Hedonic and utilitarian motivations for online retail

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2010北京理工大学管理与经济学院30周年院庆院长论坛

2011年海峡两岸管理理论与应用研讨会
会议议程
会议时间安排表
08:20-09:10 开幕式
09:10-10:10 分组研讨【组织与人力资源管理】
09:10-10:10 分组研讨【一般管理】
10:10-10:30 茶歇（北理工主楼3层）
10:30-12:00 分组研讨【财务管理】
10:30-12:00 分组研讨【财务管理】
12:00-14:00 北理工郭大成书记宴请三校领导
地点: 北理工国际教育交流中心潇湘府
与会代表午餐
地点: 北理工国际教育交流中心自助餐厅14:00-15:30 分组研讨【营销管理】
14:00-15:30 分组研讨【科技管理】
15:30-15:50 茶歇（北理工主楼3层）
15:50-17:20 分组研讨【一般管理】
15:50-17:20 分组研讨【作业管理】
开幕式: 管理与经济学院学术报告厅（主楼241会议室）
分会场8: 北京理工大学主楼418会议室。

外文翻译---融资过程中啄食顺序理论的一个合理证明

外文原文Management Research News，Volume 25 Number 12，2002A Rational Justification of the Pecking Order Hypothesis to theChoice of Sources of FinancingBy Vuong Duc Hoang Quan外文翻译原文来自：Management Research News，Volume 25 Number 12，2002：74-90融资过程中啄食顺序理论的一个合理证明Vuong Duc Hoang Quan摘要自从被Stewart Myers (1984)发展以来，啄食顺序理论在近期把研究重心从传统静态权衡理论转移到其他理论的研究的趋势中成为了一道亮点，它试图为公司资本结构的行为寻求一个合理的解释。

这篇文章通过建立啄食顺序理论和与之有明显对立的MM定理1之间的关系，提出了啄食顺序理论的一个合理证明。

为支持我们的解释，在推论过程中，我们采用各种各样现有的理论，包括税盾理论、破产成本理论、代理理论、信号理论和管理风险厌恶理论等，这些证明啄食顺序理论的论据，其内涵也被简要地讨论了。

关键词：公司融资；资本结构；啄食顺序理论介绍企业怎样选择资本结构及其影响因素是公司财务上一个很有争议的根本问题。

传统上，资本结构的形成被认为是有利税率之间静态权衡的结果。

税收优势提倡增加债务，它与破产风险相对，破产风险更偏好于股权融资的使用。

尽管如此，近期的研究已经呈现出了从静态权衡理论为焦点到其他理论的研究的转移，从而试图寻找出一个对资本结构行为更进一步的解释。

Myers (1984)谈到的啄食顺序理论最早是由Donaldson (1961)始创的，是用来描述企业管理者为减轻不对称信息引起的投资不足问题的缺陷而优先采取的融资方式的选择这一融资实际。

因此相对于外源融资，任何类型的企业更倾向于内源融资。

Customer Satisfaction and Engagement

PerspectiveCustomer Satisfaction and Engagement -Customer Retention strategies for brand manager *M.N. TripathiAssociate ProfessorXavier Institute of Managementmnt@ximb.ac.inAbstractSince the concept of marketing dawned on manufacturers, brand building has become an integral component of most marketing departments. However, when the question is asked, 'What is brand building?', it seems to be a long drawn out answer, stating almost everything about the efforts made by the marketer to raise the esteem and value of the brand in question. While there could be very strong reasons for trying to have an all encompassing answer to such an innocuous question, the author would like to focus on customer satisfaction and customer engagement. Customers may be satisfied but not necessarily, engaged. Many brand managers across industries and categories swear that the key to such brand building success is customer satisfaction, while others are convinced that only effective customer engagement can make the brand stand out and survive in the long term. Both are true and false to some extent.This paper tries to explain that customer engagement and customer satisfaction are not necessarily disparate concepts and choices, but essentially converge at the consumer to make any brand building effort show results. It examines the various dimensions of customer satisfaction and customer engagement, the strategies employed by companies to engage customers and its relevance to modern day marketing. The author would like to argue that when marketers feel that brand successes are because of their efforts, it is a myth. Unless the brand is received well by the consumers, and this can happen only when she is satisfied and truly engaged, can brand building efforts get a fillip? It attempts to discuss the rationale of these concepts and the need to look at the entire exercise of brand building in a holistic manner and not dismiss it as another fad that marketing people conjure to spice up their offerings. There are definite benefits and payoffs to be had if the marketer is able to get more engaged consumers leading to greater satisfaction, which can result in increased frequency of purchase, sales, profits, customer retention, positive word-of-mouth and increased market share.Key words: Customer engagement, Customer satisfaction, Brand building, Customer retention, Word-of-mouthIntroductionAlthough the concept of branding existed much earlier, the concept got widely used in the 19th century through the industrial revolution. Neil H. McElroy, President of Procter and Gamble was the forerunner of brand-building and brand management, through a memo he sent out in 1931. It has unintentionally focused more on the marketer’s * Received December 2, 2012; Revised February 11, 2014124Vilakshan, XIMB Journal of Management, V ol.11 (1), March 2014side than for whom it is meant for – the consumer. Resources and efforts have been focused on the ‘brand’ with the hope of making it more attractive to the consumer and therefore hoping that some of the consumers would indeed buy. The assumption here is that if the brand is made sufficiently ‘attractive’, the consumer would eventually buy. Attraction for ‘whom’ and ‘how’ are probably more pertinent than merely stating the obvious. How valid is this assumption? We are all aware that no brand, however attractive, would motivate a consumer to buy, if she does not want it or has no use for it. She would buy only when she feels that it is the best choice as per the criteria she applies in the given context. Even if she buys the brand once, there is no guarantee that she would repeat her purchase, even if the first-time experience has been positive. For repeat purchase to happen, the marketer not only has to keep the brand salient in the consumer’s mind but also has to keep the customer ‘engaged’ to the brand. She should not only be satisfied with the product but should also be willing to promote, defend and do battle with others, if necessary, on behalf of the product (Dooley, 2006). Therefore, customer satisfaction is only the first step to having a lasting relationship with the consumer. What will keep the consumer with the marketer is her engagement.1Customer SatisfactionWhen products and services supplied by a company meet or surpass customer expectations, customer satisfaction results. In a competitive situation, customer satisfaction is a key differentiator and becomes an integral part of a business strategy. Therefore, it makes eminent sense for a company to develop metrics to keep a tab on customer satisfaction. It helps to build loyal customers who in turn could become customer evangelists spreading the good word to others, thus influencing them to become customers. Positive word-of-mouth (WOM) is highly credible, effective and in most cases free. So customer satisfaction goals are often key goals, pursued by marketers to effectively manage customer satisfaction.The tenet ‘Customer is king’ or ‘give the customer what she wants’ is often fraught with dangers, if taken literally and in its entirety. Companies have to always evaluate what they can offer or to what extent they are prepared to go and satisfy the customer vis-à-vis the payoffs that could be expected in trying to do so. To be better than competition, comes at a cost. Is the cost worthwhile to incur given the mileage that could be obtained – in terms of getting new customers, customer retention, brand loyalty and promoting positive WOM? Customer satisfaction data are among the most frequently collected indicators of market perceptions (Farris, Bendle, Pfeifer and Reibstein, 2010). Although sales or market share may indicate how a company is performing in a market, it is customer satisfaction which is perhaps the best indicator of how likely is a customer to repeat purchases in the future.1 For the purpose of this paper, we are using the word ‘customer’ and ‘consumer’ as synonymous,although the fastidious marketers amongst us would probably differ on this.Tripathi, Customer Satisfaction and Engagement ......125It is important to realize that this satisfaction can comprise both utilitarian and hedonic benefits. Utilitarian benefits are associated with functional attributes, whereas hedonic benefits could be associated with sensory and experiential attributes (Batra and Athola, 1990). When going for a movie in a multiplex, one not only goes for the viewing experience in 70 mm colour and digital doll by sound, but also savour the plush ambience sitting in comfortable push-back seats with your favourite beverage sitting snugly in the drinks holder on every seat. Gap analysis (Parasuraman and Berry, 1991) and the confirmation/disconfirmation theory tries to explain the shortfalls in customer expectations, which if fulfilled, can lead to satisfaction. “The gulf between satisfied customers and completely satisfied customers can swallow a business” (Cacioppo, 1995). Mere satisfaction of a product or a service may not guarantee that a consumer would continue to stay with the product or the service. She needs to be engaged and it is the responsibility of the marketer to do so.What is Customer Engagement ?Therefore, a marketer must not only aim to make the brand more desirable, more attractive and more preferable to the consumer, but also do whatever it takes, for the consumer to remain associated, interested and involved with the brand. In the process of buying, using and consuming the product, there is an emotional, psychological and physical investment by the consumer onto the brand (Shevlin, 2006). It is this investment that translates into the engagement we are talking of. Obviously, this investment would depend on the consumer and would vary from consumer to consumer. The challenge for the marketer is to persuade the consumer that the brand is worth their time, effort, money and commitment to be involved. It is a process of building, nurturing and preserving relationships. It would also be an effort to enhance the customer lifetime values (CLV) and improve the customer equity (CE) over the lifetime of a brand. Company sales executives need to redefine their goals from sales target achievements to generating more ‘engaged’ consumers (Smith and Rutigliano, 2003) and develop metrics for the same. Sales would be a normal consequence of retaining ‘engaged’ customers.The term customer engagement has been finding increasing use largely in the digital context where website providers find it increasingly challenging to hold on to visitors on to their sites, in an effort to sell or communicate with them. This would be taking a rather myopic view of the concept since customer engagement is really required and applicable for all products, brands, services and ideas. No marketer can afford to let go of the consumers, having got them once. Yet, this is happening all the time because marketers neglect to keep ‘engaging’ the consumer, and thereby allowing them to be wooed by competitors. V aluable customer relationships are formed by organizations with their target audience, in ways that touch these people so persuasively, that they are keen to experience the relationships again. To attain this engagement, marketers must understand the needs126Vilakshan, XIMB Journal of Management, V ol.11 (1), March 2014of their markets and consumers, and then decide which of these needs to be met through their brands in line with their resource and capacity constraints (Papadakis, 2007).‘The customer pays the wages’–Henry Ford. Customer satisfaction was the precursor to brand loyalty. But the link between customer satisfaction, higher profits, ROI or market share was dubious. It is then that marketers began to link engagement with business outcomes. This is the ‘emotional connect’ between a brand or a company. Engaged customers are emotionally invested in the brand because they feel that the company is emotionally invested in them. A 2008 study across 10000 customers revealed that companies with high engagement levels yielded an ROI of 8% above the industry average while companies with low engagement levels saw their profits drop 23% below the industry average. Highly engaged customers led their companies to grow 13% above the industry average and low engagements levels led to companies declining by 36% as against the industry average (Peoplemetrics, 2010).A working definition of Customer Engagement involves specific interactive experiences between consumers and the brand. It is context-dependant psychological state characterized by fluctuation in density levels that occur within dynamic, iterative processes. It has cognitive, affective behavioral dimensions and plays a central role in the process of relational exchange which could act as engagement antecedents and / or consequences in iterative engagement processes. (Brodie, et al, 2011).Customer Engagement has been necessitated by a variety of factors:a.Control over Marketing Communications. More and more companies are findingit extremely difficult to communicate to an increasingly fragmented audience and have a share of voice (SOV) high enough to break the clutter. The SOV is the share of advertising expenditure of a firm in relation to the total advertising expenditure of the industry. Cluster refers to all other distractions that could occur to divert or distract the potential audience from paying attention to the intended communication. A study in 2006 had reported that TV advertising in 2010 would be one-third as effective as in 1990 (McKinsey, 2006). Advertising agencies are continuously innovating newer media, like in-movie placement, mall floors, digital media, etc. to keep the customer engaged and involved.b.Customer turning into a communicator. The recent trend of blogging and othermeans of webchats has turned the consumer into a far more powerful communicator, where she is able to discuss, debate, air her views and opinions, criticize and analyze along with her friends and peers, who probably value this conversation, far more than the communication from the advertiser. No longer does the situation exist, where the marketer, holds the power what to communicate with the customer. It is the customer which has now the power to communicate what she wants to, whenTripathi, Customer Satisfaction and Engagement ......127she wants to, and to whom she wants to. Marketers do not have a choice. At best, they can be mute spectators and participate in this conversation and take cues from that to offer better products for her. The value proposition that social media offers, has made it possible for her to have ‘sustained conversations that shape perceptions’ which has had a signal effect in influencing marketing strategy for many organizations.c.Reduced Brand Loyalty. With the proliferation of goods, and each brand gettingmore and more similar, the consumer is getting more confused and is not able to differentiate, one from the other. The plethora of choices, complexity of products and availability of multiple substitutes, places formidable task for an ordinary customer to decide as to what is best for her. To alleviate this confusion, consumers have for long had brand ‘consideration sets’ wherein brands falling within the consideration set, are preferred by the consumer and therefore, would not mind switching over to another brand within the consideration set, if her regular brand is not available.It is then that the level of customer engagement can be a differentiator in the purchase decision process.d.Media Consumption. Consumers access various types of media where they maycome across many marketing communications. The proliferation of media and the increase in control over media consumption by consumers provides greater choice to the consumer, as to what media would get consumed. Stimulating a consumer’s engagement is the best way to retain or increase the loyalty of a consumer. With the advent of Web 2.0, the consumer is merely not content consuming static communication from the marketer but is actively interested in participating in the communication. It is no longer B2C but rapidly converting to C2B where consumers wield the power to influence business. Marketers must see the writing on the wall and gracefully accept this new reality and learn to live with it.Dimensions of Customer EngagementCustomer engagement consists of several dimensions. It is important to appreciate these dimensions and relate it to the importance of retaining customers, enhancing brand equity, building customer equity and fighting competition.a)Product Involvement. Switching cost for a customer is progressively getting lowersince most products available in the market are getting similar (me-toos) (Sedley, 2006). The customer, who is more emotionally attached to the product than others, is likely to be more committed and more willing to be an evangelist for the product.b)Purchase Frequency. Frequent purchase allows the customer to interact with theproduct more frequently and thereby reinforce the positive attitudes built up by the128Vilakshan, XIMB Journal of Management, V ol.11 (1), March 2014customer. Repeated use helps build loyalty which encourages further repeat purchase. Of course it goes without saying that companies cannot take such customers for granted and must ensure strict quality standards to maintain consistency of product irrespective of locations and production sources.c)Frequency of Service Interactions. Positive interactions lead to brand affinityand help to reinforce the positive attitudes about the brand. It is important that such interactions are necessarily positive for the engagement process to be cemented.A negative interaction might undo all the good work done in a different stage. Thequality of personnel, infrastructure, resources, equipment may all play a role in cementing this engagement.d)Word-of-mouth (WOM). Positive experiences, emotional attachment, high productinterest are some of the likely reasons which lead to positive word-of-mouth being passed around. A positively disposed, motivated consumer of the product is quite likely to take the engagement process up to the next higher level. Companies must excel in their marketing and product quality for consumers to want to talk about it to others. WOM cannot be taken for granted.e)Velocity. The rate of change of all the above indicators is also an indication of thelevel of engagement of the consumer. Upgradations, packaging changes, attractive sales promotions, new advertising campaigns, brand extensions, market expansions, are but a few of the marketing changes that agile companies do remain salient in the consumer’s mind.Neuromarketing studies have helped find out some relationships between the emotional attachment of consumers with brands and their brain activity levels. Familiar brands produced higher levels of brain activity in areas associated with positive emotions. There was a strong correlation between the level of engagement and actual purchases by consumers (Fleming, 2006).Building Customer EngagementCustomers have more choices of products and services than even before, and even if satisfied, the satisfaction is short-listed. Newer and better market offerings seem to get their attention. The marketer’s focus has to shift to value creation and this could only happen if the customer is able to participate in this value creation. Informed, networked, empowered and active customers are increasingly co-creating value with the firm, which keeps them engaged (Prahlad and Ramaswamy, 2004).Engaged customers are valuable assets. They assure a business of sustained and profitable growth. They are also likely to be your brand’s most ardent ambassadors and loyal customers. But how does one build customer engagement?Tripathi, Customer Satisfaction and Engagement ......129a)Confidence. Customers must have confidence in your brand. They must be ableto trust the company and the brand, which means that the organization must live up to and deliver the promises it makes to the market – in terms of quality, pricing, packaging, distribution, after-sales service, reliability, etc. Colgate which has been on top as the most trusted brand since 2003 lost its ranking to Nokia for some time and regained its top ranking status in 2011 (Economic Times, Brand Equity).Others like Britannia and Bournvita, who were ranked high in the list in earlier years have gone down in rankings because somewhere down the line consumers began to lose confidence on the brand. New brands like Vodafone have emerged from nowhere to replace the old stalwarts.b)Integrity. Consumers must feel that they are treated fairly by the organization.Most consumers have quite realistic expectations of being treated fairly. Therefore, customer servicing, pricing rationale, goods return policies must be above board and transparent. Amway has a 100% goods return policy with no questions asked, should a consumer feel dissatisfied with the product. Biotique went to great lengths to explain to the consuming public that the reason their products are high priced was that it comprised of only high quality, organic raw materials.c)Pride. Consumers must feel good and be proud of using the brand. They should beunhesitatingly, enthusiastic recommenders of the product, based on their own experience of using the brand. Marketers, who look after their loyal and regular customers, stand to gain from the overwhelming return response by such consumers, either in repeat purchase or through customer evangelism. Axis Bank holds regular programmes for their priority customers and keeps reassuring them about their service particularly customized for them. The Tata brand built over many years reassures every consumer of the trust and faith that the consumer has put on their brands for years.d)Passion. Marketers must be able to fire the imagination of consumers who consumetheir product. Hero Honda’s Splendour, Mahindra and Mahindra’s Scorpio and Apple’s Ipod are some of the cases where the consumer is passionate about these brands; they love the brands (Ma. Reyna, 2003).Growth is a major focus of most organizations and is one of the criteria that they would like to measure themselves to appraise their performance, although research states that bigger is not always better. Similarly, market share, another popular yardstick which many marketers like to benchmark against, does not necessarily indicate brand health. Therefore, neither good sales or for that matter good profits, necessarily benefits the customer. When there is no benefit to the consumer, this weakens the130Vilakshan, XIMB Journal of Management, V ol.11 (1), March 2014brand ‘connect’. This is when consumers might start to disengage. This would then start reflecting on other key outcomes such as future sales, profits, market share and profits (McEwen, 2005).Customer Engagement StrategiesWith the plethora of products and services abounding, all companies have felt the impact of the customer being in charge. They know exactly which products to buy and which to reject and rightly are demanding better products and excellence in service. In this kind of a scenario, it is not surprising that most companies are bending backwards to accommodate the customer and put customer-centric policies in place to acquire and retain the customer. Most companies have embarked on some Customer-Facing Processes and Solutions (CFPS), which might include Customer Relationship Management (CRM), Customer Engagement Management (CEM), customer satisfaction cells, call centres, and so on. However, just stand-alone CFPSs are not enough to keep the customer with the organization. Unless such CFPSs are strategically integrated to the entire customer life cycle, it would have limited usefulness, and the organization would not be able to exploit the potential of such mechanisms.Effective Customer Engagement (CE) strategies must employ consumer messages that differentiate brand promises that clearly set apart the brand from competition, preferably with an emotional content that helps to bond the customer with the brand. The message should be so compelling as to overcome consumer inertia, lower perceived risk and motivate them to switch. There must be an emotional ‘connect’ with the consumer for a lasting relationship (Gallup, 2008). Sunsilk is trying to create that emotional ‘connect’ through its blog , where like-minded consumers can let their hair down and speak freely on any topic dear to them. It need not necessarily pertain to the company or the brand.However, it has been observed through various studies that most companies professing customer-facing philosophies deploy CFPS, more by word than deed. They stop short of tying the CFPS output to customer experiences. One such study showed that 63% of respondents connect brand promises to customer experiences and 46% of respondents have defined what constitutes a ‘loyal’ customer. The same study mentioned that 81% of respondent companies track customer service, and a little more than half of the sample, track customer profitability. However, what was not measured, was the quality of the customer experience and the ability of the customer to make referrals - two metrics that are vital to value creation and managing the customer life cycle. Less than half track the quality of the customer experience and less than one-quarter track customer lifetime values and the likelihood of making referrals (Klein, Eisenman and O’Brien, 2007).Tripathi, Customer Satisfaction and Engagement ......131 The recommendations emerging out of this study were :panies and their customers must define what the customer experience shouldbe, including goals and metrics for achieving success. Therefore, a thorough knowledge of the market and customers becomes essential to know what customers want and also differentiate between customers. It takes into account the emotional, intellectual and behavioural aspects of the customer at each stage of the customer life cycle resulting in an end state, which facilitates passing over to the next stage.Each stage results in an experience designed to lead to the next stage, ultimately resulting in value creation for both customer and company. It is here that the lack of strategic vision could lead the company to get suboptimal results from CFPSs if these are not integrated to the strategic goals of the company.panies must look at CFPS as part of a customer experience strategy and notas a tool for individualized solutions. Typically various components of a CFPS such as a call centre or a customer service department work in isolation without realizing that they are basically working for the same goal, which is to satisfy the customer.Therefore the synergies which could be available, goes a begging, because of such units working in silos.panies must implement formal processes to track performance throughout thecustomer lifecycle. It is not enough to satisfy the consumer once. Defining loyalty and measuring loyalty is also a key issue, which we saw that very few companies are tracking. To keep ahead of competition, good performing companies need to develop metrics to keep measuring their success that may not be the same as some other companies, which are not doing so well. The bar has to keep on getting higher if these companies are to remain on top. Metrics must also change with time. The same metrics could become irrelevant after some time. Yamaha, may be is a bigger brand than Harley-Davidson, but few are going to quarrel about the significantly higher level of customer engagement of the latter with the former.How can Customer Engagement be leveraged in Marketing ?The whole idea of using this concept which is just about five years old, is to make the customer give the time, effort, money and commitment to the product or service. It should create, stimulate and influence customer engagement, bonding the customer to the market offering. This has been made easier with the increased usage of the web to keep in touch with the consumer.The difference between traditional marketing and CE marketing is that traditional marketing has always been focused on ‘awareness and reach’, whereas CE marketing has been more customized and targeted. It allows the consumer to participate with thecustomer approach to a more participative interaction of equals, which recognizes that both company and customer have equal stakes in the development and prosperity of the brand.The most successful companies build deep emotional relationships with their customers – relationships that go beyond rational boundaries. Consumers stay faithful to their brands that earn both their rational trust as well as their affection. Customers who are ‘emotionally engaged’ behave quite differently than those who are ‘cognitively satisfied or loyal’. Emotionally engaged consumers spend more, are less price sensitive and are more likely to get through a problem than other consumers who are not so engaged. CEOs of customer engaged companies should really be ‘Customer Executive Officers’ if they are really serious about ‘customer engagement’ to pass down the culture of engaging the consumer.ConclusionFor organizations that have a good proportion of ‘engaged customers’, there is a proven correlation between such engagements and their on-going long term success. Engaged customers help you build business. Customer satisfaction is temporary. Such customers can be fickle. They tend to churn rapidly and retaining them could turn expensive. This is where ‘permission based’ marketing such as social media marketing helps. Face book with 321 million active users and Twitter with 3 million active users are becoming the world’s largest virtual market place. Companies like Pepsi have chosen to move out of Super Bowl TV advertising and chosen to spend $20 million on social media campaigns (Schwartz, 2010).Customer satisfaction gets you by in the short term, till something better comes along. But customer engagement extends beyond mere satisfaction. It means building great relationships with your customers who are willing to advocate for the brand. These customers would go out of the way to do business with the organization and help it acquire new customers by recommending to other people. When customers are engaged, the organization has differentiated itself from its competitors. Customers become collaborators ().Customer engagement is relevant not only to consumer marketing but also in the B2B marketing. Traditionally, B2B marketing has always had a much greater participation in the overall marketing of B2B products. Engaging customers has taken it to the next level where the customer becomes a collaborator in the future development and upgradation of the product. The distinction between the marketer and the customer after a while may blur because of the intense involvement and engagement of the customer with the product。

