said of talk used to establish atmosphere or maintain social contact.metalanguage: a language used for talking about language.macrolinguistics: a broad conception of linguistic enquiry, including psychological, cultural, etc.competence: unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language.performance: the language actually used by people in speaking or writing.langue: the language system shared by a “speech community”.parole: the concrete utterances of a speaker.2. Consult at least four introductory linguistics textbooks (not dictionaries), and copy the definitions of “language” that each gives. After carefully comparing the definitions, write a paper discussing which points recur and explaining the significance of the similarities and differences among the definitions.ANSWER:All the definitions should not exclude the description of design features that have been mentioned in this course book. Also it will be better if other design features, say, interchangeability or cultural transmission is included. But it seems impossible to give an unimpeachable definition on language, because the facets people want to emphasize are seldom unanimous. To compare several definitions can make you realize where the argument is.3. Can you think of some words in English which are onomatopoeic?ANSWERS:creak: the sound made by a badly oiled door when it opens.cuckoo: the call of cuckoo.bang: a sudden loud noise.roar: a deep loud continuing sound.buzz: a noise of buzzing.hiss: a hissing sound.neigh: the long and loud cry that a horse makes.mew: the noise that a gull makes.bleat: the sound made by a sheep, goat or calf.4. Do you think that onomatopoeia indicates a non-arbitrary relationship between form and meaning?ANSWER:4. No matter you say "Yes" or "No", you cannot deny that onomatopoeia needs arbitrariness. Before we feel a word is onomatopoeic we should first know which sound the word imitates. Just as what is said in Chapter One, in order to imitate the noise of flying mosquitoes, there are many choices like "murmurous" and "murderous". They both bear more or less resemblance to the genuine natural sound, but "murmurous" is fortunately chosen to mean the noise while "murderous" is chosen to mean something quite different. They are arbitrary as signifiers.5. A story by Robert Louis Stevenson contains the sentence “As the night fell, the wind rose.” Could this be expressed as “As the wind rose, the night fell?” If not, why? Does this indicate a degree of non-arbitrariness about word order? (Bolinger, 1981: 15)5. Yes. It is a case in point to illustrate non-arbitrariness about word order. When the two parts interchange, the focus and the meaning of the sentence is forced to change, because clauses occurring in linear sequence without time indicators will be taken as matching the actual sequence of happening. The writer’s original intention is distorted, and we can feel it effortlessly by reading. That is why systemic-functionalists and American functionalists think language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.6. Does the traffic light system have duality? Can you explain by drawing a simple graph?6. Traffic light does not have duality. Obviously, it is not a double-level system. There is only one-to-one relationship between signs and meaning but the meaning units cannot be divided into smaller meaningless elements further. So the traffic light only has the primary level and lacks the secondary level like animals’ calls.ANSWER:Red→stopGreen→goYellow→get ready to go or stop7. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the creativity of language. Can you write a recursive sentence following the example in section 1.3.3.ANSWER:Today I encountered an old friend who was my classmate when I was in elementary school where there was an apple orchard in which we slid to select ripe apples that…8. Communication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facial expression. Do body language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language?ANSWER:On a whole, body language and facial expression lack most of the distinctive properties of human language such as duality, displacement, creativity and so on. Body language exhibits arbitrariness a little bit. For instance, nod means "OK/YES" for us but in Arabian world it is equal to saying "NO". Some facial expressions have non-arbitrariness because they are instinctive such as the cry and laugh of a newborn infant.9. Do you agree with the view that no language is especially simple?ANSWER:Yes. All human languages are complicated systems of communication. It is decided by their shared design features.10. What do you think of Bertrand Russell’s observation of the dog language: “No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest”? Are you familiar with any type of ways animals communicate among themselves and with human beings? ANSWER:When gazelles sense potential danger, for example, they flee and thereby signal to other gazellesin the vicinity that danger is lurking. A dog signals its wish to be let inside the house by barking and signals the possibility that it might bite momentarily by displaying its fangs.11.Can you mention some typical expressions of phatic communion in Chinese? There is the dialog between Ms. P and Ms. Q. in section 1.5.5. When someone sneezes violently, do you say anything of the nature of phatic communion? Have you noticed your parents or grandparents say something special on such an occasion?Some of the typical phatic expressions in Chinese are: 吃了吗？家里都好吧？这是去哪里啊？最近都挺好的？ANSWER:If someone is sneezing violently, maybe you parents and grandparents may say: “Are you ok?”, “Do you need to see a doctor?”, “Do you need some water?”, “Do you need a handkerchief?”, “Do you have a cold?” or something like these to show their concerns.12．There are many expressions in language which are metalingual or self-reflexives, namely, talking about talk and think about thinking, for instance, to be honest, to make a long story short, come to think of it, on second thought, can you collect a few more to make a list of these expressions? When do we use them most often?ANSWER:To tell the truth, frankly speaking, as a matter of fact, to be precise, in other words, that is to saySuch expressions are used most frequently when we want to expatiate the meaning of former clauses in anther way in argumentation.13. Comment on the following prescriptive rules. Do you think they are acceptable?(A) It is I.(B) It is me.You should say A instead of B because “be” should be followed by the nominative case, not the accusative according to the rules in Latin.(A) Who did you speak to?(B) Whom did you speak to?You should say B instead of A.(A) I haven't done anything.(B) I haven't done nothing.B is wrong because two negatives make a positive.ANSWER:(1) the Latin rule is not universal. In English, me is informal and I is felt to be very formal.(2) Whom is used in formal speech and in writing; who is more acceptable in informal speech.(3) Language does not have to follow logic reasoning. Here two negative only make a more emphatic negative. This sentence is not acceptable in Standard English not because it is illogical, but because language changes and rejects this usage now.14. The prescriptivism in grammar rules has now shifted to prescriptions in choice of words. In the “guidelines on anti-sexist language” issued by the British sociological association, someguidelines are listed below. Do you think they are descriptive and prescriptive? What’s your comment on them?(1) Do not use man to mean humanity in general. Use person, people, human beings, men and women, humanity and humankind.(2) colored: This term is regarded as outdated in the UK and should be avoided as it is generally viewed as offensive to many black people.(3) civilized: This term can still carry racist overtones which derive from a colonialist perception of the world. It is often associated with social Darwinist thought and is full of implicit value judgments and ignorance of the history of the non-industrialized world.ANSWER:They are undoubtedly descriptive. Guidelines are not rules that can determine whether a sentence is right or not. The guidelines advise you to avoid the use of particular words that are grammatically correct but offensive to some certain groups. Actually, they describe the way anti-sexist advocators speak and write.15. Why is the distinction between competence and performance an important one in linguistics? Do you think the line can be neatly drawn between them? How do you like the concept “communicative competence”?ANSWER:This is proposed by Chomsky in his formalist linguistic theories. It is sometimes hard to draw a strict line. Some researchers in applied linguistics think communicative competence may be a more revealing concept in language teaching than the purely theoretical pair—competence and performance.16. Which branch of linguistics do you think will develop rapidly in China and why?It is up to you to decide after you have gone through the whole book. At this stage, we suggest all branches of linguistics have the potential to flourish.17. The following are some well-known ambiguous sentences in syntactic studies of language. Can you disambiguate them?The chicken is too hot to eat.Flying planes can be dangerous.ANSWER:The chicken is too hot to eat.The chicken meat is too hot, so it cannot be eaten at the moment.The chicken feels so hot (maybe after some intense aerobic exercises) that it cannot start eating and needs to calm down first.Flying planes can be dangerous.The ambiguity comes from "flying planes". It can be deciphered as "the planes that is flying" or "to fly planes".18. There are many reasons for the discrepancy between competence and performance in normal language users. Can you think of some of them?ANSWEREthnic background, socioeconomic status, region of the country, and physical state (such as intoxication, fatigue, distraction, illness) vary from individual to individual.19. What do these two quotes reveal about the different emphasis or perspectives of language studies?(1) A human language is a system of remarkable complexity. To come to know a human language would be an extraordinary intellectual achievement for a creature not specifically designed to accomplish this task. A normal child acquires this knowledge on relatively slight exposure and without specific training. He can then quite effortlessly make use of an intricate structure of specific rules and guiding principles to convey his thoughts and feelings to others, ... Thus language is a mirror of mind in a deep and significant sense. It is a product of human intelligence, created anew in each individual by operations that lie far beyond the reach of will or consciousness.(Noam Chomsky: Reflections on Language. 1975: 4)(2) It is fairly obvious that language is used to serve a variety of different needs, but until we examine its grammar there is no clear reason for classifying its uses in any particular way. However, when we examine the meaning potential of language itself, we find that the vast numbers of options embodied in it combine into a very few relatively independent “networks”; and these networks of options correspond to certain basic functions of language. This enables us to give an account of the different functions of language that is relevant to the general understanding of linguistic structure rather than to any particular psychological or sociological investigation. (M. A. K. Halliday, 1970: 142)ANSWER:The first quote shows children’s inborn ability of acquiring the knowledge of intricate structure of specific rules. It implies that the language user's underlying knowledge about the system of rules is the valuable object of study for linguists. The second attaches great importance to the functions of language. It regards the use of language as the choice of needed function. The meaning of language can be completely included by a few “networks” which is directly related to basic functions of language. It indicates the necessity to study the functions of language.20. You may be familiar with the following proverbs. How do you perceive them according to the arbitrariness and conventionality of language?The proof of the pudding is in the eating.Let sleeping dogs lie.You can’t make a silk purse out of a sow’s ear.Rome was not built in a day.When in Rome, do as the Romans do.All roads lead to Rome.ANSWER:20. Arbitrariness and conventionality derive from the choice of the subject matter. For example, in the “The proof of the pudding is in the eating.” The word “pudding” is selected arbitrarily, for we can use another word such as cheese instead of pudding without changing the associative meaning of the proverb. On the other hand, once such links between particular words and associativemeaning are fixed, it becomes a matter of conventionality.21. Give examples of situations in which a usage generally considered non-standard (e.g. ain’t) would be acceptable, even appropriate.ANSWER21. In the talks between intimate friends, one may say “gimme that!” instead of “give me that!” and “wachya doin’?” instead of “what are you doing?” and this list may go on.22. The following are some book titles of linguistics. Can you judge the diachronic and diachronic orientation just from the titles?English Examined: Two centuries of Comment on the Mother-Tongue.Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century Vocabulary and Usage.Pejorative Sense Development in English.The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation.Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular.ANSWER22. Synchronic:Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century Vocabulary and Usage.The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation.Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular.Diachronic:English Examined: Two centuries of Comment on the Mother-Tongue.Pejorative Sense Development in English。

