Paul Ehrlich

合集下载

考研优秀英语句子

第一句The environmentalists, inevitably, respond to such critics. The true enemies of science, argues Paul Ehrlich of Stanford University, a pioneer of environmental studies, are those who question the evidence supporting global warming, the depletion of the ozone layer and other consequences of industrial growth.词汇突破：1.environmentalist 环保主义者 2.Inevitably 不可避免的3.depletion of the ozone layer 臭氧层破坏（这属于是环保的标配词汇）4.consequences of industrial growth 工业增长的后果5.critics 批评6.pioneer 先驱7. question 质疑8. argue 认为The environmentalists, inevitably, respond to such critics. 环保主义者们不可避免地对这样的批评做出了回应。

第二句：主干识别： argues Paul Ehrlich of Stanford University, = Paul Ehrlich of Stanford University argues主谓充当的插入语：The true enemies of science are those其他成分：a pioneer of environmental studies, 同位语who question the evidence supporting global warming, the depletion of the ozone layer and other consequences of industrial growth. 定语从句翻译点拨：切分之后调整语序（按中文习惯）1.Paul Ehrlich of Stanford University （is）a pioneer of environmental studies,2.Paul Ehrlich of Stanford University argues斯坦福大学的Paul Ehrlich是环境研究方面的先驱，（这样诡异的不知道读音的人名在考场上一般就直接抄英文）他认为，或者翻译为：环境研究方面的先驱之一，斯坦福大学的Paul Ehrlich认为，3. The true enemies of science are those科学真正的敌人是这样一些人。

第2章肝脏疾病的检查项目及临床意义分析

第二章肝脏疾病的检查项目及临床意义一、肝脏疾病实验室检查（一）肝脏实验室检查的临床意义1、筛选无症状肝病，判断有无肝损害2、辅助诊断各种类型肝病，评估肝病严重程度3、监测肝病进展，判断治疗效果和预后4、嗜肝病毒标志物、肝病自身抗体检查以判断病因（二）影响实验室因素1、在留取标本的过程中，受样本采集、贮运方法及是否溶血的影响2、在不同人种、个体之间存在性别、年龄、营养状况等多种影响因素（三）肝脏生化检查指标意义分述1 血清氨基转移酶：血清氨基转移酶主要包括丙氨酸氨基转移酶（ALT）和天门冬氨酸氨基转移酶（AST）。

ALT广泛存在于组织细胞内，以肝细胞含量最多，其次为心肌，脑和肾组织。

组织中ALT位于细胞质，其肝内浓度较血清高3000倍，是反映肝细胞损害的敏感指标。

AST主要分布于心肌，其次为肝脏、骨骼肌和肾脏等组织，存在于细胞质和线粒体，其中线粒体型AST活性占肝脏AST总活性80%左右。

心肌梗塞和慢性酒精性病等情况下AST升高以线粒体型为主，血清中AST/ALT比值升高。

正常人群血清ALT和AST浓度范围5~60 U/L，国际上将ALT检测上限（ULN）定为男性40 U/L，女性35 U/L；AST ULN为男性40U/L，女性34 U/L。

但有调查结果发现，约5%～10%的慢性乙型肝炎（CHB），15%慢性丙型肝炎（CHC）和非酒精性脂肪性肝炎（NASH）患者的血清氨基转移酶水平在“正常范围”内，因此认为目前的血清氨基转移酶ULN可能定义过高，已有专业学会提出降低ULN水平。

2008年美国专家委员会将ALT ULN定义为男性30 IU/L，女性19 IU/L；2009年欧洲肝病学会（EASL）将ALT ULN定义为男性31 IU/L，女性19 IU/L；2008年亚太专家共识建议ALT ULN不分性别，均定义为40 IU/L。

临床上氨基转移酶水平升高是指高于某临床实验室推荐的基线ULN水平，就专科而言，在制定抗病毒治疗方案时可以参考上述ULN指标。

3-Roman Culture 罗马文化

Mars And Rhea Silvia - Peter Paul Rubens
The twins then founded their own city, but Romulus killed Remus in a quarrel over which one of them was to reign as the King of Rome, though some sources state the quarrel was about who was going to give their name to the city. Romulus became the source of the city's name. As the city was bereft of women, legend says that the Latins invited the Sabines to a festival and stole their unmarried maidens, leading to the integration of the Latins and the Sabines
Romans and Greeks
The difference:
The Romans built up a vast empire; the Greeks didn‗t. Except for the brief moment of Alexander‗s conquests, which soon disintegrated.
Romulus killed Remus
According to legend, Rome was founded in 753 BC by Romulus and Remus, who were raised by a she-wolf.

美国经济大萧条全英文

government intervenes to economy Keynesian['keinziən]
national macroeconomic adjust and control economic nationalism—tariffs Totalitarianism(极端主义)-Nazi Party 卍 Adolf Hitler&Benito Mussolini贝尼托·墨索里尼，
This study suggests that theories of the Great Depression have to explain an initial severe decline but rapid recovery in productivity, relatively little change in the capital stock, and a prolonged depression in the labor force.
Recent work from a neoclassical perspective focuses on the decline in productivity that caused the initial decline in output and a prolonged recovery due to policies that affected the labor market.
Demand-driven Keynesian Breakdown of international trade Debt deflation Monetarist New classical approach Austrian School Inequality Productivity shock

第2节免疫学发展简史克隆选择学说clonalselectionhypothesis

1996
第三节
免疫学检验
免疫学检验（laboratory immunology）：
是研究免疫学技术及其在医学检验领域的重要学科。免疫学检验的发展是随着各种免疫物质的发现密切相关，在免疫学理论与生物学技术的长期发展过程中，许多经典技术被加以革新与放大而派生出更多新技术与新方法，这些方法和技术在医学研究与临床诊断的运用中发挥了不可估量的作用。
免疫学检验
信阳职业技术学院
药学与检验系
绪
目的与要求：
论
1. 理解并掌握现代免疫的概念 2. 理解免疫的三大功能 3. 了解免疫学的发展概况以及免疫检验在医学检验中的应用
第一节免疫的基本概念
免除税赋，免除差役 immunitas 免于疫患，免除瘟疫 immunity
免疫（immunity）：是机体识别并清除“自己”和“非己”抗原性异物的功能，借以维持机体的生理平衡与稳定。其结果通常对机体有利，但在某些条件下可对机体造成病理损害。
自然的肉眼观察的抗原抗体反应（沉淀反应、凝集反应）加速的肉眼观察的抗原抗体反应（电泳技术、分离技术）标记性免疫技术提高抗原抗体反应的特异性、敏感性
半自动、自动化检验仪器与免疫反应原理结合，加快了反应过程标记技术、单克隆技术、高智能自动化技术的最佳组合
临床免疫学与免疫检验
免疫检验可分为两部分：一部分为利用免疫检测原理与技术检测免疫活性细胞、抗原、抗体、补体、细胞因子、细胞粘附分子等免疫相关物质；另一部分是利用免疫检测原理与技术检测体液中微量物质如激素、酶、血浆微量蛋白、血液药物浓度、微量元素等。
年代 1901 1905 1908 1912 1913 1919 1930 1951 1957 1960 1972 1977 1980 学者姓名 Behring Koch Ehrlich Metchnikoff Carrel Richet Bordet Landsteiner Theler Bovet Burnet Medawar Edelman Porter Yalow Dausset Snell Benacerraf Jerne Kohler Milstein Tonegawa Murray Thomas Doherty Zinkernagel 国家德国德国德国俄国法国法国比利时奥地利南非意大利澳大利亚英国美国英国美国法国美国美国丹麦德国阿根廷日本美国美国澳大利亚瑞士获奖成就发现抗毒素，开创免疫血清疗法发现结核杆菌，发明诊断结核病的结核菌素提出抗体生成侧链学说和体液免疫学说发现细胞吞噬作用，提出细胞免疫学说器官移植发现过敏现象发现补体, 建立补体结合试验发现人红细胞血型发明黄热病疫苗抗组胺药治疗超敏反应提出抗体生成的克隆选择学说发现获得性移植免疫耐受性阐明抗体的化学结构阐明抗体的化学结构创立放射免疫测定法发现人白细胞抗原发现小鼠H-2系统发现免疫应答的遗传控制提出天然抗体选择学说和免疫网络学说杂交瘤技术制备单克隆抗体单克隆抗体技术及Ig基因表达的遗传控制抗体多样性的遗传基础第一例肾移植成功第一例骨髓移植成功提出MHC限制性，即T细胞的双识别模式提出MHC限制性，即T细胞的双识别模式

诺贝尔奖与免疫学的百年渊源

诺贝尔奖与免疫学的百年渊源10月3日，瑞典卡洛琳医学院宣布：三位免疫学家布鲁斯·巴特勒(Bruce A. Beutler)、朱尔斯·霍夫曼(Jules A. Hoffmann)和拉尔夫·斯坦曼(Ralph M. Steinman)，共同获得本年度诺贝尔生理学或医学奖。

算上本届，近百年来免疫学研究获诺贝尔生理学或医学奖已经累计达到17次。

作为一个年轻的学科，免疫学能够屡获殊荣，这主要源于是其生命科学理论上取得的突破，以及在临床应用上获得的巨大成功。

理论上的突破19世纪，虽然人痘、牛痘可以预防天花，也出现了灭活疫苗(巴斯德的炭疽疫苗、狂犬疫苗)，但是人们只能靠接种疫苗“主动免疫”，而对于机体免疫过程的发生原理却毫无认识。

1901年，首届诺贝尔生理或医学奖就授予了德国人贝林(Emil V on Behring)，其发现了“抗毒素”，用动物血清治疗白喉患者取得巨大成功。

这也是免疫学上“被动免疫”和“血清疗法”的先河。

当初的“抗毒素”便是今天免疫学上“抗体”概念的雏形。

1908年，诺贝尔生理或医学奖授予德国科学家欧立希(Paul Ehrlich)和俄国科学家梅切尼科夫(Elie Metchnikoff)，前者提出了抗体侧链形成的理论，认为抗体和抗原可以如同“钥匙和锁的匹配”，并且发现了补体的效应功能，因此被称为“体液免疫之父”;后者发现巨噬细胞和小噬细胞可以清除病原菌，提出创立了“细胞吞噬学说”，被誉为“细胞免疫之父”。

体液、细胞免疫学说的形成，也标志着免疫学科理论架构的形成。

此后，诺贝尔生理学或医学奖就格外钟情“免疫学”这个年轻学科，基本上免疫学范畴内每一个核心问题的阐释，每一次基础理论的突破，都在若干年后荣膺诺奖。

对于抗体的物质基础，美国科学家埃德尔曼、英国科学家波特研究发现，抗体是四肽组成的免疫球蛋白(1972年诺贝尔奖)。

对于抗体多样性的来源问题，从开始的“侧链形成理论”(1908年诺贝尔奖)，发展到“克隆选择学说”(1960年诺贝尔奖)，再到相对成熟的“天然选择学说”(1984年诺贝尔奖)，最终通过杂交瘤技术(1984年诺贝尔奖)和抗体基因重排规律(1987年诺贝尔奖)得以证明。