消费者行为4

4-5
Types of Needs
Biogenic
Psychogenic
Utilitarian
Hedonic
Copyright 1999 Prentice Hall
Motivational Direction
Motivational Conflicts
4-6
Approach-Approach
Two Desirable Alternatives
• Once a need is aroused, a state of tension exists that drives the consumer to attempt to reduce or eliminate the need. • Needs can be:
– Utilitarian: a desire to achieve some functional or practical benefit. – Hedonic: an experiential need, involving emotional responses or fantasies.
4-1
CONSUMER BEHAVIOR
Fourth Edition Michael R. Solomon
Chapter 4
Motivation and Values
Copyright 1999 Prentice Hall
Motivation
4-2
• Motivation refers to the processes that cause people to behave as they do.
Copyright 1999 Prentice Hall

消费者行为学(Consumer Behavior) (5)

Simple Processing
Copyright 1999 Prentice Hall
Elaboration
The Many Faces of Involvement
4-9
Related to a Consumer’s Level of Interest in a Particular Product.
4-1
CONSUMER BEHAVIOR
Fourth Edition Michael R. Solomon
Chapter 4
Motivation and Values
Copyright 1999 Prentice Hall
Motivation
4-2
• Motivation refers to the processes that cause people to behave as they do.
4-15
• Materialists are more likely to value possessions for their status and appearancerelated meanings. • However, there are signs that many Americans are developing a different value system that balances work with personal relationships.
Copyright 1999 Prentice Hall
Motivational Direction
Needs Versus Wants
Specific Way a Need is Satisfied Depends on: Individual’s Unique History, Learning Experiences and Cultural Environment.

享乐主义手册英文版

享乐主义手册英文版Title: The Hedonist's Handbook: An English VersionIntroduction:The Hedonist's Handbook is a comprehensive guide to embracing a hedonistic lifestyle, focusing on the pursuit of pleasure and enjoyment. This article aims to provide an overview of the handbook, presenting its key concepts and principles.Body:1. Understanding Hedonism1.1 Definition of Hedonism: Hedonism is a philosophical concept that emphasizes the pursuit of pleasure and avoidance of pain as the ultimate goal of life.1.2 Historical Background: Hedonism has its roots in ancient Greek philosophy, with key proponents such as Epicurus and Cyrenaics. It has evolved over time, incorporating various perspectives and interpretations.2. Principles of Hedonism2.1 Pleasure as the Highest Good: Hedonism places pleasure at the center of human existence, considering it the ultimate good.2.2 Differentiating Types of Pleasure: The handbook delves into the distinction between physical and intellectual pleasures, highlighting the importance of both in leading a fulfilling life.2.3 Balancing Immediate and Long-term Pleasures: Hedonism encourages individuals to find a balance between instant gratification and long-term satisfaction, avoiding excessive indulgence that may lead to negative consequences.3. Hedonistic Lifestyle Choices3.1 Self-Care and Well-being: The handbook emphasizes the importance of self-care, promoting activities such as exercise, meditation, and healthy eating to enhance overall well-being.3.2 Cultivating Positive Relationships: Building and nurturing meaningful connections with others is seen as a vital aspect of a hedonistic lifestyle, as it contributes to emotional well-being and shared enjoyment.3.3 Pursuing Personal Passions: The handbook encourages individuals to identify and pursue their passions, as engaging in activities they love brings immense pleasure and fulfillment.4. Hedonism and Materialism4.1 Material Possessions and Pleasure: The handbook acknowledges the role of material possessions in providing pleasure and comfort, but highlights the importance of not becoming overly reliant on them for happiness.4.2 Minimalism and Hedonism: Exploring the concept of minimalism, the handbook suggests that reducing material clutter can lead to a clearer focus on experiences and genuine pleasures.4.3 Sustainable Consumption: Hedonism advocates for conscious consumption, encouraging individuals to consider the environmental and social impact of their choices, thus enhancing long-term pleasure.5. Hedonism and Ethics5.1 Ethical Considerations: The handbook addresses the ethical dimensions of hedonism, emphasizing the importance of respecting the rights and well-being of others while pursuing personal pleasure.5.2 Utilitarianism and Hedonism: Drawing on utilitarian principles, the handbook explores how hedonism can align with the goal of maximizing overall happiness and well-being for society as a whole.5.3 Balancing Self-Interest and Altruism: Hedonism encourages individuals to find a balance between pursuing personal pleasure and contributing to the happiness of others, fostering a sense of social responsibility.6. Challenges and Criticisms of Hedonism6.1 Hedonic Adaptation: The handbook acknowledges that humans have a tendency to adapt to pleasure, leading to diminishing returns. It suggests strategies to overcome this, such as seeking novelty and variety.6.2 Hedonism and Excessive Indulgence: The potential for hedonism to lead to excessive indulgence and negative consequences is discussed in the handbook, emphasizing the importance of self-control and moderation.6.3 Hedonism and Meaning in Life: Critics argue that hedonism may overlook the pursuit of meaning and purpose. The handbook addresses this concern, suggesting that personal fulfillment and pleasure can coexist with a meaningful life.Conclusion:The Hedonist's Handbook offers a comprehensive exploration of hedonism, providing insights into its principles, lifestyle choices, ethical considerations, and challenges. By understanding and applying the concepts presented in the handbook, individuals can embrace a hedonistic lifestyle that prioritizes pleasure and enjoyment while maintaining a balanced and responsible approach.。

