FCE第八讲语用part2

语用PART2 BEVERLY 老师
语用 Part 2
prepositions
Simple prepositions
These are words like at, in, for, to, with, on, off, out, etc.
He is in the office.
She sat on the bench.
She is angry with him.
Compound prepositions
These are words like above, before, behind, below, across, among, around, beside and between. Compound prepositions are generally formed by adding the prefix ‘a-‘ or ‘by-‘ to a noun, an adjective or an adverb.
Phrase prepositions
These are groups of words that serve as prepositions. Examples
are: according to, along with, because of, in front of, by means of, on behalf of, in accordance with, in addition to, with reference to and in spite of.
Owing to his ill health, he retired from business.
She stood in front of the mirror.
I can’t get along with him.
Prepositions
prepositions indicating time
In English, we use several prepositions to show time. The most common among them are: since, for, by, during and within. The sequences from-to and from-until are also used to talk about time.
We have lived in this city since 2007. (We arrived in this city in 2007 and have lived here ever since.)
She has been gone since Tuesday. (She went on Tuesday and has not returned yet.)
I am going to Vienna for two weeks. (I will spend two weeks there.)
I work from nine to six.
I will be here from three o’clock onwards.
The program lasted from 3 to 6. (Beginning at 3 and ending at 6)
It rained during the night. (For a certain period of time in the night)
We must finish the work within a year. (= No longer than a year)
Since and for
These prepositions are often confused. Since is used to reckon from a particular date. For is used for a period.
Incorrect: I am ill since three months.
Correct: I have been ill for three months.
Correct: I have been ill since May.
When since / for indicates time, the verb in the main clause should be in the present perfect or past perfect tense.
Incorrect: This is my first time to play tennis since a long time. Correct: I have not played tennis for a long time. / This is my first game of tennis for a long time.
talk about position/place. Instead, we use in front of.
A tall guy was standing in front of me.
There were hundreds of people in front of me in the queue.
The professor stood in front of the desk.
The opposite of in front of is behind.
When the professor stands in front of the desk, the desk is behind him. Who is that fat guy standing behind Jane?
As a preposition, before normally indicates time. It is the opposite
of after.
I need to be there before 8 pm. (NOT I need to be there in front of 8 pm.) The teacher told us that we should be in our seats at or before 9 am.
Before (conjunction or adverb)
Before can also be used as a conjunction or an adverb clause of time.
I should get to work before my boss arrives.
I will give you a ring before I leave.
Before she married Justin, she dated another guy for a couple of years. Across
Across is a preposition. In British English, across means ‘from one side to the other’.
He walked across the road.
Across can also mean on the opposite side of a road, line etc.
My sister lives across the road.
Despite and in spite of
Despite and in spite of mean exactly the same, ‘without taking any notice of or being influenced by’, but despite is more common than in spite of. Despite and in spite of are prepositions. Both expressions can be followed by a noun or verb+-ing.
I enjoyed the movie despite having a headache.
OR I enjoyed the movie in spite of having a headache.
Both expressions are used for saying that something happens although something else might have prevented it.
The government went ahead with its decision to build the nuclear power station despite / in spite of widespread opposition.
Despite the fact that / in spite of the fact that Despite and in spite of cannot be directly followed by a that-clause. Before a that-clause, we use the expression the fact.
He still loves her despite the fact that she cheated on him.
OR He still loves her in spite of the fact that she cheated on him. Many people are successful despite the fact that they do not have a university degree. (NOT Many people are successful despite that they do not have a university degree.)
Despite yourself
To do something despite yourself is to do it even though you didn’t intend to.
The boy found the money on the table and took it despite himself. (The boy had no intention to take the money; he took it, nonetheless.) Never use of after despite. Always use of after in spite.
The same ideas can be expressed using though and although.
We enjoyed the evening though / although the weather was bad.
She always looks cheerful though / although she has many problems. Note that though and although are conjunctions. They should be followed by a clause.
Compare to and compare with
To show likeness, compare is usually used with to.
Life is often compared to a dream.
She likes to compare herself to her mother.