语言学教程课后习题答案第一章

Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1. Define the following terms:design feature: the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals.function: the role language plays in communication (e.g. to express ideas, attitudes) or in particular social situations (e.g. religious, legal).synchronic: said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical ‘point’ in time.diachronic: said of the study of development of language and languages over time. prescriptive: to make authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language.descriptive: to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety.arbitrariness: the absence of any physical correspondence between linguistic signals and the entities to which they refer.duality: the structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units (e.g. words) and meaningless segments (e.g. sounds, letters).displa cement: the ability of language to refer to contexts removed from the speaker’s immediate situation.phatic communion: said of talk used to establish atmosphere or maintain social contact.metalanguage: a language used for talking about language.macrolinguistics: a broad conception of linguistic enquiry, including psychological, cultural, etc.competence: unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language.performance: the language actually used by people in speaking or writing.l angue: the language system shared by a “speech community”.parole: the concrete utterances of a speaker.2. Consult at least four introductory linguistics textbooks (not dictionaries), and copy the definitions of “language” that each gives. After careful ly comparing the definitions, write a paper discussing which points recur and explaining the significance of the similarities and differencesamong the definitions.ANSWER:All the definitions should not exclude the description of design features that have been mentioned in this course book. Also it will be better if other design features, say, interchangeability or cultural transmission is included. But it seems impossible to give an unimpeachable definition on language, because the facets people want to emphasize are seldom unanimous. To compare several definitions can make you realize where the argument is.3. Can you think of some words in English which are onomatopoeic?ANSWERS:creak: the sound made by a badly oiled door when it opens.cuckoo: the call of cuckoo.bang: a sudden loud noise.roar: a deep loud continuing sound.buzz: a noise of buzzing.hiss: a hissing sound.neigh: the long and loud cry that a horse makes.mew: the noise that a gull makes.bleat: the sound made by a sheep, goat or calf.4. Do you think that onomatopoeia indicates a non-arbitrary relationship between form and meaning?ANSWER:4. No matter you say "Yes" or "No", you cannot deny that onomatopoeia needs arbitrariness. Before we feel a word is onomatopoeic we should first know which sound the word imitates. Just as what is said in Chapter One, in order to imitate the noise of flying mosquitoes, there are many choices like "murmurous" and "murderous". They both bear more or less resemblance to the genuine natural sound, but "murmurous" is fortunately chosen to mean the noise while "murderous" is chosen to mean something quite different. They are arbitrary as signifiers.5. A story by Robert Louis Stevenson contains the sentence “As the night fell, the wind rose.” Could this be expressed as “As the wind rose, the night fell?” If not, why? Does this indicate a degree of non-arbitrariness about word order? (Bolinger, 1981: 15)5. Yes. It is a case in point to illustrate non-arbitrariness about word order. When the two parts interchange, the focus and the meaning of the sentence is forced to change, because clauses occurring in linear sequence without time indicators will be taken as matching the actual sequence of happening. The writer’s original intention is distorted, and we c an feel it effortlessly by reading. That is why systemic-functionalists and American functionalists think language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.6. Does the traffic light system have duality? Can you explain by drawing a simple graph?6. Traffic light does not have duality. Obviously, it is not a double-level system. There is only one-to-one relationship between signs and meaning but the meaning units cannot be divided into smaller meaningless elements further. So the traffic light only has the primary level and lacks the secondary level like animals’ calls.ANSWER:Red→stopGreen→goYellow→get ready to go or stop7. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the creativity of language. Can you write a recursive sentence following the example in section 1.3.3.ANSWER:Today I encountered an old friend who was my classmate when I was in elementary school where there was an apple orchard in which we slid to select ripe apples that…8. Communication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facial expression. Do body language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language?ANSWER:On a whole, body language and facial expression lack most of the distinctive properties of human language such as duality, displacement, creativity and so on. Body language exhibits arbitrariness a little bit. For instance, nod means "OK/YES" for us but in Arabian world it is equal to saying "NO". Some facial expressions have non-arbitrariness because they are instinctive such as the cry and laugh of a newborn infant.9. Do you agree with the view that no language is especially simple?ANSWER:Yes. All human languages are complicated systems of communication. It is decided by their shared design features.10. What do you think of Bertrand Russell’s observation of the dog language: “No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest”? Are you familiar with any type of ways animals communicate among themselves and with human beings? ANSWER:When gazelles sense potential danger, for example, they flee and thereby signal to other gazelles in the vicinity that danger is lurking. A dog signals its wish to be let inside the house by barking and signals the possibility that it might bite momentarily by displaying its fangs.11.Can you mention some typical expressions of phatic communion in Chinese? There is the dialog between Ms. P and Ms. Q. in section 1.5.5. When someone sneezes violently, do you say anything of the nature of phatic communion? Have you noticed your parents or grandparents say something special on such an occasion?Some of the typical phatic expressions in Chinese are: 吃了吗？家里都好吧？这是去哪里啊？最近都挺好的？ANSWER:If someone is sneezing violently, ma ybe you parents and grandparents may say: “Are you ok?”, “Do you need to see a doctor?”, “Do you need some water?”, “Do you need a handkerchief?”, “Do you have a cold?” or something like these to show their concerns.12．There are many expressions in language which are metalingual or self-reflexives, namely, talking about talk and think about thinking, for instance, to be honest, to make a long story short, come to think of it, on second thought, can you collect a few more to make a list of these expressions? When do we use them most often?ANSWER:To tell the truth, frankly speaking, as a matter of fact, to be precise, in other words, that is to say Such expressions are used most frequently when we want to expatiate the meaning of former clauses in anther way in argumentation.13. Comment on the following prescriptive rules. Do you think they are acceptable?(A) It is I.(B) It is me.You should say A instead of B because “be” should be followed by the nominative case, not the accusative according to the rules in Latin.(A) Who did you speak to?(B) Whom did you speak to?You should say B instead of A.(A) I haven't done anything.(B) I haven't done nothing.B is wrong because two negatives make a positive.ANSWER:(1) the Latin rule is not universal. In English, me is informal and I is felt to be very formal.(2) Whom is used in formal speech and in writing; who is more acceptable in informal speech.(3) Language does not have to follow logic reasoning. Here two negative only make a more emphatic negative. This sentence is not acceptable in Standard English not because it is illogical, but because language changes and rejects this usage now.14. The prescriptivism in grammar rules has now shifted to prescriptions in choice of words. In the “guid elines on anti-sexist language” issued by the British sociological association, some guidelines are listed below. Do you think they are descriptive and prescriptive? What’s your comment on them?(1) Do not use man to mean humanity in general. Use person, people, human beings, men and women, humanity and humankind.(2) colored: This term is regarded as outdated in the UK and should be avoided as it is generally viewed as offensive to many black people.(3) civilized: This term can still carry racist overtones which derive from a colonialist perception of the world. It is often associated with social Darwinist thought and is full of implicit valuejudgments and ignorance of the history of the non-industrialized world.ANSWER:They are undoubtedly descriptive. Guidelines are not rules that can determine whether a sentence is right or not. The guidelines advise you to avoid the use of particular words that are grammatically correct but offensive to some certain groups. Actually, they describe the way anti-sexist advocators speak and write.15. Why is the distinction between competence and performance an important one in linguistics? Do you think the line can be neatly drawn between them? How do you like the concept “communicative competence”?ANSWER:This is proposed by Chomsky in his formalist linguistic theories. It is sometimes hard to draw a strict line. Some researchers in applied linguistics think communicative competence may be a more revealing concept in language teaching than the purely theoretical pair—competence and performance.16. Which branch of linguistics do you think will develop rapidly in China and why?It is up to you to decide after you have gone through the whole book. At this stage, we suggest all branches of linguistics have the potential to flourish.17. The following are some well-known ambiguous sentences in syntactic studies of language. Can you disambiguate them?The chicken is too hot to eat.Flying planes can be dangerous.ANSWER:The chicken is too hot to eat.The chicken meat is too hot, so it cannot be eaten at the moment.The chicken feels so hot (maybe after some intense aerobic exercises) that it cannot start eating and needs to calm down first.Flying planes can be dangerous.The ambiguity comes from "flying planes". It can be deciphered as "the planes that is flying" or "to fly planes".18. There are many reasons for the discrepancy between competence and performance in normal language users. Can you think of some of them?ANSWEREthnic background, socioeconomic status, region of the country, and physical state (such as intoxication, fatigue, distraction, illness) vary from individual to individual.19. What do these two quotes reveal about the different emphasis or perspectives of language studies?(1) A human language is a system of remarkable complexity. To come to know a human language would be an extraordinary intellectual achievement for a creature not specifically designed to accomplish this task. A normal child acquires this knowledge on relatively slight exposure andwithout specific training. He can then quite effortlessly make use of an intricate structure of specific rules and guiding principles to convey his thoughts and feelings to others, ... Thus language is a mirror of mind in a deep and significant sense. It is a product of human intelligence, created anew in each individual by operations that lie far beyond the reach of will or consciousness.(Noam Chomsky: Reflections on Language. 1975: 4)(2) It is fairly obvious that language is used to serve a variety of different needs, but until we examine its grammar there is no clear reason for classifying its uses in any particular way. However, when we examine the meaning potential of language itself, we find that the vast numbers of options e mbodied in it combine into a very few relatively independent “networks”; and these networks of options correspond to certain basic functions of language. This enables us to give an account of the different functions of language that is relevant to the general understanding of linguistic structure rather than to any particular psychological or sociological investigation. (M. A. K. Halliday, 1970: 142)ANSWER:The first quote shows children’s inborn ability of acquiring the knowledge of intricate structure of specific rules. It implies that the language user's underlying knowledge about the system of rules is the valuable object of study for linguists. The second attaches great importance to the functions of language. It regards the use of language as the choice of needed function. The meaning of language can be completely included by a few “networks” which is directly related to basic functions of language. It indicates the necessity to study the functions of language.20. You may be familiar with the following proverbs. How do you perceive them according to the arbitrariness and conventionality of language?The proof of the pudding is in the eating.Let sleeping dogs lie.You can’t make a silk purse out of a sow’s ear.Rome was not built in a day.When in Rome, do as the Romans do.All roads lead to Rome.ANSWER:20. Arbitrariness and conventionality derive from the choice of the subject matter. For example, in the “The proof of the pudding is in the eating.” The word “pudding” is selected arbitrarily, for w e can use another word such as cheese instead of pudding without changing the associative meaning of the proverb. On the other hand, once such links between particular words and associative meaning are fixed, it becomes a matter of conventionality.21. Give examples of situations in which a usage generally considered non-standard (e.g. ain’t) would be acceptable, even appropriate.ANSWER21. In the talks between intimate friends, one may say “gimme that!” instead of “give me that!” and “wachya doin’?” instead of “what are you doing?” and this list may go on.22. The following are some book titles of linguistics. Can you judge the diachronic and diachronic orientation just from the titles?English Examined: Two centuries of Comment on the Mother-Tongue.Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century V ocabulary and Usage.Pejorative Sense Development in English.The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation.Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular.ANSWER22. Synchronic:Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century V ocabulary and Usage.The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation.Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular.Diachronic:English Examined: Two centuries of Comment on the Mother-Tongue.Pejorative Sense Development in English。

语言学导论综合试题

Chapter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsI. Define the following terms.design features synchronic diachronic prescriptive descriptive arbitrariness duality displacement metalanguage competence phatic communion macrolinguistics performance langue parole II. Choose the best answer.1. Linguistics is the scientific study of __________.A. a particular languageB. the English languageC. human languages in generalD. the system of a particular language2. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human __________.A. contactB. communicationC. relationD. community3. The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade.” is __________.A. interrogativeB. directiveC. informativeD. performative4. In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say“碎碎（岁岁）平安”as a means of controlling the forces which the believers feel might affect their lives. Which function does it perform?A. InterpersonalB. EmotiveC. PerformativeD. Recreational5. Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place, due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation?A. CreativityB. DualityC. DisplacementD. Arbitrariness6. Study the following dialogue. What function does it play according to the functions of language?—A nice day, isn’t it?— Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.A. EmotiveB. PhaticC. PerformativeD. Interpersonal7. __________ refers to the actual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in utterances.A. PerformanceB. CompetenceC. LangueD. Parole8. When a dog is barking, you assume it is barking for something or at someone that exists here and now. It couldn’t be sorrowful for some lost love or lost bone. This indicates the design feature of __________.A. ArbitrarinessB. productivityC. displacementD. duality9. __________ answers such questions as how we as infants acquire our first language.A. PsycholinguisticsB. Anthropological linguisticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Applied linguistics10. ______ is the study of how language works in social interaction.A. SociolinguisticsB. PsycholinguisticsC. Cognitive linguisticsD. Neurolinguistics11. Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?A. treeB. typewriterC. crashD. bang12. As modern linguistics aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, and not to lay down rules for "correct" linguistic behavior, it is said to be ___.A. prescriptiveB. sociolinguisticC. descriptiveD. psycholinguistic13. The branch of linguistics that studies how context influences the way speakers interpret sentences is called ___.A. semanticsB. pragmaticsC. sociolinguisticsD. psycholinguistics14. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is good proof that human language is ______.A. arbitraryB. non-arbitraryC. logicalD. non-productive15. The study of how words are combined to form sentences is called _______.A. phoneticsB. morphologyC. syntaxD. semantics16. ______ is the study of the linguistic meaning of words and sentences.A. SemanticsB. PragmaticsC. SyntaxD. MorphologyⅢ. Blank-filling.1. Language is a system of ________ ________ symbols used for human communication.2. Linguistics is generally defined as the ________ study of ________.3. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be ________; if it aims to lay down rules for “correct” behavior, it is said to be ________.4. In modern linguistics, ________ study seems to enjoy priority over ________ study. The reason is that successful studies of various states of a language would be the foundations of a historical study.5. Langue refers to the ________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; and parole refers to the ________ of langue in actual use.6. Chomsky de fines competence as the ideal user’s ________ of the rules of his language, and performance, the actual ________ of this knowledge in linguistic communication.7. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”. This famous quotation from Shakespeare illustrate that language has the design feature of ________.8. The property of ________ of language provides a speaker with an opportunity to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time and place.9. Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, one of ________, and the other of ________. This double articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge.10. An English speaker and a Chinese speaker are both able to use language,but they are not mutually intelligible, which shows that language is culturally ________.11. Human language is arbitrary. This refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the __________ it is associated with.12. When language is used for establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact rather than exchanging information or ideas, its function is ______________ function.13. The features that define our human languages can be called __________ features.14. Saussure took a __________ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a __________ point of view.IV. Decide whether the following statements are true or false.1. Language is a means of verbal communication. Therefore, the communication way used by the deaf-mute is not language. ( )2. Speaking is the quickest and most efficient way of the human communication systems. ( )3. Language is written because writing is the primary medium for all languages. ( )4. Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e. we are all born with the ability to acquire language and the details of a language system are genetically transmitted. ( )5. Only human beings are able to communicate. ( )6. F. de Saussure, who made the distinction between langue and parole in the early 20th century, was a French linguist. ( )7. A study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time is an example of the diachronic study of language. ( )8. All the languages in the world today have both spoken and written forms. ( )9. Historical linguistics equals to the study of synchronic study. ( )10. Language is arbitrary by nature but it is not completely arbitrary. （）11. Language is the instrument of thought, record of facts, and people often feel need to speak their thoughts aloud. This indicates that language has an expressive function. （）12. A baby’s babbling, widespread use of verbal dueling, poetry writing as well as self-singing all show that language can be used to amuse the speaker.（）13. The most important sociological use of language is the recreational function, by which people establish and maintain their status in society.（）Ⅴ. Questions.1. A story by Robert Louis Stevenson contains the sentence “As the night fell, the wind rose.” Could this be expressed as “As the wind rose, the night fell?” If not, why? Does this indicate a degree of non-arbitrariness about word order?Yes. It is a case in point to illustrate non-arbitrariness about word order. When the two parts interchange, the focus and the meaning of the sentence is forced to change, because clauses occurring in linear sequence without time indicators will be taken as matching the actual sequence of happening. The writer’s original intention is distorted, and we can feel it effortlessly by reading. That is why systemic-functionalists and American functionalists think language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.2. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the creativity of language. Can you write a recursive sentence?3. There are many expressions in language which are meta-lingual or self-reflexive, namely, talking about talk and thinking about thinking, for instance, to be honest, to make a long story short, come to think of it, on second thought, can you collect a few more to make a list of these expressions? When do we use them most often?4. Comment on the following prescriptive rules. Do you think they are acceptable?(A) It is I.(B) It is me.You should say A instead of B because “be” should be followed by the nominative case, not the accusative according to the rules in Latin.(A) Who do you speak to?(B) Whom do you speak to?You should say B instead of A.(A) I haven’t done anything.(B) I haven’t done nothing.B is wrong because two negatives make a positive.5. Why do people take duality as one of the important design features of human language? Can you tell us what language will be if it has no such design feature? （南开大学，2004）Duality makes our language productive. A large number of different units canbe formed out of a small number of elements –for instance, tens of thousands of words out of a small set of sounds, around 40 in the case of the English language.And out of the huge number of words, there can be astronomical number of possible sentences and phrases, which in turn can combine to form unlimited number of texts. Most animal communication systems do not have this design feature of human language.If language has no such design feature, then it will be like animal communicational system which will be highly limited. It cannot produce a very large number of sound combinations, e.g. words, which are distinct in meaning.6. You may be familiar with the following proverbs. How do you perceive them according to the arbitrariness and conventionality of language?The proof of the pudding is in the eating.Let sleeping dogs lie.You can’t make a silk purse out of a sow’s ear.Rome was not built in a day.When in Rome, do as the Romans do.All roads lead to Rome.。