中文翻译-what constitutes a theoretical contribution

什么是理论贡献？自从成为编辑以来，一直试图寻找一种简单的方式来传达理论贡献的必要成分。

关于这个主题有好几篇优秀的论文，但它们通常涉及难以纳入与作者和评论者日常交流的术语和概念。

我的经验是，现有的框架在澄清含义的同时也容易混淆含义。

除了接触卡普兰的作品外，都宾和其他人的作品在学术界各不相同。

AMR，我本文是填补这一空白的初步努力：其目的不是创造一个新的理论概念化，而是提出一些简单的概念来讨论理论的发展过程。

这是我每天的社论活动中产生的个人反思。

我的动机是缓解关于期望和标准的交流问题，这是由于缺乏一个广泛接受的框架来讨论组织科学中概念写作的优点。

最后，我的评论不应该被解释为官方的教条或指导评估过程的铁规则。

每一篇提交的论文都是独一无二的，而且都是根据自己的优点来评判的；然而，我的思想显然受到了前半期我读过的几百篇交流的影响。

自动抄表系统本文围绕三个关键问题展开：（a）理论发展的基础是什么？(b)什么是对理论发展的合法增值贡献-如何？(c)在判断概念性论文时考虑哪些因素？第一节描述一个理论的构成要素。

第二部分利用该框架建立理论发展过程的标准。

第三部分总结了评论者对论文实质归属和适当性的期望。

自动抄表系统什么是建筑砌块理论发展？根据理论发展权威（例如，Dubin，1978），一个完整的理论必须包含四个基本要素，这些要素在以下段落中描述。

什么。

哪些因素（变量、结构、概念）在逻辑上应该被考虑为解释社会或个人感兴趣的现象的一部分？判断我们包含“正确”因素的程度存在两个标准：全面性（即，是否包括所有相关因素？）以及节俭（即，是否应该删除一些因素，因为它们对我们的理解没有什么附加价值？）.当作者开始绘制一个主题的概念图时，他们应该错误地赞成包括太多的因素，并认识到随着时间的推移，他们的想法将会得到完善。

一般来说，删除不必要或无效的元素比证明添加是合理的要容易。

但是，这不应该被解释为允许扔进厨房水槽。

对于一个优秀的理论家来说，对竞争中的吝啬和全面性病毒的敏感性是其特征。

二语习得 5.5learningmotivation

.
Both integrative and instrumental motivations are essential to successful learning. But integrative motivation has been found to sustain long-term success when learning a second language
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The Attitude/Motivation Test Battery
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References
[1] Gardner.R.C.and W. E. Lambert. Motivational variables in Second language Acquisition [J]. Canadian Journal of Psychology，1959，13：266-72.
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Though debates are still going on, Gardner's model has dominated the field of language learning motivation since its introduction, and much evidence has confirmed the strong correlation between integrative motivation and L2 linguistic achievement (seeEllis,1999;Laine,1981;Kraemer,1990,citedin Gard-ner and MacIntyre, 1992; Skehan, 1989; Oxford and Ehrman, 1993; Spolsky, 1989, cited in Manfred Wu Man-Fat, 2005).

卡梅伦液压数据手册（第 20 版）说明书

11
iv
⌂
CONTENTS OF SECTION 1
☰ Hydraulics
⌂ Cameron Hydraulic Data ☰
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................................................ 1-3 Liquids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...................................... .......................... 1-3
4
Viscosity etc.
Steam data....................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
1 Liquid Flow.............................................................................. 1-4
Viscosity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...................................... .......................... 1-5 Pumping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...................................... .......................... 1-6 Volume-System Head Calculations-Suction Head. ........................... 1-6, 1-7 Suction Lift-Total Discharge Head-Velocity Head............................. 1-7, 1-8 Total Sys. Head-Pump Head-Pressure-Spec. Gravity. ...................... 1-9, 1-10 Net Positive Suction Head. .......................................................... 1-11 NPSH-Suction Head-Life; Examples:....................... ............... 1-11 to 1-16 NPSH-Hydrocarbon Corrections.................................................... 1-16 NPSH-Reciprocating Pumps. ....................................................... 1-17 Acceleration Head-Reciprocating Pumps. ........................................ 1-18 Entrance Losses-Specific Speed. .................................................. 1-19 Specific Speed-Impeller. .................................... ........................ 1-19 Specific Speed-Suction...................................... ................. 1-20, 1-21 Submergence.. . . . . . . . . ....................................... ................. 1-21, 1-22 Intake Design-Vertical Wet Pit Pumps....................................... 1-22, 1-27 Work Performed in Pumping. ............................... ........................ 1-27 Temperature Rise. . . . . . . ...................................... ........................ 1-28 Characteristic Curves. . ...................................... ........................ 1-29 Affinity Laws-Stepping Curves. ..................................................... 1-30 System Curves.. . . . . . . . ....................................... ........................ 1-31 Parallel and Series Operation. .............................. ................. 1-32, 1-33 Water Hammer. . . . . . . . . . ...................................... ........................ 1-34 Reciprocating Pumps-Performance. ............................................... 1-35 Recip. Pumps-Pulsation Analysis & System Piping...................... 1-36 to 1-45 Pump Drivers-Speed Torque Curves. ....................................... 1-45, 1-46 Engine Drivers-Impeller Profiles. ................................................... 1-47 Hydraulic Institute Charts.................................... ............... 1-48 to 1-52 Bibliography.. . . . . . . . . . . . ...................................... ........................ 1-53

海洋放线菌

Contents 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Actinomycetes in the marine environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Role of actinomycetes in marine environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rare actinomycetes and selective isolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Molecular approaches to search for indigenous marine actinomycetes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Different genera of marine actinomycetes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Marine streptomycetes – a boundary microorganism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fermentation process for metabolites production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Secondary metabolites from actinomycetes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Novel/new metabolites from marine actinomycetes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00

ch04_Motivation and Values

4-5
Motivational Strength
• Biological vs. Learned Needs:
– Instinct: Innate patterns of behavior universal in a species – Tautology: Circular explanation (e.g. instinct is inferred from the behavior it is supposed to explain)
4-4
Ads Reinforce Desired ates
• This ad for exercise shows men a desired state (as dictated by contemporary Western culture), and suggests a solution (purchase of equipment) to attain it.
4 - 17
Criticisms of Maslow’s Hierarchy
• The application is too simplistic:
– It is possible for the same product or activity to satisfy every need.
• It is too culture-bound:
– The assumptions of the hierarchy may be restricted to Western culture
• It emphasizes individual needs over group needs
– Individuals in some cultures place more value on the welfare of the group (belongingness needs) than the needs of the individual (esteem needs)