My mother always compared me to my brother.
To show differences, compare is usually used with ‘with’.
We can’t compare dogs with cats. (There are far more differences between them than there are similarities.)
My mother was never satisfied with my academic performance. She always compared me with my brother who used to get better grades. As a general rule, use compare with when differences are more important than similarities. Use compare to when similarities are more important. Of course, these differences are not very important.
Correspond to / correspond with
To correspond to something is to match up with something.
This pin does not correspond to the receptacle it is supposed to fit into. To correspond with somebody is to write letters back and forth.
I think you should correspond with the manager about this.
Differ from / differ with
You can differ with a person. Things can differ from totally different things.
Her mother differed with her over her decision to split with her boyfriend.
I beg to differ with you.
Our products differ from theirs because they are more intuitive.
Tablets differ from laptops in many ways. First, they do not have a physical keyword. Second,…
Exchange with / exchange for
We exchange something for something.
I would like to exchange my car for a faster one.
He exchanged dollars for Euros.
I exchanged pleasantries with her.
Across means from one side to the other.
She walked across the road. (= She walked from one side of the road to the other side.)
Across can be used to talk about movement from one place, space or line to the other.
The airplane flying across the Atlantic when it developed engine trouble. They are building a bridge across the river. (= The bridge will extend from one side of the river to the other side.)
Across can also be used to show the width of something.
The river is only a few meters across in some places.
Across can show position. It means on the opposite side of a road, river, line etc.
There is a petrol pump just across the road. (= The petrol pump is on
the opposite side of the road.)
Across can also be used to show position in many parts
of an area or country.
They have several offices across Europe. (= They have several offices in many parts of Europe.)
Across as a preposition
Across can also be used for saying that something affects a large part of your body.
Suddenly he felt a sharp pain across his chest.
Across is also used for saying that something spreads until it covers the whole of a particular area.
A warm smile spread across her face.
The verbs will, shall, would, should, can, could, may, might, must and ought to, need, used to and dare are called modal auxiliary verbs. Modal verbs are used with other verbs to express different degrees of certainty or obligation. Rewrite the following sentences using modal auxiliary verbs. Make sure that the meaning does not change.
1. It is not necessary for you to wait any longer.
1. You need not wait any longer.
2. You are required to respect the national flag.
3. She was able to read when she was three.
4. I was able to solve the problem.
5. Perhaps she would come.
6. You are prohibited from entering my home.
7. You are allowed to go home.
8. She is able to speak English.
9. It is possible to blow glass.
10. It is not necessary for her to pay for that call.
11. It is possible for wars to break out at any time.
12. I prefer to stay at home instead of going to the club.
2. You are required to respect the national flag.
2. You must respect the national flag.
3. She was able to read when she was three.
3. She could read when she was three.
4. I was able to solve the problem.
4. I could solve the problem.
5. Perhaps she would come.
5. She might come.
6. You are prohibited from entering my home.
7. You are allowed to go home.
8. She is able to speak English.
6. You must not enter my home.
7. You may go home.
8. She can speak English.
9. It is possible to blow glass.
9. Glass can be blown.
10. It is not necessary for her to pay for that call.
10. She need not pay for that call.
11. It is possible for wars to break out at any time.
12. I prefer to stay at home instead of going to the club.
11. Wars can break out at any time.
12. I would rather stay at home than go to the club.
Pronouns
Pronouns
of pronouns
Incorrect: Each of these boys play cricket well.
Correct: Each of these boys plays cricket well.
Incorrect: Each of these three roads lead to the railway station. Correct: Each of these three roads leads to the railway station. After each of we use a plural noun or pronoun and a singular verb.
of pronouns
Incorrect: Both didn’t go.
Correct: Neither went.
In negative sentences we do not normally use both. Instead, we use neither.
Incorrect: We all did not go.
Correct: None of us went.
In negative sentences we do not normally use all. Instead, we use none.
of pronouns
Incorrect: Each boy and each girl were given a book. Correct: Each boy and each girl was given a book. Incorrect: Have you got a pen? I haven’t got.