语言学前八章节小结

语言学前八章节小结Chapter 1 Invitations to linguistics1 Definition of language: it is a means of verbal communication.2 Design feature of language:①Arbitrariness: the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.②Duality: is the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.③Creativity: language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.④Displacement: human language enables their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present at the moment of communication.3 Halliday proposes a theory of metafunctions of language, that is, language has ideational, interpersonal and textual functions.Chapter 2 speech sounds1 Maximal onset principle, which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda.Chapter 3 from morpheme to phrase1 Roof: a roof is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without destroying its meaning.2 Affix: an affix is the collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme, so affix is naturally bound.3 Inflectional affix and derivational affixInflectional affix:those are not used to produce new words but to indicate the grammatical meaning of the words.Derivational affix: those are not used to make new words and are often used to make words of different category.The differences between them:①Inflectional affixes are generally less productive than derivational affixes.②Inflectional affixes do not change the word class of the word they attach to.③That whether one should add inflectional affixes or not depends very often onother factors within the phrase or sentence at stake.4 A minimum free form: this was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated that sentence should be treaded as the Maximum free form while words as the minimum free form.5 Blending: it is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining together the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by only joining the initial parts of the two words.6 Acronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which hasa heavily modified headword.Chapter 4 from word to text1 Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.Usually 名词短语动词短语形容词性短语属于向心结构2 Exocentric construction is just the opposite of endocentricconstruction. It refers toa group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is. There is no definable centre or head inside the group.Usually 简单句介词短语介宾结构Chapter 5 meaning一types of meanings:1 conceptual meaning: logical, cognitive, or denotative content2 connotative meaning: What is communicated by virtue of what language refers to3 social meaning what is communicated of the social circumstances of language use.4 affective meaning what is communicated of the feeling and attitudes of the speaker.5 reflected meaning what is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression.6 collocative meaning7 thematic meaning二the referential theory1 definition: the theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory.2 A theory which explicitly employed the notion “concept” is the semantic triangle proposed by Ogden and Richards in The Meaning of Meaning.3 antonymy(1) gradable antonymy 等级反义词（2）complementary antonymyDifferences between them1 intermedia ground2 criterion complementary3 cover term(3) converse antonymyTe chnically, the cover term is called “unmarked”, and the covered “marked”, or unusual. That mean s, in general, it is the cover term that is more often used. If the covered is used, then it suggested that there is something odd, unusual here. The speaker may already know that somebody /something is young, small, near, and he wants to know the extent in greater detail.Chapter 6 language and cognition1Cognition: another definition of cognition is the mental processor faculty of knowing, including aspects such as awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment. 2Psycholingistics is the study of psychological aspects of language；it usuallystudies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language.Chapter 7 language culture and societyLanguage is an indispensable carrier of culture.1Context of situation① A leading figure i n a linguistic tradition later known as the London school, triedto set up a model to illustrate the close relationship between language use and its co-occurrent factors. In the end, he developed his own theory of context of situation.②A: the relevant fea tures of the participants, persons, personalities.B: the relevant objects.C: the effect of the verbal action.2Speech community refers to a group of people who share not only the same rules of speaking, but at least one linguistic variety as well3SAPIR-WHORF HYPOTHESESWhat this hypothesis suggests is this: Our language helps mould our ways of thinking and, consequently , different languages may probably express speakers＇unique ways of understanding the world. On the one hand, language may determine our thinking patterns; on the other, similarity between languages is relative.The strong version of the theory refers to the claim the original hypothesis makes, emphasizing the decisive role of language as the shaper of our thinking patterns.The weak version of this hypothesis, however, is a modified type of its original theory, suggesting that there is a correlation between language, culture and thought, but the cross-cultural differences thus produced in our ways of thinking are relative, rather than categorical.3William Labov, a famous sociolinguist, he turned out that class and style are two major factors influencing the speakers＇choice one phonological variant over another. Based on these findings, Labov explicitly delineated the patterns of stratification by class and, more importantly, successfully introduced class as an indispensiblesociolinguistic variable.Chapter 8 Language in use一Speech act theory 言语行为理论Performatives and constativesA theory of the illocutionaryDefinition: when we speak we move our vocal organs andproduce a number of sounds, organized in a certain way and with a certain meaning.Locutionary act 发话行为Illocutionary act 行事行为Illocutionary force 行事语力Perlocutionary act 取效行为二the cooperative principle 合作原则1 Definition：Make your conventional contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.QuantityQualityRelationManner2 Characteristic of implicature①Calculability ②cancellability ③non-detachability 不可分离性④non-conventionalityAt the end of the discussion, we may summarize conversational implicature as a type of implied meaning, which is deduced on the basis of the conventional meaning of words together with the context, under the guidance of the CP and its maxims.。

语言学教程课后习题与答案第一章

Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1. Define the following terms:design feature: the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals.function: the role language plays in communication . to express ideas, attitudes) or in particular social situations . religious, legal).synchronic: said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical ‘point’ in time.diachronic: said of the study of development of language and languages over time. prescriptive: to make authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language.descriptive: to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety.arbitrariness: the absence of any physical correspondence between linguistic signals and the entities to which they refer.duality: the structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units . words) and meaningless segments . sounds, letters).displacement: the ability of language to refer to contexts removed from thespeaker’s immediate situation.phatic communion: said of talk used to establish atmosphere or maintain social contact.metalanguage: a language used for talking about language.macrolinguistics: a broad conception of linguistic enquiry, including psychological, cultural, etc.competence: unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language.performance: the language actually used by people in speaking or writing.langue: the langu age system shared by a “speech community”.parole: the concrete utterances of a speaker.2. Consult at least four introductory linguistics textbooks (not dictionaries), and copy the definitions of “language” that each gives. After carefully comparing the definitions, write a paper discussing which points recur and explaining the significance of the similarities and differences among the definitions.ANSWER:All the definitions should not exclude the description of design features that have been mentioned in this course book. Also it will be better if other design features, say, interchangeability or cultural transmission is included. But it seems impossible to give an unimpeachable definition on language, because the facetspeople want to emphasize are seldom unanimous. To compare several definitions can make you realize where the argument is.3. Can you think of some words in English which are onomatopoeic？ANSWERS:creak: the sound made by a badly oiled door when it opens.cuckoo: the call of cuckoo.bang: a sudden loud noise.roar: a deep loud continuing sound.buzz: a noise of buzzing.hiss: a hissing sound.neigh: the long and loud cry that a horse makes.mew: the noise that a gull makes.bleat: the sound made by a sheep, goat or calf.4. Do you think that onomatopoeia indicates a non-arbitrary relationship between form and meaning？ANSWER:4. No matter you say "Yes" or "No", you cannot deny that onomatopoeia needs arbitrariness. Before we feel a word is onomatopoeic we should first know which sound the word imitates. Just as what is said in Chapter One, in order to imitate the noise of flying mosquitoes, there are many choices like "murmurous" and "murderous". They both bear more or less resemblance to the genuine natural sound, but "murmurous" is fortunately chosen to mean the noise while "murderous" is chosen to mean something quite different. They are arbitrary as signifiers.5. A story by Robert Louis Stevenson contains the sentence “As the night fell, the wind rose.” Could this be expressed as “As the wind rose, the night fell” If not, why Does this indicate a degree of non-arbitrariness about word order (Bolinger, 1981: 15)5. Yes. It is a case in point to illustrate non-arbitrariness about word order. When the two parts interchange, the focus and the meaning of the sentence is forced to change, because clauses occurring in linear sequence without time indicators will be taken as matching the actual sequence of happening. The writer’s original intention is distorted, and we can feel it effortlessly by reading. That is why systemic-functionalists and American functionalists think language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.6. Does the traffic light system have duality Can you explain by drawing a simple graph？6. Traffic light does not have duality. Obviously, it is not a double-level system. There is only one-to-one relationship between signs and meaning but the meaning units cannot be divided into smaller meaningless elements further. So the traffic light only has the primary level and lacks the secondary level like animals’ calls.ANSWER:Red→stopGreen→goYellow→get ready to go or stop7. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the creativity of language. Can you write a recursive sentence following the example in section1.3.3.ANSWER:Today I encountered an old friend who was my classmate when I was in elementary school where there was an apple orchard in which we slid to select ripe apples that…8. Communication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facial expression. Do body language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language？ANSWER:On a whole, body language and facial expression lack most of the distinctive properties of human language such as duality, displacement, creativity and so on. Body language exhibits arbitrariness a little bit. For instance, nod means "OK/YES" for us but in Arabian world it is equal to saying "NO". Some facial expressions have non-arbitrariness because they are instinctive such as the cry and laugh of a newborn infant.9. Do you agree with the view that no language is especially simple？ANSWER:Yes. All human languages are complicated systems of communication. It is decided by their shared design features.10. W hat do you think of Bertrand Russell’s observation of the dog language: “No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest” Are you familiar with any type of ways animals communicate among themselves and with human beings？ANSWER:When gazelles sense potential danger, for example, they flee and thereby signal toother gazelles in the vicinity that danger is lurking. A dog signals its wish to be let inside the house by barking and signals the possibility that it might bite momentarily by displaying its fangs.you mention some typical expressions of phatic communion in Chinese There is the dialog between Ms. P and Ms. Q. in section When someone sneezes violently, do you say anything of the nature of phatic communion Have you noticed your parents or grandparents say something special on such an occasion？Some of the typical phatic expressions in Chinese are: 吃了吗家里都好吧这是去哪里啊最近都挺好的？ANSWER:If someone is sneezing violently, maybe you parents and grandparents may say: “Are you ok”, “Do you need to see a doctor”, “Do you need some water”, “Do you need a handkerchief”, “Do you have a cold” or something like these to show their concerns.12．There are many expressions in language which are metalingual or self-reflexives, namely, talking about talk and think about thinking, for instance, to be honest, to make a long story short, come to think of it, on second thought, can you collect a few more to make a list of these expressions When do we use them most often？ANSWER:To tell the truth, frankly speaking, as a matter of fact, to be precise, in other words, that is to saySuch expressions are used most frequently when we want to expatiate the meaning of former clauses in anther way in argumentation.13. Comment on the following prescriptive rules. Do you think they are acceptable？(A) It is I.(B) It is me.You should say A instead of B because “be” should be followed by the nominative case, not the accusative according to the rules in Latin.(A) Who did you speak to(B) Whom did you speak toYou should say B instead of A.(A) I haven't done anything.(B) I haven't done nothing.B is wrong because two negatives make a positive.ANSWER:(1) the Latin rule is not universal. In English, me is informal and I is felt to be very formal.(2) Whom is used in formal speech and in writing; who is more acceptable in informal speech.(3) Language does not have to follow logic reasoning. Here two negative only makea more emphatic negative. This sentence is not acceptable in Standard English not because it is illogical, but because language changes and rejects this usage now.14. The prescriptivism in grammar rules has now shifted to prescriptions in choice of words. In the “guidelines on anti-sexist language” issu ed by the British sociological association, some guidelines are listed below. Do you think they are descriptive and prescriptive What’s your comment on them？(1) Do not use man to mean humanity in general. Use person, people, human beings, men and women, humanity and humankind.(2) colored: This term is regarded as outdated in the UK and should be avoided asit is generally viewed as offensive to many black people.(3) civilized: This term can still carry racist overtones which derive from a colonialist perception of the world. It is often associated with social Darwinist thought and is full of implicit value judgments and ignorance of the history of the non-industrialized world.ANSWER:They are undoubtedly descriptive. Guidelines are not rules that can determine whether a sentence is right or not. The guidelines advise you to avoid the use of particular words that are grammatically correct but offensive to some certain groups. Actually, they describe the way anti-sexist advocators speak and write.15. Why is the distinction between competence and performance an important one in linguistics Do you think the line can be neatly drawn between them How do you like the concept “communicative competence”？ANSWER:This is proposed by Chomsky in his formalist linguistic theories. It is sometimes hard to draw a strict line. Some researchers in applied linguistics think communicative competence may be a more revealing concept in language teaching than the purely theoretical pair—competence and performance.16. Which branch of linguistics do you think will develop rapidly in China and why？It is up to you to decide after you have gone through the whole book. At this stage, we suggest all branches of linguistics have the potential to flourish.17. The following are some well-known ambiguous sentences in syntactic studies of language. Can you disambiguate them？The chicken is too hot to eat.Flying planes can be dangerous.ANSWER:The chicken is too hot to eat.The chicken meat is too hot, so it cannot be eaten at the moment.The chicken feels so hot (maybe after some intense aerobic exercises) that it cannot start eating and needs to calm down first.Flying planes can be dangerous.The ambiguity comes from "flying planes". It can be deciphered as "the planes that is flying" or "to fly planes".18. There are many reasons for the discrepancy between competence and performance in normal language users. Can you think of some of them？ANSWEREthnic background, socioeconomic status, region of the country, and physical state (such as intoxication, fatigue, distraction, illness) vary from individual to individual.19. What do these two quotes reveal about the different emphasis or perspectives of language studies？(1) A human language is a system of remarkable complexity. To come to know a human language would be an extraordinary intellectual achievement for a creature not specifically designed to accomplish this task. A normal child acquires this knowledge on relatively slight exposure and without specific training. He can then quite effortlessly make use of an intricate structure of specific rules and guiding principles to convey his thoughts and feelings to others, ... Thus language is a mirror of mind in a deep and significant sense. It is a product of human intelligence, created anew in each individual by operations that lie far beyond the reach of willor consciousness.(Noam Chomsky: Reflections on Language. 1975: 4)(2) It is fairly obvious that language is used to serve a variety of different needs, but until we examine its grammar there is no clear reason for classifying its uses in any particular way. However, when we examine the meaning potential of language itself, we find that the vast numbers of options embodied in it combine into a very few relatively independent “networks”; and these networks of options correspond to certain basic functions of language. This enables us to give an account of the different functions of language that is relevant to the general understanding of linguistic structure rather than to any particular psychological or sociological investigation.(M. A. K. Halliday, 1970: 142)ANSWER:The first quote shows children’s inborn ability of acquiring the knowledge of intricate structure of specific rules. It implies that the language user's underlying knowledge about the system of rules is the valuable object of study for linguists. The second attaches great importance to the functions of language. It regards the use of language as the choice of needed function. The meaning of language can be completely included by a few “networks” which is directly related to basic functions of language. It indicates the necessity to study the functions of language.20. You may be familiar with the following proverbs. How do you perceive them according to the arbitrariness and conventionality of language？The proof of the pudding is in the eating.Let sleeping dogs lie.You can’t make a silk purse out of a sow’s ear.Rome was not built in a day.When in Rome, do as the Romans do.All roads lead to Rome.ANSWER:20. Arbitrariness and conventionality derive from the choice of the subject matter. For example, in the “The proof of the pudding is in the eating.” The word “pudding” is selected arbitrarily, for we can use another word such as c heese instead of pudding without changing the associative meaning of the proverb. On the other hand, once such links between particular words and associative meaning are fixed, it becomes a matter of conventionality.21. Give examples of situations in which a usage generally considered non-standard . ain’t) would be acceptable, even appropriate.ANSWER21. In the talks between intimate friends, one may say “gimme that!” instead of “give me that!” and “wachya doin’” instead of “what are you doing” and thi s list may go on.22. The following are some book titles of linguistics. Can you judge the diachronic and diachronic orientation just from the titles？English Examined: Two centuries of Comment on the Mother-Tongue.Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century Vocabulary and Usage.Pejorative Sense Development in English.The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation.Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular.ANSWER22. Synchronic:Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century Vocabulary and Usage. The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation. Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular. Diachronic:English Examined: Two centuries of Comment on the Mother-Tongue. Pejorative Sense Development in English。