Co-experience user experience as interaction

Co-experience:user experience as interactionKATJA BATTARBEE*and ILPO KOSKINENUniversity of Art and Design Helsinki,School of Design,Industrial Design,Ha meentie135C,00560Helsinki,Finland(Received 26January 2004;in ﬁnal form 10May 2004)User experience is becoming a key term in the world of interactive productdesign.The term itself lacks proper theoretical deﬁnition and is used in manydiﬀerent,even contradictory,ways.This paper reviews various existingapproaches to understanding user experience and describes three mainapproaches and their diﬀerences.A missing perspective is noted in all three:their focus is on only the individual having the experience and neglects thekinds of experiences that are created together with others.To address this,anew elaboration called co-experience is presented.It builds on an existingapproach but borrows from symbolic interactionism to create a moreinclusive interactionist framework for thinking about user experiences.Datafrom a study on mobile multimedia messaging are used to illustrate anddiscuss the framework.Keywords :User experience;Social interaction;Mobile communication;Multimedia messaging1.IntroductionUsability experts know that while usability is important,it is not enough on its own to guarantee a product’s success with customers.While helping people take advantage of a product’s functionality,usability also needs to pave the road for ability techniques can be used to improve a given solution,but they do not reveal whether a diﬀerent solution might deliver better and more enjoyable experiences.Consequently,designers have begun to apply hedonistic psychology (Jordan 2000,Hassenzahl 2003)and to design for user experience.For example,Jordan takes a hedonistic perspective by proposing that pleasure with products is the sum of sociopleasure,ideopleasure,physiopleasure and psychopleasure.He deﬁnes pleasure with products as ‘the emotional,hedonic and practical beneﬁts associated with products’(Jordan 2000,p.12).Hassenzahl (2003)shows that satisfaction,a part of usability,is the sum of pragmatic and hedonic quality.However,as Desmet (2002)notes,the problem *Corresponding author.Email:kbattar@uiah.ﬁCoDesign ,Vol.1,No.1,March 2005,5–18CoDesign ISSN 1571-0882Print/ISSN 1743-3755online #2005Taylor &Francis Ltd /journals DOI:10.1080/157108804123312899176K.Battarbee and I.Koskinenwith focusing on pleasure is that it ignores the unpleasant emotional experiences related to product use.Perhaps to overcome this deﬁciency,user experience has become the new buzzword in design(for example,see Shedroﬀ2001,Garrett2003,Kuniavsky2003).User experience is subjective and holistic.It has both utilitarian and emotional aspects,which change over time(Rhea1992).In this paper,we deal with what we see as a major problem in the user experience literature,which is its implicit individualistic bias.We refer to the mostly missing social quality of experience with the term‘co-experience’,and propose an interactionist perspective for studying co-experience.We show that with this concept,we are able to pay attention to things that are not addressed by existing theories of user experience.We illustrate this perspective by showing how people communicate emotions with each other via mobile multimedia technology.2.Three approaches to user experienceCurrently there are three main approaches to applying and interpreting user experience in design.These are the measuring approach,the empathic approach,and the pragmatist approach.The role of emotional experiences is important in all three,although,as they stem from diﬀerent disciplines,they treat emotions diﬀerently.The measuring approach is mainly used in development and testing.It builds on the notion that experiences can be measured via emotional reactions.Thus,the approach is narrow—the deﬁnition only includes those aspects of user experience that can be measured and,through measuring,understood and improved.There are several alternative orientations within the approach.Theﬁrst builds on the idea that people experience things as reactions in their bodies.People’s bodies react to situations chemically and electrically,and experience this reaction in terms of emotions.As these reactions are oftenﬂeeting and sometimes diﬃcult to verbalise,tools for monitoring such reactions,such as facial expressions or changes in galvanic skin response,can be recorded in order to understand when and where people get frustrated(Picard1997).A second orientation is based on subjective reports(e.g.Jordan2000).For instance,Desmet(2002) has developed a testing tool to elicit emotional responses to products such as cars.His tool,PrEmo,uses animated cartoon characters to describe14diﬀerent emotional responses.By selecting all that apply,the user creates an emotional proﬁle.Universal evaluation criteria for user experience do not exist,though some have been proposed for interaction design(Alben1996).Rather,the‘soft and emotional experiences’need to be translated into‘experience goals’relevant to each project and included in the testing of products and prototypes(Teague and Whitney2002).The empathic approach also claims that experience is emotional in nature but that the kinds of experiences that products elicit should be connected to the needs,dreams and motivations of individuals(Dandavate et al.1996,Black1998).Designing for user experience begins with creating a rich,empathic understanding of the users’desired experiences and only then designing concepts and products to support them.The term ‘design empathy’has been in use since the late1990s to describe the role of the designer/ researcher(Leonard and Rayport1997,Segal and Fulton Suri1997,Koskinen et al. 2003).Design empathy makes use not only of the emotions of the users,but also those of the designers.In order to become not merely informed but also inspired,designers must both observe and feel for the users(Ma kela and Fulton Suri2001,Kankainen2002).The methods used in empathic approaches aim to provide an understanding of users’experiences with qualitative methods;they also assist users in constructing,for designers,Co-experience:user experience as interaction7 descriptions of their experiences,dreams,expectations and life context(Dandavate et al. 1996).Typically,these methods combine visual and textual data,self-documentation and projective tasks,several of which are used in parallel.This approach aims to inspire designers rather than produce testable hypotheses through measurement and conceptual elaboration.The pragmatist approach borrows much of its perspective from pragmatist philosophy (see Dewey1934).Recently,Forlizzi and Ford(2000)presented a model of user experience in interaction.This model is theoretical in nature,and shows that experiences are momentary constructions that grow from the interaction between people and their environment.In their terminology,experienceﬂuctuates between the states of cognition, subconsciousness and storytelling,depending on our actions and encounters in the world. Experience is something that happens all the time:subconscious experiences areﬂuent, automatic and fully learned;cognitive experiences require eﬀort,focus and concentration. Some of these experiences form meaningful chunks and become demarcated as‘an experience’—something meaningful that has a beginning and an end.Through stories, they may be elaborated into‘meta-experiences’that are names for collections of individual experiences.Even more recently,Wright et al.(2003)focused on what is common to all experience,describing four strands—the compositional,sensory, emotional and spatio-temporal strands—which together form experience.They also describe sense-making processes such as anticipating,interpreting and recounting. These three approaches propose divergent methodologies for studying user experience, but imply diﬀerent things.The measuring approach focuses on emotional responses,the empathic approach on user-centred concept design,while the pragmatic approach links action to meaning.The measuring approach is useful in development and evaluation,but is more diﬃcult to apply at the fuzzy front end of design(Cagan and Vogel2002).The pragmatist approach concentrates on the embodied nature of experience and interaction. Theﬁrst two approaches,the measuring and the empathic,share one main problem. Both see emotions as driving forces of human conduct,an assumption contested by more situated views of interaction(Blumer1986,p.7;about plans,see Dourish2002,pp.70–73).Of user experience approaches,only the pragmatist perspective really accounts for the situated unity of action,emotion and thought in the individual in a theoretical way. The pragmatist perspective is broader than the others in its scope;in fact,other models can be seen as its special cases.However,all these approaches are individualistic,thus missing a crucially important aspect of human experience.People as individuals depend on others for all that makes them truly human.Experiencing happens in the same social context—therefore,it is necessary to account for this context and its eﬀect on experience.3.Co-experience:elaborating the pragmatist perspectiveWe use the term‘co-experience’to describe experiences with products in terms of how the meanings of individual experiences emerge and change as they become part of social interaction.To explore co-experience more deeply,we expand the pragmatist model of user experience in interaction(Forlizzi and Ford2000)and address the mention of meaning in more detail by building on three classic principles of symbolic interactionism. First,people act towards things through the meanings they have for them.Second, meanings arise from interaction with one’s fellows.Third,meanings are handled in,and modiﬁed through,an interpretive process used by the person in dealing with things he encounters(Blumer1986,pp.2–6).These are the classic statements of symbolic interactionism,a sociological tradition that builds on the pragmatist philosophy of John8K.Battarbee and I.KoskinenDewey,William James,and George Herbert Mead(see Joas1997).This perspective adds social interaction to the pragmatist model,maintaining that people come to deﬁne situations through an interpretive process in which they take into account the non-symbolic gestures and interpretations of others.The improved interactionist model for co-experience uses these meanings to explain how experiences migrate between the diﬀerent levels of Forlizzi and Ford’s model(for an elaboration,see Forlizzi and Battarbee2004)—from the centre of attention to the periphery or into stories and acts of personalisation and back again.Such migrations happen in at least three general ways..Lifting up experiences.Often subconscious experience migrates to become‘an experience’through a social process.People constantly lift things from the stream of events in everyday life and communicate them to others.For example,a person may describe something that has happened to them,evaluating it as meaningful enough to be told to others..Reciprocating experiences.Quite often,once it has been lifted up in this way,recipients acknowledge and respond to experience.For example,they may reciprocate by telling about their own,similar experiences,or simply oﬀer a sympathetic response(Mauss 1980,Licoppe and Heurtin2001,Koskinen et al.2002,Ch.7,Taylor and Harper 2002).In doing so,they show that the experience(as well as the person sharing it)is meaningful for them.This can be shown in various ways,for example,by appreciating the experience,or by taking sides with it.Experiences can be maintained,supported and elaborated socially.Memories of relevant experiences may be retold in this way as well..Rejecting and ignoring experiences.Finally,experiences brought to the attention of others may also be rejected or downgraded by others.For example,something that is important for one person may be too familiar,uninteresting or even oﬀensive for others.They may indicate this in various ways to soften the rejection,for example through humor or teasing,or with varying degrees of topic change,direct response or inaction.Similarly,people often elaborate‘meta-experiences’together(see Forlizzi and Ford 2000).In this paper we do not focus speciﬁcally on meta-experience for two reasons. First,the pragmatist model of Forlizzi and Ford already accounts for it.When people compare experiences,often collected over several years,they come toﬁnd similarities and diﬀerences,and classify them in stories.Ultimately,some stories may become key symbols of their identities(see Orr’s1996analysis of technicians’‘war stories’).Also, stories provide one of the main mechanisms for reconstructing memories(Neisser1981, Orr1996).Second,we see storytelling as just another form of social interaction.It is signiﬁcant when sharing experiences verbally,but not necessarily the dominant form for digital media.Although storytelling has well-studied forms and traits,it nevertheless is included in the more general approach of symbolic interactionism,thus making it a special case of the more general argument for all social interaction.The following example(ﬁgure1)illustrates the strength of this framework.Theﬁgure is a mobile multimedia message(MMS):a photo,audio and text message sent from one mobile phone to another during a pilot study in Finland in2002(the pilot study and further details of the messaging are described in Section4).The story behind this MMS is how Thomas,a father,lifts up a signiﬁcant experience:the toddler Mikey’s evening tantrum.Jani,a friend,reciprocates by saying that his experiences in babysitting Mikeyhave been similar,and Thomas should consider getting him a soccer ball of his own.Jani’s comment could be taken as a rejection,suggesting a disinterest in Mikey and his temper.In a subsequent reply (shown in the ﬁgure)Thomas reinstated the importance of the event,and furthermore,turned it into an opportunity to tease Jani.His reply contained a good audio sample of the howling and a picture of the boy,red in the face and tears streaming down his cheeks,and suggested similarities between Mikey and Jani.However,Jani’s softened rejection was successful:there were no more reports on Mikey crying after that.As this example shows,people may use technology to share meaningful experiences,to sympathise with them,to suggest that they are not particularly signiﬁcant,or even to reject denial of their signiﬁcance.These experiences would not occur to a user alone;identities,roles and emotions are resources for interpreting and continuing interaction (Blumer 1986).For instance,in the example of ﬁgure 1,Thomas and Jani do more than share an experience:they actively interpret it,relate to it,reinterpret it and,in so doing,constitute a line of action and come to deﬁne their mutual relationship for a brief moment.The other recipients of the MMS remain more or less neutral bystanders.The interactionist perspective on co-experience claims that experience is a social phenomenon and needs to be understood as such.Also,it claims that bodily and psychological responses to external phenomena do not necessarily lead to predictable emotional reactions,because of an interpretive social process in between (see Shott 1979).Thus,relying solely on emotion as an index of experience leads us astray.For these same reasons,empathising with individuals does not explain co-experience.Empathy is necessary,but the focus must ﬁrst be on interaction.When people act together,they come to create unpredictable situations where they must respond to each other’s actions creatively.In the lifecycle of an experience (cf.Rhea 1992),we need to pay attention to co-experience,not just to individual aspects of experience.This is the crux of the symbolic interactionist perspective on user experience.4.Data and methodsWe illustrate our argument with data from Mobile Multimedia,a multimedia messaging pilot study organised with Radiolinja,a Finnish telecommunications operator.In Mobile Multimedia several groups of friends exchanged multimedia messages with each other for about ﬁve weeks in the summer of 2002.Each participant was given an MMS phone (either a Nokia 7650with an integrated camera or a SonyEricsson T68i with a plug-in camera);the service was free of charge (see Koskinen 2003).Out of the Mobile Multimedia pilot,three mixed-gender groups of 7,11and 7members were selected fora Figure 1.A little boy’s bad mood.Co-experience:user experience as interaction 910K.Battarbee and I.Koskinendetailed study to explore in more detail gender diﬀerence,terminal types and the city–countryside axis.The qualitative study focused on the messaging of these groups. During the pilot,the three groups sent over4000messages which were analysed quantitatively;two samples of the messages were also analysed qualitatively.The messages are published here with permission;the names of people and places have been changed.The data reveal how people themselves construct messages,and how others respond to them.Even though there is no access to what people did when they received the messages,we can see their virtual responses:exactly the same content of text,image and audio as was received by the participant(see Battarbee2003,Koskinen2003, Kurvinen2003and references therein).The study of co-experience is the study of social interaction between several people who lift up something from their experience to the centre of social interaction for at least a turn or more.Since the focus is on how people give meanings to things,and how they understand them,the study setting needs to be naturalistic,i.e.to happen in the real world rather than in a controlled setting such as a laboratory(Glaser and Strauss1967, Blumer1986).Designers need to explore how interaction proceeds and aim to describe its forms before trying to explain it in terms of such structural issues as roles or identities. Rather,inference proceeds inductively(Seale1999).Roles and identities may be made relevant in interaction,but they are resources people can use rather than features that explain co-experience.In this paper,we aim to indicate the value of the concept by showing that experience has features that cannot be studied adequately with existing concepts of user experience.Here,we aim to illustrate co-experience as a sensitising concept(Blumer1968),rather than trying to provide a comprehensive analysis of the varieties of co-experience.5.Lifting up experiences into the focus of social interactionFrom the symbolic interactionist standpoint proposed in this paper,the key feature of experience is symbolisation:what people select from experience to be shared with others. People communicate with each other for a variety of reasons,ranging from practical to emotional.In so doing,they place the things they communicate at the focal point of shared attention.In presenting things as‘an experience’,they invite others to join in. However,these communications remain open to negotiation,something that may or may not be picked up by others and made into something more meaningful than merely the scenic background of experience.As an example of an ordinary message that illustrates this argument,we may take the simple pleasures of eating,drinking and socialising(seeﬁgure2).This message is part of a sequence of holiday reports between two groups of friend:the‘land lovers’and the ‘sailors’.Susse and her friends choose to describe their evening sentiments with a multimedia puzzle.The audio explains the picture and the text suggests that the key element is in fact still missing and remains to be imagined:the smell of hot pizza. Susse may have tried to convey a realistic sense of what the experience of hot pizza is, but she is also acknowledging that it is impossible,with the smell(and the pizza itself) missing.However,she seems to trust that with the names of the ingredients,the‘sailors’will get the idea—and share their sentiments as she has shared theirs.Sometimes experiences belong to larger themes and can be called scalable(Forlizzi and Battarbee2004).For example,an eagerly waited holiday trip to Paris is a complex experience that may last for weeks and contain many larger and smaller,sometimes contradictory,elements.Documenting such experiences requires more than one message,as in the case of the following monologue.Markku and his friends are driving to a weekend rock festival.Their ﬁrst message (ﬁgure 3)describes the mood inside the van.The second message (ﬁgure 4)reports that they are still on their way,but something unexpected has happened—they were caught in a speed trap and ﬁned.When experiencing strong emotions,the process of symbolisation requires more eﬀort.The description of the experience has to take into account the responses of others,such as anger,fear,disappointment,ridicule or sympathy,and explore which interpretations are desirable and which are to be avoided.What is oﬀered here for common attention is laughing at the experience and making fun of it,with only a side reference to the actual event and the emotional experience of being caught by the police and receiving a ﬁne.In principle,almost any detail of ordinary life can be meaningful enough to send.In MMSs,people document food,drink,children,pets and spouses (see Koskinen et al.Figure 2.A pleasantevening.Figure 3.Driving to the rockfestival.Figure 4.Reporting on the speeding ticket incident.Co-experience:user experience as interaction 1112K.Battarbee and I.Koskinen2002,Lehtonen et al.2003).In addition,people report events such as rock festival trips and events in summer homes as well as moods,socially signiﬁcant things and emotionally relevant experiences.The reason for sending an image and audio is its topic rather than its artistic quality.The literature on experience tends to emphasise and focus on experiences that are emotionally strong and that stand out as memorable.However,the content in the Mobile Multimedia project focuses predominantly on small,everyday and mundane matters,suggesting that in social interaction,the strength of emotions does not correlate with the emotional satisfaction of the experience of communicating and sharing them.6.Reciprocating experience in social interactionPeople do not merely compose Multimedia messages,they also acknowledge them in replies.In responding,recipients pick up the gist of the message andﬁt their response to it.Typically,they show that they either share the experience or empathise with the sender on a more general level,as is suggested in theories of gift-exchange(Mauss1980)applied to mobile communications(Licoppe and Heurtin2001,Taylor and Harper2002).Parents share pictures of their babies,expecting others to mirror their delight,but even in more ordinary cases,the expected response is a positive,reinforcing one.Of course,recipients may not always produce a proper response,and this may prompt problems in subsequent interactions.For example,the sender may become embarrassed or hurt,and may even lose face(Gross and Stone1964,Goﬀman1967,pp.5–45).Between the need to maintain social interaction and support others,and the need to look out for personal gain and be selﬁsh,the more likely people are to meet again,the more they will try to keep the interaction going and help everyone maintain face.This,among socially connected people,results in an in-built tendency to reciprocate experiences in human interaction—and in Multimedia messaging.Most responses follow this logic.Sometimes people start with a parody,as inﬁgure5. Replies to such messages(ﬁgure6)are usually not explicit congratulations.Risto, however,makes a point of saying how much he enjoyed it.However,to really mean this, he needs to respond with a similarly overdone picture,a reﬂection of theﬁrst one.Pleased with his message,Risto reuses the picture and shares it with other friends as well,this time with a new text(ﬁgure7).The response to Risto’s message does not merely share the holiday mood,but also copies the response format almost perfectly(ﬁgure8).People may also align with negative experiences,as in the following example in which two young women share a mood.First,Maria lets Liisa know that she is experiencing something‘typical’,which seems neither exciting nor fun.Liisa sympathises,and reciprocates the experience,sharing her own interpretation of what a‘typical’experience is like(ﬁgures9and10).This example demonstrates the power of the visual in pared to emotions, moods are lower intensity and last longer.Because moods are not focused on any particular object,objects do not describe moods very well.Here,the focus is on the face. The MMS phones were often used for literal self-documentation—taking a picture of one’s own face at arm’s length—although collaboration was also frequent.Through this exchange,Liisa and Maria indicate that they know each other and have shared similar experiences before:how else could they talk about‘this’being‘typical’? The closeness is also expressed by the framing of the picture.Whether Liisa’s response is sincere or a parody is hard to say.Maybe the interpretation is intentionally left for the recipient to decide,and to remain open for future interactions.Figures 5–8.A staged picture prompts stagedresponses.Figures 9,10.Exchanging pictures of mood.Co-experience:user experience as interaction 1314K.Battarbee and I.Koskinen7.Rejecting and ignoring experiences in social interactionFor a number of reasons,experiences that are oﬀered to the common awareness may also be rejected,downplayed or made fun of.A certain banality is almost built into MMS use, which focuses on mundane experiences rather than,say,key rituals of life or experiences withﬁne art.Banality may go overboard and lose the recipient’s interest;sometimes,the report may stretch the bounds of what is morally acceptable,for example by being sexually explicit(see Kurvinen2003).Recipients,then,may have many diﬀerent reasons to interrupt or redirect the messaging,even when it may be diﬃcult to do so without insulting the sender.How can they accomplish such actions without causing the sender to lose face? Theﬁrst thing to notice is that rejection may be active or passive—communication always oﬀers multiple alternative possibilities for interpretation,and choosing one option may negate others.In the following sequence,Thomas oﬀers a signiﬁcant experience (getting engaged/married)for others to respond to(ﬁgures11–13).Predictably,he receives several congratulations and pictures of happy faces.However,Jani did not notice the engagement message until25hours later,and takes a diﬀerent course of action.In his response,he teases Thomas indirectly for losing his freedom,proclaiming that he himself has no intention of getting‘snatched’,and thus inverts the value of Thomas’s experience. In response,Thomas defends his case by returning the tease and peppering it with an insult.The communication between Thomas and Jani is a clever play on the possibilities of multimedia,as the joke is largely a visual play on the theme ofhands. Array Figures11–13.Two teases.Generally,a positive experience like that sent by Thomas calls for an aligning response. Responses rejecting the intended value of such messages normally incorporate accounts and disclaimers that soften the impact of the rejection.Typical examples of such accounts and disclaimers are humour,excuses,justiﬁcations and hedges(Scott and Lyman1968, Hewitt and Stokes1975).With these devices,the communication channel is kept open despite the interactional problems posed by the rejection.This was also the case in the messaging aroundﬁgure1,in which Jani indirectly indicated to Thomas that Mikey’s tantrums were no longer a welcome topic.By advising Thomas to buy a ball for Mikey, Jani softened the message by suggesting that maybe Mikey had good reason to be upset, i.e.not having a soccer ball of his own.However,the tactic failed,and Thomas countered by comparing Jani with the baby—humorously,of course,but the comparison still turned his reply into a tease.No matter how nice,such rejections may still insult the original sender—or at least give them an opportunity to behave as if they were insulted.8.Conclusions and discussionIn this paper,we have introduced the notion of co-experience and present it as an elaboration of Forlizzi and Ford’s(2000)model of user experience in interaction.Our claim is based on a simple observation:people create,elaborate and evaluate experiences together with other people,and products may be involved as the subject,object or means of these interactions.Social processes are particularly signiﬁcant in explaining how experiences migrate from subconscious into something more meaningful,or lose that status.The concept of co-experience builds on the understanding that experiences are individual,but they are not only that.Social interaction is to the experiences of the individual the same as a sudden jolt is to a jar of nitroglycerine:it makes things happen. We claim that neglecting co-experience in user experience leads to a limited under-standing of user experience—and a similarly limited understanding of design possibilities. The concept of co-experience enriches design in several ways..Co-experience extends the previous understanding of user experience by showing that user experiences are created together and are thus diﬀerent from the user experiences people have alone..It suggests an interactionist methodology for studying user experience.It is important to see what the content is,what people do,or,in the case of the Mobile Multimedia project,what is in their messages.This alone,however,is not enough to make sense of co-experience.It is also necessary to study the interactions between people with and without technologies,and to put the messages into context..Co-experience opens new possibilities in design for user experience by focusing on the role of technology in human action(parallel ideas can be found in the concept of embodied interaction,see Dourish2001).Co-experience focuses on how people make distinctions and meanings,carry on conversations,share stories and do things together.By understanding these interactions,opportunities for co-experience can be designed into the interactions of products and services.To put this into design terms:user experiences can only be understood in context.New technologies are adopted in social interactions where the norms for behavior(and product use)are gradually developed and accepted.These rules are never absolute or complete.For example,instead of merely responding to a suggestion,people may turn their response into a mock tease.There is therefore little point in creating an interface。