抗体工程要点课件

抗体的来源
• 抗体的定义 • 抗体的发现：1888年Emile Roux和Alexander
Yersin发现了白喉毒素，1890年Von Behring发现，白喉毒素或者破伤风毒素免疫动物后，血液中可以产生阻止毒素诱发疾病的物质，称为抗毒素（antitoxin)。 • 电泳分析gamma球蛋白（并不全是抗体） • 1972年世界卫生组织和国际免疫学联合会把具有抗体活性及化学结构与抗体类似的一类球蛋白，统一命名为免疫球蛋白（immunoglobulin)。
Clonal selection theory
细胞凋亡（apoptosis： Caspase）细胞自噬（autophagy：溶酶体）
人体内可以产生10E12以上不同的
抗体分子，为什么？
第四章抗体的基因及其表达
• 抗体重链基因簇（IgH): 14号染色体，1.5Mb • 抗体轻链Kappa基因簇（IgK）：2号染色体，
血清中其他蛋白。 • 以步3骤5可0m用l ，于0纯.0化55血mo清l/LIg，G和pHI6g.M0。Tris-PO4 洗脱，这一 • 以0.51m25oml/Ll，，p0H.055.15mTroisl/-PL，O4p梯H6度.0洗Tri脱s-P，O总4 和量1收25集ml250ml；
重复步骤（5）。 • 根据280nm峰值合并蛋白峰，对PBS透析，PEG浓缩，
单域抗体
特点： 1. 见于驼类动物，软骨鱼类 2. 没有轻链多肽。 3. CDR3区较长。 4. 驼类单域抗体没有CH1. 5. 去除Fc片段后称为纳米抗体。
抗体的生物学功能
• 特异性的结合抗原 • 激活补体 • 结合Fc受体 1）调理吞噬作用：巨噬细胞。 2）介导过敏反应：肥大细胞。 3）ADCC作用：NK细胞、单核细胞。 4）穿过胎盘和粘膜 5）免疫调节。

2.合成抗感染药(药物化学)

1,4-二氢-4-氧代吡啶-3-羧酸（吡酮酸类）
二、发展
第一代（1962-1969）
H3C CH3 N NH CH3
Cl
N
氯喹
萘啶酸 (萘啶羧酸类 )
第二代（1969-1978）
O O
6 6 N
HN N
OH
6 7
7
N
N
N
CH3
吡哌酸（嘧啶并吡啶羧酸类）
西诺沙星（噌啉羧酸类）
第三代（1978-1998）
N H
O S H 2N
O N N H
磺胺甲氧嗪（t1/2＝37h）“长效磺胺”
5、优缺点
• 优点 – 抗菌谱较广 – 性质稳定 – 使用方便 – 价格低廉 – 对某些感染有显著疗效 • 缺点 – 抗菌活性弱，为抑菌剂 – 易产生耐药性 – 肾损害
二、结构分类
• 基本结构：对氨基苯磺酰胺
R1 HN
4 1
2
N
1
磺胺甲噁唑新诺明（SMZ)
O H2N
O S
3
NH N
1
O
5
CH3
复方新诺明：SMZ＋TMP
六、构效关系
(1) 氨基与磺酰氨基在苯环上必须处于对位；
（2）磺酰氨基上N单取代活性增强
-杂环取代更佳；
（3）4位氨基的游离或潜在的游离状态是活性的关键
H2N N N
N
O H2N S
O NH
N
SO2NH2
[作用机制]
2.抑制拓扑异构酶IV 干扰细菌G(+) DNA复制
解环连
（-）喹诺酮类药物
四、构效关系
5
B环可作改变，苯环、吡啶环、嘧啶环均可。 7

