新编语言学Ch7~12完美笔记

Linguistics 语言学
Chapter 7 Discourse Analysis
7.1 Discourse and Discourse Analysis
1. Discourse: language above the sentence or above the clause.
2. Discourse analysis 以前也叫text linguistics and discourse analysis
3. Discourse analysis (discourse linguistic/discourse studies/text analysis/DA):
the study of how sentences in spoken and written language form larger meaningful units such as paragraph, conversations and interviews.
4. Primary task: explore the linguistic features which characterize discourses
5. Goals: examine how the reader or user of a discourse recognizes that the words/phrases/sentences in a discourse must be co-interpreted----that parts of a discourse are dependent on others.
6. One of the most important features of discourse is that they have cohesion.
Definitions:
1. Discourse (话语):
a general term for examples of language use, i.e. language which has been produced as the result of an act of communication. It refers to the larger units of language such as paragraphs, conversations and interviews
7.2 Information Structure
7.2.1 Given and new information
1. Given information (已知信息):
the information that the addresser believes is known to the addressee (often coded in condensed form)
2. New information (新信息):
the information that the addresser believes it not known to the addressee
7.2.2 Topic and comment
1. The topic represents what the utterance is about; the comment is what is said about
it
2. Topics are less central to the grammar of English than to the grammar of certain languages.
3. Marking the topic is considerably more important in certain other languages. Languages such as Japanese and Korean have function words whose sole purpose is to mark a noun phrase as the topic. In Chinese, no special function words attach to topic noun phrases, but they are marked by word order. In these three languages, noun phrases marked in one way or another as the topic occur very frequently. Thus, despite the difficulty in defining it, the notion of topic is important and needs to be distinguished from other categories of information structure.
Definition:
1. Topic (话题): the main center of attention in a sentence
2. Comment (述题): what is said about it.
7.2.3 Contrast
1. In the following example, Mary could be marked contrastively if the sentence were part of a conversation about how the interlocutors dislike going to Maine during the winter.
Mary likes going to Maine during the winter.
2. In English contrastive noun phrase can be marked in various ways, the most common of which is by pronouncing the contrastive noun phrase with strong stress.
7.3 Cohesion and Coherence
7.3.1 Cohesion
1. Cohesive devices include reference, substitution, ellipsis conjunction and lexical cohesion
Definition:
1. Cohesion (衔接): the grammatical and/or lexical relationship between the different elements of a text. This may be the relationship between different sentences or between different parts of a sentence.
e.g. You can lead a horse to water but you can’t make him drink.
7.3.1.1 Reference
1. Reference words: pronounces (e.g. it, they, he, she, them, etc.)
demonstratives (this, that, these, those)
the article the, and items like such as
2. Reference consists of two types:
(1) endophoric reference (endophora): where the interpretive source lies in the
co-text
①anaphoric reference (anaphora): where the referent lies in the prior text.
②cataphoric reference (cataphora): where the referent lies in the text to come
(2) exophoric reference (exophora): where the interpretive source lies in the
context.
E.g. (1) Respect a man, he will do the more (anaphoric)
(2) When I met her, Mary looked ill. (cataphoric)
(3) (Mary is standing there) I like her. (exophoric)
7.3.1.2 Substitution
Definition
Substitution (替代):
The process or result of replacing one word by anther at a particular position in a structure
7.3.1.3 Ellipsis
Definition
Ellipsis (省略)(substitution by zero):
The leaving out of words or phrases from sentences where they are unnecessary because they have already been referred to or mentioned. For example, when the subject of the verb in two coordinate clauses is the same, it may be omitted in the second clause to avoid.
7.3.1.5 Lexical cohension
1. Example:
(1) Repetition
There was a cat on the table. The cat was smiling.
(2) Synonym
He got a lot of presents from his friends and family. All the gifts were wrapped in colored paper.
(3) Superordinate
Yesterday, a pigeon carried the first message from Pinhurst to Silbury. The bird covered the distance in three minutes.
7.3.2 Coherence
1. Cohenrence: the relationships which link the meanings of utterances in a discourse
e.g. A: Could you give me a lift home?