《语言学教程》Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics

Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics Teaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics.Teaching difficulties: design features of language; some important distinctions in linguisticsTeaching procedures1. Language1.1 Why study language?A tool for communicationAn integral part of our life and humanity人类生活和人性中不可或缺的一部分.If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.如果不能完全理解语言的本质和结构,我们就会对人类的本质一无所知.1.2 What is language? 什么是语言1.2.1 different senses of language 语言的不同意义1. What a person says (concrete act of speech)a person’s consistent way of speaking or writinga particular level of speaking or writing e.g. colloquial languagean abstract system2. A Webster’s New Dictionary offers a frequently used sense of the word “language”:a. human speech 人类的言语b. the ability to communicate by this means 通过言语来交流的能力c. a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds to which meaning is attributed, used for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings; 用来表达或交流思想和感觉的一套声音及这些声音互相结合的系统d. the written representation of such a system 系统的文字表达3. the barest of definition, language is a means of verbal communication.最简洁的定义:语言是言语交流的一种方式.Language is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles. Language distinguishes us from animals.因为说和写的交流方式是一种有目的的行为,所以语言是实用性的;因为语言是社会符号,语言的交流只能在所有参与者广泛理解了人类的那些非言语的暗示,动机,社会文化角色等等互相关联的因素之后才能有效进行,因此语言又是社会的,约定俗成的.语言使人类区别于动物.1.2.2 definitions1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.3 Design features of language 语言的结构特征Design features------ refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, and displacement.1.3.1 What is arbitrariness? 任意性a. arbitrariness---- arbitrariness(任意性): one design feature of human language, which refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. (人类语言的本质特征之一,指语言符号的形式与意义之间没有自然的联系.)It was discussed by Saussure first. The link between them is a matter of convention.E.g. “house” uchi (Japanese)Mansion (French)房子(Chinese)(1) arbitrary between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning语言的音和义之间的任意性a. By “arbitrary”, we mean there is n o logical connection between meanings and sounds. 语言的意义和语音之间没有逻辑关系。

chapter 1(1) 英语语言学,第一章

养的。”
记者将他的话公诸于
众，华盛顿的议员们一定要马
克 ·吐温在报上登个启事，赔礼
道歉。于是，马克 ·吐温写了这
样一张启事：“以前鄙人在酒席上发言，
说某些国会议员是狗娘养的，我再三考
虑，觉得此言不妥，而且不合事实，特登
报声明，把我的话修改成：
某些国会议员不是狗娘养的。
❖ ② language is arbitrary and symbolic. There is no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing. It is symbolic in that linguistic elements are symbols or signs, not objects, actions or things, but they are associated with objects or actions.
Definition of language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
① language is a system: elements in language are arranged according to rules. The elements can not be produced and combined at random. If so, language can not be used and learned consistently.
❖ A Sketch of the Course
❖ Chapter 1: general introductions to language and linguistics

语言学Chapter 1 invitations to linguistics

Sounds > syllables > morphemes > words > phrases > clauses > sentences/utterances > texts/discourses
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2.3 Creativity

Language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. We can use it to create new meanings. Words can be used in new ways to mean new things, and can be instantly understood by people who have never come across that usage before.
It is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and sociocultural roles.
12

The recursive nature of language provides a potential to create an infinite number of sentences. For instance:

Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics

Chapter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsI. The definition of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has revealed five essential factors of language: systematic系统性, arbitrary任意性, vocal口头, symbolic 符号性and most importantly human specific.To give the briefest definition, language is a means of verbal communication.Language distinguishes us from animals because it is far more sophisticated than any animal communication system.II. The Design features of language (语言的区别性特征)Design features refer to the defining properties of human languages that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.A framework was proposed by the American linguist Charles Hockett.1.Arbitrariness (任意性)The widely accepted meaning of this feature which was discussed by Saussure（索绪尔）first refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.It is the core feature(核心特征) of language, which refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. It is not entirely arbitrary atall levels. Some words, such as the ones created in the imitation of sounds by sounds are motivated in a certain degree.其他书表述：Language is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical relationship between meanings and sounds. While language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary. The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.2. Duality (二重性)Duality refers to the property of having twolevels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of two levels has its own principles of organization. The property of duality only exists in such a system, namely, with both elements (e.g. sounds, letters) and units (e.g. words).其他书表述：Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which is meaningless.Each human language is organized into two basic systems: a system of sounds and a system of meanings. This is called the duality of language.3.Creativity (创造性)Creativity, sometimes also “productivity”, means language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness, which enables human beings to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences in our native language, including the sentences which were never heard before.Also called design features (C. F.Hockett, A Course in Modern Linguistics, 1958)4.Displacement（移位性）Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are notpresent (in time and space) at the moment of communication.Displacement benefits human beings by giving them the power to handle generalizations and abstractions.5.Cultural Transmission (文化传递性)Language is culturally transmitted. It cannot be transmitted through heredity(遗传).While human capacity of language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.6.Interchangeability (互换性)Interchangeability refers to the fact that man can both produce and receive message, and his roles as a speaker and a hearer can be exchanged at ease.III. Origin of language1.Bilical account (圣经记载)Language was God’s gift to human beings.2.The bow-wow theory (“汪汪”理论) Language was an imitation of natural sounds, such as the cries of animals, like quack,cuckoo.3.The pooh-pooh theory (“噗噗”理论) Language arose from instinctive emotional cries, expression of pain or joy. Oh, Ah, Aiyo4.The ye-he-ho theory (“哟-嘿-吼”理论)Language arose from the noises made by a group of people engaged in joint labour oreffort-lifting a huge hunted game, moving a rock, etc.5.The evolution theory (进化理论)Language originated in the process of labour and answered the call of social need.IV. Functions of languageJakobson (雅格布逊) established a well-known framework of language functions based on the six key elements of communication, namely: referential(conveymessage and information), poetic (indulge in language for its own sake), emotive(to express attitudes, feelings and emotions), conative(to persuade and influence others through commands and requests), phatic(to establish communion with others) and metalingual function (to clear up intensions and meaning).Halliday(韩礼德) proposes a theory of metafuncions of language, that is, language has IDEATIONAL（意念）, INTERPERSONAL（人际） and TEXTUAL （语篇）functions. Ideational function constructs a model of experience as well as logical relations, interpersonal function enacts social relationships and textual function creates relevance to context.rmative function （信息功能）Language is used to tell something, to give information, or to reason things out. The informative function is regarded as the most important function. Declarative sentences(陈述句) serve this function.It is the major role of language. The use of language to record the facts is a prerequisite (先决条件) of social development.It is also called the ideational function (意念功能) in the framework of functional grammar(功能语法).2.Interpersonal function (人际功能)The interpersonal function is considered asthe most important sociological use of language, by which people establish and maintain their status in a society.In the framework of function grammar, this function is concerned with interaction between the addresser and addressee in the discourse situation and the addresser’s attitude toward what he speaks or writes about. For example, the ways in which people address others andrefer to themselves (e.g. Dear Sir, Dear Professor, Johnny, yours, your obedient servant) indicate the various grades of interpersonal relations.3.Performative function (施为功能)The performative function of language is primarily used to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies. The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quiet formal and even ritualized(仪式化).（the Royal Wedding）4.Emotive function (感情功能)The emotive function of language is oneof the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.God, My, Damn it, What a sight, Wow, Son of Bitch他妈的，他姥姥的5.Phatic function (寒暄功能)The term PHATIC COMMUNION originates from Malinowski’s study of the functions of language performed by Trobriand Islanders. （a Polish anthropoligist）This function refers to expressions that help define and maintain interpersonal relations, such as slangs, jokes, jargons, ritualistic exchanges, switches to social andregional dialects.おはようございます。

语言学名词解释

Chapter 1 Invitations to linguistics1. Arbitrariness 任意性Language is arbitrary, which means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.On the other hand, we should be aware that while language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary. The best examples are the onomatopoeic words. Besides, some compound words are also not entirely arbitrary.The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.2. Duality 二层性Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning such as morphemes and words, which are found at the higher level of the system. Then the units at the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences.This duality of structure or double articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge. No animal communication system has duality or even comes near to possessing it.3. Productivity/ Creativity 创造性Productivity/ Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness, which enables human beings to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences in our native language, including the novel sentences by use of a finite set of rules. 4. Displacement 移位性Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.Human language is, unlike animal communication systems, stimulus-free. Our language enables us to communicate about things that do not exist or do not yet exist.Displacement benefits human beings by giving them the power to handle generalizations and abstractions.5. Cultural transmission 文化传递性While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned. An English speaker and a Chinese speaker are both able to use a language, but they are not mutually intelligible. This shows that language is culturally transmitted. It is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.In contrast, animal call systems are genetically transmitted.6. Interchangeability 互换性Interchangeability refers to the fact that humans can produce and receive messages, and their roles as a speaker and a hearer can be exchanged at ease.Functions of language7. Informative function 信息功能Language is used to tell something, to give information, or to reason things out. The informative function is regarded as the major role of language. Declarative sentences serve this function.8. Interpersonal function 人际功能The interpersonal function is considered as the most important sociological use of language, by which people establish and maintain their status in a society.9. Performative function 施为功能The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies. The kind of language involved in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized.10. Emotive function 感情功能The emotive function of language is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something. This function is also discussed under the term expressive function. The expressive function can often be entirely personal and totally without any implication of communication to others.11. Phatic function 寒暄功能The phatic function enables people to establish and maintain good interpersonal relationships with others without involving any factual content.12. Recreational function 娱乐功能The recreational function refers to the use of language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.13. Metalingual function 元语言功能The metalingual function refers to the fact that our language can be used to talk about itself. This makes the language infinitely self-reflexive. (自我反身性)14. Anthropological linguistics 人类语言学Anthropological linguistics is a branch of linguistics which studies the relationship between language and culture in a community, e.g. its traditions, beliefs, and family structure.Important Distinctions in Linguistics15. Descriptive vs. Prescriptive 描写式vs. 规定式Don’t say X. ---Prescriptive commandPeople don’t say X. ---Descriptive statementThe distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are.To say that linguistics is a descriptive science means that linguists tried to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.16. Synchronic vs. Diachronic 共时vs. 历时Language can be studied at a particular point in time or over time. The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A diachronic study of a language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.17. Langue vs. Parole 语言vs. 言语The distinction between langue and parole was made by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure in theearly 20th century. Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances) as langue and parole.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is relatively stable while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.18. Competence vs. Performance 语言能力vs. 语言应用Similar to Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole is the distinction between competence and performance, which was proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950s.A language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence. And the performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.19. Speech vs. WritingSpeech and writing are two major media of communication. Linguists regard the spoken language as primary, not the written. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. Even in today’s world, there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. So language is primarily vocal.24. Syntagmatic vs. Paradigmatic 组合（横向）纵向vs. 选择关系In doing linguistic inquiry the linguist is concerned with two major types of relationship. One is syntagmatic relation, which refers to the relations between units which combine to form sentences. The other is paradigmatic relation, which refers to oppositions which produce distinct and alternative terms.25. Etic vs. Emic 唯素的vs. 唯位的Etic refers to the linguistic units containing “-etic”, for example, phonetic, which are used to describe linguistic facts in detail without distinctive features, and are first used to describe sounds. Emic refers to the linguistic units containing “-emic”, for example, phonemic, morphemic, which are used to describe linguistic rules with distinctive features and are first used to describe phonemes.26. Traditional grammar vs. Modern grammar 传统语法vs. 现代语法Traditional grammar can be considered as prescriptive; it is based on “high” (religious, literary) written language. It sets models for language users to follow. But modern grammar is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken language data.27. Linguistic potential vs. Actual linguistic behavior 语言潜势vs. 实际语言行为Halliday thinks that with language, there is a wide range of things that a speaker can do in the culture he is in. The set of possibility for “doing” is termed linguistic potential. What a speaker actually says in a particular occasion to a particular individual is what he has selected from the many possible things he could have said. This actual selection of things from what one could have is termed actual linguistic behavior.Chapter 2 Phonetics and Phonology1. Phonetics 语音学Phonetics is the study of how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. It is divided into three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics and perceptual (auditory) phonetics.2. Articulatory phonetics 发音语音学Articulatory phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds.3. Acoustic phonetics 声学语音学Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds.4. Perceptual (auditory) phonetics 感知语音学/ 听觉语音学Perceptual (auditory) phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.5. Phonology 音系学Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to “discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.”6. Speech organs/ vocal organs 发音器官Speech organs/ vocal organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech, including lungs, the trachea (or windpipe), the throat, the nose, and the mouth.For most phonetic purposes, it is sufficient to say that the vocal folds are either (a) apart, (b) close together, or (c) totally closed.声带只需要三种状态：分离，贴近，紧闭。