WhatHappenedtoSam-KhainTheEpicofGilgames

Literary Onomastics StudiesVolume 2Article 71975What Happened to Sam-Kha in "The Epic of Gilgames?"John R. MaierFollow this and additional works at:/los****************************************************************************************************************************************************************************************************************,pleasecontact ********************.Recommended CitationMaier, John R. (1975) "What Happened to Sam-Kha in "The Epic of Gilgames?","Literary Onomastics Studies : Vol. 2, Article 7.Available at:/los/vol2/iss1/7What Happened to Sam-kha inThe Epic of Gilgame�?John R. MaierBefore a cave not far from the ancient Mesopotamian city of Uruk (Biblical Erech) rests an ancient poet and seer, grave in his turban and long beard, exiled, the poet says, 11By his own will from all the haunts of men.111 Heis a suitably dignified personage for an epic poem. His name is Heabani--Enkidu, we would say today. He belongs to the excitement caused when a brilliant British Museum scholar, George Smith, unearthed the cuneiform tablets of an epic poem now known as The Epic of Gilgame In spiteof his dignity, the seer Heabani is in a sense no longer with us. Gone is the turban; gone is the sage lover of Nature and Solitude: he belongs to a poem written in 1884 by a man, Leonidas Le Cenci Hamilton, who intended to complete the fragments translated earlier by George Smith, to make a poem that was both ancient and yet strikingly modern. Its name: Ishtar and Izdubar, The Epic of Babylon. Unlike the famous Rub of Omar Khy y am, the piece did not bring fame to the scholar-poet who labored so long to bring itMaier 2forth, and it inspired no cults. A hundred ye a rs of Gilgame� scholarship has passed it by. Today it is important mostly as a Nineteenth Century literary work reflecting an 1800s image of the Ancient Near East.My interest in this paper is in certain names appearing in one short but important early section of Hamilton's poem. The section is from the third of twelve tablets comprising the epic. For the most part I will mention only those names which subsequent scholarship on theGilgame� has found to be incorrect--almost ridiculous, some might say. But these names will serve as an introduction to the problems of translating names in ancient texts, and also as an indication of the way names deeply effect a narrative line and the concept of character in a1 i t erary work.A few preliminary remarks are necessary. The language of the original epic is Akkadian, an ancient Semitic language. The Akkadian epic of Gilgame�--a version of which goes back to about 1800 B.C.--in turn draws upon the Sumerian Gilgame� stories. (Sumerian is a language unre-Maier 3lated to Akkadian but a language that influenced nearlyall others in the Ancient Near East.) Hamilton, by the way, could not have known Sumerian or the influence oftexts older than the Akkadian version.2The Epic of Gilgame is complex. Here we are interested in only one part: how a creature, Heabani, i s seducedby a person called Sam-kha and makes his way thence to the city of Erech (Uruk) to meet the hero of the poem, Gilgame�, or as Hamilton called him, Izdubar. Doubtless the most moving part of the Gilgame� story is the grief of the heroat the loss of this friend Heabani, and the hero's subsequent search through the universe to find the answer to the problem of death. But the section w e are interestedin deals with .a very fascinating early stage of the story, just before the friendship between the hero and Heabani develops.Though modern scholars disagree about the interpretation of the events in the section (today it is Tablet Iof the epic),3 the events themselves are these. The people of Erech need someone to equal their restless king; inMaier 4response to their prayer, Heabani (Enkidu) is formed from clay and thrown into the wilds where the creature grows up with wild animals. The seduction by the or sacred prostitute, brings Heabani to manhood. Having become a man, he then abandons the wilds and enters the city, to meet the greatest of men, Izdubar (or Gilgame�).So at least goes the story as it is known today, made rather sure by a hundred years of intense research and translation. Hamilton's 1884 version of the events is abit different.The incredible change in the characterization of the wild man, Enkidu, provides a remarkable example of translation problems involving names that have tantalized the student of th� Gilgame� poem for nearly a century. For convenience I have chosen a few lines of the text that illustrate the problems, lines that have the advantage of being "nearly perfect11 in the original, according to George Smith. The same lines in R. Campbell Thompson's transcription and translation show the modern concept ofthe wild man, which he calls "Enkidu11 (see Appendix forMaier 5text, transliteration and translation).Enkidu has just been seduced by a prostitute in the service of the go d dess, I�tar. A savage being with no traces of human behavior, Enkidu is won over to humanityby the prostitute; for 11Six days and seven nights" she sleeps with the wild creature. At the end he has becomea man. The prostitute then initiates Enkidu into thearts and ways of civilization. In this passage the prostitute is encouraging Enkidu to go to the glorious cityof Erech, which has been oppressed by the mighty king, Gilgame�. Enkidu's response, in true epic fashion, is to boast of her might. The passage anticipates the furious battle to follow, when Gilgame� and Enkidu will wrestle-and then suddenly become friends. The heroes will then go off together to a series of great epic adventures.Imagine the astonishment, then, at taking up George Smith's translation of 1876 and the fuller account by Leonidas Hamilton (1884)!4 The character here is called11Heabani,11 not 11Enkidu.11 There is really little to dispute there, though. The modern reading is Sumerian. Hamilton'sMaier 6 11Heabani" is a rendering of the same cuneiform signs inAkkadian. The older suggestion was that the name meant the go d 11Hea11 (moder n 11Ea11) 11begot" or 11Created11 X--a s i n a name like Assurbanipal. "Enkidu,11 similarly',could carry the same meaning in Sumerian, the Sumerian god "Enki" being the equivalent of the Akkadian "(H)Ea."5The so-called temple 11Ellitardusi11 i.n dicates a second, but related, problem in dealing with Akkadian names. Campbell Thompson reads two words, i m qud-du-11holy (and) sacred,11 adjectives describing the dwelling of god Anu and the goddess I�tar (Appendix, line 44). In this case 111im" and "li11 are possible for the same (IGI) sign. 11Qud" is a reading of a sign that could be 11tar; tara; �ar;tir; t{r; kud/t; qud/t; has/s({,/z; �il or sil. "6 Notice . �·.that the texts do not indicate a break between the words in 1 i n e 44.These are typical problems. In a sense they are very minor ones, especially because they do not seriously effect the meaning of the passage or the work as a whole.But Hamilton's handling of 11Sam-kha" (mentioned in the89Maier 7sixth line of his version) and the "middannu" beast are serious indeed. The astonishing transformation of 11Heabani" can be seen in these two names.11Sam-kha," as Hamilton takes her, is both a person (she is Smith's 11Samhat") and "sweet Joy11 mentioned in the fourth line. Another woman--the one with the flashingeyes "half languid" is called Kharimtu. Kharimtu•s description of the "giant" Izdubar has persuaded somewhat the seer to meet the giant. But what really excites the wild man to go to Erech is not to match his strength againstI zdubar. (In fact, he does not fight the great king of Erech, in Hamilton's version.) What excites him is the delicious woman, "Sam-kha." The allegorizing tendency--as her name means '�J oy"--does not fully develop. But the distinction between 11Kharimtu" (or "Seduction11) and "Sam-kha" (11J oy") is based on a misconception that has very serious consequences. The two names actually describe one person-and neither is a proper name. Both refer to the prostitute sent to seduce the wild man. The confusion comes when thenames are written together, without any sign of punctuationMaier 8or coordination, as an epithet of the prostitute, One odd consequence is that Hamilton knew whatwas happening to Kharimtu as he read George Smith•s ver-sion, but Smith's version did not mention Samhat at the point where the women had been brought before Heabani•s11cave." Hamilton solves the problem by asking a question, in his usual florid way:But where hath Joy, sweet Sam-kha, roving gone?When they arrived at setting of the sunShe disappeared within with waving arms;With bright locks flowing she displayed her charms.As some sweet zir-ru did young Sam-kha seem,A thing of beauty Of some mystic dream.