B: Sorry, I’m visiting my sister.
There is no grammatical or lexical link (meaning link).
(是指没有意义上的连接，不包括词汇上的连接)
7.4 Discourse Markers
1. Discourse Markers (DM):
expressions that are commonly used in the initial position of an utterance and are syntactically detachable from a sentence.
7.5 Conversational Analysis
Definition:
Conversational Analysis (CA) (会话分析)
The analysis of natural conversation in order to discover what the linguistic characteristics of conversation are and how conversation is used in ordinary life.
7.5.1 Adjacency pairs
1. Adjacency pairs (相邻语对): a set of two consecutive, ordered turns that “go together” in a conversation, such as question/answer sequences and greeting/greeting exchange.
2. Properties of Adjacency pairs
(1) Adjacency pairs consist of two utterances, a first part and a second part
(2) The two parts are spoken by different speakers.
(3) The first and second parts belong to specific types, for examples, question and answer, or greeting and greeting
(4) The form and content of the second part depends on the type of the first part.
(5) Given that a speaker has produced a first part, the second part is relevant and expectable as the next utterance.
Definition:
Insertion sequence (插入语列)
It often happens that a question-answer (Q-A) sequence will be delayed while another question-answer sequence intervenes.
( can be infinite，但人类记忆有限，所以不行)
Form: Q1---Q2---A2---A1
7.5.2 Preference structure
7.5.3 Presequences
1. Presequences (前序列): the opening sequences that are used to set up some specific
potential actions
2. Greetings: Some situations do not require a greeting, as with a stanger approaching in the street to ask for the time: “Excuse me, sir, do you know what time it is?”. The expression ”Excuse me,sir” serves as a presequence appropriate to the context.
3. The following is a pre-invitation
A: What are you doing this Sunday?
B: Nothing special. Why?
A: Why don’t you come out with us then?
Here the pre-invitation is treated as transparent by B who suspects by “why” that something is forthcoming.
4. The example below is a pre-request:
A: Are you going out tomorrow?
B: No, not really.
A: Are you using your car then?
B: No. Do you want to borrow it?
A: Yes, if you’re not using it.
7.6 Critical Discourse Analysis
1. Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA):
the analysis of language use directed at, and committed to, discovering its concealed ideological bias.
Chapter 8 Sociolinguistics
8.1 Introduction
Definition:
Sociolinguistics (社会语言学):
the study of language and society: how social factors influence the structure and use of language
8.2 Language Varieties
8.2.1 Standard language
Definition:
Standard variety (Standard language/Standard dialects):
the variety of a language which has the highest status in a community or nation, and which is usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language
8.2.2 Dialects
1. Dialect: A variety of a language used recognizably in a specific region or by a specific social class
2. Dialectology: the study of dialects
3. Types: (1) Regional/geographical dialects.
(2) Temporal dialects
(3) Social dialects or sociolects
①speech community: a group of people using a given language or dialect
(4) Idiolects
8.2.3 Registers
1. Register is determined by 3 factors: field, mode, tenor of discourse
(1) the field of discourse: refers to what is happening, including what is being talked about, e.g. the fields of linguistics, religion, and advertising
(2) the mode of discourse: refers to the medium of language activity which determines the role played by the language in a situation. e.g. speech vs. writing (3) the tenor of discourse: refers to the relations among the participants in a language activity, especially the level of formality they adopt. e.g. colloquial or formal English 2. Example: a lecture on linguistcs in a school of foreign languages can be analyzed as follows:
Field: linguistics Mode: oral (academic lecturing)
Tenor: participants (teacher-students)
Definition:
Register (语域): a language variety associated with a particular situation of use
8.2.4 Pidgins and creoles
1. Creoles have large numbers of native speakers. A French-based creole is spoken by the majority of the population in Haiti, and English-based creoles are used in Jamaica and Sierra Leone.