《英语语言学》复习要点

Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguisticsnguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. To give the barest definition language is a means of verbal communication. It is instrumental social and conventional. Linguistics is usually defined as the science of language or alternatively as the scientific study of language. It concerns with the systematic study of language or a discipline that describes all aspects of language and formulates theories as to how language works.2.Design features refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement etc.Arbitrariness refers to forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning Language is arbitrary. There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds even with onomatopoeic words.Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structure. The units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.☺the lower or the basic level---- the sound units or phonemes which are meaningless, but can be grouped and regrouped into words.☺the higher level ----morphemes and words which are meaningfulCreativity refers to Words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be instantly understood by people who have never come across that usage before.Displacement refers to the fact that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present real or imagined matters in the past present or future or in far away places. It means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects events and concepts which are not present in time and space at the moment of communication3. Jakobson’s classification of functions of language.Jakobson : In his article Linguistics and Poetics (1960) defined six primary factors of any speech event: speaker, addressee, context,message, code, contact.1).Referential function 所指功能2).Poetic function诗学功能3).Emotive function感情功能4).Conative function意动功能5).Phatic function交感功能6).Metalingual元语言功能Hu Zhuanglin’ classification of functions of language and use some examples to illustrate them.1).Informative function 信息功能2).Interpersonal function 人际功能3).Performative function 施为功能4).Emotive function 感情功能5).Phatic communion 交感性谈话6).Recreational function 娱乐性功能7).Metalingual function 元语言功能4. What are the major differences between Saussure’s distinction betwe en langue and parole and Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?According to Saussure,(1) Langue is abstract, parole is specific to the speaking situation;(2) Langue is not actually spoken by an individual , parole is always a naturally occurring event;(3) Langue is relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation.According to N. Chomsky,Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities; A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker's performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence; Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1.Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted and received. It is concerned with the actual physical articulation, transmission and perception of speech sounds.Phonology is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds. It isconcerned with the abstract and mental aspect of the sounds in language.Phonology aimsto discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication1. Lips2. Teeth3. Teeth ridge (alveolar)齿龈4. Hard palate 硬腭5. Soft palate (velum) 软腭6. Uvula 小舌7. Tip of tongue8. Blade of tongue 舌面9. Back of tongue10. V ocal cords 声带11. Pharyngeal cavity 咽腔 12. Nasal cavity 鼻腔2.Phone （音素): the smallest perceptible discreet segment of sound in a stream of speech. (in the mouth)Phoneme （音位）：A sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of a word from another in a given language is a phoneme. (in the mind)allophone (音位变体) : phonic variants of a phoneme are called allophone of the same phoneme. / / = phoneme [ ] = phone { } = set of allophonesIPA:the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet .Minimal pairs 最小对立体Three requirements for identifying minimal pairs:1) different in meaning; 2) only one phoneme different;3) the different phonemes occur in the same phonetic environment.e.g. a minimal pair: pat -fat; lit-lip; phone-toneminimal set: pat, mat, bat, fat, cat, hat, etcplementary distribution 互补分布Phonetically similar sounds might be related in two ways.If they are two distinctive phonemes, they might form a contrast; e.g. /p/and /b/ in [pit] and [bit];If they are allophones of the same phoneme, then they don’t distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution, i.e. they occur in different phonetic contextSuprasegmental features 超音段特征—features that involve more than single sound segment, such as stress （重音），length（音程）, rhythm （节奏），tone（音调），intonation（语调）及juncture（音渡）．Chapter 3 Lexicon/Morphology1. Word1.1 Three senses of “word”(1) A physically definable unit: a cluster of sound segments or letters between two pause orblank.(2) Word both as a general term and as a specific term.(3) A grammatical unit1.2 Identification of wordsSome factors can help us identify words:(1) Stability(2) Relative uninterruptibility(3) A minimum free form1.3 The classification of wordWords can be classified in terms of:(1) Variable vs. invariable words (可变词/不可变词)(2) Grammatical words vs. lexical words (语法词/词汇词)(3) Closed-class words vs. open-class words (封闭词/开放词)(4) word class(词类)(1) Variable vs. invariable words (可变词/不可变词)the former refers to words having inflective changes（屈折变化）while the latter refers to words having no such endings.Variable words: follow; follows; following; followedInvariable words: since; when; seldom; through; hello(2) Grammatical words vs. lexical words (function words and content words.语法词/词汇词)The former refers to those words expressing grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions(连词), prepositions（介词）, articles(冠词), and pronouns（代词）;the latter refers to words having lexical meanings, those which refer to substance, action etc. such as n., v., adj., and adv..(3) Closed-class words vs. open-class words (封闭词/开放词)the former refers to words whose membership is fixed or limited; e.g. pron., prep., conj., article. the latter of which the membership is infinite or unlimited. e.g.: n., v., adj., adv.(4) word class (词类)The traditionally recognized word classes are: noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection, article, etc. More word classes have been introduced into grammar: particles 小品词/语助词(go by, look for, come up);auxiliaries 助词(can, be, will);pro-form 替代词(do, so);determiners 前置词/ 限定词(all, every, few, plenty of, this).2. The formation of word2.1 Morphology 形态学Definition：Morphology is a branch of linguistics, which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.The two fields (p64)Inflectional morphology: the study of inflectionsDerivational morphology: the study of word-formation3. Lexical change3.1 Lexical change proper（词本身的变化）Invention 新造词Blending混合词Abbreviation 缩合词Acronym首字母缩略词back-formation 逆构词analogical creation 类比造词Borrowing 借词、外来词definition:1) Morphology:Morphology is a branch of linguistics, which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2) Terminology 术语解释Morpheme: The smallest unit of meaning, which can not be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.Free morphemes: morphemes which may constitute words by themselves．Bound morphemes:morphemes which can not be used by themselves, but must be combined with other morphemes to form wordsInflectional morpheme: a kind of bound morphemes which manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree and case.Derivational morpheme: a kind of bound morphemes, added to existing forms to create new words. There are three kinds according to position: prefix, suffix and infix.Chapter 4 Syntax From Word to TextSyntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.Endocentric Constructions:is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.Exocentric Constructions:refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group Category: refers to the defining properties of these general units:Categories of the noun: number, gender, case and countabilityCategories of the verb: tense, aspect, voicethree kinds of syntactic relations:relations of position位置关系Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.relations of substitutability 可替代性关系The Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.relations of co-occurrence 同现关系It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.Immediate Constituent Analysis (IC Analysis)Immediate constituent analysis is a form of linguistic review that breaks down longer phrases or sentences into their constituent parts, usually into single words. This kind of analysis is sometimes abbreviated as IC analysis, and gets used extensively by a wide range of language experts.Endocentric constructions fall into two main types, depending on the relation between constituents: Coordination and subordinationCoordination is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or .Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.Characteristics of subjectsA) Word order: Subject ordinarily precedes the verb in the statementB) Pro-forms(代词形式) : The first and third person pronouns in English appear in a special form when the pronoun is a subjectC) Agreement with the verb: In the simple present tense, an -s is added to the verb when a third person subject is singular, but the number and person of the object or any other element in the sentence have no effect at all on the form of the verbD) Content questions (实意问句): If the subject is replaced by a question word (who or what), the rest of the sentence remains unchangedE) Tag question (反意问句): A tag question is used to seek confirmation of a statement. It always contains a pronoun which refers back to the subject, and never to any other element in the sentence.Explain the difference between sense and reference from the following four aspects:1) A word having reference must have sense;2) A word having sense might not have reference;3) A certain sense can be realized by more than one reference; 4) A certain reference can beexpressed by more than one senseThe distinction between “sense” and “reference” is comparable to that between “connotation” and “denotation”. The former refers to some abstract properties, while the latter refers to some concrete entities.Firstly, to some extent, we can say that every word has a sense, i.e., some conceptual content; otherwise we would not be able to use it or understand it. Secondly, but not every word has a reference. There are linguistic expressions which can never be used to refer to anything, for example, the words so, very, maybe, if, not, and all. These words do of course contribute meaning to the sentences in which they occur and thus help sentences denote, but they themselves do not identify entities in the world. They are intrinsically non-referring terms. And words like ghost and dragon refer to imaginary things, which do not exist in reality. Thirdly, some expressions will have the same reference across a range of utterances, e.g., the Eiffel Tower or the Pacific Ocean. Such expressions are sometimes described as having constant reference. Others have their references totally dependent on context. Expressions like I, you, she, etc. are said to have variable references. Lastly, sometimes a reference may be expressed by more than one sense. For instance, both ‘evening star’ and ‘morning star’(晚星，启明星), though they differ in sense, refer to Venus.Chapter 6 Language and cognition1.What is Cognition?In psychology it is used to refer to the mental processes of an individual with particular relation to a view that argues that the ming has internal mental states and can be understood in terms of information processing.Another denefition is mental process or faculty of knowing, including awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment.2.Cognitive LinguisticsCognitive linguistics is the scientific study of the relation between the way we communicate and the way we think.It is an approach to language that is based on our experience of the world and the way we perceive and conceptualize it.3.What are the differences between metaphor & metonymy? Give some examples. Metaphor is a conceptual mapping（概念映射）, not a linguistic one, from one domain to another （从一个语域到另一个语域）, not from a word to another.Metonymy is a cognitive process in which one conceptual entity, the vehicle（源域）, provides mental access to another conceptual entity, the target（目标域）, within the same domain. The reference point activates the target.1.Metaphor is used for substitution, while metonymy is used for association.2. Metaphor can mean condensation and metonymy can mean displacement.3. A metonymy acts by combining ideas while metaphor acts by suppressing ideas.4. In a metaphor, the comparison is based on the similarities, while in metonymy thecomparison is based on contiguity.--For example, the sentence ‘he is a tiger in class’ is a metaphor. Here the word tiger is used in substitution for displaying an attribute of character of the person. The sentence ‘the tiger called his students to the meeting room’ is a metonymy. Here there is no substitution; instead the person is associated with a tiger for his nature..Metaphor is actually a cognitive tool that helps us structure our thoughts and experiences in the world around us..Metaphor is a conceptual mapping（概念映射）, not a linguistic one, from one domain to another（从一个语域到另一个语域）, not from a word to another.Metonymy（换喻，转喻）.It is a cognitive process in which one conceptual entity, the vehicle（源域）, provides mental access to another conceptual entity, the target（目标域）, within the same domain.2.Psycholinguistics is the study of psychological aspects of language; it usually studies the psychological states and mental activity with the use of language.Language acquisition (1) Holophrastic stage（单词句阶段）–Language’s sound patterns–Phonetic distinctions in parents’ language.–One-word stage: objects, actions, motions, routines.2) Two-word stage: around 18m3) Three-word-utterance stage4) Fluent grammatical conversation stageChapter 7 Language, culture and society1.the relationship between language and thought?Generally, the relation of L to C is that of part to whole, for L is part of C.The knowledge and beliefs that constitute a people’s culture are habitually encoded and transmitted in L.There exists a close relationship between language and culture. This is evidenced by the findings of anthropologists such as Malinowski, Firth, Baos, Sapir and Whorf. The study of the relation between language and the context in which it is used is the cultural study of language.2.What’s Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis? Give your comment on it.Edward Sapir (1884 - 1939) and Benjamin Lee Whorf (1897-1941)Our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express speakers’unique ways of understanding the world.Linguistic determinism: L may determine our thinking patterns.Linguistic relativity: a. Similarity between language is relative; b. the greater their structural differentiation is, the diverse their conceptualization of the world will be.Chapter 8 Language in usePragmatics: The study of language in use and the study of meaning in context, as well as the study of speakers’ meaning, utterance meaning& contextual meaning..What’s your understanding of conversational implicature? Use one or two examples to discuss the violation of its maxims.People do not usually say things directly but tend to imply them. CP is meant to describe whatactually happens in conversation. People tend to be cooperative and obey CP in communication. Since CP is regulative, CP can be violated. Violation of CP and its maxims leads to conversational implicature.1.What are the main differences between pragmatics and semantics?Semantics and pragmatics are both linguistic studies of meaning. The essential difference lies in whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. If it is not, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is, the study is carried out in the area of pragmatics.Semantics studies sentences as units of the abstract linguistic system while pragmatics studies utterances as instances of the system.The former stops at the sentence level; the latter looks at bigger chunks of conversation. The former regards sentences as stable products; the latter treats utterances as dynamic processes. The former analyses sentences in isolation; The latter analyses utterances in close connection with their contexts of situation.2. What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?答： Generally speaking, pragmatics is the study of meaning in the context. It studies meaning in a dynamic way and as a process. In order to have a successful communication, the speaker and he arer must take the context into their consideration so as to affect the right meaning and intention. T he development and establishment pragmatics in 1960s and 1970s resulted mainly from the expan sion of the study semantics. However, it is different from the traditional semantics. The major diff erence between them lies in that pragmatics studies meaning in a dynamic way, while semantics st udies meaning in a static way. Pragmatics takes context into consideration while semantics does n ot. Pragmatics takes care of the aspect of meaning that is not accounted for by semantics.3. What are the four maxims of the CP? Try to give your own examples to show how flouting these maxims give rise to conversational implicature?答： Cooperative Principle, abbreviated as CP. It goes as follows:Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the ac cepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.To be more specific, there are four maxims under this general principle:(1) The maxim of quantity① Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange) . ② Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.(2) The maxim of quality① Do not say what you believe to be false.② Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.(3) The maxim of relation Be relevant.(4) The maxim of manner① Avoid obscurity of expression. ② Avoid ambiguity.③ Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).④ Be orderly.Chapter 9 Language and literature1.What is ‘foregrounding’?In a purely linguistic sense, the term ‘foregrounding’ is used to refer to new information, in contrast to elements in the sentence which form the background against which the new elementsare to be understood by the listener / reader.In the wider sense of stylistics, text linguistics, and literary studies, it is a translation of the Czech aktualisace (actualization), a term common with the Prague Structuralists.The English term ‘foregrounding’has come to mean several things at once:-the (psycholinguistic) processes by which - during the reading act - something may be given special prominence;-specific devices (as produced by the author) located in the text itself. It is also employed to indicate the specific poetic effect on the reader;-an analytic category in order to evaluate literary texts, or to situate them historically, or to explain their importance and cultural significance, or to differentiate literature from other varieties of language use, such as everyday conversations or scientific reports.Literal language and figurative language-A language is called literal when what is meant to be conveyed is same as what the word to word meaning of what is said. In contrast the figurative language, the words are used to imply meaning which is other than their strict dictionary meaning.-Literal language refers to words that do not deviate from their defined meaning. Figurative language refers to words, and groups of words, that exaggerate or alter the usual meanings of the component words. Figurative language may involve analogy to similar concepts or other contexts, and may involve exaggerations. These alterations result in figures of speech.Chapter 11 LinguisticsApplied linguistics: is the study of the relation of linguistics to foreign language teaching, of the ways of applying linguistic theories to the practice of foreign language teaching. Universal Grammar:is a theory in linguistics that suggests that there are properties that all Possible natural human languages have. Usually credited to Noam Chomsky, the theory suggests that some rules of grammar are hard-wired into the brain, and manifest themselves without being taught. There is still much argument whether there is such a thing and what it would be. Syllabus: a syllabus is a specification of what take place in the classroom,which usually contains the aims and contents of teaching and sometimes contains suggestions of methodology. Interlanguage: the type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language is often referred to as interlanguage.contrastive analysis: A way of comparing L1 and L2 to determine potential errors for the purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what not. Its goal is to predict what areas will be easyto learn and what will be difficult. Associated in its early days with behaviorism and structuralism. the Input Hypothesis: according to krashen's input hypothesis, learners acquire language as a result of comprehending input addressed to them.Chapter 12 Theories & schools of modern linguisticsTransformational-Generative GrammarThe five stages of development of TG Grammar:1) The classical theory (1957)2) The standard theory (1965)3) Extended standard theory4) GB/PP theory (1981)5) The Minimalist ProgramInnateness hypothesis: Chomsky believes that language is somewhat innate, and that children are born with what he calls a Language Acquisition Device(LAD), which is a unique kind of knowledge that fits them for language learning.CHOMSKY’S TG GRAMMAR DIFFERS FROM THE STRUCTURAL GRAMMARIN A NUMBER OF WAYS1. Rationalism2. innateness 3 deductive methodology4 emphasis on interpretation 5formalization 6.emphasis on linguistic competence 7. strong generative powers 8.emphasis on linguistic universals。