(III.III.48-53)Well, where did she go? Into a mystic whilethe other girl waited? According to Hamilton, Sam-khaenters the 11C ave11 where the turbaned seer, a hermit choice, it should be recalled, lives. The lines which describe the sexual encounter between the wild man and the prostitute are very graphic and possibly reach as close to our idea of pornography as Akkadian literature approaches, it seems. The Victorian scholar, George Smith, knew what to do: he simply deleted twenty-two lines of "directions11Maier 9 which he disguises in an innocuous comment buried at the end of his chapter: 11! have omitted some of the detailsin columns III. and IV. because they were on the one side obscure, and on the other hand appeared hardly adapted for genera 1reading.'' The Reverend A. H. Sayee, who revised Smith's book, deciding that even such an innocuous a comment as that was unnecessary, silently dropped even that.7So Hamilton faced the problem of the seduction by in-venting a scene that is delightfully vague.Her glorious arms she opens, flees away,While he doth follow the enticer gay.He seizes, kisses, takes away her breath,And she falls to the ground--perhaps in deathHe thinks, and o•er her leans where she now lay;At last she breathes, and springs, and flees away.But he the sport enjoys, and her pursues.(III.IV.21-27)Thus "sweet Joy" prompts him. Smith knew nothing of any great love of the wild man for this girl (developed in this scene). The only love which he shows again and again is the wild man•s love for Izdubar. The curious line in Smith, 11I join to Samhat my companionship,11 (line 42) isas far as Smith would go For Hamilton, though, a romanticMaier 10affair was a must for an ancient epic. He invents a love interest for Izdubar, a girl, Mua, and even beyond thatthe love interest between Izdubar and the goddess Ishtar. The separation of "Samkha11 and "Harimtu11 becomes the chief motivation for Heabani's entry into Erech.More curious than Sam-kha is the best called mid-dan-nu. The hunt for the "midannu11 beast is one of the fas-cinating chapters in early Assyriology. Smith thought it was a tiger. Sayee added more information, calling it a "fierce carnivorous animal allied to the lion and leopard;'' the 11midannu he found associated with the dumamu or cat.8A famous Khorsabad sculpture showing a hero holding a lion, was taken to be Izdubar strangling the midannu. Hamilton even took the,beast to be a pet of Heabani! usepet, which guarded the cave of Heaban, terri es a in 11Prince Zaidu,11 who had been sent by Izdubar to persuade Heabani to come to Erech, the king had had to send the two girls to seduce the hermit. Notice that (1) Heabani will take his pet to Erech in order to test Izdubar's strength; and (2) he will interpret a dream if Izdubar destroys theMaier 11 beast. In column V Hamilton does indeed describe thefight between the Herakles-figure, Izdubar, and the lion; Heabani then agrees to interpret the puzzling dream forthe king.What is astonishing about this is that no midannu beast existed--at least in this epic. A glance at Campbell Thompson•s text and transliteration will reveal the reason. The first line of column 5, the boast of Enkidu, includes the emphatic (and rather unusual) form of the first person pronoun: 111, too, am mighty!"--anaku-mi together with the ordinary Akkadian word for strength, dannu. Smith, with a corrupt text, had read across anaku-mi to mi-dan-nu. Once that was done, the beast is described as begotten "in desert11 with g�eat strength. It was but a short s to the idea that the beast would contest Izdubar, and the11prize11 would an interpretation of his dream.Hamilton's Heabani is, we see, not a primitive. sav�ge after all. A famous "barb" and seer, Heabani had lived inErech, had sung of the defeat of the city the hands of the Elamites, and had sung of Izdubar•s victory over the94Maier 12Elamites thereafter--this long before the episode we have been considering. But the seer had retired to his solitary cave. Indeed, Hamilton invents an "ode to solitude11in the manner of Coleridge for Heabani to sing when the seer discovers (through a divine revelation) he must go to Erech (Tablet II, column VI). Even Sam-kha•s seduction of him had been foreseen by this more than 11natural man.11With his turban and long beard, the seer Heabani was the archetypal poet-seer.Needless to say, perhaps, the concept of Heabani as a poet, as a seer, as the interpreter of dreams, has since been exploded. There was support for it in fragmentary texts, it seemed, but the laborious task of joining frag-ments of tablets� of establishing the sequence led to a creature fashioned by the godstab 1e ts, Gil g ame�.Campbell Thompson's translation shows the modern concept. The wild man describes, not his pet midannu but himself in the passage. Hardly a seer, Enkidu is entirely ignorant of mankind until the prostitute initiates him. Indeed, this passage is the first one in which Enkidu shows the human95Maier 13 capability of intelligible speech.Thus a misplaced sign sequence and a· split of one common name into two proper names has produced the midannubeast and Sam-kha. Both in turn develop the image of the poet seer, sensitive, a mystic and a loner, with a romantic's feeling for Nature and Love. What happened to Samkha? In her disappearance The Epic of Gilgame lost afirst�rate pre-Raphaelite love interest--and a poet.John R. MaierState University of New YorkCollege at BrockportNoteslLeonidas Le Cenci Hamilton, Ishtar and Izdubar, Theof Babylon (London: W .H. A 11 e n, Tab 1 e t I,Column IV, line 3.962on the Sumerian sources of The �ic of Gilgame see Paul Garell i , ed., Gi 1 g ame �et g_ l "\Paris:Imprimerie Nationale, 39-7. 3The earliest complete text of the epic is Paul Haupt, Das Babylonische Nimrodepos (Leipzig, 1884-1890), which Hamilton had seen. The standard text today is still R : Campbell Thompson, The Epi of Gilgame Text, Transllteration and Notes (London, 19294George Smith, The Chaldean Account of Genesis(London, 1876), pp. -S An 'Ay ('Ayya-Is-MY-Cre a tor ) is attested in Old Akkadian Sargonic Period )by J.J.M. Roberts, The Earliest Semitic Pantheon (Baltimore, 1972), pp. l g:-6; see also the ban art1cle in Chicago Assyrian Dictionary, vol. 2, pp. 81-95. 6Rykle Borger, Akkadische Zeichenliste (NeukirchenVluyn, 1971), p. 78 7smith,p. 205; George Smith, The Chaldean Account of Genesis, ed. , rev. , corrected A. H. Sayee ,p. 2Hamilton used Sayee's i on. B smith, pp. 205-206; Sayee, p. 4.AppendixLeonidas La Cenci Hamilton, ISHTARTHE IC OF BABYLON (1884) Tablet III, Column IV:IZDUBAR,Her flashing eyes half 1 d pierce seer, Until his first resolves a disappear�And rising to his feet his eyes he Toward sweet Joy, whose love for him And eyeing both with beaming sai 11With Sam-kha•s love the seer hath pl faith; And I will go to Elli-tar-d u-si, Great Anu's �eat and Ishtar's where wi thee, I will behold the giant Izdubar, Whose fame is known to me as king of war; And I will meet him there, and test power Of him whose fame above aii men .tower.A mid-dan-nu to Erech I will ke, To see -rfhe its mighty strength can break. In those wild caves i strength mighty If he the beast , I will make known His dream h all97Paul H IS NI , I, IV & VR.Ca mp be ll, THE EPIC}:;!" f:}f\ I, I . � 4-C ..-;:ru 1E! � Tf &>-�r v .q--:-�f31r Tf �T �nrr t:�r ��-�0-�;-;:if 4-s Tf � M-r-t:-r xr:s-:f-f::r JbT �;t':-r-. � �rr ff"'n <-w.. Tf rt�T �y-�rr � .. � .... �-�: ... � ...George Smith, THE CHALDEAN ACCOUNT OF GENESIS (1876) Tablet I II, Column IV:39. She spake to him and before her speech, 45 .40. the wisdom of his heart flew away and disappeared. 41. Heabani to her also said to Harimtu: 42. I join to Samhat my companionship, 43. to the templs of Elli-tardusi the of Anu I shtar, 44. the dwelling of Izdubar the mii 45. who also like a bull towers over 46. I will meet him and see his power,1. I2.3. In Column V:R. 11 Thompson, � I·;:r11'{ i'1--'fff ,_ �1rr�:�11 �·lt. F-�,c!f �"f r J:.r . �rIC ait s [1 , I, V 98R. Campbell Thompson, THE EPIC OF GILGAMISH [1929]Tablet I, Column IV40. i-ta-rna-as-sum-ma ma-gir ka-ba-sa41. mu-du-u lib-ba-su i-se-'-a ib-ra42. il UEN.KI.DU a-na sa-si-ma izakkara(ra) s al ha-rim-t43. -ki sal sam-hat ki-ri-en-ni ia-a-si44. a-na bi el-lim k du-si mu-sab il m il s-tar45. a-sar ilu Gilgamis git-ma-lu e-mu-ki46. u -i rimi ug-da-as-sa-ru eli nise P147. a-na-ku lu-uk-ri-sum-ma da-an-n[is 1] [bi-ma]Tablet I, Column V1. [lu-us]-ri-ih ina lib Uruk ki a-na-ku-mi dan-nu2. [a-na-ku]-um-ma si-ma-tu u-nak-kar3. [sa i-n]a seri 1--du [da-a]n i-mu�ki-suR. Campbell Thompson, THE IC OF LGAMISH [lTablet I, Column IV40. Her counselE'en as spake it found favour, cons ous he was45. Tabl of his longingSome c�mpanion so II Up' ' 0 giin meMe, to1 sh is'I' Co lumn Vi n o'er men li anL I' I 11 summon m, len dl y ( ng throughII , too,al ruly),(is am mighty! 11 NayI s0 is! )I '(I) ' will (e'en)in whoseny。

历届诺贝尔生理学或医学奖获奖者简介

历届诺贝尔生理学或医学奖获奖者简介埃米尔〃阿道夫〃冯〃贝林（Emil Adolf von Behring），1854年～1917年，德国医学家，因研究白喉的血清疗法而获得1901年诺贝尔生理学或医学奖。

罗纳德〃罗斯（Ronald Ross），1857年～1932年，英国细菌学家，因发现疟原虫通过疟蚊传入人体的途径而获得1902年诺贝尔生理学或医学奖。

尼尔斯〃吕贝里〃芬森（Niels Ryberg Finsen），1860年～1904年，丹麦医学家，因率先使用光辐射疗法治疗皮肤病而获得1903年诺贝尔生理学或医学奖。

伊凡〃彼德罗维奇〃巴甫洛夫（Ivan Petrovich Pavlov），1849年～1936年，俄国生理学家、心理学家，因在消化生理学研究领域的巨大贡献而获得1904年诺贝尔生理学或医学奖。

罗伯特〃科赫（Robert Koch），1843年～1910年，德国细菌学家，因关于结核病方面的研究和发现而获得1905年诺贝尔生理学或医学奖。

卡米洛〃戈尔吉（Camillo Golgi），1844年～1926年，意大利医学家，因对神经系统结构的研究而获得1906年诺贝尔生理学或医学奖。

圣地亚哥〃拉蒙〃卡哈尔（Santiago Ramóny Cajal），1852年～1934年，西班牙病理学家、组织学家、神经学家，因对神经系统结构的研究而获得1906年诺贝尔生理学或医学奖。

夏尔〃路易〃阿方斯〃拉韦朗（Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran），1845年～1922年，法国医学家，因对原生动物在致病中作用的研究而获得1907年诺贝尔生理学或医学奖。

伊拉〃伊里奇〃梅契尼科夫（Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov），1845年～1916年，俄国微生物学家、免疫学家，因对免疫性的研究而获得1908年诺贝尔生理学或医学奖。