Definition:
1. Pidgin (皮钦语): a variety of language that is not a native language of anyone, but is learned in contact situations
2. Pidginization: the process by which a pidgin develops
3. Creole (克里奥尔语): a language that begins as a pidgin and eventually becomes the first language of a speech community through its being learned by children
4. Creolization: the process by which a pidgin becomes a creole
8.2.5 Language planning
1. Status planning: changes the function of a language or a variety of a language and the right of those who use it.
2. Corpus planning: develop a variety of language or a language, usually to standardize it.
Definition:
Language planning (语言规划): planning, usually by a government or government agency, concerning choice of national or official language(s), ways of spreading the use of a language, spelling reforms, the addition of new words to be language and other language problems.
8.3 Choosing a Code
8.3.1 Diglossia
1. Diglossia (双语): a situation that with a handful of languages, two very different varieties of the same language are used, side by side, for two different sets of functions
8.3.2 Bilingualism and multilingualism
1. Bilingualism: a situation where two languages are used by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation Definition:
1. Horizontal bilingualism (横向性双语现象):
the situation of the languages spoken in a bilingual society have equal status in the official cultural, and family life of the society.
2. Diagonal bilingualism (倾斜性双语现象)
the use of three or more languages by an individual or by a group of speakers such as the inhabitants of a particular region or nation
8.3.3 Code-switching
1. Code-switching: bilinguals often switch between their two languages or language varieties in the middle of a conversation.
8.4 Linguistic Taboos and Euphemisms
1. Taboo word: a word that we are reluctant to use
Definition:
1. Taboo: words or activities that are considered inappropriate for “polite society”
2. Euphemism: a word or phrase that replaces a taboo word or is used to avoid reference to certain acts or subjects.
8.5 Language and Gender
1. Men and women speak differently; men and women are spoken about differently
2. Language reflects sexism in society. Language itself is not sexist, but it can encode sexist attitudes.
Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics
9.1 Introduction
1. Psycholinguistics: the study of the language-processing mechanisms
Definition:
1. Psycholinguistics (心理语言学):
the study of language and mind, the mental structures and processes which are involved in the acquisition comprehension and production of language,
2. Developmental pscholinguistics (发展心理语言学)
the examination of how infants and children acquire the ability to comprehend and speak their mother tongue
9.2 Language Acquisition
1. Children’s use of language is rule-governed. For example, children frequently say tooths and mouses instead of teeth and mice, and holded and finded, instead of held and found. These are examples of overgeneralization or overextension
Definition:
1. Language acquisition (语言习得):
the learning and development of a person’s language.
2. Overgeneralization (过度概括):
children’s treatment of irregular verbs and nouns as if they were regular. This shows that the child has acquired the regular rules but has not yet learned that there are exceptions.
3. Undergeneralization: a child uses a word in a more limited way than adults do. (e.g. refusing to call a taxi a car)
4. Universal grammar (UG): the innateness or properties that pertain to the grammars of all human language.
9.3 Language Production
Definition:
Language production (语言产生): the process involved in creating and expressing meaning through language.
9.3.1 Conceptualization
1. Psycholinguists agree that some form of mentalese exist
Mentalese: a representation system which is different from language.
9.3.2 Formulation
Definition:
1. Slips of the tongue (口误): mistakes in speech which provide psycholinguistic evidence for the way we formulate words and phrases
2. Spoonerism (斯本内现象): a slip of the tongue in which the position of sounds, syllables, or words is reversed. For example: Le t’s have chish and fips instead of Let’s have fish and chips.
9.3.3 Articulation
9.3.4 Self-regulation
9.4 Language Comprehension
1. Language Comprehension: comprehension seems to be nothing more than recognition of a sequential string of linguistic symbols, although at a very rapid pace
2. People do not process linguistic information in a neat, linear fashiond
3. Listeners and readers use a great deal of information other than the actual language being produced to help them find the meaning of the linguistic symbols they hear or see
9.4.1 Sound comprehension
9.4.2 Word comprehension
1. Bathtub effect: we knew the word, but could not access the whole word. For many time we could only get part of the words vaguely, such as the beginning or the ending of the words.