Motivation, Strategies, and Styles

Sample
第二语言学习策略使用调查问卷 (Oxford) 英语学习策略与自主学习 (张殿玉)

Styles

Definition

An individual’s natural, habitual, and preferred way of absorbing, processing, and retaining new information and skills. (Reid, 1995)
成绩
2.
我开始学英语是因为父母/ 学校要我学。 3. 上大学前学习英语，主要是为了升学考试。 4. 上大学前，我学英语的劲头很大程度上取决于我的学习成绩。 6. 上大学后，我学英语的劲头很大程度上取决于我的学习成绩。 11. 我学英语的一个重要目的是获取大学毕业证书。 12. 我学英语的直接目的是在出国或国内升学、求职考试中取得好成绩。
The learner wishes to learn Integrative L2 for personal growth and cultural enrichment.
The learner wishes to achieve learner to learn L2 for a Instrumental practical goals using L2 (e.g., practical for a career.) purpose (e.g., a
Grouping It for Easier Learning
Repeatedly Engaging Oneself in Contact with the Material
Remembering It with Efforts Retrieval Strategies

proposal_范例

Abstract (2)Introduction (2)Background and rationale: (2)Research questions and objectives: (3)Preliminary literature review (4)1.Understanding customers shopping motivations (4)2. The different consumption ways (5)3.Good relationship with consumer (7)4. Personal values and attitudes (9)Methodology (11)Target ,Sample and Questionnaire (11)Case study (12)Evaluation and Qualitative Research (13)Research Procedures (13)Reference (14)Consumption habits change the influence of retail (Research Proposal)AbstractConsumption habits of consumers is one of the key issues which would be taken into retailers’ consideration for their strategies and selling plans. In recent years, lots of new consumption patterns have appeared and come into vogue. The researchers carried out a study using the grounded theory approach through participant-observation and questionnaire research. The researchers chose the retail industry for the study because it provided the ideal conditions to answer the research question. This study aims to finding the way to make clear and assess the affect that comsumption habits changes brought to retail and improve the attractiveness of traditional consumption pattern. The choice of methodology has provided the insight necessary to answer the research question. With improvement and consummation of its outcomes, the research could provide a useful framework of reference for further research of consumption patterns and retail crisis.Key words: consumption habits, cunsumption pattern, retail, influence IntroductionBackground and rationale: As the traditional consumption pattern, retail is widely recognized as an unreplaceable role to satisfy customers' consumption needs. However, retail is now faced with multiple challenges come from the new patterns, such as online shopping and television shopping. Since the new patterns have so many modernistic and practial characters：convenience, faster , reliable... they have obtained more and more favors from various customers especially young people，what’s more, the aged are also paying more attention to these patterns and trying to adapt to them. A case in point is the vigorous development of shopping websites in recent years.，since there are still huge potential market, a great deal of similar websites will be founded rapidly. Undoubtly, the retail would be affected.In the retail business, Factors that affecting the net income of entities is that the commercial facilities rents and enterprises’ manpower cost price. On the one hand, the retail enterprises need to faces the problem that the house lease is reducing generally, so the rent soar in a quite short time. On the other hand, the recruiting of workers is getting more and more difficult, at the same time, the staff’s requests of salaries raises are getting more and more explicit.. If nothing to be done to promote the management ability, and lack of other effective methods, competitiveness of retail business will be badly lost.At the same time, sellers will consider how to attract the customers in any possible ways. They want to know customers needs and wants, they also want to know if their products or services are repulsive or out of date. The current trend is to make a good plan for people and keep a good relationship with customers. On the other hand, try to understand customer consumption ways and motivation is also very important for the sellers. So, finding the way to make clear and assess the changes and affect to retail and improve the attractiveness of traditional consumption pattern becomes the focus of the research. In additon, we still need to clearly know the difference between the two consumption pattern and the trend of customers’ personal attitudes.Research questions and objectives:1. How the change of cunsumption pattern impacts of retail business?2. What is the key issue of making customers satisfy?3. What’s the new cunsumption trend?4. How to make satisfy to customers in new consumption ways?5. What can we learn from the changes of personal values and attitude of customers?To identify the link between shopping motivations and product purchasing.To know the new ways whether bring a quite serious affect to retail.To compare the two different consumption pattern.To identify effective ways to increase sale.To inquire about how to know more about consumers’needs and keep a good relationship with consumers.Preliminary literature review1.Understanding customers shopping motivationsShopping motivations is the direct power that impels the customer to purchase the product. In concrete purchase process，the conflict between several kinds of purchase motives is quite common . For example，guests always want both excellent in quality and reasonable in price，but actually, one peice of merchant can not cover that two requests in the normal situations. So, retailers needs to understand more about the shopping motivations of consumers.According to Hardesty and Bearden(2009), to understanding people shopping motivations has becoming great challenges for retail.That means retailers need to try their best to inquiry that why the customers want to buy some goods. As we know, shopping motivations vary from person to person, moreover, motivations come from manifold ways. To, Liao, and Lin (2007) had investigated the Internet shopping motivations from both utilitarian and hedonic perspectives.In their opinion, shopping motivations mostly correlate with these two factors. Many authors and economistsproposed that hedonic shopping motivations ought to be encouraged. Arnold and Reynolds(2003) identifies a comprehensive inventory of consumers’ hedonic shopping motivations.In their research, a cluster analysis of adult consumers reveals five different shopper segments, called here the Minimalists, the Gatherers, the Providers, the Enthusiasts, and the Traditionalists, and they also notice that entertainment become a m ore important retailing strategy which can effectively stimulate customers’ interest . As their definitions, there are several shopping motivation modes: adventure shopping , social shopping, gratification shopping, idea shopping, role shopping, value shopping.Market segmentation has been applied to explain individuals and their shopping motivations(Smith, 1956). Market segmentation is the act of splitting a market into different groups of perchasers with different wants and responses. To segment markets, companies may have three approaches to adopt: (a) mass marketing, which is the decision to attempt to attract all kinds of buyers and mass-produce and mass-distribute one product, (b) product-variety marketing, where a company attempts to render a variety of products to broaden their customer base, and (c) target marketing, in order to develop corresponding products and marketing mixes for each target market , the decision of target marketing should be taken to distinguish the different groups that make up a market. Therefore, individuals with different characteristic who are capable of positively responding to specific marketing stimuli must be segmented in homogeneous groups. Referring to the market segmentation concept, Etzel et al.(2001) metions that“the variation in consumers’ responses when exposed to a marketing mix can be traced through differences in shopping habits, product use and reason for purchase”. Moreover, the factor of reason for shopping relate to the customers’ mentality. People may buy a merchant for many psychological reasons: maybe they want to enjoy the beauty of goods, maybe they just would like to show off, and maybe they just want to follow others in action.2. The different consumption waysNow along with Internet's popularization, more and more ordinary consumers starts tointerest in purchasing the daily wants on the Internet. If the past consumption place is a concrete place, then the place the Internet provides is a hypothesized one. The network shopping is actually a network supermarket, the consumer may stay in home while shuttling with freedom in the network supermarket, to seek and examine the pleasing product. Through the net payment system, the consumer can wait for delivers goods to the doorstep, it is not just a saving of time and the manpower but does a more important matter on the consumption devolopment. The seller can avoid rents of selling scene and personnel's expenses, in this way, the product cost can be reduced, so sellers could fight for the customers by the cheaper price and earn much more profits. Compared with network sellers, entity sellers such as department store must adapt to the market impact which the network supermarket brings. The entity Entity merchants ' inferiority is that they need to undertake more locations and the personal expenses, the shopping in a department store is not as convenient as that on the Internet; The superiority is that they may provide the real product and direct experience to the customer, they can leave out the delivery expenses. Entity sellers also should update their strategies, by setting the department store to seem to be a supermaket, the people who come for the products may choose a suitable one at a reasonable expenses(for instance handset, clothes, computer and so on) . After choosing, customers put it in the shopping cart, then go to the counter to settle accounts. Simultaneously, the specialized marketing personnel can provide the specialized advisory service at all times. A large amount of studies have been done to discover and analyze the concrete flaw of on-line shopping, so that sellers and websites managers can take measures to make the improvement, then the online supermarkets can attract more customers to purchase the on-line commodity. Ashkenazi et al(2010) had found a series of systems and methods for facilitating internet shopping, including a method of increasing efficiency of navigation in a comparison shopping site based on product coverage and product entropy.Another kind shopping way which received increasing attention is the television shopping, compared with the network shopping, its has natural superiority:televisionchannel creditworthiness is higher than most of commercial websites so far. Moreover, the television channel can open the website electronic commerce, and it can satisfies the user the purchase demand through the telephone (or message), the mail and many other ways. The more important is that the television channel sells have the huge directive appealing power that the on-line shopping does not have. But actually , the shortcoming of the television shopping exactly lies in insufficient creditworthiness, so it still could not obtain the majority customers’identity. Minjeong Kim, Sharron J. Lennon (2000) suggest that the amount of information perceived from a television-shopping segment selling apparel was negatively related to perceived risk ,and however positively related to purchase intent.The future will be the coexisting time of hypothesized supermarket and the entity supermarket. It is a quite good trend for the consumers, it will not only enrich people's consumption way but also improve people's consumption quality.Nirmalya Kumar (2005) think that a sea change is going on retail marketing, suppliers and retailers need to find out means to come to agreement over price-off promotions and discounting. Obviously, there are a lot work need to do.Faced with this challenge , researchers and executives of entity merchants make use of several research techniques and instruments to help them grasp shopping motivations and inprove the attractiveness of traditional retail. Eleonora P.and Giuseppe N.(2010)suggest that consumers shopping experience can affected by advanced technologies, at the same time, these technologies can modify the retailing context. Several advanced technologies are refered: RFID, shopping assistant systems, smart mirror. As the consumption patterns still changing frequently, we can predict that more and more advanced technologies will be used in the retail activities.3.Good relationship with consumerKeeping a good relationships with consumers will be helpful to understanding their needs, and then it will know how to make consumers satisfy. When we talk to someonewho is your consumer, you maybe want to know her or his needs and wants. So, setting up a good relationships with your consumers is the way to get more messages of their consumption habits and attract him to be a long-term customer.The most important relationship is relationship of integrity: honest seller and honest consumer. A successful market has the high market share, which tightly relate with its good impression formed in the customer’s mind . The good impression will constitute good faith of the market. T o be specific, the market’s credit comes from providing the customer the best goods and service, not selling the fake and shoddy commodity, not carrying on the price cheat, being a kind of honest image. The market should to make the customer satisfied, and create the excellent atmosphere for the customer to be regular , these changes will also patronizes the market and customer's good reputation. Customer's credit is refers to the behaviour which customer carry on the redundant purchase in the same market, namely the customer’s loyalty, For more, it means that the customer show his satisfactions to the market management ideas, enterprise's operation condition, effects of seeing and hearing, goods quality , smiling service and so on when they are shopping in the market. Based on this satisfactions, there will be good relationships between the market and customers. The credit is the market livelihood basis, its significance lies in: 1. The market may the win customers if it is enjoying a good reputation. The customer is God for the marker, who will bring the profit to the market, and the customer also is the market’s best resource. Especially, the loyal customer will become a kind of strategy property of the market and its development.2. The market will win the market if it is enjoying a good reputation, the market must face competitions not only from the same industry, but also other selling patterns. 3. The market will win the benefit if it is enjoying a good reputation. The good reputation is one kind of invisible propelling force for the market development, and will benefit long-term development of the market.Marketing theory and practice have focused persistently on exchange between buyers and sellers. However,in most of the research and too many of the marketing strategies,buyer-seller exchanges has been carried on as discrete events instead of ongoing relationships(Dwyer& Schurr,1987). Salesperson customer-oriented behavior show its influence on the development of buyer-seller relationships from several part.( Williams, 1998), nowadays choosing the right choice of behavior seems to be more important. Ganesan(1994) suggests that mutual dependence and the extent to which they trust one another are the two main factors which affect the long-term orientation in a buyer/seller relationship. “Dependence and trust are related to environmental uncertainty, transaction-specific investments, reputation, and satisfaction in a buyer/seller relationship.” Among so many factors, which one is more vital depends on special circumstance and details. There are also researchers focused on the influence from new consumption patterns and technology improvements. Interorganizational data networks can have two opposing effects on buyer-seller relationships. On the one hand, networks may be used to foster electronic marketplaces characterized by more ephemeral transactions between buyers and sellers. Also plausible, however, is the use of networks to strengthen existing commercial relationships and lock in partners by increasing the costs of switching to new trading partners(Steinfield,Kraut &Plummer,1995).4. Personal values and attitudesIt will not be too hard to understand tha personal values and consumer behavior are related ,The relationship between personal values and consumer behavior has been largely investigated in marketing literature (Kahle et al., 1986), but consumer behavior need to be discussed more thoroughly and clearly. Schwartz(1994) defines that personal values means “enduring beliefs that individuals hold about specific modes of conduct that they think are importa nt and the guiding principles in their lives”.The personal values have provided the formidable intrinsic driving force for the occurrence of the consumer’s behavior, it has the function of expense guidance, and was considered to be the consumer behavior final determining factor. Therefore, the personal values have the vital significance in the consumption psychology and themarket marketing research area. Many researchers attempt to construct theorization and the generalization of the consumer values and the consumer behavior relation.By studing the structure of the consumer’s personal values, retailers intend to understand the relation between the consumer and products choosen, and formulate the marketing strategy according to the above.Each society will have some kind of values which is accepted generally by the populace, and the different country's cultural values will also have respectively the different characteristic, individual values will be influented by different cultural values. In the marketing practice, and marketing decision-making, more and more marketing personnel pay attention to personal values of the consumer and its influence on consumer’s behavior.Culture generally is accepted by marketing theorists as one of the underlying determinants of consumer behavior(Henry,1976).Consumer's rationality is limited. Under the circumstance of rational limited and information limited, the intuition and the feeling of emotionalism will always affect the decision-making. Consumer's personal values and ideology decided by the economic basis and the economic development condition at root, this kind of economic development situation include consumer’s social position in current concrete social environment, economic status, cultural status, disposition by chance and so on. The development of society productivity will immediately influence social legislation, social product structure, population structure and then consumer's values and ideology. The consumers will care more about the working time and the power of consumption, for the income is the basis of decision of the consumer’s expends. The enhancement of consumer’s income level affects consumer's values and the ideology, only when consumer's income allows him to spend much in commodity that is not on food can he form a more luxurious and popular values. In addition, the social stratum background also has major impact to the consumer’s personal values and ideology. For example, compared with a sanitation worker's daughter ,when choosing a famous brand clothing, a general's daughter will be more confident, simultaneously more rapid.Consumer’s attitude and personal values is undertaking huge transformation all over the world, both devoloped and devoloping countries. Nozomi Enomoto(2011) suggest that Japanese retailers now face various and complicated changes in the business environment, which include economic globalization, development of information technology, demographic change and changes in consumer values and behavior. Consumer values and behavior in Japan reflect a characteristic transition in the retail sector, in which department stores have been a major force. Although Internet sellers offer the lowest prices, research shows that even price-sensitive customers do not always purchase from the Internet. In the network consumption section, value has been gradually deemed as a key motivator in economics and marketing when customer making decision, not prices(Gupta&Hee-Woong Kim).MethodologyTarget ,Sample and QuestionnaireSince the author does not have enough information to carry out the research project, we conducted exploratory-descriptive research (Malhotra, 2010), in order to achieve the purposes of this study..The exploratory phase seeks to clarifying concepts ,broaden the understanding of the study’s main topic and providing elements for the forthcoming steps of study.In this phase, the author will invite 5~6 classmates or friends to distribute questionnaires which are used to collect basic data in the research. Together with the author, each person will have his own distribution region which should be uniformly distributed in the city, in detail, divide the city into 6 parts on the map, then a classmate will be in charge of one part. In one part , the responsible person will investigate and survey the consumers in the supermarkets or department stores randomly, and he should notice the homogenization of consumers’gender, age and other characteristic if possible. The difference of knowledge is taken into consideration, so the survey won’tbe very complicated.The proposed questions:1.What do you know about online shopping and televasion shopping?How often do you perchase through the Internet and televasion?2.What kind of goods would you buy on the Internet or televasion? And the reason is?pared with market and department store, what is the advantages and disadvantages of oneline shopping and televasion shopping?4.Do you think that the new consumption patterns can take place of the traditional one? Why would that happen(or not happen)?5. What can be your possible motivations for a new kind of goods?6.What do you think of the relationships between retailers and buyers? What’s your expectation about that?Case studyWal-Mart , the global biggest retail merchant, has more than 2500 stores in the US, and over 700 shops over the seas. As a traditional enterprise, Wal-Mart has received huge impact from the network shopping and other new shopping ways in recent years. However, facing with threat of consumer decreasing, Wal-Mart built its own e-commerce system, to deal with the challenge from the competitor of new patterns through the development of new operations.In 1986, Wal-Mart set up the QR system for logistic management. In 2010, Wal-Mart promoted its on-line shopping service in Shenzhen,China...Wal-mart makes every effort to adapt to the trend of the conbination of hypothesized supermaket and entity supermarket.That’s why this enterprise could be the best and most profitable company in the retail business for several decades.Other retail enterprises may obtain the positive advantageous experience from Wal-Mart's case. The retail enterprises should establish the effective information network with high speed. Make full use of the electronic commerce to carry on the data refinement and obtain possible useful information for decision making from themassive data. Combine logistic system with the electronic commerce to reduce the cost of management and operation. In addition, retailers can take the chance of big transformation of the traditional commerce and find more ways to overcome the challenge brought by the new consumption patterns.Evaluation and Qualitative ResearchBy summarizing the questionnaire survey's data, the author will carry on a scientific qualitative analysis. Through the answers to the questions in the questionnaire, the author is ready for an evaluation about the relationship amongst shopping motivations, personal values and attitudes of consumers, the changes of consumption habits, the transformation of consumption patterns.Research ProceduresReferenceArnold M.J. and Reynolds K. E. ,2003 Hedonic shopping motivations. Journal of Retailing ,V ol 79, No. 2, pp 77-95,2003Ashkenazi A. et al,2010, Systems and methods for facilitating internet shopping US Patent 7805339Charles Steinfield, Robert Kraut, Alice Plummer, 1995,The Impact Of Interorganizational Networks On Buyer-Seller Relationships, Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication,V ol1, No. 3, pp0, December 1995Dwyer, F.R, Schurr, P.H.,1987 ,Developing buyer-seller relationships The Journal of Marketing , V ol. 51, No. 2, Apr., 1987Eleonora P.and Giuseppe N, 2010.Entertainment in retailing: The influences of advanced technologies .Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services V ol17, No.3, pp 200-204, May 2010Etzel,M.,Walker, B, J.and Station, W, J,2001.Marketing ,Sao Paulo, Makron BooksGanesan S.,1994, Determinants of long-term orientation in buyer-seller relationships The Journal of Marketing, V ol. 58, No. 2, Apr., 1994Gupta1.S, Hee-Woong Kim, 2010, Value-driven Internet shopping: The mental accounting theory perspective, Psychology and Marketing V ol 27,No. 1, pages 13–35, January 2010Hardesty,D.M and Bearden,W.O, 2009.Consumer Behaviour And Retailing.Jounal of Retailing,85(3) 239-244Henry WA,1976, Cultural values do correlate with consumer behavior ,Journal of Marketing Research, V ol. 13, No. 2, May, 1976.Kahle, L. R., Beatty, S. & Homer, P. (1986). Alternative measurement approaches to consumer values: the List of Values (LOV) and Values and Life Style (V ALS). Journal of Consumer Research, 13(3), 405-410.Kim M., Lennon S. J., 2000, Television Shopping for Apparel in the United States: Effects of Perceived Amount of Information on Perceived Risks and Purchase Intentions, Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal V ol 28, No. 3, pp301–331, March 2000Malhotra, N. (2010). Marketing Research. An applied orientation, Boston, PearsonNirmalya Kumar ,2005,The Global Retail Challenge.Business Strategy Review.V ol16, No.1, pp 5–13, Spring 2005Nozomi Enomoto , 2011,The Silver Market Phenomenon Springer 2011,Part 2, 175-193Pui-Lai To, Chechen Liao, Tzu-Hua Lin, 2007. Shopping motivations on Internet: A study based on utilitarian and hedonic value, Technovation V ol 27, No. 12, Dec 2007,pp 774-787Smith W.R.1956, Product differentiation and market segmentation as alternative marketing strategies.The Journal of marketing, vol.21,No.1, Jul.1956Schwartz.S.H, 1994.Values and personality, European Journal of Personality,vol.8,163-181(1994)Williams,M.R, 1998. The influence of salespersons’ customer orientation on buyer-seller relationship development. Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing, V ol. 13 Iss: 3, pp.271 - 287。