语言学题目有答案

语言学题目有答案Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human __________.A. contactB. communicationC. relationD. community2. Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?A. treeB. typewriterC. crashD. bang3. The function of the sentence ―Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade.‖ is __________.A. interrogativeB. directiveC.informative D. performative4. In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say―碎碎（岁岁）平安‖as a means of controlling the forces which they believes feel might affect their lives. Which functions does it perform?A. InterpersonalB. EmotiveC.Performative D. Recreational5. Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time andplace, due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation?A. TransferabilityB. DualityC.Displacement D. Arbitrariness6. Study the following dialogue. What function does it play according to the functions of language?—A nice day, isn’t it?— Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.A. EmotiveB. PhaticC. PerformativeD. Interpersonal7. __________ refers to the actual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in utterances.A. PerformanceB. CompetenceC.Langue D. Parole8. When a dog is barking, you assume it is barking for something or at someone that exists hear and now. It couldn’t be sorrowful for some lost love or l ost bone. This indicates the design feature of __________.A. cultural transmissionB. productivityC.displacement D. duality9. __________ answers such questions as how we as infantsacquire our first language.A. PsycholinguisticsB. Anthropological linguisticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Applied linguistics10. __________ deals with language application to other fields, particularly education.A. Linguistic theoryB. Practical linguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. Comparative linguisticsII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Language is a means of verbal communication. Therefore, the communication wayused by the deaf-mute is not language.12. Language change is universal, ongoing and arbitrary.13. Speaking is the quickest and most efficient way of the human communication systems.14. Language is written because writing is the primary medium for all languages.15. We were all born with the ability to acquire language, which means the details of any language system can be genetically transmitted.16. Only human beings are able to communicate.17. F. de Saussure, who made the distinction between langue and parole in the early20th century, was a French linguist.18. A study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time is an example ofthe diachronic study of language.19. Speech and writing came into being at much the same time in human history.20. All the languages in the world today have both spoken and written forms.35. Why do people take duality as one of the important design features of human language? Can you tell us what language will be if it has no such design feature? （南开大学，2004）36. Why is it difficult to define language? （北京第二外国语大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. How can a linguist make his analysis scientific? （青岛海洋大学，1999）1~5 BACCC 6~10 BACAC11~15 FFTFF 16~20 FFFFF31. Design feature: It refers to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication.32. Displacement: It means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts, which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.33. Competence: It is an es sential part of performance. It is the speaker’s knowledge of his or her language; that is, of its sound structure, its words, and its grammatical rules. Competence is, in a way, an encyclopedia of language. Moreover, the knowledge involved in competence is generally unconscious.A transformational-generative grammar is a model of competence.34. Synchronic linguistics: It refers to the study of a languageat a given point in time. The time studied may be either the present or a particular point in the past; synchronic analyses can also be made of dead languages, such as Latin. Synchronic linguistics is contrasted with diachronic linguistics, the study of a language over a period of time.35. Duality makes our language productive. A large number of different units can be formed out of a small number of elements – for instance, tens of thousands of words out of a small set of sounds, around 48 in the case of the English language. And out of the huge number of words, there can be astronomical number of possible sentences and phrases, which in turn can combine to form unlimited number of texts. Most animal communication systems do not have this design feature of human language.If language has no such design feature, then it will be like animal communicational system which will be highly limited. It cannot produce a very large number of sound combinations, e.g. words, which are distinct in meaning.36. It is difficult to define language, as it is such a general term that covers too many things. Thus, definitions for it all have their own special emphasis, and are not totally free from limitations.37. It should be guided by the four principles of science: exhaustiveness, consistency, economy and objectivity and follow the scientific procedure: form hypothesis – collect data –check against the observable facts – come to a conclusion.1. Pitch variation is known as __________ when its patterns are imposed on sentences.A. intonationB. toneC. pronunciationD. voice2. Conventionally a __________ is put in slashes (/ /).A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme3. An aspirated p, an unaspirated p and an unreleased p are __________ of the p phoneme.A. analoguesB. tagmemesC. morphemesD. allophones4. The opening between the vocal cords is sometimes referred to as __________.A. glottisB. vocal cavityC. pharynxD. uvula5. The diphthongs that are made with a movement of the tongue towards the center are known as __________ diphthongs.A. wideB. closingC. narrowD. centering6. A phoneme is a group of similar sounds called __________.A. minimal pairsB. allomorphsC. phonesD. allophones7. Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech sounds?A. Acoustic phoneticsB. Articulatory phoneticsC. Auditory phoneticsD. None of the above8. Which one is different from the others according to places of articulation?A. [n]B. [m]C.[ b ] D. [p]9. Which vowel is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowels?A. [i:]B. [ u ]C.[e] D. [ i ]10. What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibrating?A. VoicelessB. VoicedC. Glottalstop D. ConsonantII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Suprasegmental phonology refers to the study of phonological properties of units larger than the segment-phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.12. The air stream provided by the lungs has to undergo anumber of modification to acquire the quality of a speech sound.13. Two sounds are in free variation when they occur in the same environment and do not contrast, namely, the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word, but merely a different pronunciation.14. [p] is a voiced bilabial stop.15. Acoustic phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.16. All syllables must have a nucleus but not all syllables contain an onset and a coda.17. When pure vowels or monophthongs are pronounced, no vowel glides take place.18. According to the length or tenseness of the pronunciation, vowels can be divided into tense vs. lax or long vs. short.19. Received Pronunciation is the pronunciation accepted by most people.20. The maximal onset principle states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the coda rather than the onset.35. What is acoustic phonetics?（中国人民大学，2003）36. What are the differences between voiced sounds and voiceless sounds in terms of articulation?（南开大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Write the symbol that corresponds to each of the following phonetic descriptions; then give an English word that contains this sound. Example: voiced alveolar stop [d] dog. （青岛海洋大学，1999）(1) voiceless bilabial unaspirated stop(2) low front vowel(3) lateral liquid(4) velar nasal(5) voiced interdental fricative~5 ACDAA 6~10 DBABB11~15 TTTFF 16~20 TTTFF31. Sound assimilation: Speech sounds seldom occur in isolation. In connected speech, under the influence of their neighbors, are replaced by other sounds. Sometimes two neighboring sounds influence each other and are replaced by a third sound which is different from both original sounds. This process is called sound assimilation.32. Suprasegmental feature: The phonetic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features; these are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence. The main suprasegmental ones includes stress, intonation, and tone.33. Complementary distribution: The different allophones of the same phoneme never occur in the same phonetic context. When two or more allophones of one phoneme never occur in the same linguistic environment they are said to be in complementary distribution.34. Distinctive features: It refers to the features that can distinguish one phoneme from another. If we can group the phonemes into two categories: one with this feature and the other without, this feature is called a distinctive feature.V.35Acoustic phonetics deals with the transmission of speech sounds through the air. When a speech sound is produced it causes minor air disturbances (sound waves). Various instruments are used to measure the characteristics of these sound waves.36.When the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiceless; consonants [p, s, t] are produced in this way. But when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeatedly pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiced. [b, z, d] are voiced consonants.Chapter 3 Lexicon1. Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as __________.A. lexical wordsB. grammatical wordsC. functionwords D. form words2. Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called __________ morpheme.A. inflectionalB. freeC.bound D. derivational3. There are __________ morphemes in the word denationalization.A. threeB. fourC.five D. six4. In English –ise and –tion are called __________.A. prefixesB. suffixesC. infixesD. stems5. The three subtypes of affixes are: prefix, suffix and __________.A. derivational affixB. inflectional affixC.infix D. back-formation6. __________ is a way in which new words may be formed from already existing words by subtracting an affix which is thought to be part of the old word.A. affixationB. back-formationC. insertionD. addition7. The word TB is formed in the way of __________.A. acronymyB. clippingC.initialism D. blending8. The words like comsat and sitcom are formed by __________.A. blendingB. clippingC.back-formation D. acronymy9. The stem of disagreements is __________.A. agreementB. agreeC.disagree D. disagreement10. All of them are meaningful except for __________.A. lexemeB. phonemeC.morpheme D. allomorph11. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.12. Fore as in foretell is both a prefix and a bound morpheme.13. Base refers to the part of the word that remains when all inflectional affixes are removed.14. In most cases, prefixes change the meaning of the base whereas suffixes change the word-class of the base.15. Conversion from noun to verb is the most productive process of a word.16. Reduplicative compound is formed by repeating the same morpheme of a word.17. The words whimper, whisper and whistle are formed in the way of onomatopoeia.18. In most cases, the number of syllables of a word corresponds to the number of morphemes.19. Back-formation is a productive way of word-formations.20. Inflection is a particular way of word-formations.35. How many types of morphemes are there in the English language? What are they? （厦门大学，2003）36. What are the main features of the English compounds?37. Match the terms under COLUMN I with the underlined forms from COLUMN II （武汉大学，2004）I II(1) acronym a. foe(2) free morpheme b. subconscious(3) derivational morpheme c. UNESCO(4) inflectional morpheme d. overwhelmed(5) prefix e. calculation1~5 AACBB 6~10 BCADB11~15 FTFTT 16~20 FTFFF31. Blending: It is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms, like newscast (news + broadcast), brunch (breakfast + lunch) 32. Allomorph: It is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds.33. Close-class word: It is a word whose membership is fixed or limited. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed-class words.34. Morphological rule: It is the rule that governs which affix can be added to what type of base to form a new word, e.g. –ly can be added to a noun to form an adjective.37.(1) c (2) a (3) e (4) d (5) bChapter 4 Syntax1.The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. only hierarchicalC. complexD. both linear and hierarchical 2. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite3. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational4. A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical5. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC. prepositionD. subordinator6. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC. socialD. functional7. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand _____________.A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. all of the above.8. The head of the phrase ―the city Rome‖ is __________.A. the cityB. RomeC. cityD. the city Rome9. The phrase ―on the shelf‖ belongs to __________ construction.A. endocentricB. exocentricC. subordinateD. coordinate10. The sentence ―They were wanted to remain quiet and not to expose themselves.‖ is a__________ sentence.A. simpleB. coordinateC. compoundD. complex11. Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker are known as linguistic competence.12. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to thenumber of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.13. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.14. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.15. Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixed and new members are allowed for.16. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.17. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.18. What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.19. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.20. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.2.35. What are endocentric construction and exocentric construction? （武汉大学，2004）36. Distinguish the two possible meanings of ―more beautiful flowers‖ by means of IC analysis. （北京第二外国语大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Draw a tree diagram according to the PS rules to show the deep structure of the sentence:The student wrote a letter yesterday.3.1~5 DCDDD 6~10 ADDBA11~15 TTTTF 16~20 FTFTT4.31. Syntax: Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to formsentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.32. IC analysis: Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis for short, refers to theanalysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents–word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate sake of convenience.33. Hierarchical structure: It is the sentence structure that groups words into structuralconstituents and shows the syntactic category of each structural constituent, such as NP, VP and PP.34. Trace theory: After the movement of an element in a sentence there will be a traceleft in the original position. This is the notion trace in T-G grammar. It’s suggested that if we have the notion trace, all the necessary information for semantic interpretation may come from the surface structure. E.g. The passive Dams are built by beavers. differs from the active Beavers built dams. in implying that all dams are built by beavers. If we add a trace element represented by the letter t after built in the passive as Dams are built t by beavers, then the deep structure information that the word dams was originally the object of built is also captured by the surface structure. Trace theory proves to be not only theoretically significant but also empirically valid.35.An endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, ofthe whole. A typical example is the three small children with children as its head. The exocentric construction, opposite to the first type, is defined negatively as a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constituents. Prepositional phrasal like on the shelf are typical examples of this type.36.(1) more | beautiful flowers(2) more beautiful | flowers胡壮麟《语言学教程》（修订版）测试题——第五章：意义5. 1. The naming theory is advanced by ________.A. PlatoB. BloomfieldC. Geoffrey LeechD. Firth2. ―We shall know a word by the company it keeps.‖ This statement represents _______.A. the conceptualist viewB. contexutalismC. the naming theoryD. behaviorism3. Which of the following is NOT true?A. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.B. Sense is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form.C. Sense is abstract and decontextualized.D. Sense is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are not interested in.4. ―Can I borrow your bike?‖_______ ―You have a bike.‖A. is synonymous withB. is inconsistent withC. entailsD. presupposes5. ___________ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.A. Predication analysisB. Componential analysisC. Phonemic analysisD. Grammatical analysis6. ―Alive‖ and ―dead‖ are ______________.A. gradable antonymsB. relational antonymsC. complementary antonymsD. None of the above7. _________ deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.A. ReferenceB. ConceptC. SemanticsD. Sense8. ___________ refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.A. PolysemyB. SynonymyC. HomonymyD. Hyponymy9. Words that are close in meaning are called ______________.A. homonymsB. polysemiesC. hyponymsD. synonyms10. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by _______.A. grammatical rulesB. selectional restrictionsC. semantic rulesD. semantic featuresII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Dialectal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as British English and American English but cannot be found within the variety itself, for example, within British English or American English.12. Sense is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and thenon-linguistic world of experience, while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.13. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.14. In semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsic and inherent relation to the physical world of experience.15. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.16. Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.17. The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its components.18. Most languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but ranked differently according to their degree of formality.19. ―It is hot.‖ is a no-place predication because it contains no argument.20. In grammatical analysis, the sentence is taken to be the basic unit, but in semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of asentence.6.1~5 ABDDB 6~10 CACDAII.11~15 FFTFT 16~20 TFTTT7.胡壮麟《语言学教程》（修订版）测试题——第七章：语言、文化和社会1. _______ is concerned with the social significance of language variation and language use in different speech communities.A. PsycholinguisticsB. SociolinguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. General linguistics2. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its __________.A. use of wordsB. use of structuresC. accentD. morphemes3. __________ is speech variation according to the particular area where a speaker comes from.A. Regional variationB. Language variationC. Social variationD. Register variation4. _______ are the major source of regional variation of language.A. Geographical barriersB. Loyalty to and confidence in one’s native speechC. Physical discomfort and psychological resistance tochangeD. Social barriers5. _________ means that certain authorities, such as the government choose, a particular speech variety, standardize it and spread the use of it across regional boundaries.A. Language interferenceB. Language changesC. Language planningD. Language transfer6. _________ in a person’s speech or writing usually ranges on a continuum from casual or colloquial to formal or polite according to the type of communicative situation.A. Regional variationB. Changes in emotionsC. Variation in connotationsD. Stylistic variation7. A ____ is a variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds.A. lingua francaB. registerC. CreoleD. national language8. Although _______ are simplified languages with reduced grammatical features, they are rule-governed, like any human language.A. vernacular languagesB. creolesC. pidginsD. sociolects9. In normal situations, ____ speakers tend to use more prestigious forms than their ____ counterparts with the same social background.A. female; maleB. male; femaleC. old; youngD. young; old10. A linguistic _______ refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the ―polite‖ society from general use.A. slangB. euphemismC. jargonD. tabooII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Language as a means of social communication is a homogeneous system with a homogeneous group of speakers.12. The goal of sociolinguistics is to explore the nature of language variation and language use among a variety of speech communities and in different social situations.13. From the sociolinguistic perspective, the term ―speech varie ty‖ ca n not be used to refer to standard language, vernacular language, dialect or pidgin.14. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its grammar and uses of vocabulary.15. A person’s social backgrounds do not exert a shapin g influence on his choice of linguistic features.16. Every speaker of a language is, in a stricter sense, a speaker of a distinct idiolect.17. A lingua franca can only be used within a particularcountry for communication among groups of people with different linguistic backgrounds.18. A pidgin usually reflects the influence of the higher, or dominant, language in its lexicon and that of the lower language in their phonology and occasionally syntax.19. Bilingualism and diglossia mean the same thing.20. The use of euphemisms has the effect of removing derogatory overtones and the disassociative effect as such is usually long-lasting.8.1~5 BCAAC 6~10 DACAD11~15 FTFFF 16~20 TFTFF9.胡壮麟《语言学教程》（修订版）测试题——第八章：语言的使用1. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning _________ is considered.A. referenceB. speech actC. practical usageD. context2. A sentence is a _________ concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied in isolation.A. pragmaticB. grammaticalC. mentalD. conceptual3. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes a (n) _________.A. constativeB. directiveC. utteranceD. expressive4. Which of the following is true?A. Utterances usually do not take the form of sentences.B. Some utterances cannot be restored to complete sentences.C. No utterances can take the form of sentences.D. All utterances can be restored to complete sentences.5. Speech act theory did not come into being until __________.A. in the late 50’s of the 20the centuryB. in the early 1950’sC. in the late 1960’sD. in the early 21st century6. __________ is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.A. A locutionary actB. An illocutionary actC. A perlocutionary actD. A performative act7. According to Searle, the illocutionary point of the representative is ______.A. to get the hearer to do somethingB. to commit the speaker to something’s being the caseC. to commit the speaker to some future course of actionD. to express the feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs8. All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose, but they differ __________.A. in their illocutionary actsB. in their intentions expressed。