Definition
1. Parallel distributed processing (PDP) (平行分布处理):
a model of cognition that attempts to account for complex behaviors such as the processing and production of speech by positing the existence of completely separate but concurrent and parallel cognitive systems operating at the same time.
9.4.3 Sentence comprehension
1. Garden path sentence (花园路径句): a sentence in which the comprehender assumes a particular meaning of a word or phrase but discovers later that the assumption was incorrect, forcing the comprehender to backtrack and reinterpret the sentence
For example: The horse reaced past the barn fell
a.
S
?
The horse raced past the barn fell
b.
S
NP
VP The horse raced past the barn fell
9.4.4 Text comprehension
9.5 Language and Thought
9.5.1 Language determines thought
1. Proposer: E. Sapir and B. Lee Whorf
2. Theory: Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis or Whorfian Hypothesis
The theory has two parts: the first is called linguistic determinism, which says that linguistic structure determines cognitive structure; the second part is called linguistic relativity, which says that the resulting cognitive systems are different in speakers of different languages.
3. Evidence: Eskimo have separate words for different types of snow. A child who grows up speaking such a language will develop more cognitive categories for snow than will an English-speaking child. When the former looks out at a snowy environment, he will, in some sense, see it differently from a child who has but one word snow.
4. Modern view: the Whorfian Hypothesis----language determines though----cannot be supported. However, it is equally clear that a weak version of the hypothesis----language influence thought----is reasonable and supportable
9.5.2 Thought determines language
1. Proposer: B. Berlin and P. Kay
2. Evidence: The result of their experiment which was concerned with how speakers of different languages divide up the color spectrum showed that there appear to be some basic constraints that limit the way in which this aspect of our experience is coded in the language.
Chapter 10 Cognitive Linguistics
10.1 Introduction
Definition:
Cognitive linguistics (认知语言学): a new approach to the study of language and mind. According to this approach, language and language use are based on our bodily experience and the way we conceptualize it.
10.2 Categorization and Categories
Categorization: the mental process of classification
Definition:
Category: the products of categorization
10.2.1 The classical theory
1. Assumptions of the classical theory:
(1) the first assumption: Categories are defined by a limited set of necessary and sufficient conditions/features. In other words, a thing can not both be and not be, it cannot both have a feature and not have it, it cannot both belong to a category and not
belong to it.
E.g. in the BIRD category, if a creature has two wings , two legs, a beak, feathers and lays eggs, then it is a bird; on the other hand, if a creature has all these features, this is also sufficient for classifying it as a bird.
(2) the second assumption: A feature is either in the definition of a category, or it is not; an entity has this feature, or it does not
E.g. the BIRD category has the feature [+two legs], but[-four legs]
(3) the third assumption: Categories have clear boundaries
E.g. BIRD and BEAST have clear boundaries
(4) the fourth assumption: all members of a category have equal status
E.g. we cannot say that the sparrow is a better member than the ostrich in the BIRD category
2. Problem: some members have fuzzy boundaries
E.g: do ostriches and penguins belong to the BIRD category?
10.2.2 The prototype thery.
1. Prototypes (典型): what members of a particular community think of as the best example of a lexical category. E.g. for some English speakers “cabbage” (rather than, say, “carrot”) might be the prototypical vegitable
2. Members of a category therefore differ in their prototypicality
3. Proposer: E. Rosch
4. Advantages: (1) It can explain how people deal with damaged examples
E.g. people would still categorize a one-winged robin who couldn’t
fly as a bird, or a three-legged lion as a lion.
(2) The prototype theory can work for actions as well as objects
E.g. people can judge that murder is a better example of killing
than execute or suicide
(3) It is useful for explaining how people deal with atypical examples
of a category
E.g. unbirdly birds such as penguins and pelicans can still be
regarded as birds
10.2.3 Levels of categorization
1. Superordinate levels
2. Basic-level categories
* three respects: (1) Perception: overall perceived shape; single mental image; last
identification
(2) Communication: shortest, most commonly used and
contextually neutral words, first learned by
children and first to enter the lexicon
(3) Knowledge organization: most attributes of category members
are stored at this level.