保罗〃埃尔利希（Paul Ehrlich），1854年～1915年，德国细菌学家、免疫学家，因发明“606”药品而获得1908年诺贝尔生理学或医学奖。

Altitude sickness

HUMAN ADAPTATION TO HIGH ALTITUDEAND TO SEA LEVELACID-BASE EQUILIBRIUM, VENTILATION AND CIRCULATIONIN CHRONIC HYPOXIAGustavo Zubieta-Calleja, MDHigh Altitude Pathology InstituteClinica IPPALa Paz,Bolivia Visiting Professor at the Panum Institute Faculty of Health SciencesUniversity of CopenhagenDenmarkE-mail: gzubietajr@Copenhagen, July 1st, 2007CONTENTSINTRODUCTION (7)CHAPTER A (11)ACID-BASE DISORDERS AT HIGH ALTITUDE (11)Normal values of blood gases at different altitudes (11)Arterial acid-base distribution curves at high altitude (11)Correction factors in {A} (15)CHAPTER B (18)SPORTS AT HIGH ALTITUDE (18)High altitude diving depths (18)Exercise at high altitude (19)Football at high altitude (21)CHAPTER C (23)BREATH-HOLDING AND CIRCULATION TIME AT HIGH ALTITUDE (23)Breath-holding at high altitude (23)Voluntary hyperventilation and breath-holding at high altitude (24)Defining circulation in relation to gravity (25)CHAPTER D (28)HYPO- AND HYPERVENTILATION AT HIGH ALTITUDE (28)Hypoventilation in CMS: an energy saving mechanism (28)Relativity applied to hyperventilation at high altitude (28)The increase of p a o2 through deep inspirations (30)The RQ is often different from R (30)CHAPTER E (33)CHRONIC MOUNTAIN SICKNESS (33)High altitude hematological terminology (33)The inadequate use of term “excessive polycythemia” (34)Low oxyhemoglobin saturation in CMS patients during exercise (35)Pulse oximetry in CMS (37)CHAPTER F (38)ADAPTATION TO HIGH ALTITUDE AND SEA LEVEL (38)Adaptation versus acclimatization (39)Effects of high altitude acclimatization (40)The increase in hematocrit during high altitude adaptation (40)High altitude residents suffer acute sea level sickness (43)Effects of low Altitude acclimatization (for highlanders) (44)Bloodletting (45)Bloodletting for space travel (46)Hypoxic environment in the space vehicles (47)CONCLUSIONS (48)CONCLUSIONS / SUMMARY in Danish (51)SYMBOLS AND UNITS (54)REFERENCES (58)To my beloved wife, Lucrecia De Urioste Limariño,for her kind and loving support during all these years ofresearch in Copenhagenand to my two daughters Natalia and Rafaela, for their interest, stimulus and with whom we enjoy so muchthe “ride in the train of life”.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSI am most grateful to:Gustavo Zubieta-Castillo (Sr), Poul-Erik Paulev, Luis Zubieta-Calleja, Nancy Zubieta-Calleja, Rosayda de Bersatti, Clotilde Calleja, Ole Siggaard-Andersen, Kirsten McCord, Kirsten Paulev, Carsten Lundby, Jørgen Warberg, Kristian Karlsen, Martiniano Vicente, High Altitude Pathology Institute, Instituto Geografico Militar, Armada Boliviana, Ejercito de Bolivia, University of Copenhagen, The Copenhagen University Library, and the Danish Society.INTRODUCTIONTwenty three years of medical practice and research at high altitude in the city of La Paz evolved into a dilemma upon arriving to Copenhagen four years ago. The author’s wife was sent on mission to the Bolivian Embassy and he had contacted Dr. Poul-Erik Paulev at the Panum Institute of Medical Physiology of the University of Copenhagen. The experience with high altitude medicine and physiology appeared of limited use in a country where the highest point is at 170 meters above sea level. Nevertheless, Dr Paulev showed keen interest in scientific collaboration, immediately upon arrival. We began to work jointly on a paper called “Essentials in the diagnosis of acid-base disorders and its high altitude application”. The first section is dedicated to a review and analysis of the historical and transcendental development in Acid-Base physiology born fundamentally here in Copenhagen. The second part is an application of the nomogram developed by Ole Siggaard-Andersen to high altitude, a subject thus far overlooked and important in intensive care life saving therapy. Scientific collaboration further extended to the Glostrup hospital with adaptation studies of the retina with Michael Larsen and football (soccer) at altitude matters at the August Krogh Institute with Jens Bangsbo.Close to 2 million people live in the city of La Paz, Bolivia, a modern bowl-shaped city, with altitudes ranging from 3100 m to 4100 m above sea level in the heart of the Andes. The airport, located at 4000 m, is enveloped by close to 600,000 inhabitants. The local mean barometric pressure at IPPA, our laboratory, is around 490 Torr (65% that of sea level). The partial pressure of oxygen molecules in the inspired air = 94 Torr is 1/3 less than at sea level. Similarly, the mean arterial partial pressure of oxygen = 60 Torr (7.99kPa) and of carbon dioxide = 30 Torr (3.99 kPa) are 1/3 and 1/4 less, respectively.Given the difficulty of attaining reliable data on altitude related pathologies, Dr. Gustavo Zubieta Castillo (Senior), a highly trained and experienced Bolivian physician, specialized in the field of cardio-respiratory physiology, created in 1970 "Clinica IPPA: del Instituto de Patologia de la Altura", an internationally prestigious medical Institute specialized in high altitude medicine. The author has worked in thisinstitution during 26 years as a medical doctor, research scientist, pulmonologist and professor.Travelers arriving to high altitude from sea level can present acute mountain sickness (AMS) and occasionally High Altitude Pulmonary Edema (HAPE) or High Altitude Cerebral Edema (HACE). IPPA also functions as a clinic attending local residents - whose medical test results and clinical problems differ from those at sea level. Residents with chronic pulmonary disease and those with sequelae from previous lung disease frequently suffer from Chronic Mountain Sickness. Most of the equipment and software is developed in the same Institute by the author, making the Institute highly sophisticated with on-line data acquisition. The equipment can be modified in short term, involving software or hardware setup, in order to carry out research.Until now, medicine in the Bolivian Andean region (and in many mountain areas of the world) is practiced according to sea level standards. Most physicians return from sea-level training, applying their up-to-date knowledge to high altitude residents encountering varied problems in doing so. At the same time, few scientific expeditions from abroad arrive, making only short period observations in basic physiology mostly applied to acute changes due to mountain ascent. However, the problems of permanent residents and the changes they suffer on descent to sea level are broadly overlooked. The “abundance” of oxygen at sea level is taken as a favorable event. For example, difficulties encountered by high altitude soccer players switching to high oxygen pressures at sea level, are disregarded and poorly understood. The complete adaptation times of both changes of altitude (going up or down) are important. A new system to measure full hematological adaptation is required and here presented. A formula of hematological adaptation or acclimatization periods is created giving numeric values to be used when going to any fixed altitude.The collaboration with Dr. Paulev has given rise to joint publications where high altitude data previously acquired over many years was analyzed applying Danish knowledge and experience in physiology. The following hypotheses were formulated:A. Are sea level acid-base charts suitable for diagnosis of disorders and theirtreatment at high altitude?B. Is it possible to improve the high altitude diving tables?8C. Is there a difference in circulation time between patients with chronicmountain sickness and normal residents at high altitude?D. Do Chronic Mountain Sickness (CMS) patients save energy by decreasingventilation and increasing the number of red cells, thereby achieving the most energy efficient mechanism of oxygen transport in order to sustain life?E. Can CMS be defined as polyerythrocythemia due to a broad spectrum ofmedical conditions?F. What is the explanation for acute, sub-acute and chronic mountains sickness athigh altitude? What are the physiologic changes of high altitude residents and temporary visitors to high altitude, upon return to sea level?The following are the peer reviewed and published papers that answer these questions;A. “ESSENTIALS IN THE DIAGNOSIS OF ACID-BASE DISORDERS ANDTHEIR HIGH ALTITUDE APPLICATION”.P.E. PAULEV, G.R. ZUBIETA-CALLEJA.JOURNAL OF PHYSIOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2005, 56, Supp 4, 155-170.B. “HIGH ALTITUDE DIVING DEPTHS”. P.E. PAULEV and G.R. ZUBIETA-CALLEJA.RESEARCH IN SPORTS MEDICINE. Volume 15, Issue 3 July 2007 , pages 213 – 223.C. “NON-INVASIVE MEASUREMENT OF CIRCULATION TIME USINGPULSE OXIMETRY DURING BREATH HOLDING IN CHRONICHYPOXIA”. G.R. ZUBIETA-CALLEJA, G. ZUBIETA-CASTILLO, P-E. PAULEV, L. ZUBIETA-CALLEJA. JOURNAL OF PHYSIOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2005, 56, Supp 4, 251-256.D. “HYPOVENTILATION IN CHRONIC MOUNTAIN SICKNESS: AMECHANISM TO PRESERVE ENERGY”.G.R. ZUBIETA-CALLEJA, P-E. PAULEV, L.ZUBIETA-CALLEJA, N. ZUBIETA-CALLEJA, G. ZUBIETA-CASTILLO.JOURNAL OF PHYSIOLOGY ANDPHARMACOLOGY 2006, 57, Supp 4, 425-430.E. “CHRONIC MOUNTAIN SICKNESS: THE REACTION OF PHYSICALDISORDERS TO CHRONIC HYPOXIA”.G. ZUBIETA-CASTILLO Sr, G.R. ZUBIETA-CALLEJA Jr, L. ZUBIETA-CALLEJA .JOURNAL OF PHYSIOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2006, 57, Supp 4,431-442.9F. “ALTITUDE ADAPTATION THROUGH HEMATOCRIT CHANGES”.G.R.ZUBIETA-CALLEJA, P-E. PAULEV, L. ZUBIETA-CALLEJA, & G. ZUBIETA-CASTILLO. JOURNAL OFPHYSIOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2007, 58, Suppl 5, 811.818Please note that reference within the following pages to these articles are enclosed in bold letters and brackets as in {A}. T his dissertation is by no means a review of all the scientific literature of every detail presented here, although in some areas there is comparison. The reason is that the material, herein presented, is quite extensive and a resume of original observations of over 36 years at the High Altitude Pathology Institute that has led to the current work at the University of Copenhagen. CMS is only touched briefly and is subject of discussion in other publications [1-6].1011CHAPTER AACID-BASE DISORDERS AT HIGH ALTITUDENormal values of blood gases at different altitudesAs the barometric pressure exponentially decreases with incrementing altitude, the P a O 2 and P a CO 2 both decrease as shown in Table 1. These are normal values from our laboratory in La Paz and the three lower rows only come from a few samples drawn under difficult conditions during mountain climbing. This data is shown here for comparison only. The altitude of major importance for this work is at 3510 m in our laboratories in the city of La Paz, a bowl shaped city in the Andes, ranging between 3100 m up to 4100 m.ALTITUDEm PB Torr P a CO 2 Torr (kPa ) P a O 2 Torr (kPa ) Sea Level 760 40 (5.33) 100 (13.33) 3510 (La Paz)49530 (3.99)60 (7.99)6400 344 20.7 (2.76) 38.1 (5.08) 7440 300 15.8 (2.11) 33.7 (4.49) 7830 288 14.3 (1.91) 32.8 (4.37) 8848*253 7.5 (1.00)29.5 (3.90)Table 1. Normal values of blood gases for different altitudes. * The Everest values are calculated [7].Arterial acid-base distribution curves at high altitudeAt the High Altitude Pathology Institute - Clinica IPPA, located at 3510 m above sea level in the city of La Paz [8], a computerized database containing 2431 records of blood gas studies recollected over 10 years, was analyzed. These had been run on a pHmK2 Radiometer Acid-Base Analyzer, properly calibrated according to the company's specifications. These results show the variation of blood acid-base values and blood gases in a high altitude population that lives a normal life that include all activities of a metropolis in spite of the chronic hypoxia. After excluding all the tests performed using supplementary oxygen, a total of 1865 records that included both sexes, with a meanweight of 64.52 ± 17.21 (SD) kg and a mean hemoglobin concentration of 10.4 ± 2.17 mM (16.85 ± 3.45 g%) gave the following results. Note that this refers to data taken from a medical center in order to observe a distribution pattern of patients at high altitude and is not to be taken as normal values.pH P a CO 2 Torr (kPa )Pa O 2 Torr (kPa )Mean = 7.38 29.4 (3.91) 52.4 (6.98) S.D. =0.19 6.9 (0.91) 9.8 (1.30)Table 2. The mean and standard deviation of the arterial blood gases of the IPPA database of 1865 patients.Fig. 1. Frequency pH distribution of arterial blood of 1865 patients at high altitude 3510 m.The high kurtosis curve in Fig. 1, shows that most patients had a normal pH of 7.4. This is because many were suffering from disease that did not compromise the acid-12base status of blood. However, the incidence of a pH of 7.5 is also important since at high altitude hyperventilation is one of the fundamental compensation mechanisms for acute hypoxia. Metabolic (or rarely respiratory) acidosis is present and a result of disease that is of the same characteristics as at sea level.Fig 2.P a O2 frequency distribution of 1865 patients examined at our laboratory in La Paz.The normal P a O2 is 60 Torr (7.99 kPa) in the capital of La Paz (Table 1). Fig. 2 shows a negatively skewed curve as the patients at high altitude with cardio-respiratory disease tend to have a decrease in the P a O2. On the far left there are some subjects that had a very low P a O2. These unusual cases led to further investigation and the description of the Triple Hypoxia Syndrome by Gustavo Zubieta-Castillo (Sr.) not detailed in this dissertation [9, 10]. These tolerance to low P a O2 values also led to the proposal of a new theory by Gustavo Zubieta-Castillo (Sr.) of human adaptation to the hypoxic levels of the summit of Mt. Everest [11, 12].13Fig 3. Distribution curve of the P a CO2 in 1865 patients including both sexes at 3510 m.Above 90 % of the patients have a P a CO2 below 40 Torr (5.33kPa) (Fig. 3). The average is at 29.4 as seen in Table 2, happens to be the same as the value of normal at 3510 shown on Table 2. This implies that although the average P a O2 can be lower at high altitude during disease, the average P a CO2 