Motivations and Methods for Text Simpli cation

Abstract
1 Reasons for Text Simpli cation
Long and complicated sentences prove to be a stumbling block for current systems which rely on natural language input. These systems stand to gain from methods that preprocess such sentences so as to make them simpler. Consider, for example, the following sentence: (1) The embattled Major government survived a
Tory revolt over the coal-mine issue. This issue generated unusual heat in the House of Commons. It also brought the miners to London streets.
Proc. COLING ’96, Copenhagen, 1996, poster paper, pp. 1041-1044
If complex text can be made simpler, sentences become easier to process, both for programs and humans. We discuss a simpli cation process which identi es components of a sentence that may be separated out, and transforms each of these into free-standing simpler sentences. Clearly, some nuances of meaning from the original text may be lost in the simpli cation process. Simpli cation is therefore inappropriate for texts (such as legal documents) where it is important not to lose any nuance. However, one can conceive of several areas of natural language processing where such simpli cation would be of great use. This is especially true in domains such as machine translation, which commonly have a manual post-processing stage, where semantic and pragmatic repairs may be carried out if necessary. Parsing: Syntactically complex sentences are likely to generate a large number of parses, and may cause parsers to fail altogether. Resolving ambiguities in attachment of constituents is non-trivial. This ambiguity is reduced for simpler sentences since they involve fewer constituents. Thus simpler sentences lead to faster parsing and less parse ambiguity. Once the parses for the simpler sentences are obtained, the subparses can be assembled to form a full parse, or left as is, depending on the application. Machine Translation (MT): As in the parsing case, simpli cation results in simpler sentential structures and reduced ambiguity. As argued in (Chandrasekar, 1994), this could lead to improvements in the quality of machine translation. Information Retrieval: IR systems usually retrieve large segments of texts of which only a part may be relevant. With simpli ed texts, it is possible to extract speci c phrases or simple sentences of relevance in response on coal pits closure. Its last-minute concessions curbed the extent of

以幸福为题英语作文有翻译

以幸福为题英语作文有翻译Title: Pursuing Happiness。

Happiness, a pursuit as old as humanity itself, transcends cultural and linguistic barriers. It is an elusive yet essential aspect of the human experience. From the ancient philosophers to modern psychologists, the quest for happiness has been a central theme of human exploration and understanding. In this essay, we delve into the multifaceted nature of happiness, exploring its definition, sources, and the pursuit thereof.Firstly, what is happiness? Philosophers have debated this question for centuries, offering diverse perspectives. Aristotle, for instance, viewed happiness (or eudaimonia) as the ultimate goal of human life, achieved through virtuous actions and fulfilling one's potential. Meanwhile, utilitarian thinkers like Jeremy Bentham defined happiness in terms of pleasure and the absence of pain.From a psychological standpoint, happiness encompasses both hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Hedonic happiness relates to the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain, while eudaimonic happiness pertains to living in accordance with one's values and realizing one's potential. Psychologists such as Martin Seligman have emphasized the importance of positive emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishments in fostering a fulfilling life.Next, we explore the sources of happiness. Whileexternal circumstances such as wealth, health, and social status can contribute to happiness to some extent, research suggests that they have limited long-term impact. The phenomenon known as the "hedonic treadmill" illustrates how individuals quickly adapt to improvements in their circumstances, returning to a baseline level of happiness. Moreover, studies have shown that factors like genetics and temperament play significant roles in determining one's predisposition to happiness.However, beyond external factors, internal states of mind and personal attitudes profoundly influence happiness.Cultivating gratitude, practicing mindfulness, nurturing relationships, pursuing meaningful goals, and engaging in acts of kindness are all strategies associated with increased well-being. Furthermore, finding purpose and meaning in life can sustain happiness even in the face of adversity.The pursuit of happiness is a universal endeavor, but its manifestation varies across cultures. Different societies prioritize distinct values and beliefs that shape their understanding of happiness. For example, individualistic cultures like those in Western societies tend to emphasize personal achievement and autonomy, whereas collectivist cultures place greater importance on social harmony and interdependence. Consequently, cultural norms influence the strategies people employ to pursue happiness and the factors they consider essential for a fulfilling life.In today's fast-paced world, the pursuit of happiness has taken on new dimensions. Technological advancements and social media have connected people globally while alsocontributing to feelings of isolation and comparison. The pressure to achieve external markers of success can lead to a perpetual cycle of striving without ever attaininglasting satisfaction. Thus, it is essential to cultivate self-awareness and discernment in navigating the complexities of modern life.In conclusion, happiness is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon that encompasses both external circumstances and internal states of mind. While the pursuit of happiness is a universal human endeavor, its realization is deeply personal and influenced by cultural, social, and individual factors. By understanding the diverse sources of happiness and adopting holistic approaches to well-being, individuals can cultivate a more enduring and fulfilling life. As the ancient Chinese philosopher Confucius once said, "The more man meditates upon good thoughts, the better will be his world and the world at large."。

The Stability of Hedonic Coalition Structures

games of Shapley and Shubik (1972), as well as various o -shoots (see Roth and Sotomayor (1990)). 2 A notable exception to this is Jehiel and Scotchmer (1997). They examine the formation of jurisdictions where voters anticipate a median vote over a level of public good supplied. Their model has a continuum of players and so does not t into the de nition of hedonic settings explored here, but it is still an example of a model where preferences are hedonic. We refer the reader to Jehiel and Scotchmer for some interesting comparisons of various rules for admission into a jurisdiction.
Bogomolnaia is at the Department of Economics, P.O.Box 0496, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, Texas 75275, USA (annab@). Jackson is at the division of Humanities and Social Sciences, 228-77, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, USA, (jacksonm@). Financial support under NSF grant SBR 9507912 is gratefully acknowledged. We thank Salvador Barbera, Gabrielle Demange, Joseph Greenberg, Michel Le Breton, and Shlomo Weber for very helpful conversations and suggestions. We are also grateful for the comments of two anonymous referees that have helped in the rewriting of the paper.