* Basic-level categories take primacy over categories at other levels. This is mostly because it is at this level that we perceive the evident differences between objects
and organisms of the world
3. Subordinate levels
10.3 Conceptual Metaphor and Metonymy
10.3.1 Conceptual metaphor
1. Example: LOVE IS A JOURNEY
Look how far we’ve come
We’ll just have to go our separate ways
We can’t turn back now
Our marriage is on the rocks
We’ve gotten off the track
This relationship is foundering
Definition
1. Metaphor: understanding one conceptual/cognitive domain in terms of another
conceptual domain
2. Source domain (始发域): the conceptual domain from which we draw metaphorical expressions to understand another conceptual domain
3. Target domain (目标域): the conceptual domain that is understand this way Diagram: Conceptual Domain (A) Conceptual Domain (B)
Target domain Source domain
He is a tiger
10.3.2 Conceptual metonymy
1. We have a general metonymic principle:
THE BODILY SYMPTOMS OF AN EMOTION STAND FOR THE EMOTION E.g. drop in temperature for FEAR “I was chilled to the bone”
erect posture for PRIDE “He swelled with pride”
drooping posture for SADNESS “My heart sank”
jumping up and down for JOY “He was jumping for joy
2. The main difference between them is that metaphor involves a mapping across different conceptual or cognitive domains while metonymy is a mapping within one conceptual domain
3. Metonymy is a cognitive process in which one cognitive category, the source, provides mental access to another cognitive category, the target, within the same
10.4 Iconicity
Definition
Iconicity (象似性): a feature of language which means that the structure of language reflects in some way the structure of experience, that is, the structure of the word, including the perspective of imposed on the world by the speaker
10.4.1 Iconicity of order
Definition
Iconicity of order: the similarity between temporal events and the linear arrangement of element in a linguistic construction
e.g. I came, I saw, I conquered
10.4.2 Iconicity of distance
1. Iconicity of distance accounts for the fact that things which belong together conceptually tend to be put together linguistically, and things that do not belong together are put at a distance
10.4.3 Iconicity of complexity
1. the positive, comparative, and superlative degrees of adjective show a gradual increase in the number of phonemes, such as long, longer and longest in English
2. Iconicity of complexity accounts for our tendency to associate more form with more meaning and, conversely, less form with less meaning
10.5 Grammaticalization
1. Grammaticalization: the process whereby an independent word is shifted to the status of a grammatical element
2. Full words, with their own lexical content, thus become form words; and this categorical change tends to be accompanied by a reduction in phonological form and
a “bleaching” of meaning
3. Example: the transition of the lexical verb “go” into an auxiliary used to express the future tense
a. Susan’s going to London next month.
b. She’s going to London to work at our office
c. Sh e’s going to work at our office
d. You’re going to like her
e. You’re gonna like her
f. You gonna like her. (non-standard)
Chapter 11 Language Acquisition
11.1 First Language Acquisition
11.1.1 The behaviorist approach
1. Best-known advocator: B.F.Skinner
11.1.2 The innateness approach
1. Under the influence of Noam Chomsky’s linguistic theories and cognitive psychology, the behaviorist hypothesis of first language acquisition has been challenged
2. The innateness hypothesis says that the ability to acquire a human language is part of the biologically innate equipment of the human being, and that an infant is born with this ability just as it is born with two arms, two legs, and a beating heart. It also claims that this built-in ability is linked in some manner to physiological maturation, that it is strongest in the very small child, and that some degree of decay in its function begins around the time of puberty.
11.1.3 Stages of acquiring the first language
1. Pre-language stages (3~10m)
2. The one-word or holophrastic stage (single-unit or single-form) (12~18m)
3. The two-word stage (18~20m)
4. Telegraphic speech (2~3y)
(1) the child begins producing a large number of utterances which could be categorized as multiple-word utterances, but these utterances usually leave out certain word that adults omit in telegrams, such as articles, auxiliary, verbs and prepositions (2) e.g. Andrew want ball; cat drink, this shoe all wet
11.2 Second Language Acquisition
1. The differences between second language and foreign language
(1) Second language plays an institutional and social role in the community, that is, it functions as a recognized way of communication among members who speak some other language as their mother tongue
Examples: English as a second language is learned in the United States, the United Kingdom, and countries in Africa such as Zambia and Nigeria by those whose first language is not English.