remains within the normal limits. It also shows that the highest values reached are around 57 and in some extreme but very isolated and serious cases up to 73 Torr (9.73kPa). At high altitude it is not possible to tolerate a high P a CO2.All medical centers in the world working above 2500 m of altitude are using sea level tables and nomograms to make acid-base corrections in critically ill patients. If the Siggaard-Andersen nomogram is observed in the city of La Paz (3510 m), where the normal P a CO2 = 30 Torr (3.99 kPa), the base deficit (currently renamed Titratable Hydrogen Ion Concentration) by its original author [13] and Titratable Hydrogen Ion concentration Difference from normal (THID) by us [14]) is found to be –5. However, the acid-base correction, is made to 0. A critically ill patient from diverse conditions,14such as post-operative, acute metabolic acidosis like in diabetes will be corrected to sea level values. This implies regulating the optimal cellular equilibrium to a different environment, where P a CO2 would be 40 Torr (5.33kPa) at a pH of 7.4. Clearly this is not the way to correct acid base disorders at any altitude as the Base Deficit increases exponentially with altitude following the barometric change (Fig. 4).Fig. 4. Shown here is the old Base deficit terminology and the actual high altitude values plotted against the barometric pressure with the current sea level Van Slyke formula. The equation corresponds to the best fit curve.In our report {A}, three tables are presented for different altitudes. These were developed based on the calculated value of P a CO2 at different altitudes and setting the 0 point of THID to these values. P a CO2 versus altitude was analyzed from data provided by different authors as explained in {A}.Correction factors in {A}The development of the corrected Van Slyke formula for high altitudes {A}, is herein developed and explained.15We initiate the application to high altitude by modifying the original Van Slyke formula.:THID = - 0.93 * ∆(HCO3-) + 14.6 * (pH-7.40) (1)where ∆ (HCO3-) = (actual bicarbonate) - 24.5 mM, for a hemoglobin concentration of 3 mM in eECF. This is due to the fact that the normal hemoglobin (at sea level) taken to be around 9.18 mM is divided by 3 as originally suggested by Ole Siggaard-Andersen, as he considers this to be the buffering capacity in the extended extra cellular fluid volume (eECF). Note that extended includes the extra-cellular fluid plus the red blood cell volume.The first constant factor 0.93 and the second constant factor 14.6 depend upon the hemoglobin concentration [15].The following formula shows the formula above (1) in detail:THID in eECF = (1 – ((Hb) / 43)) * (∆ (HCO3-) + βB * (pH-7.4)) (2)Where (Hb) = (Hb in mM)/3 in the eECF and∆ (HCO3-) = (actual HCO3-) - (Altitude HCO3-)(Altitude HCO3-) = -1.8 x (altitude in km) + 24.32 (3)The calculated mean altitude HCO3- values for the chosen altitudes (2500 m, 3500 m, and 4500 m) are 19.8, 18 and 16.2 mM, respectively. These go into the altitude formulas described below and shown in bold italic characters.The 43 factor above is an empirical constant accounting for plasma-erythrocyte bicarbonate distribution [15].Additionally the buffering capacity of a normally increased hemoglobin concentration at high altitude must be taken into account in order to be precise. The first term in the Van Slyke equation ((Hb) factor 1) is calculated based on the data from our aboratory: (Altitude Hb) = (Hb) + 0.2 * (altitude in km) (4) where (Hb) is the normal eECF sea level value of 3.16which results in 0.93, 0.92 and 0.91 at the three altitudes, respectively. The buffer valueof non-bicarbonate buffers in blood (βB) is calculated using these altitude Hbvalues and the formula:βB = 2.3 * (Hb) + 7.7 mM [15] (5) being 14.9, 15.1, and 16.7 mM at the 3 altitudes, respectively.Furthermore, one fundamental observation that is borne from this analysis is that the much lower bicarbonate buffer concentration at high altitude minimizes its buffer capacity, whereas the non-bicarbonate buffer capacity increases somewhat.These same calculations (equations 3 and 4 above) can be performed using the barometric pressure:(Altitude HCO3-) = 0.0256 x (PB in Torr) + 5.15 (6) (Altitude Hb) = (Hb) + (2.25 - 0.003 * (PB in Torr)). (7) Barometric pressure is taken into account, since most acid-base analyzers now have barometers included. Accordingly, the formulas for each level shown in the graphs in {A} are:At sea level:THID in eECF = -0.93 * (∆ (HCO3-) + 14.6 * ∆pH)where∆ (HCO3-) = (actual bicarbonate) - 24.5 mM.At 2500 m:THID in eECF = -0.93 * (∆ (HCO3-) + 14.9 * ∆pH)where ∆ (HCO3-) = (actual bicarbonate) - 19.8 mMAt 3500 m:THID in eECF = -0.92 * (∆ (HCO3-) + 15.1 * ∆pH)where ∆ (HCO3-) = (actual bicarbonate) - 18.0 mM.At 4500 m:THID in eECF = -0.91 * (∆ (HCO3-) + 16.7 * ∆pH)where ∆ (HCO3-) = (actual bicarbonate) - 16.2 mM.If the bicarbonate high altitude levels are used in the sea level equation, then the result will give a false THID. This is the reason for creating 3 tables for the altitudes (2000-2999, 3000-3999 and 4000-5000 m) in {A}.17CHAPTER B SPORTS AT HIGH ALTITUDEThe practice of sports at high altitude is a subject of growing interest worldwide. The practice of mountain climbing increases and brings forth further goals and challenges. The understanding of the physiology helps improve the quality and reduce the risks of these sports.High altitude diving depthsDiving at high altitude carries a higher risk as noted by Prof. Paulev upon a visit to the Bolivian Navy high altitude diving school, located on Lake Titicaca at 3600m. Several years back the US Navy visited the lake and brought along several divers, scientists and even pressure chambers. The deepest dive under controlled conditions was made to 15 meters. They developed tables with barometric corrections, but these were not complete and overlooked some aspects. We have introduced the Standard Equivalent Sea Depth (SESD) which allows conversion of the Actual Lake Diving Depth (ALDD) to an equivalent sea dive depth.SESD is defined as the sea depth in meters or feet for a standardized sea dive equivalent to a mountain lake dive at any altitude, such that:SESD = ALDD * [Nitrogen Ratio] * [Water density ratio]SESD = ALDD * [(760 – 47)/(P B - 47)] * [1000/1033]SESD = ALDD * [SESD factor]For this reason, it was found convenient to re-analyze the data following calculation of the SESD factor, we recommended the use of our diving table with 2 guidelines:1) The classical decompression stages (30,20, and 10 feet or 9,6, and 3 m)are corrected to the altitude lake level, dividing the stage depth by theSESD factor, including the water vapor pressure factor and thenitrogen ratio in {B}.182) The lake ascent rate during diving is equal to the Sea Ascent ratedivided by the SESD factor.The new diving table was presented at the 1st Symposium on the Effect of Chronic Hypoxia on Diseases at High Altitude. It is a contribution to safer diving at high altitude thereby reducing the risk of decompression sickness at the altitude of Lake Titicaca. The tables are now under evaluation at the naval diving school.Another study looked at the decompression sickness following seawater hunting using underwater scooters. (Hans Christian Møller Thorsen, Gustavo Zubieta-Calleja Jr. and Poul-Erik Paulev. In print at Research in Sports Medicine).Exercise at high altitudeThe metabolic carbon dioxide production divided by the simultaneous oxygen consumption equals the metabolic respiratory quotient (RQ) for all cells of the body. The ventilatory exchange ratio (R) equals the carbon dioxide elimination from the lungs divided by the simultaneous oxygen input.RQ equals R at respiratory steady state but otherwise not (see the section “The RQ is often different from R”).The accumulative sub-maximal work capacity of 17 male Aymara natives of La Paz, as evaluated and compared in three conditions: 1) La Paz (LP) 3510 m, PB = 495 Torr (66.0 kPa), PIO2 = 94 Torr (12.5 kPa). 2)Simulating Chacaltaya (SC) at the same altitude in the hyperoxic/hypoxic adaptation chamber with a PIO2 = 77 Torr (10.3 kPa) and 3) in the Chacaltaya Glass Pyramid Laboratory (CH), at 5200 m, PB = 398 Torr (53 kPa) and PIO2 = 74 Torr (9.8 kPa) [16],[17, 18]. ECG, V E, PEO2, P E CO2 and SaO2 (pulse oximetry) were measured on-line in a computerized system that calculated VO2, VCO2 and the ventilatory exchange ratio (R). The USAFM exercise treadmill protocol was utilized with 0/0, 2/0, 3/0, 3/5, 3/10, 4/10 (mph/Degrees) 3 minutes each stage. Expired air samples were taken near the end of each stage with automatic calibration software taking into account the barometric changes. Data analysis (mean ± SEM) at rest (standing on a treadmill) and at sub-maximal exercise was performed during the final minute of the 5th level of exercise (Table 3).19RestVO2 L/min VCO2 L/min R SaO2 % Pulse /min RLP 0.46 ± 0.12 0.50 ± 0.12 1.07 ± 0.14 90.4 ± 1.7 72.5 ± 6.0 SC 0.37 ± 0.20 0.51 ± 0.17 1.35 ± 0.31 84.4 ± 3.4 84.9 ± 13.7 CH 0.17 ± .08 0.22 ± .07 1.25 ± 0.15 82.1 ± 5.0 92.0 ± 11.4 Sub-maximal ExerciseE VO2 L/min VCO2 L/min R SaO2 % Pulse /min LP 3.76 ± 0.50 4.29 ± 0.71 1.14 ± 0.15 86.5 ± 1.8 142.3 ± 11.9 SC 3.16 ± 0.68 4.29 ± 0.53 1.35 ± 0.33 76.2 ± 3.3 151.2 ± 13.9 CH 1.37 ± 0.49 1.83 ± 0.27 1.33 ± 0.17 76.2 ± 6.1 152.4 ± 11.5 Table 3. Gas exchange, R, SaO2 and pulse as measured in 17 Aymara natives both at rest and at the end of a sub-maximal exercise.The Table 3 material is shown in detail graphically in Fig. 5 and Fig. 6.Fig 5. VO2 and VCO2 at rest and different stages of exercise in La Paz 3510 m. solid lines (shown here as IGM, which stands for Instituto Geografico Militar) and at Chacaltaya 5230 m in doted lines.20Fig. 6. Saturation, pulse and ventilation measured in La Paz (shown as IGM) and in Chacaltaya at rest and during the different stages of exercise (data From Table 6).The accumulative sub-maximal work capacity is essentially the same during the 3 different conditions at both altitudes in spite of a lower oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production at high altitude.Football at high altitudeTwo groups were tested for a football adventure. The Sajama Group (SG) were 7 healthy male Aymara natives (Age: 32.2 ± 5.7) born and living in the Sajama village at 4200 m at the base of the Sajama Mountain (6542 m), that work as guides and porters at the mountain Sajama and other high mountains in Bolivia. The La Paz group (LP) were 17 healthy Aymara male natives (Age: 21.3 ± 6.5) of the Bolivian army Instituto Geografico Militar (IGM), born and living in La Paz (3500 m), constantly in physical exercise. The USAFM exercise protocol described above was used once more.The SG maintains the SaO2 at rest and during the first 3 stages of exercise, and drops in the last two stages. In the LP group the SaO2 drops immediately at the start of exercise (Fig. 7).21Fig. 7. Comparison of the two groups Sajama (SG) and IGM normal residents both at La Paz (LP) during a sub-maximal treadmill exercise test..The SG ascended in 7 hours from the Sajama Village at 4200 m to the summit at 6542 m, prepared the soccer field, played 40 minutes intensely and returned to celebrate to the Sajama Village, all in 16 hours. This traduces a remarkable capacity to perform accumulative sub-maximal exercise at extreme altitudes. The football game played by the Bolivian Aymara on the summit of Mount Sajama at 6542 m in August 2nd, 2001, shows that even at that altitude, football is possible. One player vomited but continued to play. We have the video recording showing the game that lasted 20 minutes per side.Football (soccer) at high altitude is a subject of constant controversy in the Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA). In 2001 they vetoed world cup games in the city of La Paz. There was a social outcry and a defense of the practice of sports at high altitude. Now in June, 2007, the FIFA once more has proposed the same veto. Immediately after, the President of Bolivia, Evo Morales played a soccer game at 6000 m on Mount Sajama to prove that it is possible without AMS and no cases were reported. The BBC reported both events (2001 and 2007). Highland football players going to sea level can suffer the effects of “relative hyperoxia lag” (Table 11).22.CHAPTER C BREATH-HOLDING AND CIRCULATION TIMEAT HIGH ALTITUDEBreath-holding at high altitudeBreath holding produces respiratory and cardiac changes well documented at sea level [19-21]. The great variations in the low pulse oximetry saturation in normal residents at La Paz were observed with a new breath-holding (BH) technique. A computer was set up to display on-line, ventilation by pneumotachograph, infra-red capnography, and pulse oximetry (finger probe). The seated subject using a nose-clip and breathing in steady state through a mouthpiece during 2.5 minutes (1 screen), was asked to hold his breath at total lung capacity (TLC) up to the breaking point (beyond no-respiratory sensation).A typical graph of the saturation response is plotted, where two peaks are shown, one after deep inspiration and the other following the compensatory hyperventilation, with a low saturation in-between (Fig. 8). In fourteen non-trained normal native males (mean age 28.2 ± 7.81 S.D.) the average breath-holding time (BHt) was 65.2 ± 20.08 S.D. seconds. The resting saturation (x = 90.4% ± 1.34) rose to a peak saturation (SATmax) x = 97.1% ± 1.29 (p<0.0001), similar to sea level values, following maximum inspiration prior to BH at x = 34.9 ± 9.93 seconds (maxSATt), an unexpected long blood transit time. In spite of individual variations, saturation decreased after BH to an average of 78.0% ± 5.70.The first deep inspiration followed by hyperventilation induced at breaking point gave a second peak of saturation at 36.4 ± 10.59 seconds with a correlation of r=0.93 with respect to maxSATt. The end-tidal CO2 (ETCO2) remained constant with resting respiration (x = 29.0 ± 1.53 Torr) (3.87 ± 0.20kPa) and increased to x = 33.6 ± 1.90 Torr (4.48 ± 0.25kPa) (BH- ETCO2) at breaking point expiration (p <0.0001). The correlation between BHt and BH- ETCO2 was r = 0.66.23。