chapter 1. invitations

② The invention theory---- imitative, cries of nature, the grunts of men working together. The bow-wow theory: the suggestion is that primitive words could have been imitations of the natural sounds which early men and women heard around them. The “Yo-heave-ho” theory: the sounds produced by humans when exerting physical effort, especially when co-operating with other humans, may be the origins of speech sounds.
Hieroglyph /`haiərəglif/ : 古埃及象形文字
② Logograms（语标书写法） When symbols come to be used to represent words in a language, they are described as examples of word-writing, or logograms. ―Arbitrariness‖—a writing system which was word-based had come into existence.
⑤ Rebus(字谜，画谜) writing One way of using existing symbols to represent the sounds of language is via a process known as Rebus writing. In this process, the symbol for one entity is taken over as the symbol for the sound of the spoken word used to refer to that words. For example:

语言学一至三章重点

语言学一至三章重点Chapter 1 Invitations to linguistics1.1 What is language?Language is a means of verbal communication. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.2 What are the design features of language?The features that refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication can be called design features.1]ArbitrarinessThe forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. There are different levels of arbitrariness.2] Duality aBy duality is meant the property of having two levels of structure that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. We call sounds here primary units as opposed to such secondary units as words, since the primary units are meaningless and the secondary units have distinct and identifiable meaning.3] CreativityCreativity refers to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language. By creativity we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.4] DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are notpresent at the moment of communication.1.3 What are the functions of language?1] Informative functionIt is also called ideational function in the framework of functional grammar. Language serves for the expression of content: that is, of the speaker’s experience of the real world, including the inner world of his own consciousness.2] Interpersonal functionBy far the most important sociological use of language is the interpersonal function, by which people establish and maintain their status in a society.3] Performative functionThe perfomative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons.4] Emotive functionIt is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against some or something. It is also discussed under the term expressive function. The expressive function can often be entirely personal and totally without any implication of communication to others.5] Phatic functionThe phatic function refers to language used for establishing an atmosphere or marinating social contact rather than exchanging information or ideas. It refers to the social interaction of language.7] Metalingual functionOur language can be used to talk about itself. This makes the language infinitely self-reflexive: we human beings can talk about talk and think about thinking.1.4 What is linguistics?Linguistics is a branch of science which takes language as its object of investigation.1.5 What is the difference between descriptive study and prescriptive study?A linguistic study is descriptive if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for correct language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on high written records. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive, however. It believes that whatever occurs in natural speech should be describe in the analysis.1.6What is the difference between synchronic description and diachronic description?The description of a language at some point of time is a synchrony study. The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.1.7 What are langue and parole? What is the difference between them?F. de Saussure refers “langue” to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualizes language, or the realization of langue.Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole subject to personal and situational constraints.For F. de Saussure parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instancesof parole, to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.1.8 What are competence and performance? What is the difference between them?According to N. Chom sky, “competence” is the ideal language user’s knowle dge of the rules of his language, and “performance” is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, F. de Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product, and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.Chapter 2 Speech Sound2.1 What is phonetics?Phonetics studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made,transmitted and received, the sounds of speech, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected.2.2 What is IPA?On the basis of the phonetic alphabet proposed at the time, the International Phonetic Association devised the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) in 1888.2.3 What’s the difference between broad and narrow transcriptions?Narrow transcription is meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including the minute shades, while broad transcription is intended to indicate only those sounds which are capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.2.4 The description of English consonantConsonant Description = voice/voiceless + places of articulation + manners of articulation[p] voiceless bilabial stop2.5 What is phonology?Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.2.6 What are minimal pairs?When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string, the two forms are supposed to form a minimal pair for example, pill and bill, pill and till, till and dill, till and kill.2.7 What are phone, phoneme and allophone?Phone is a phonetic unit or segment. Phones may and may not distinguish meaning.A phoneme is a phonological unit. It is unit that is ofdistinctive value.The phones representing a phoneme are called its allophones. The different members of a phoneme, sounds which are phonetically different but do not make one word so phonetically different as to create a new word or a new meaning thereof.Chapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is morpheme?Morpheme: it is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. A morpheme is the minimal unit of meaning.3.2 What are free and bound morphemes?A free morpheme is one that ma y constitute a word by itself, such as “bed”, “tree” and “sing”.A bound morpheme is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme, such as “-s” in “dogs”, “-al” in “national”.3.3 What are compound word and derivation word?It refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form.According to semantic criteria, compounds fall into two classes:The first class is called endocentric compounds comprising words like armchair (a kind of chair) and houseparty (a kind of party). In each, one constituent is the center and the other is the modifier.The second class is exocentric compounds, consisting ofwords like redskin and birdbrain, in which there is no focal element and the whole refers to something else rather than what either the constituents. Derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.3.4 What are lexical changes? Explain them respectively.(1) InventionPeople can create new word coping with the new entities appeared during the social and economic development.(2) BlendingIt is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.(3) AbbreviationA new word is created by cutting the final part, cutting the initial part or cutting both the initial and final parts.(4) AcronymIt is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified head word.(5) Back-formationBack-formation occurs when a real or supposed affix (that is,a prefix or suffix) is removed from a word to create a new one.(6) Analogical creationIt can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation of some English verbs.(7) Borrowingi. loanwords: ii. loanblend：iii. loanshif：iv. loan translation：。

linguistics chapter 1 invitations to linguistics

Systematic---- rule-governed, elements in it are arranged according to certain rules; can’t be combined at will. e.g. *bkli, *I apple eat.
Language is arbitrary
1).Informative (ideational function): to give information about facts.. 2).Interpersonal: to establish and maintain social status in a society (sociological use). 3).Performative: language is used to do things, to perform actions (pragmatics). 4).Emotive /Expressive: emotional status, express feelings and attitudes of the speaker 5).Phatic communication: establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact. 6).Recreational function: use of language for the sheer joy of using it (chanting, verbal dueling, song dueling). 7).Metalingual function: self—reflective and talk about talk.
Question
Does the traffic light system have duality? Why?

Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 1

Design Features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.
“No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honesty.” ----Bertrand Russell
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics
a. She could not bear children. b. Visiting relatives can be awful. c. War is war. d. A: “There‟s the phone.” B: “I‟m in the bathroom.” A: “Ok.” e. Green dreams are sleeping furiously.
g. You luck dog. Every dog has its day. He worked like a dog. You can‟t teach an old dog new tricks. 狗急跳墙，狗仗人势，鸡鸣狗盗，狼心狗肺，狗头军师，狗血喷头
About the course Linguistics is a university course for language majors in their 3rd or 4th year and it involves many fields of research (e.g. psychology, sociology, philosophy), so it‟s not surprising if you find it difficult at the beginning. • It‟s a must for language students to learn something about linguistics and very important for those who want to do further study after graduation. • The course will be given mainly in English, but in Chinese when necessary.