(2) Foreign language learning takes place in situations where the language plays no major role in the community and is primarily learned in the classroom.
Examples: English learned in Japan and France
Definition:
Second Language Acquisition (L2 acquisition/SLA) (第二语习得):
the acquisition of another language or languages after first language acquisition is under way or completed
11.2.1 Contrastive analysis
1. Where two languages were similar, positive transfer would occur; where they were different, negative transfer, or interference, would result. That is:
(1) The main difficulties in learning a new language are caused by interference from the first language
(2) These difficulties can be predicted by contrastive analysis
(3) Teaching materials can make use of contrastive analysis to reduce the effects of
mother tongue interference.
Definition:
Contrastive analysis (CA) (对比分析):
systematically comparing the first language and the target language
11.2.2 Error analysis
1. Error analysis (EA) refers to the study and analysis of the errors made by second and foreign language learners
Definition:
1. Intralingual errors: result from faulty or partial learning of the target language, rather than from language transfer.
e.g. “He is comes”→correct: He is coming or He comes
2. Interlingual errors: caused by the learner’s native language
e.g. He comes from China, Beijing →correct: He comes from Beijing, China
11.2.3 Interlanguage
1. There is some in-between system while acquiring L2 which certainly contains aspects of both L1 and L2, but which is an inherently variable system with rules of its own. This system is called an interlanguage
2. The process of fossilization in L2 pronunciation is one obvious cause of a foreign accent
Definition
Fossilization (僵化现象): (in second or foreign language learning) a process which sometimes occurs in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes the target language. Aspects of pronunciation, vocabulary usage, and grammar may become fixed or fossilized in second or foreign language learning.
11.3 Individual Differences in Second Language Acquisition
11.3.1 Language aptitude
1. According to Carroll, the components of language aptitude are:
(1) Phonemic coding ability (音位编码能力)
(2) Grammatical sensitivity (语法的感性)
(3) Inductive language learning ability (语言学习归纳能力)
(4) Rote learning ability (机械学习能力)
Definition:
Language aptitude: the natural ability to learn a language, not including intelligence, motivation and interest, etc.
11.3.2 Cognitive style: field dependence and field independence
1. Field dependence: measured by asking learners to look at complex patterns and identify a number of simple geometric figures that are hidden within them
(1) Characteristic:
①they accept the L2 information exactly as it is presented to them by the teacher.
②They do not try to analyze or think about it themselves
③They are very reliant on what other people think of them and depend a great deal on positive feedback in their L2 learning
④They tend to be seen as outgoing and interested in others and so would be expected to develop good interpersonal communication skills in the L2
2. Field independent:
(1) Characteristic:
①do not assume that the L2 information that they are given is necessarily correct
②They tend to analyze it and think about it themselves to determine whether it is correct or not
③They have a strong sense of personal identity
④They often seem insensitive to and distant from other people.
⑤They might, therefore, be expected to be less interested in developing communication skills in the L2
(2) Examples:
①they think about the input that they get.
②In a formal learning context they are more likely to consciously think about and analyze the structure items that are presented to them, and consider how they fit into the grammar system as a whole
③In a natural acquisition context they may more actively process the input they receive to build up hypotheses about how the language works.
④They would develop a broader and deeper understanding of the structure of the language.
Definition
1. Cognitive style (认知风格): the particular way in which a learner tries to learn something. In second or foreign language learning, different learners may prefer different solutions to learning problems. For example, some people may want explanations for grammatical rules; others may not need any explanation
2. Field dependence (场依存): a learning style in which a learner tends to look at the whole of a learning task which contains many items. The learner has difficulty in studying a particular item when it occurs within a field of other items.
3. Field independence (场独立): a learning style in which a learner is able to identify or focus on particular items and is not distracted by other items in the back ground or context.
11.3.3 Personality traits。