Silence of the Lambs, (1991)

Silence of the Lambs, (1991)1991, R-rated, 118 minutesNovel by Thomas HarrisDirected by Jonathan DemmeAwards: Best Picture, Best Actor, Best Actress, Best Director, Best Screenplay, Nominated for Best Film Editing and SoundCastClarice Starling Jodie FosterDr. Hannibal Lecter Anthony HopkinsJack Crawford Scott GlennJames Gumb/Buffloe Bill Ted LevineDr. Fredrick Chilton Anthony HealdCatherine Martin Brooke SmithSergeant Boyle Charles NapierSenator Ruth Martin Diane BakerArdelia Mapp Kasi LemmonsFBI Director Hayden Burke Roger CormanPilcher Paul LazarRoden Daniel ButlerSergeant Tate Danny DarstSwat Commander Chris IsaakPaul Krendler Ron VawterLamar Tracey WalterFBI Instructor Lawerence BonneyAgent Burroughs Lawerence WrentzBarney Frankie FaisonCreditsDirector Jonathan DemmeProducers Kenneth Utt, Edward Saxon, Ron BozmanExecutive Producers Gary GoetzmanEditor Craig McKay A.C.E.Cinematographer Tak FujimotoProduction Designer Kristi ZeaScreenplay Ted TallyCostumes Colleen AtwoodSet Designer Karen O‟HaraArt Direction Tim GalvinChapter 2: Opening credits/The Yellow Brick RoadBiography for Jonathan Demme, (Director)Date of birth 22 February 1944, Baldwin, Long Island, New York, USA, Spouse Evelyn Purcell and Joan HowardTrade mark∙Frequently uses Tak Fujimoto, as his director of photography.∙Characters looking directly into the camera∙Frequently uses New Order songs in the score of his movies.Trivia∙Awarded honorary degree by Wesleyan University (June 3, 1990)Biography from Leonard Maltin's Movie Encyclopedia:Quirky, engaging filmmaker who looks at genre films from a skewed perspective. Aformer critic and publicist, he got his start, as did so many others, with prolific producerRoger Corman, writing and/or producing such epics as Angels Hard as They Come (1971)and Black Mama, White Mama (1972). He directed three films for Corman: Caged Heat(1974, which he also wrote), Crazy Mama (1975), and Fighting Mad (1976, which he also wrote), all sex-and-violence mellers, but leavened with an offbeat sense of humor. His first film on his own was Citizens' Band (1977), a piquant study of CB radio operators. Despite rave reviews, it did no business at all (one New York theater ran it for free and still nobody came), even after its title was changed to Handle With Care.After a superb Hitchcock-style thriller, Last Embrace (1979), came Melvin and Howard (1980), a fantasia on the life of would-be Howard Hughes beneficiary Melvin Dummar. Despite more glowing notices and two Oscars, it too was a complete bust. Demme's first brush with Big Hollywood Stars, the Goldie Hawn vehicle Swing Shift (1984) was a career low point, but he bounced back with the extraordinary Talking Heads concert film, Stop Making Sense (also 1984). His reputation (and the grosses) grew with the unhinged comedy-thrillers Something Wild (1986) and Married to the Mob (1988), as well as Miami Blues (1990), which he produced. (He also directed another performance film, Spalding Gray's Swimming to Cambodia in 1987.) His commercial breakthrough finally came with the outstanding nail-biter The Silence of the Lambs (1991), which earned him an Oscar as Best Director. Typical of Demme's generosity toward young filmmakers, he spoke of exciting new talent in the directing ranks while giving his thank-you speech. Since then he's directed an extremely personal documentary about a most unusual member of his family, Cousin Bobby (1992), executive produced Household Saints (1993), and tackled the difficult subject of AIDS in Philadelphia (1993). Copyright © 1994 Leonard Maltin, used by arrangement with Signet, a division of Penguin Putnam, Inc.Director - filmography1.Manchurian Candidate, The (2004)2.Agronomist, The (2003)3.Truth About Charlie, The (2002)4.Beloved (1998)5.Storefront Hitchcock (1998)6.SUBWAYStories: Tales from the Underground (1997) (TV)plex Sessions, The (1994)8.Philadelphia (1993)9.Cousin Bobby (1992)10.Silence of the Lambs, The (1991)11.Famous All Over Town (1988)12.Married to the Mob (1988)13."Trying Times" (1987) TV Series14.Swimming to Cambodia (1987)15.Something Wild (1986)16."Alive From Off Center" (1984) TV Series17.Stop Making Sense (1984)18.Swing Shift (1984)19.Who Am I This Time? (1982) (TV)20.Melvin and Howard (1980)st Embrace (1979)22.Columbo: Murder Under Glass (1978) (TV)23.Handle with Care (1977)24.Fighting Mad (1976)25.Crazy Mama (1975)26.Caged Heat (1974)Producer - filmography1.Manchurian Candidate, The (2004) (producer)2.Agronomist, The (2003) (producer)3.Beah: A Black Woman Speaks (2003) (producer)4.Adaptation. (2002) (producer)5.Truth About Charlie, The (2002) (producer)6.Maangamizi: The Ancient One (2001) (executive producer)7.Opportunists, The (2000) (executive producer)8.Beloved (1998) (producer)9.Uttmost, The (1998) (producer)10.Shadrach (1998) (executive producer)11.SUBWAYStories: Tales from the Underground (1997) (TV)12.Courage and Pain (1996) (producer)13.Into the Rope (1996) (producer)14.Mandela (1996) (producer)15.That Thing You Do! (1996) (producer)16.Devil in a Blue Dress (1995) (executive producer)17.Roy Cohn/Jack Smith (1994) (executive producer)18.One Foot On a Banana Peel, the: (1994) (producer)19.Philadelphia (1993) (producer)20.Household Saints (1993) (executive producer)21.Amos & Andrew (1993) (executive producer) (uncredited)22.Women & Men 2: In Love There Are No Rules (1991) (TV)23.Miami Blues (1990) (producer)24.Something Wild (1986) (producer)25.Hot Box, The (1972) (producer)26.Angels Hard as They Come (1971) (producer)Writer - filmography1.Truth About Charlie, The (2002) (screenplay)2.Stop Making Sense (1984)dies and Gentlemen, the Fabulous Stains (1981)4.Fighting Mad (1976)5.Caged Heat (1974)6.Hot Box, The (1972) (script)7.Black Mama, White Mama (1972) (story)8.Angels Hard as They Come (1971)Jodie Foster was the second choice that Jonathan Demme had for this role. Jodie came into an audition interview session and explained how this role was similar to the type of roles which she had been so successful at and that she was interested in this female character, which was a role reversal. Meaning that here we have a woman as a hero rather than a victim, pursuer rather than pursued.When Ted Tally was writing the screenplay for the film, he suggested Jodie Foster for role of Clarice Starling. Foster had been lobbying hard for the part from the start but when Jonathan Demme was hired to direct the film, he felt she was wrong for the part and wanted Michelle Pfeiffer instead. Pfeiffer turned the part down because she felt the film was too violent. Demme then agreed to meet Foster and hired her after only one meeting because he said he could see her strength and determination for the part that he felt was perfect for the character of Clarice. When Jonathan Demme took over as director, he offered the role of Clarice first to Michelle Pfeiffer and also to Meg Ryan. Robert Duvall was considered for the role of Hannibal Lecter,and Jeremy Irons turned it down. The role of Hannibal Lecter was originally offered to Brian Cox (who played the role in Manhunter (1986)).The inspiration for the Silence of the Lambs was the real life relationship between University of Washington criminology professor and profiler Robert Keppel and real life serial killer Ted Bundy. Bundy helped Keppel in his investigation of the Green River Serial Killings in Washington. While Bundy was executed 24 January 1989, the Green River Killings went unsolved until 2001 when Gary Ridgway was arrested. On 5 November 2003, Ridgway pleaded guilty to 48 counts of aggravated first degree murder in a King County, Washington (Seattle) courtroom.Jodie Foster, Jonathan Demme and Scott Glenn - and a few other cast and crew members - did a great deal of research at the FBI training facility in Quantico, Virginia. They studied under criminal profiling agents, learned about firearms and agent training, and sat in on a number of classes.Biography for Jodie Foster (Clarice Starling)Date of birth 19 November 1962, Los Angeles, California, USA, Birth name Alicia Christian Foster Height 5' 3½"Mini biography Jodie Foster started her career at the age of two. For four years shemade commercials and finally gave her debut as an actress in the TV series"Mayberry R.F.D." (1968). In 1975 Jodie was offered the role of the prostitute Iris inthe movie Taxi Driver (1976). This role, for which she received an Academy Awardnomination in the "Best Supporting Actress" category, marked a breakthrough in hercareer. In 1980 she graduated as the best of her class from the College LycéeFrançais and began to study English Literature at Yale University, from where shegraduated magna cum laude in 1985. One tragic moment in her life was March 30th,1981 when John Warnock Hinkley Jr. attempted to assassinate the President of theUnited States, Ronald Reagan. Hinkley was obsessed with Jodie and the movie TaxiDriver (1976) in which Travis Bickle, played by Robert De Niro, tried to shootpresidential candidate Palantine. Despite the fact that she never took acting lessons,she received two Oscars before she was thirty years of age. She received her firstaward for her part as Sarah Tobias in Accused, The (1988) and the second one forher performance as Clarice Starling in Silence of the Lambs, The (1991).Trivia∙Majored in literature at Yale; graduated magna cum laude in 1985∙Received honorary Doctorate from Yale University. [1997]∙John F. Hinckley Jr. claimed that he attempted to kill President Reagan in order to impress her.∙Graduated in 1980 as the class valedictorian from the private academy Lycée Français in Los Angeles.∙Made her acting debut in a Coppertone suntan lotion commercial when she was 3 years old. Has said that her only regret is that she would love to live life without knowing what it's like to be famous.∙Received an Honorary Degree from Smith College in Northampton, Massachusetts.∙Gave the Class Day speech at Yale in 1993 and received an honorary Doctor of Fine Arts degree from Yale in 1997.∙Got the role of Clarice Starling in Silence of the Lambs, The (1991) after Michelle Pfeiffer turned it down.∙Measurements: 34B-24-33 1/2 (Souce: Celebrity Sleuth magazine)∙Has been in a serious relationship with Cydney Bernard since they met in 1993 on the set of the movie Sommersby (1993).Biography from Leonard Maltin's Movie Encyclopedia: Intense, talented young woman whose determination and artistic daring have made her one of the top actresses in Hollywood. Foster's career began early; as a child model and performer, she was managed by her mother-who, among other accomplishments, got young Jodie a modeling job as one of the bare-bottomed tykes in the Coppertone ads. Her first film was Napoleon and Samantha (1972), a Disney outing that cast her as a runaway. By the time she was a teenager, Foster already had several Hollywood pictures to her credit, including One Little Indian (1973), Tom Sawyer (1973), Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (1975), and Echoes of a Summer (1976), in addition to three interesting films: an early Martin Scorsese picture, Alice Doesn't Live Here Anymore (1974), playing a tough tomboy; Bugsy Malone (1976), a gangster spoof cast entirely with children, in which she plays a tough dame who's pelted with whipped cream "bullets" in the finale; and Freaky Friday (1977), an amusing Disney comedy in which she switched identities with onscreen mom Barbara Harris. (She also costarred with Helen Hayes and David Niven in another 1977 Disney comedy, Candleshoe) Scorsese, impressed with Foster, cast her as a teenaged prostitute opposite Robert De Niro in Taxi Driver (1976). Foster's startling performance in that film brought her more attention than she ever could have imagined. In addition to earning an Oscar nomination for Best Supporting Actress, her portrayal made Foster the object ofobsessive fixation for one John Hinckley, who attempted to assassinate President Reagan on her behalf. By then, Foster had enrolled at Yale University, where she studied literature (and not acting: Foster is an instinctual actress and has never received formal theatrical training). During school vacations, she managed to appear in several features, including Carny (1980), Foxes (1980), and The Hotel New Hampshire (1984), before graduating in 1985. Already fascinated by behind-the-camera work, Foster coproduced one of her starring vehicles, 1986's Mesmerized She delivered mature, accomplished performances in the little-seen Siesta (1987), Five Corners and Stealing Home (both 1988). But it was as a lower-class rape victim defending her character in The Accused (1988) that Foster galvanized audiences and won herself a Best Actress Oscar-a feat she repeated in 1991 for her portrayal of federal agent Clarice Starling in the megahit thriller The Silence of the Lambs making her one of Hollywood's hottest properties. Having made her directorial debut with an episode of TV's "Tales from the Darkside," she entered the feature-film arena with Little Man Tate (1991). As director and star, Foster turned in an exceptional job, telling the story of a child prodigy-a character with whom she could certainly empathize. Her cameo in Woody Allen's Shadows and Fog (1992) brought Foster back to a role she'd played at age 12: a prostitute. She costarred with Richard Gere in Sommersby (1993) giving another affecting performance, and appeared in 1994's Maverick. Foster scored another Best Actress nomination for her portrayal of a backwoodswoman in Nell (1994), the first film made by her own company, Egg Productions. She then directed Home for the Holidays.Copyright © 1994 Leonard Maltin, used by arrangement with Signet, a division of Penguin Putnam, Inc.Actress - filmography1.Tusker (2004) (voice)2.Flightplan (2005)3.Un long dimanche de fiançailles (2004) Elodie Gordes4.Panic Room (2002) Meg Altman5.Dangerous Lives of Altar Boys, The (2002) Sister Assumpta6.Anna and the King (1999) Anna Leonowens7.Contact (1997) Eleanor Ann 'Ellie' Arroway8.Nell (1994) Nell Kellty9.Maverick (1994) Mrs. Annabelle Bransford10.Sommersby (1993) Laurel11.Shadows and Fog (1992) Prostitute12.Little Man Tate (1991) Dede Tate13.Silence of the Lambs, The (1991) Clarice Starling14.Catchfire (1990) Anne Benton15.Rabbit Ears: The Fisherman and His Wife (1989) Storyteller16.Accused, The (1988) Sarah Tobias17.Stealing Home (1988) Katie Chandler18.Siesta (1987) Nancy19.Five Corners (1987) Linda20.Mesmerized (1986) Victoria21.Sang des autres, Le (1984) Hélène22.Hotel New Hampshire, The (1984) Frannie Berry23.Svengali (1983) (TV) Zoe Alexander24.O'Hara's Wife (1982) Barbara O'Hara25.Carny (1980) Donna26.Foxes (1980) Jeanie27.Candleshoe (1977) Casey Brown28.Casotto (1977) Teresina Fedeli29.Moi, fleur bleue (1977) Isabelle Tristan, AKA Fleur bleue30.Little Girl Who Lives Down the Lane, The (1976) Rynn 31.Freaky Friday (1976) Annabel Andrews32.Bugsy Malone (1976) Tallulah33.Taxi Driver (1976) Iris Steensma34.Echoes of a Summer (1976) Deirdre Striden35.Secret Life of T.K. Dearing, The (1975) (TV) T.K.36.Alice Doesn't Live Here Anymore (1974) Audrey37."Paper Moon" (1974) TV Series Addie Pray38.Smile, Jenny, You're Dead (1974) (TV) Liberty Cole39."Bob & Carol & Ted & Alice" (1973) Elizabeth H (1973)40.One Little Indian (1973) Martha McIver41.Rookie of the Year (1973) (TV) Sharon