语言学概念第四版笔记

语言学教程第四版重点笔记Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1 Why study language?1. Language is very essential to human beings.2. In language there are many things we should know.3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically.1.2 What is language?Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.3 Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1.3.1Arbitrariness 任意性Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.1.arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning2.arbitrariness at the syntactic level3.arbitrariness and convention 任意性与规约性1.3.2Duality 二元性Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.1.3.3 CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences.1.3.4 DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation.1.5 Functions of languageAs is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions:1. Referential: to convey message and information;2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;5. Phatic: to establish communion with others;6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings.Halliday (1994) proposes a theory of metafunctions of language. It means that language has three metafunctions:1. Ideational function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer;2. Interpersonal function: embodying all use of language to express social and personal relationships;3. Textual function: referring to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken and writtendiscourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences.According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions:1.5.1 Informative 信息功能The informative function means language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to communicate new information.1.5.2 Interpersonal function 人际功能The interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.1.5.3 Performative 施为功能The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4 Emotive function 感情功能（被打fuck 吃惊god）The emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.1.5.5Phatic communion 寒暄交谈（无实质，“早上好”）The phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day,etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.1.5.6 Recreational function 娱乐功能The recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s ba bbling or a chanter’s chanting.1.5.7 Metalingual function 元语言功能The metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings.1.7 Main branches of linguistics1.7.1 Phonetics 发音学Phonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.1.7.2 Phonology 音系学Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.1.7.3 Morphology 形态学Morphology studies the minimal units of meaning – morphemes and word-formation processes.1.7.4 Syntax 句法学Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.1.7.5 Semantics 语义学Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.1.8 Macrolinguistics 宏观语言学Macrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealt solely with the formal aspect of language system.1.8.1 Psycholinguistics 心理语言学Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example.1.8.2 Sociolinguistics 社会语言学Sociolinguistics is a term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society, including the language and the social characteristics of its users.1.8.3 Anthropological linguistics 人类语言学Anthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culture in a community.1.8.4 Computational linguistics 计算机语言学Computational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language.1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics 重要区别1.9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptive 描写式vs 规定式To say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, ornorms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.For example, “Don’t say X.” is a prescriptive command; “People don’t say X.” is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.1.9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic 共时（历史上一点）vs 历时（历史长河）A synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at prese nt) as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronicdescription is the study of a language through the course of its history. E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a language are successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.1.9.3 Langue & parole 语言（抽象）vs 言语（日常）Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints;langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics.1.9.4 Competence and performance 语言能力VS 语言运用According to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rule s is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics语音学studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived. . It includes three main areas:1. Articulatory phonetics发音语言学–the study ofthe production of speech sounds2. Acoustic phonetics声学语言学–the study ofthe physical properties ofthe sounds produced in speech3. Auditory phonetics 听觉语言学–the study of perception of speech soundsPhonology音系学is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to “discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.”发音变化规律2.2 Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts ofthe human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the initiator ofthe air stream, the producer of voice andthe resonating cavities.2.3 The IPAInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the International Phonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics. Some letters are taken from the Roman alphabet, some are special symbols.2.4 Consonants2.4.1 Consonants and vowels辅音、元音定义Consonants are produced by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction.V owels are produced withoutobstruction so the air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose.2.4.2 ConsonantsManners of articulation发音方式the place of articulation发音部位发音方式refers to the actual relationship betweenthe articulators and thus the way in whichthe air passes through certain parts ofthe vocal tract (the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; they may narrow the space considerably; they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.);发音部位refers to the point where a consonant is made. Practically consonants may be produced at any place between the lips and the vocal folds.2.4.5 The consonants ofEnglish1. Received Pronunciation (RP):The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety andwhich shows no regional variation. It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC E nglish” or “Oxford English”because it is widely used in the private sector ofthe education system and spoken by most newsreaders ofthe BBC network.2. the consonants ofEnglish can be described in the following way:[p] voiceless bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative[z] voiced alveolar fricative[m] bilabial nasal[n] alveolar nasal[l] alveolar lateral[j] palatal approximant[h] glottal fricative[r] alveolar approximant2.5 VowelsThe criteria of vowel description 描述元音1.the height of tongue raising(high, mid, low)2.the position of the highest part of the tongue(front, central, back)3.the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short)4.lip-rounding(rounded vs. unrounded)We can now describe the English vowels in this way:【i:】high front tense unrounded vowel【u】high back lax rounded vowel【ə】mid central lax unrounded vowel2.6 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription 协同发音2.6.1 Coarticulation协同发音Coarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of two successive phonological units.发音变化倾向于后面（following sound）叫anticipatory Coarticulation; 倾向前面perseverative ~2.6.2Broad and narrow transcriptions 宽式、严式转写The use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription is called a broad transcription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription. The former was meant to indicate only these sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language while the latter was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the minutest shades of pronunciation.2.8 Phonemes and allophones音位和音位变体2.8.1 Minimal pairs 最小对比对Minimal pairs are two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound andwhich also differ in meaning. E.g. theEnglish words tie and die are minimal pairs as they differ in meaning and in their initial phonemes /t/ and /d/. By identifying the minimal pairs of a language, a phonologist can find out which sound substitutions cause differences of meaning.2.8.2 The phoneme theoryPhoneme （音位）：A sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of a word from another in a given language is a phoneme. A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning. (refers to a unit of explicit sound contrast)Phonemic transcription 音位转写放在abstract, not physical ，放在/ /.Allophones (音位变体)Any ofthe different forms of a phoneme is called its allophones. Phonic variants of a phoneme are called allophone of the same phoneme.e.g.: pot, spot, cup: [ph] vs. [p] vs. [ p¬ ] (unreleased)i) complementary distribution互补分布ii) free variationiii)phonemic contrast.2.9 Phonological processes2.9.1 AssimilationAssimilation: A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Regressive assimilation: If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation.Progressive assimilation: If a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, we call it progressive assimilation.Devoicing: A process by which voiced sounds become voiceless. Devoicing of voiced consonants often occurs in Englishwhen they are at the end of a word.2.9.2 Phonological processes and phonological rulesThe changes in assimilation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all phonological processes in which a target or affected segment undergoes a structural change in certain environments or contexts.2.10 Distinctive featuresDistinctive feature: A particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group.Binary feature: A property of a phoneme or a word which can be used to describe the phoneme or word. A binary feature is either present or absent. Binary features are also used to describe the semantic properties of words.2.11 SyllablesSuprasegmental features超音段特征: Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllables, stress, tone, and intonation.Syllable音节: A unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.Open syllable: A syllable which ends in a vowel.Closed syllable: A syllable which ends in a consonant.2.12 Stress 重音Stress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. In transcription, a raised vertical line [] is used just before the syllable it relates to.Intonation and Tone 声调语调Intonation involves the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length.Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords.Chapter 3 From Morpheme to Phrase3.1 What is morpheme?3.1.1 Morpheme 语素A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit thatcannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical orgrammatical.E.g. the word “boxes” has two morphemes: “box” and “es,” neither of which permits further division or analysisshapes if we don’t want to sacrifice its meaning.Morphology（形态学）：The study of internal structures and rules of morphemes by which words are formed.3.1.2 Types of MorphemesFree morpheme and bound morpheme 自由语素（能独立出现）黏着语素（disclose中dis-）Free morpheme refers to those which may occur alone or which may constitute words by themselves.Bound morpheme refers to those which cannot occur alone and must appear with at least one other morpheme Root, affix and stem 词根词缀词干Root is the base form of a word that can’t be further analyzed without destroying its meaning. For example, internationalism, after removing the “inter-“”-al””-ism”, the part retained is the root nation.affix词缀----is the collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme.it can classified into three subtypes, prefix, suffix and infix.stem词干----is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.(friends中friend-,friendships中friendship-)词干可以包括词根和一个及以上词缀Inflectional affix and derivational affix 屈折词缀和派生词缀Inflectional affix----A morpheme that serves to adjust words by grammatical modification to indicate such grammatical relations as number, tense, degree and case. e.g. tables, talks, opened, strongest, John’sDerivational affix---A morpheme that serves to derive a word of one class or meaning from a word of another class or meaning. e.g. cite-citation-cital#3.2 What is a word?A word is the smallest of the linguistic units that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance in speech or writing. Three senses of word:1.a physical unit2. a lexical item3. a grammatical unit3.2.1 Identification of words 词的特点1.Stability 稳定性（词内部结构不能重新排序chaieman≠manchair）Words are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, i.e. the constituent parts of a complex word have little potential for rearrangement, compared with the relative positional mobility ofthe constituents of sentences in the hierarchy. Take the word chairman for example. If the morphemes are rearranged as * manchair, it is an unacceptable word in English.2. Relative uninterruptibility 相对连续性（此中不可插入其他成分）By uninterruptibility, we men new elements are not to be inserted into a word even whenthere are several parts in a word. Nothing is to be inserted in betweenthe three parts ofthe word disappointment: dis +appoint + ment. Nor is one allowed to use pauses betweenthe parts of a word: * dis appoint ment.3.A minimum free form 最小的自由形式（任意一个词都能成为句子）This was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as “the maximum free form”and word “the minimum free form,”the latter being the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself, acomplete utterance.3.2.2 Classification of words 词的分类1. Variable and invariable words 可变化词（follow）和非变化词（since, but）In variable words, one can find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word form; on the other hand, part ofthe word remains relatively constant. E.g. follow – follows – following – followed. Invariablewords refer to those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello, etc. They have no inflective endings.2. Grammatical words and lexical words 语法词和词汇词Grammatical words, also calledfunction words, express grammatical meanings, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words.Lexical words, a.k.a. content words, have lexical meanings, i.e. those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, are lexical words.3. Closed-class words and open-class words 封闭词类和开放词类Closed-class word: A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited.New members are not regularly added. Therefore, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are allclosed items.Open-class word: A word that belongs to the open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.4. Word classThis is close to the notion of parts of speech in traditional grammar. Today, word class displays a wider range of more precisely defined categories. Here are some ofthe categories newly introduced into linguisticanalysis.(1)Particles助词: Particles include at least the infinitive marker “to,”the negative marker “not,”andthesubordinate units in phrasal verbs, such as “get by,”“do up,”“look back,” etc.(2)Auxiliaries助动词: Auxiliaries used to be regarded as verbs. Becauseof their unique properties, whichone could hardly expect of a verb, linguists today tend to define them as a separate word class.(3)Pro-forms代词: Pro-forms are the forms which can serve as replacements for different elements in asentence. For example, in the following conversation, so replaces thatI can come.A: I hope you can come.B: I hope so.(4)Determiners限定词: Determiners refer to words which are used before the noun acting as head of anoun phrase, and determine the kind of reference the noun phrase has. Determiners can be divided into threesubclasses: predetermines, central determiners andpost determiners.3.3Word formation: Inflection and word formation 词的构成：从语素到词1.Inflection 屈折变化（不改变词性）Inflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.2. Word formation 词的形成Word formation refers to the process of word variations signaling lexical relationships. It can be further subclassified into the compositional type (compound) and derivational type (derivation).(1)Compound 复合Compound refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form, such as ice-cream, sunrise, paper bag, railway, rest-room, simple-minded, wedding-ring, etc. Compounds can be further divided into two kinds: the endocentric compound and exocentric compound.The head of a nominal or an adjectival endocentric compound is de-verbal, that is, it is derived from a verb. Consequently, it is also called a verbal compound or a synthetic compound. Usually, the first member is a participant of the process verb. E.g. Nouns: self-control, pain-killer, etc. Adjectives: virus-sensitive, machine washable, etc. The exocentric compounds are formed by V + N, V + A, and V + P, whereas the exocentric come from V + N and V + A. E.g. Nouns: playboy, cutthroat, etc. Adjectives: breakneck, walk-in, etc. 复合这个术语指那些由两个或两个以上的词素构成的词，或是指由两个单独的词连接起来构成一个新的形式的构词方法(2)Derivation 派生Derivation shows the relation between roots and suffixes. In contrast with inflections, derivations can make the word class of the original word either changed or unchanged.3.3 Lexical change 词汇变化1. Invention 发明法（coke）Since economic activities are the most important and dynamic in human life, many new lexical items come directly from the consumer items, their producers or their brand names.2. Blending混成法(smok+fog=smog)Blending is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.3. Abbreviation / clipping缩写词（bicyle-bick）A new word is created by cutting the final part, cutting the initial part or cutting both the initial parts of the original words.4. Acronym 缩略词（WB-world bank ，WTO）Acronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword.5.Back-formation 逆构词法（editor-edit）Back-formation refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imaged affix from a longer form already in the language.已存在较长单词删去词缀，变成较短另外含义单词6.Analogical creation 类推构词（过去式之类）The principle of analogical creation can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation of some English verbs.7. class shift 词性变换（已有单词开发另一词性意义）By shifting the word class one can change the meaning of a word from a concrete entity or notion to a process or attribution. This process of word formation is also known as zero-derivation, or conversion.8. Borrowing 借用English in its development has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages. Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, Arabic and other languages have all played an active role in this process.Chapter 4 From Word to Text1. Syntactic relations（句法关系）Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.1.1Relations of Position 位置关系（主谓宾）Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement ofwords in a language.If the words in a sentence fail to occur in a fixed order required by the convention of a language, one tends to produce an utterance either ungrammatical or nonsensical at all.Positional relations are a manifestation of one aspect of Syntagmatic Relations（横组合关系）observed by F. de Saussure. They are also called Horizontal Relations or simply Chain Relations.1.2. Relation of Substitutability 替换关系The Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.It also refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutable grammatically for a single word of a particular set.This is also called Associative Relations by Saussure, and Paradigmatic Relations（纵聚合关系）by Hjemslev（叶尔姆斯列夫）To make it more understandable, they are called Vertical Relations or Choice Relations.1.3 Relation of Co-occurrence （同现关系/纵横关系）It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.Relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations, partly to paradigmatic relations.2. Grammatical construction and its constituents 语法结构和成分2.1 Grammatical Construction 语法结构定义：GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION（语法结构体）or CONSTRUCT can be used to refer to any syntactic construct which is assigned one or more conventional functions in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use the construct contains.On the level of syntax, we distinguish for any construction in a language its external and its internal properties.The external syntax of a construction refers to the properties of the construction as a whole, that is to say, anything speakers know about the construction that is relevant to the larger syntactic contexts in which it is welcome.结构外部句法特征The internal syntax of a construction is really a description of the construction’s “make-up”, with the terms such as “subject, predicate, object, determiner, noun”.结构内部句法特征2.2 Immediate Constituents(直接成分) IC analysis？Constituent（成分）is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction:To dismantle a grammatical construction in this way is called IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENT ANAL YSIS or IC analysis (直接成分分析法)，the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups (phrases), which are in turn。

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Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.2 What is language?1.3 Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1.3.1 ArbitrarinessArbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.1.3.2 DualityDuality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.1.3.3 CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences.1.3.4 DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation.1.4 Origin of language1. The bow-wow theoryIn primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.2. The pooh-pooh theoryIn the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language.3. The “yo-he-ho” theoryAs primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.1.5 Functions of languageAs is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions:1. Referential: to convey message and information;2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;5. Phatic: to establish communion with others;6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings.Halliday (1994) proposes a theory of metafunctions of language. It means that language has three metafunctions:1. Ideational function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to thehearer;2. Interpersonal function: embodying all use of language to express social and personalrelationships;3. Textual function: referring to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch ofspoken and written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences.According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions:1.5.1 InformativeThe informative function means language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to communicate new information.1.5.2 Interpersonal functionThe interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.1.5.3 PerformativeThe performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4 Emotive functionThe emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.1.5.5 Phatic communionThe phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day,etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.1.5.6 Recreational functionThe recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.1.5.7 Metalingual functionThe metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings.1.7 Main branches of linguistics1.7.1 PhoneticsPhonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.1.7.2 PhonologyPhonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.1.7.3 MorphologyMorphology studies the minimal units of meaning –morphemes and word-formation processes.1.7.4 SyntaxSyntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.1.7.5 SemanticsSemantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.1.7.6 PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of meaning in context.1.8 MacrolinguisticsMacrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealt solely with the formal aspect of language system.1.8.1 PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example.1.8.2 SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics is a term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society, including the language and the social characteristics of its users.1.8.3 Anthropological linguisticsAnthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culture in a community.1.8.4 Computational linguisticsComputational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language.1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics1.9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptiveTo say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.For example, “Don’t say X.”is a prescriptive command; “People don’t say X.”is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively.However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.1.9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation.Saussure’s diachronic description is the study of a language through the course of its history. E.g.a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time would be synchronic, and astudy of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a language are successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.1.9.3 Langue & paroleSaussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints; langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics.1.9.4 Competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.。

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