关于顾客价值的研究综述

关于顾客价值的研究综述朱婷婷【摘要】顾客价值是市场营销学的热点之一.学者对顾客价值的定义,顾客价值的分类,以及顾客价值与消费者行为的关系等进行了诸多研究.【期刊名称】《安徽工业大学学报（社会科学版）》【年(卷),期】2018(035)004【总页数】2页(P44-45)【关键词】顾客价值;定义;分类;消费者行为【作者】朱婷婷【作者单位】安徽工业大学商学院 ,安徽马鞍山243002;安徽工业大学安徽创新驱动发展研究院 ,安徽马鞍山243002【正文语种】中文【中图分类】F713顾客价值可直接适用于消费者行为，它是与消费相关的特定领域的价值构造，是消费者评价产品和企业时使用的标准，对消费者的行为产生广泛影响。

Porter早在1985年就在《战略优势》中提出了顾客价值的概念。

他认为，竞争优势源自于企业可以优化配置资源，为顾客提供高价值的产品或服务[1]。

从消费者角度认识和研究价值，是从20世纪90年代开始的。

如今，顾客价值是市场营销学的热点之一。

一、顾客价值的定义不同的学者对顾客价值的定义也有所不同。

许多研究者认为顾客价值是指顾客通过购买商品所得到的收益与顾客花费的代价的差额。

换而言之顾客价值是由收获价值与交易价值构成的。

Zeithaml将顾客价值定义为顾客的感知收益与为获得该产品或服务所支付的成本进行对比后所产生的整体评价[2]。

Monroe从消费者付出与收获之间的权衡角度定义顾客感知价值。

他认为，感知价值代表了消费者在产品或服务中所感受到的福利和由于支付费用而感受到的付出间的一种利弊权衡[3]。

Kotler认为顾客价值是指消费者希望能从产品或服务中所收获的益处和希望付出的成本之间的差距[4]。

Huber, Herrmann Morgan指出顾客价值包含双重含义：一为消费者对于企业的利润价值，二为顾客在使用产品或服务后所获得的对于个人的效用价值[5]。

综上所述，先行研究普遍认为，顾客价值是消费者对产品或服务的全面综合评价，它既包括在消费过程中所获得的收益和所花费的代价之间的权衡比较，也包括顾客在消费时所感受到的情感性、情绪性价值。

为什么总是你——谈Hedonic模型在各领域的广泛应用

为什么总是你——谈Hedonic模型在各领域的⼴泛应⽤问题的提出我们最⼩⼆乘法是来拟合线性函数的，但是⾃然界更多的是⾮线性的现象，这就需要使⽤⾮线性的函数来拟合，在确定拟合函数的形式后，经过线性化处理，即可⽤最⼩⼆乘法得到拟合系数。

在《概率论与数理统计教程》中给出了很多⾮线性的函数。

双曲线函数\dfrac{1}y=a+\dfrac{b}{x}幂函数y=ax^b指数函数y=ae^{bx}或y=ae^{\frac {b} {x}}对数函数y=a+b\mathrm{ln}xS型曲线 y=\dfrac1{a+be^{-x}}总的来说，选择是⾮常多。

正好我这学期也在做的SRT项⽬需要计算变压器的铁耗，这就是个根据实验数据做⾮线性拟合的过程。

⽽⼴泛采⽤的steinmentz经验公式法是⽤幂函数进⾏拟合的。

为什么使⽤幂函数耦合呢？其他领域的⾮线性曲线拟合也是采⽤幂函数吗？带着这个问题，我进⾏了调研。

hedonic模型令我意外的是，在很多的领域，对未知性质的⾮线性曲线的拟合都是采⽤幂函数形式。

在经济学领域，这种⽅法有个专门的名字——hedonic模型。

Hedonic模型最初是1928年Waugh在⽂章《影响蔬菜价格的质量因素》（Quality Factors Influencing Vegetable Prices）中提出⽤来研究蔬菜价格的。

Griliches 和 Rosen随后将其⽤于汽车价格的预测，他们的⽂章得到了⼴泛的关注，⾃此以后Hedonic模型被⼴泛的运⽤在耐⽤品的价格预测领域，尤其是房地产领域。

Hedonic模型的具体形式Hedonic模型的基本形式在考察⼀个指标P时，如果这个指标受到多⽅⾯因素的影响，可以⽤⼀个函数来建模P=h\left(X_{1}, X_{2}, X_{3} \ldots X_{n}\right)最简单的函数形式是P=\alpha+\beta_{1} X_{1}+\beta_{2} X_{2}+\ldots+\beta_{n} X_{n}不过这种简单的线性函数⽆法准确地预测指标P的变化，Hedonic模型决定采⽤幂函数的形式进⾏拟合P=\alpha X_{1}^{\beta_{1}} X_{2}^{\beta_{2}} \ldots X_{n}^{\beta_{n}}两边取对数，写为L n P=\alpha+\sum \beta_{i} L n X_{i}这样就可以⽤最⼩⼆乘法算出\alpha与\beta_{i}了，下⾯举L n P=\alpha+ \beta_{1} L n X_{1}+\beta_{2} L n X_{2}为例函数记作Y_{i}=\beta_{0}+\beta_{1} X_{1 i}+\beta_{2} X_{2 i}+\mu_{i}列出误差函数\sum_{i=1}^{n} e_{i}^{2}=\sum_{i=1}^{n}\left(Y_{i}-\hat{Y}_{i}\right)^{2}=\sum_{i=1}^{n}\left(Y_{i}-\hat{\beta}_{0}-\hat{\beta}_{1} X_{1 i}-\hat{\beta}_{2 i} X_{2 i}\right)^{2}我们所拟合得到的系数\beta_{0},\beta_{1},\beta_{2}应该是使得误差函数最⼩于是对其各个变量求偏导数，令其为0，由⼏个⽅程联⽴解出相应的系数。

the science behind giving good gifts

the science behind giving good gifts The science behind giving good gifts involves understanding human psychology, emotions, and the social dynamics of gift-giving. Here are some key aspects supported by research:1. Emotional Connection:• Positive Emotions: Giving a thoughtful gift activates the pleasure centers in the brain, creating a positive emotional response for both the giver and the recipient.• Relationship Building: Thoughtful gifts can strengthen social bonds and contribute to relationship satisfaction.2. Surprise and Novelty:• Dopamine Release: Surprising someone with a unique or unexpected gift triggers the release of dopamine, a neurotransmitter associated with pleasure and reward.3. Personalization:• Recipient's Preferences: Tailoring a gift to the recipient's interests, preferences, and needs demonstrates thoughtfulness and consideration.• Meaningful Symbolism: Gifts that carry personal significance or shared memories can enhance their emotional impact.4. Timing and Occasion:• Event Relevance: Choosing a gift that aligns with a specific occasion or event enhances its perceived appropriateness and significance.• Anticipation: The timing of the gift-giving can contribute to the overall experience, creating anticipation and excitement.5. Reciprocity:• Social Exchange: Gift-giving is deeply rooted in social exchange theory, where individuals feel compelled to reciprocate when receiving a gift. This reinforces social bonds.6. Cultural Considerations:• Cultural Norms: Different cultures have varying norms and expectations regarding gift-giving. Understanding cultural nuances is crucial for giving appropriate gifts.7. Utilitarian vs. Hedonic Gifts:• Functionality vs. Enjoyment: Consider whether the recipient would value a practical, utilitarian gift or one that provides hedonic enjoyment.8. Avoiding Negative Reactions:• Avoiding Regifting: People generally prefer receiving gifts that were chosen specifically for them rather than regifted items.• Consideration of Personal Boundaries: Respect personal boundaries and avoid gifts that may be overly personal or inappropriate.By integrating these principles, gift-givers can enhance the emotional impact of their presents, fostering positive experiences for both themselves and the recipients.。