Correct: Have you got a pen? I haven’t got one.
The verb get needs to be followed by an object. Incorrect: Let I go.
Correct: Let me go.
Incorrect: Let we move.
Correct: Let us move.
Let is a verb. It should be followed by a pronoun in object form.
of pronouns
Incorrect: Your problem is bigger than me.
Correct: Your problem is bigger than mine.
Correct: Your problem is bigger than my problem.
Incorrect: Whoever does best he will get a prize.
Correct: Whoever does best will get a prize.
Incorrect: I and he are brothers.
Correct: He and I are brothers.
Incorrect: I and Mark are friends.
Correct: Mark and I are friends.
Pronouns should go in the proper order – the person spoken to, first; the person spoken of, second and the speaker, third.
Demonstrative pronouns This is a gift from my brother.
Both watches are good; but this is better than that.
My views are in accordance with those of the Chairman. These are mere excuses.
That is the Red Fort.
Mumbai mangoes are better than those of Bangalore. This, that, these and those are demonstrative adjectives when they are used with nouns.
That book is mine.
What is that noise?
These flowers are very beautiful.
Those days were the best.
This horse is faster than that horse.
Special uses
That and those are often used to avoid the repetition of a preceding noun.
The streets of Mumbai are busier than those of Paris. (= The streets of Mumbai are busier than the streets of Paris.) Here the demonstrative those is used to avoid the repetition of ‘the streets’.
One hardly knows what to do.
One cannot choose one’s parents.
One must not boast of one’s success.
One should love one’s country.
None of them have come yet.
None but fools have ever believed it.
None of his books are best sellers.
Some are born great; some achieve greatness. Nobody came to his rescue.
Somebody has let the cat in.
Few escaped unhurt.
What is everybody’s business is nobody’s business.
Most indefinite pronouns can be used as adjectives. Any fool can do that.
One day my prince will come.
He is man of few words.
Some milk was spilt.
Most indefinite pronouns can be used as adjectives. Any fool can do that.
One day my prince will come.
He is man of few words.
Some milk was spilt.
Consider the following sentences:
Each boy was given a prize.
Either road leads to the railway station.
Neither accusation is true.
Each, either and neither are called distributive
pronouns because they refer to persons or things one at a time. Note that a distributive pronoun is always singular and as such it should be followed by a singular noun and verb.
Each of, neither of and either of are followed by plural nouns and singular verbs.
Each of the answers is correct. (NOT Each of the answer is correct.)
Neither of the girls can do that. (NOT Either of the girl can do that.)
Either and neither should be used only in speaking of two persons or things. When more than two persons or things are spoken of, any, no one or none should be used.
None of the three answers is correct. (NOT Neither of the three answers is correct.)
We invited several friends, but none came. (NOT … but neither came.)
You can take any of the three shirts. (NOT You can take either of the three shirts.)
None of the three answers is correct. (NOT Neither of the three answers is correct.)
We invited several friends, but none came. (NOT … but neither came.)
You can take any of the three shirts. (NOT You can take either of the three shirts.)
Each can go in different positions. Each of the boys was given a present. The boys were each given a present. They have each been told.
Each of them have been told.
We each think the same.
Each of us think the same.
Reflexives used instead of personal pronouns
Reflexive pronouns are used instead of personal pronouns after words like as, like, but (for) and except (for). Everybody turned up except yourself. OR Everybody turned up except you.
By oneself / yourself etc
The expressions by oneself / yourself etc can mean ‘alone’
or ‘without company’.
She said that she would like to spend some time by herself. (= She would like to spend some time alone.)
No possessive forms
The reflexive pronouns do not have possessive forms. Instead, we use my own, your own, our own etc.
I always cook my own food. (NOT I always cook myself’s food.)
Reflexives not used
Certain verbs are not used with reflexive pronouns. Examples are: open, sell, feel, hurry etc.
Hurry! (NOT Hurry yourself!)
I felt strange. (NOT I felt myself strange.)
Auxiliary Verbs Have
Has
Had
Am
Are
Is。