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Hedonic and utilitarian motivations for online retailshopping behaviorTerry L.Childers a,*,Christopher L.Carr b ,Joann Peck c ,Stephen Carson daSchool of Management (Marketing),University of Kentucky,Lexington,KY 40506,USAb Katz Graduate School of Business,Department of Information Systems,University of Pittsburgh,Pittsburgh,PA 15260,USAc Grainger School of Business,Department of Marketing,University of Wisconsin,Madison,WI 53706,USAd David Eccles School of Business,Department of Marketing,University of Utah,Salt Lake City,UT 84112,USA Received 31August 2000;accepted 19July 2001AbstractMotivations to engage in retail shopping include both utilitarian and hedonic dimensions.Business to consumer e-commerce conducted via the mechanism of web-shopping provides an expanded opportunity for companies to create a cognitively and esthetically rich shopping environment in ways not readily imitable in the nonelectronic shopping world.In this article an attitudinal model is developed and empirically tested integrating constructs from technology acceptance research and constructs derived from models of web behavior.Results of two studies from two distinct categories of the interactive shopping environment support the differential importance of immersive,hedonic aspects of the new media as well as the more traditional utilitarian motivations.In addition,naviga-tion,convenience,and the substitutability of the electronic environment to personally examining products were found to be important predictors of online shopping attitudes.Results are discussed in terms of insights for the creation of the online shopping webmosphere through more effective design of interactive retail shopping environments.©2001by New York University.All rights reserved.Keywords:Online shopping;Hedonic;Internet;Web;Utilitarian*Corresponding author.Tel.:ϩ1-859-257-9042;fax:ϩ1-859-257-5031.E-mail address:tchilders@ (T.Childers).PergamonJournal of Retailing 77(2001)511–5350022-4359/01/$–see front matter ©2001by New York University.All rights reserved.PII:S0022-4359(01)00056-2512T.L.Childers et al./Journal of Retailing77(2001)511–5351.IntroductionThe interactive nature of the Internet and Web offer many opportunities to increase the efﬁciency of online shopping behavior by improving the availability of product information, enabling direct multiattribute comparisons,and reducing buyer search costs(cf.Alba et al. 1997).While comparatively more has been written about these more utilitarian aspects of the web,the emergence of the web as an entertainment medium has only recently gained in momentum(Orwall2001).Clearly,consumers have been using the web for limited enter-tainment applications(e.g.,downloading music),but a greater variety of entertainment opportunities have more recently become available.Consumers can now use the web to track and watch movies online and participate in their production,while also watching live concerts of obscure rock bands.For instance,the Iﬁlm corporation(Iﬁ)shows originalﬁlms on its website,while Intertainer,Inc.()offers movies-on-demand with VCR-like features,music videos,and delayed broadcast of network TV shows through a subscription broadband service.The movie,Tom Cats,utilized a website to cast extras generating3000applicants who were selected by votes from overﬁve million visitors (Mathews2001).HOB Entertainment()offers web-casting of six to ten pay-per-view music concerts a month for$7.99,while SFX Entertainment()has provided free webcasts of the Backstreet Boys concerts(Townsend2001).A new venture,LivePlanet,plans to make new entertainment experiences that attempt to break down the barrier between traditional media,new media,and the physical world (/home.html).One LivePlanet product,a TV show called,Runner,that is built around a person eluding capture for30days while anywhere in the U.S.will be aired next summer by ABC.The show will feature a companion website that allows visitors to track the“Runner”over a30day period by providing location clues and real-time video clips through hidden cameras(Serwer2000).Consistent with these general web trends,Jeff Bezos of maintains that“one secret to his success is thinking of ways to make the online shopping experience more fun”(Star Tribune1999).Thus,insight into what role entertainment or hedonic versus functional or utilitarian factors motivate consumers to utilize web forms of interactive media is fundamental to the successes potentially to be realized through electronic commerce.These new media represent a tremendous opportunity for marketers and developers of electronic commerce,but there are important technology-based differences between conven-tional retail channels and these new channels that must be understood in order for companies to maximize their performance as they enter this uncharted territory(Alba et al.1997;Van den Poel and Leunis1999).Understanding the nature of these media gains even greater importance given the promise that electronic commerce will increase price competition and reduce seller monopoly power through a reduction in buyer search costs(Bakos,1997).At the heart of this shift to interactive online forms of shopping is a set of global,interconnected networks such as the Internet and the World Wide Web estimated to generate upwards of $108billion in retail e commerce sales by2003(Rosen and Howard2000).While there are a number of factors that affect the use of web shopping,the objective of our research is to focus on several unique technology-based characteristics of these new media.More speciﬁcally,this research seeks to explore several determinants of interactive formsof shopping by integrating aspects of consumer behavior with research from the information systems domain.The outline of the article is as follows.The next section will introduce concepts drawn from research on the user acceptance of information technology.Following this,characteristics of the new media which are expected to predispose consumers toward their use will be discussed along with speci ﬁc hypotheses for how they correspond to consumer use of interactive shopping.Each antecedent will be elaborated upon followed by a discussion of the components surrounding the consumer ’s attitude toward shopping via these media.Following this discussion are the results of two studies designed to test the basic predictions of this model.2.Consumer motivations and user acceptance of new technologyHirschman and Holbrook (1982)describe consumers as either “problem solvers ”or in terms of consumers seeking “fun,fantasy,arousal,sensory stimulation,and enjoyment.”This dichotomy has been represented in the retail context by the themes of shopping as work (Fischer and Arnold 1990;Sherry,McGrath,and Levy 1993)versus the festive more enjoyable perspective on shopping as fun (Bloch and Bruce 1984;Sherry 1990;Babin,Darden and Grif ﬁn 1994).Clearly many motivations exist as shopping goals (cf.Westbrook and Black 1985),but most typologies consider instrumental and hedonic motivations as fundamental to understanding consumer shopping behavior because they maintain a basic underlying presence across consumption phenomena (Babin,Darden and Grif ﬁn 1994).In the utilitarian view,consumers are concerned with purchasing products in an ef ﬁcient and timely manner to achieve their goals with a minimum of irritation.In contrast,as one consumer noted,“I enjoy looking around and imagining what one day,I would actually have money to buy.Shopping...is an adventure (Sherry 1990,p.27).This “adventure ”re ﬂects shopping ’s potential entertainment and the enjoyment resulting from the fun and play arising from the experience versus the achievement of any prespeci ﬁed end goal (Hirschman and Holbrook 1982).This dual characterization of motivations is consistent with our perspective on the adoption of interactive shopping behavior as a new form of technology assisted shopping.As a start to our understanding of these new media we draw upon a technology acceptance model (TAM)from the information systems literature (Davis,1989;1993;Davis,Bagozzi,and Warshaw,1989)developed to understand workplace adoption of new technology.TAM postulates several conceptually independent determinants of a person ’s attitude toward using job-related new technology.The ﬁrst determinant is perceived “usefulness ”of the technol-ogy and refers to the degree to which using the system or technology will improve the user ’s performance in the workplace.TAM also postulates a second determinant,the ease of technology use.While usefulness refers to the outcome of the shopping experience,“ease of use ”refers to the process leading to the ﬁnal outcome.When shopping on the web,ease of use can be thought of as the process of using the new media while engaging in shopping behavior.A more recent addition to the TAM model is the enjoyment construct,or the extent to which the activity of using the technology is perceived to provide reinforcement in its own right,apart from any performance consequences that may be anticipated (Davis et al.1989).513T.L.Childers et al./Journal of Retailing 77(2001)511–535Enjoyment has been reported to affect technology adoption for speciﬁc word processing and graphics programs(Davis,Bagozzi,and Warshaw,1992)and for microcomputer usage (Igbaria,Schiffman,and Wieckowski,1995;Igbaria,Parasuranan,and Baroudi,1996).This characterization of technology adoption is consistent with research on retail shopping behavior,which has supported the presence of both utilitarian and hedonic motivations.As noted,the instrumental or utilitarian goal-directed factor envisions the consumer as thought-fully considering and evaluating product-related information prior to purchase versus the hedonic aspect or the pure enjoyment and fun of the shopping experience(Babin,Dardin,and Grifﬁn,1994).Within the TAM framework,usefulness of the interactive media can be thought of as reﬂecting the more instrumental aspects of shopping,while enjoyment em-bodies the hedonic aspect of shopping.While some consumers may be shopping primarily for instrumental purposes,others may be primarily enjoying these interactive media,and thus both factors can ultimately affect their attitude toward using interactive forms of shopping. This leads to the following set of predictions:H1:As the usefulness of the new interactive media increases,attitude toward these mediawill become more positive.H2:As the ease of use of the new interactive media increases,attitude toward these mediawill become more positive.H3:As the enjoyment of the new interactive media increases,attitude toward these mediawill become more positive.TAM,through its empirical assessment,has been validated by Davis(1989)and further validated by several replications and applications(c.f.,Davis,1993;Davis et al.1989; Mathieson,1991;Taylor&Todd,1995).The results of these studies demonstrate that usefulness is the primary determinant of behavioral intention to use a technology in the workplace,with ease of use and enjoyment acting as secondary determinants.In contrast to the prior work contexts utilizing the TAM framework,our shopping context provides an opportunity to examine these issues in a more hedonic type of environment.Thus,we expect enjoyment to play a greater role in predicting the adoption of our interactive forms of shopping than has been found in the more performance oriented settings employed in past studies.However,this distinction can be extended as some consumers may be shopping primarily for hedonic reasons while others may be motivated to achieve more instrumentally oriented goals(Huffman and Houston,1993).Thus,context may be important to differen-tiating the importance of different antecedents of technology adoption across settings.To reﬂect this,we examined signiﬁcantly different settings to better understand the dynamics of shopping goals across different interactive shopping environments.In one context,consum-ers examined a set of web shopping sites that demonstrated a number of more hedonic design characteristics(e.g.,sampling CD music tracks).In contrast,the second study utilized a markedly more instrumental setting in the context of an online grocery ordering and delivery system.The latter is more reﬂective of the performance orientation of a workplace setting and thus,we expect the usefulness of the technology to play a greater role in predicting adoption in the online grocery setting.In contrast,the expanded nature of the more inter-514T.L.Childers et al./Journal of Retailing77(2001)511–535active web-based environment should result in a greater role for enjoyment as a predictor of web-shopping adoption behavior.This leads to the following predictions:H 4:Usefulness of the new interactive media will be a stronger predictor of attitude toward these media in a more utilitarian shopping environment.H 5:Enjoyment of the new interactive media will be a stronger predictor of attitude toward these media in a more hedonic shopping environment.3.Characteristics of interactive technologiesThis framework delineates the attitude toward using new forms of interactive shopping by postulating the three antecedents:usefulness of the new media,ease of use of the new media,and the enjoyment of using the media.But,what determines whether an interactive environment will be perceived as “useful ”,“easy to use,”or “enjoyable ”?This next section examines several antecedents of the technology ’s bene ﬁts and limitations for online shopping and selectively predicts whether the new media are perceived as useful,easy to use,or enjoyable.Usage of these new media includes the consumer ’s purchase of products as well as the consumer ’s intention to search for product related information while experiencing the new technology (Alba et al.1997).Consumers are seeking bene ﬁts in the marketplace and the bene ﬁts of using interactive shopping as compared to traditional channels are important in delineating whether consumers will have a positive attitude toward these interactive media.Among these bene ﬁts are the interactivity and ﬂexibility of the media to access and control the nature of product information and the convenience of the media including,its 24-hr availability and its accessibility through multiple locations (Hoffman and Novak,1996;Alba et al.1997).However,another facet of this new media is that it also differs in other meaningful ways from traditional shopping channels through the absence of the actual experience of visiting the store and physically examining a product prior to purchase (Alba et al.1997).For instance,the QVC home shopping channel has recently opened a store at the Mall of America to allow customers to see and touch jewelry and other merchandise,since as their executives said,“prospective customers are reluctant to purchase merchandise without touching it ”(Advertising Age,2000).The manner in which these characteristics will affect interactive purchase behavior is discussed in the next section.4.Antecedents of interactive media use4.1.NavigationNetwork navigation is de ﬁned as the process of self-directed movement through the media involving nonlinear search and retrieval methods that permit greater freedom of choice (Hoffman and Novak,1996).In the online context,navigation includes the process of “exploring ”the interactive environment in alternative ways to seek out product-related information.For example,the consumer may use a browser to either search for grocery items that are low in sugar and then 515T.L.Childers et al./Journal of Retailing 77(2001)511–535compare their content on carbohydrates or may choose to link to a new nutritional site that contains a multidimensional comparison of brands along the same attributes.Both provide the same fundamental purchase information,but one may be less effortful to navigate and compile as a decision tool.Thus self-directed movements through the media carry with them potential search costs that may affect their usability.Drawing from the information search literature in an online context,Lynch and Ariely(2000)found that when information on product quality was easier to navigate,consumers were less price sensitive and purchased more expensive products. The ability to efﬁciently navigate an electronic versus printed directory also was reported to lead to premature search closure in an electronic medium because of the medium’s increased search costs relative to its printed counterpart(Hoque and Lohse1999).Thus,the structure of the online environment can serve at any one point in time to both facilitate and impair navigation for product information depending upon its impact on consumer search costs.In a physical retail store context,consumers navigate for desired products by identifying the spatial representations of the store’s layout and by understanding the logic used to organize,to categorize,and to arrange merchandise(Titus and Everett1995).Consumers accomplish this by recognizing how products are clustered by their common characteristics (e.g.,paper items,or hardware)or through orientation aids,such as aisle markers,directory maps or through questioning in store personnel(Titus and Everett1995).Past research has demonstrated that the navigational abilities of individuals in physical stores are enhanced by simpliﬁedﬂoor plans(Weisman1981)and the presence of a“gridtype”pathway conﬁgu-ration(Evans et al.1984).Utilization of these cues is facilitated by the relative standard-ization of store layouts,even across competitors,and by the stability of the physical store layouts over time.By comparison,the ability to navigate a retail environment becomes even more critical when one considers the dynamic nature of the web.For example,unlike a retail store with this learned and observable visual layout,web sites generally follow“internal schemas”which are not known a priori by the consumer(e.g.,a home page may be followed by a varying layout of nonstandardized subpages).Thus,each site represents a unique navigational experience that is constantly being updated and reconﬁgured in this dynamic electronic environment.Therefore,along with a desire for greater navigational freedom must come a greater tolerance for disorder,since a consumer is often navigating through uncharted territory.It is thus expected that persons who possess this greater desire for choice through alternate forms of navigation will perceive the process of shopping or the ease of using these interactive media as more favorable,resulting in hypothesis6:H6:As theﬂexibility in navigation through interactive media increases,perceptions of theease of use of these media will increase.In addition,the process of self-directed navigation through the interactive environment should also contribute to an enjoyment of the shopping experience.When individuals have an increased ability through interactivity to move through their environment,it is expected that their enjoyment of using the new media will also increase leading to hypothesis7.H7:Asﬂexibility in navigation through interactive media increases,the enjoyment ofusing these new media will increase.516T.L.Childers et al./Journal of Retailing77(2001)511–5354.2.ConvenienceAnother bene ﬁt expected to in ﬂuence the adoption of online environments is perceptions of convenience as manifested by the opportunity to shop at home 24hr/7days a week (Hofacker 2001).In this time crunched environment of today with multiple earner house-holds,a “person living in Florida can shop at Harod ’s in London (through the web)in less time then it takes to visit the local Burdines department store ”(Alba et al.1997,p.41,emphasis added).Since consumers rarely visit multiple physical retail stores prior to purchase (Newman and Staelin 1972),interactive shopping can lower the costs of acquiring prepurchase product information while at the same time increase search bene ﬁts by providing a broader array of product alternatives at a small incremental cost (Bakos 1991).These bene ﬁts in the reduction of search costs accrue particularly when the consumer is under time pressure (Beatty and Smith 1987)making the accessibility advantage of interactive shopping especially advantageous to consumers.This convenience in interactive shopping increases search ef ﬁciency through the ability to shop at home,by eliminating such frustrations as ﬁghting traf ﬁc and looking for a parking space,and avoiding long check out lines,while also offering single “stop ”shopping that eliminates travel to and from a variety of stores.Thus,convenience includes both the elements of when a consumer can shop and where a consumer can shop.Persons who perceive the online environment as offering greater convenience are more likely to consider the new media as both “useful ”and “easy to use.”Perceptions of the convenience of these media facilitate the accomplishment of the shopping task (making it more useful),and also make the process of shopping (the ease of use)more appealing.In addition,reductions in frustration should decrease shopping ’s psychological costs,which we predict will make the interactive shopping experience more enjoyable.These result in the predictions contained in hypotheses 8–10.H 8:As the perceptions of convenience of interactive media increase,perceptions of the usefulness of the media will increase.H 9:As the perceptions of convenience of interactive media increase,perceptions of the ease of use of the media will increase.H 10:As the perceptions of convenience of interactive media increase,the enjoyment of using the new media will increase.4.3.Substitutability of personal examinationThis antecedent is designed to tap an aspect of traditional retail shopping that is generally lacking in the online environment.Among the bene ﬁts of traditional physical store retailing is the ability to personally experience a product on a multisensory basis (Alba et al.,1997;Rosen and Howard 2000).Indeed one aspect of hedonic consumption is the experience of products through their tastes,sounds,scents,tactile impressions,and visual images (Hirsch-man and Holbrook 1982).The importance of tactile information as one aspect of direct experience is evidenced by the ﬁnding that consumers at a grocery store that were touched on the arm and asked to sample a snack item were more likely to comply and also more likely 517T.L.Childers et al./Journal of Retailing 77(2001)511–535to purchase the item than those who were not touched(Hornik1992).Additionally,Peck and Childers(2000)propose that for salient haptic attributes(i.e.,texture,hardness,temperature, and weight)the need to personally examine products through touch is particularly critical. What’s more,they report that when a barrier to direct experience to touch was present,in this case shopping for a sweater over the web,consumers were more frustrated with their shopping experience and were less conﬁdent in their product attitudes(Peck and Childers 2000).At some point the new media may evolve to compensate for sensory deﬁciencies,but in today’s interactive retail environment the lack of certain sensory elements,(particularly touch)is likely to deter individuals from engaging in online shopping behavior1.Thus,it is expected that those individuals,who do not value or at least utilize these sensory components of the traditional retail channels,will see the new media as an acceptable substitute for directly examining a product in-person.This results in hypothesis11:H11:As the substitutability of personal examination of product information obtained viainteractive media increases,perceptions of the usefulness of the media will increase.Likewise,if shoppers believe that the sensory information available via the interactive media is sufﬁcient,they should be more likely to enjoy using the new media leading to hypothesis twelve.H12:As the substitutability of personal examination of product information obtained viainteractive media increases,the enjoyment of using the media will increase.Next,the results of two studies designed to test these hypotheses across different settings will be discussed.This comparison of results across the two studies should enable broader insight into the nature and importance of these behavioral antecedents across varied forms of interactive shopping.The next section discusses the details for theﬁrst study that investi-gated the more hedonic motivations associated with web-based shopping behavior.5.Assessing hedonic motivations for online shopping5.1.ParticipantsParticipants consisted of274students in introductory classes in the business school of a large midwestern university.Seventy-six percent of the participants were less than25years of age,18%were25to34,4%were35to44,and two percent were over44years old.The average number of years of computer experience was5.4;the median was4.The average number of months of World Wide Web experience was13,median12.The average number of hours per week spent on the World Wide Web was4.4,median2.Forty-seven percentage of the students were male.Ten percent of the participants had purchased products from a site on the web.Half of those who had purchased had done so more than once.Participants reported spending an average of3.5hr(medianϭ3hr)per week on all types of shopping activities.Participants thus,were familiar with using computers and particularly interactive shopping on the web.518T.L.Childers et al./Journal of Retailing77(2001)511–5355.2.ProcedureThe setting for stimuli presentation and questionnaire completion was a teaching labora-tory commonly used for a variety of computer-based business classes.The maximum number of participants in each experimental session was 30.The instructor ’s computer situated in the front of the room was connected to a LCD projector with an 8Јx 8Јscreen.The total time of the laboratory session was one hour.At the beginning of each session,students were asked to sit quietly and not turn on the PC monitors in front of them until told to do so.The participants were told that they were about to take part in a study on the use of the World Wide Web for shopping.They were told that the session leader would ﬁrst orient students by illustrating two web shopping environments by projecting on the screen in the front of the room.They would then be asked to access three speci ﬁc web shopping sites to get ﬁrst-hand exposure to the range of shopping opportunities available on the web and complete a questionnaire based on their experiences in the laboratory session.The session leader accessed the two selected web shopping sites,reading from a prepared script and describing features related to shopping behavior (e.g.,product information or a purchase button).Participants were encouraged to ask questions about the sites or shopping on the web as the initial demonstration proceeded.The demonstration web shopping sites were chosen to illustrate the wide range of shopping opportunities available on the web.The purpose was to orient participants to the web shopping purpose of the study and provide a baseline of familiarity across subjects related to the basic capabilities of web shopping.The ﬁrst site was Amazon books ().It contained multiple navigation options,speci ﬁc book information,online purchase options,and reader postings on book commen-taries.The second site was Hot Hot Hot ()for inexpensive cooking sauces.This site offered elements of entertainment with high-resolution graphics,colorful and humorous product commentary,and online purchase capabilities.At the end of the 15min pre-exposure demonstration,the session leader instructed participants to turn on their computer monitors,and begin to access in succession the three web shopping sites bookmarked in their browser.Participants were told to simulate shopping for a gift for a friend.Participants were given 20min and told to pay attention to all salient aspects of the web shopping experience that might differentiate one web shopping site from another.5.3.StimuliThe participants were exposed to three additional sites that were selected to contain a range of experiences that reinforced the nature and capabilities of these electronic media.In some cases these sites were well known web shopping sites,and in others they were new or obscure sites selected to represent variation in the many aspects of online interactive shopping.Participants viewed the three same sites in the following order;,,and .The sites were selected because they represented the bene ﬁts to be obtained through web shopping by including multiple navi-gational alternatives,search options,product information,and product purchase capabilities.At the Wal-Mart site,participants performed a series of tasks to illustrate aspects of 519T.L.Childers et al./Journal of Retailing 77(2001)511–535。