Lee42."Addams Family, The" (1973) TV Series Pugsly Addams43.Alexander, Alexander (1973) (TV) Sue44.Tom Sawyer (1973/I) Becky Thatcher45."Amazing Chan and the Chan Clan, The" (1972) (voice)Anne46.Kansas City Bomber (1972) Rita47.Napoleon and Samantha (1972) Samantha48.Menace on the Mountain (1970) (TV) Suellen McIver Producer - filmography1.Flora Plum (2005) (producer)2.Dangerous Lives of Altar Boys, The (2002) (producer)3.Waking the Dead (2000/I) (executive producer)4.Baby Dance, The (1998) (TV) (executive producer)5.Home for the Holidays (1995) (producer)6.Nell (1994) (producer)7.Mesmerized (1986) (co-producer)Director - filmography1.Flora Plum (2005)2.Home for the Holidays (1995)3.Little Man Tate (1991)4."Tales from the Darkside" (1984) TV SeriesThe opening scene was to be a woman crashing through a door and taking on a terrorist in a rehearsal situation, similar to the scene which follows this one, however,Jodie Foster was able to convince them that she needed to be seen intraining first.Jonathan Demme stated that Jodie was in such great physical shape forthis role, she was able to climb that rope fence with the same amount ofenergy on take twenty as she did on the first take.00:2:54 This gentleman running here is a real FBI agent who acted inthe film, the sign on the tree is what is really located here on theirtraining track, it was not a set decoration.0:03:03 The motto for the FBI is present on this tree, HURT, AGONY, PAIN, LOVE IT, of course this was the same motto for my failed marriage.0:03:29 Jodie Foster attended this school in Quantico, West Virginia, to learn how to (1) shoot, (2) finger printing and (3) autopsies and to meet the individuals who study here.Jodie Foster enrolled in John Douglas‟s class on Serial Killers and their patterns. What Jodie Foster learned by attending and visiting this school is that there are people in this world that really do want to make this world a better and safer place for all of us. They want to be part of the solution and not a part of the problem with society today. Jodie Foster herself stated that she is a service oriented personality. She always had to have good grades in school, she always had to be on time, never missing anything, and is she was late she would break out in hives. Which is nice because it matches the character of Clarice Starling in the film, there are several similarities to the character she is playing and Jodie Fosters real personality.0:04:13 John Douglas, an FBI agent who worked on this production as a consultant, stated that only about one out of a dozen agents is a woman, and so this is illustrated in the elevator shot.Jonathan Demme stated that he had a strong loyalty to the book, by Thomas Harris, which was his guiding point in making the film, and the strength that is seen on screen, comes from the book.Factual errors: Clarice claims to have double-majored in criminology and psychology at the University of Virginia. Criminology has never been a major offered at UVA.Continuity: Jack Crawford's collar pops in and out of his vest during a conversation with Clarice Starling.Biography for Thomas Harris (author)Date of birth 1940, Jackson, Mississippi, USAMini biography Thomas Harris was born in 1940 in Jackson, Mississippi, USA. He was raised in thenearby town of Rich where his father worked as a farmer. He earned his bachelor's degree in Englishfrom Baylor University in Texas in 1964. While attending school he also worked for the localnewspaper. After graduating, Harris traveled Europe for a time. Back in the USA, he worked for theAssociated Press out of New York. Not coincidentally, his duties for the press included coveringmurders and other crimes. This helped fuel his imagination in the fictional world and he began towrite macabre stories for magazines that began to show his attention for detail that would make hissubsequent novels so popular. In 1975 he wrote his first novel, Black Sunday, about a diabolical plotto kill thousands with a blimp during the Superbowl. Perhaps ahead of his time, the terrorism of 11September, 2001 led to many stadiums being turned into no-fly zones due to fears of a similar attack.The book was turned into a film - Black Sunday (1977) - a very short two years after being published.Following its success, he devoted his career entirely to fictional novelization. In 1981, Harris wrotehis first book in the Hannibal Lector trilogy, Red Dragon. Though the character of Lector did notbecome famous (or infamous, as the case may be) for another decade, the book did spark a loosely-based movie, Manhunter (1986), which was quickly dismissed at first, grossing back only about halfits cost. Then in 1988, Harris wrote another novel about the character Lector, The Silence of the Lambs. This time he gave the character more of a presence, although he still did not dominate the book. When this was turned into a film three years later as Silence of the Lambs, The (1991), it became an instant hit and swept the "big 5" at the Academy Awards, becoming only the third movie to do so. After the success of The Silence of the Lambs in both movie and book form, there became a growing demand among fans - and film producer Dino De Laurentiis - for there to be another chapter in the Hannibal Lector series. It took 11 years between novels, but Harris finally delivered again in 1999 with best-selling novel Hannibal. It was made into a film two years later in Hannibal (2001) and, although dismissed by some critics and fans for straying from the book in parts, it set opening records in box office sales for an R-rated film. Because of the large box office take and the fact that Anthony Hopkins, who won an Oscar for his role in the second Lector film, did not play Lector in Manhunter (1986), De Laurentiis and Harris came to terms to make a second version of the first book, this time properly titled Red Dragon (2002). This film version was more in keeping with the book thanthe first film was. Unable to escape from being known as the man who created Lector, Harris again agreed to make not only another novel on the character, but to write the material for the film adaptation as well. This will be known as Lecter Variation: The Story of Young Hannibal Lecter, The (2005) . Harris currently resides in Miami, Florida and Sag Harbor, New York, USA.TriviaWhile he was in Italy researching for his book "Hannibal", Thomas Harris attended to the trial of the serial killer known as the Monster of Florence.Writer - filmography1.Lecter Variations, The (2005) (announced)2.Red Dragon (2002) (novel Red Dragon)3.Hannibal (2001) (novel Hannibal)4.Silence of the Lambs, The (1991) (novel)5.Manhunter (1986) (novel Red Dragon)6.Black Sunday (1977) (novel)Chapter 3 (0:04:48) “You don‟t want Hannibal Lecter in your head”Then Secretary of Labor, Elizabeth Dole's, Washington, D.C. office doubled for that of the F.B.I. director's office in the movie. Scott Glenn's character of Jack Crawford was based on real-life detective John Douglas. Douglas spent time with Glenn to coach him.John Douglas explains that a serial killer kills and then he goes through a cooling off period. That period can last hours, days and years. The reason it can be an extensive period of time is because they have picked up trophies and souvenirs form the victims. That may include; body parts, clothing or jewelry. In between each of their kills, they will use their trophy item as source of fantasy to relive the crime that they have committed.0:05:19 When the FBI profiles a case, they spread out the victims photographs on the wall, which you are about to see on screen. They will look at the crime scene photos and the autopsies photos of the victims; they are looking for a clue a signature by the killer. Now Clarice should be used to these types of photographs in the office, as she would have studied such shots in school. 0:06:19 In the movie she is a graduate of the University of Virginia, so she is coming from the academic environment, Jodie Foster is a graduate of Yale University with a degree in Literature, now she is getting down to the dirt of the job.Scott Glenn is actually portraying John Douglas, the FBI agent who helped with this film. Jodie Foster stated that Scott is not at all like John. John was light, funny, has dimples, tall and handsome, but when you meet John Douglas you find it hard to believe that this is what he does for a living, when you meet Scott Glenn, you believe that this could be hiscareer.Biography for Scott Glenn (Agent Crawford)Date of birth 26 January 1941, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA, Height 6' 2"Mini biography Scott Glenn was born January, 26, 1941, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. As he grew up inAppalaches, his health was poor; he was bed-ridden for a year and doctors predicted he would limp for the rest ofhis life. During long periods of illness Glenn was reading a lot and "dreaming of becoming Lord Byron". Hechallenged his illness by intense training programs and eventually got rid of his limp. After school Glenn enteredWilliam and Mary College where he majored in English. He spent three years in the Marines and then tried tocombine his passion for storytelling with his passion for adventures by working for five months as criminalreporter in "Kenosha Daily Tribune". Glenn planned to become an author but found out he had "problems withdialogs", so he decided to overcome it by studying acting. In 1966 he headed to New York where he joined GeorgeMorrison acting class. He helped in directing student plays to pay for his studies and appeared onstage in La MaMa Experimental Theatre Club productions. Soon after arriving to New York, Glenn became a fan of martial arts. In 1968 he joined The Actors Studio and began working in professional theatre and TV. In 1970 James Bridges offered him his first movie work in Baby Maker, The (1970). Glenn left for L.A. where he spent seven "most miserable years of his life". He couldn't find interesting film roles and, doing brief TV stints, he felt "like a person who had to paint the Sistine Chapel with a house-painter's brush". On a brighter side, he worked episodically with Jonathan Demme (Angels Hard as TheyCome (1971), Fighting Mad (1976)), Robert Altman (Nashville (1975)) and Francis Ford Coppola (Apocalypse Now (1979 ). In 1978 Glenn got tired of Hollywood and moved his family to Ketchum, Idaho., where he worked as barman, huntsman and mountain ranger for two years (occasionally acting in Seattle stage productions). James Bridges once more changed the course of Glenn's life in 1980 when he offered him the role of Travolta's rival in Urban Cowboy (1980) and made him a star. Glenn's acting abilities and physical presence helped him to excel both in action (Silverado (1985), Challenge, The (1982)) and drama (Right Stuff, The (1983), Countdown to Looking Glass (1984) (TV), River, The (1984)) as he alternately played good guys and bad guys. In the beginning of the 90s his career was at its peak - he appeared in such indisputable masterpieces as Silence of the Lambs, The (1991), Hunt for Red October, The (1990)and Player, The (1992). Later he gravitated toward more kinky stuff, such as black Freudian farce Reckless (1995/I), tragicomedy Edie & Pen (1997) and Ken Loach's socio-political declaration Carla's Song (1996). Today Glenn alternates mainstream (Courage Under Fire (1996), Absolute Power (1997)), with independent projects (Lesser Prophets (1997) and Larga distancia (1998), written by his daughter Dakota Glenn) and TV (Naked City: A Killer Christmas (1998) (TV)). Spouse Carol Schwartz, 1967-present, two childrenBiography from Leonard Maltin's Movie Encyclopedia: Hollywood doesn't crank out many Westerns these days more's the pity for this muscular, craggy featured actor (and ex-Marine), who's shown he's a natural in the saddle in such oaters as Cattle Annie and Little Britches (1981), Silverado (1985), and the rodeo drama My Heroes Have Always Been Cowboys (1991). Though active in the 1970s, with small parts in films ranging from Nashville (1975) and Apocalypse Now (1979) to Angels Hard as They Come (1971) and Fighting Mad (1976), Glenn made a major impression on viewers as the vicious barfly in Urban Cowboy (1980). (Months earlier, he'd impressed everybody else by rescuing three small children from drowning.) Since then, he's wisely varied his roles, appearing as a swordsman/boxer in The Challenge a tough-but-fair track coach in Personal Best (both 1982), astronaut Alan Shepard in The Right Stuff an alien man hunter in The Keep (both 1983), a sleazy land-grabber in The River (1984), an ailing ex-boyfriend in Miss Firecracker (1989), a determined sub captain in The Hunt for Red October (1990), a coolly efficient FBI agent in The Silence of the Lambs and a bigoted firefighter in Backdraft (both 1991). More recently he appeared in Tall Tale (1995). Glenn's sober-sided screen persona may limit his choice of roles; he has been warm and casual, but you'd be hard pressed to see him in a performance described as "light" or "breezy." Nonetheless, he merits our continued attention and appreciation.Copyright © 1994 Leonard Maltin, used by arrangement with Signet, a division of Penguin Putnam, Inc.Actor - filmography1."Gone But Not Forgotten" (2004) (mini) Peter Lake2.Homeland Security (2004/I) (TV) Joe Johnson3.Puerto Vallarta Squeeze (2003) Clayton Price4.Painted House, A (2003) (TV) Eli 'Pappy' Chandler5.Shipping News, The (2001) Jack Buggit6.Seventh Stream, The (2001) (TV) Owen Quinn7.Buffalo Soldiers (2001) Sgt. Lee8.Training Day (2001) Roger9.Vertical Limit (2000) Montgomery Wickst Marshal, The (1999) Cole11.Virgin Suicides, The (1999) Father Moodyrga distancia (1998) Senor Grem13.Naked City: A Killer Christmas (1998) (TV) Sgt. Muldoon14.Naked City: Justice with a Bullet (1998) (TV) Sgt. Muldoon15.Firestorm (1998) Wynt Perkins16.Lesser Prophets (1997) Iggy17.Edie & Pen (1997) Harry Hawkins18.Absolute Power (1997) Bill Burton, Service19.Carla's Song (1996) Bradley20.Courage Under Fire (1996) Tony Gartner21.Reckless (1995/I) Lloyd22.Tall Tale (1995) J.P. Stiles23.Flight of the Dove, The (1994) William Rickman24.Night of the Running Man (1994) David Eckhart25.Slaughter of the Innocents (1994) Stephen B26.Past Tense (1994) (TV) Gene Ralston27.Extreme Justice (1993) Dan Vaughn28.Shadowhunter (1993) (TV) Cain, John29.Women & Men 2: In Are No Rules (1991) Henry30.Backdraft (1991) John 'Axe' Adcox31.My Heroes Have Always Been Cowboys (1991) 32.Silence of the Lambs, The (1991) Jack Crawford33.Hunt for Red October, The (1990) Mancuso34.Miss Firecracker (1989) Mac Sam35.Outside Woman, The (1989) (TV) Jesse Smith36.Intrigue (1988) (TV) Crawford37.Off Limits (1988) Col. Dexter Armstrong38.Verne Miller Story, The (1987) Verne Miller39.Man on Fire (1987) Creasy40.As Summers Die (1986) (TV) Willie Croft41.Wild Geese II (1985) John Haddad42.Silverado (1985) Emmett43.River, The (1984) Joe Wade44.Countdown to Looking Glass (1984) (TV) Michael Boyle45.Keep, The (1983) Glaeken Trismegestus46.Right Stuff, The (1983) Capt. Alan Shepard Jr.47.Challenge, The (1982) Rick48.Personal Best (1982) Terry Tingloff49.Cattle Annie and Little Britches (1981) Bill Dalton50.Urban Cowboy (1980) Wes Hightower51.Apocalypse Now (1979) Lt. Richard M. Colby52.More American Graffiti (1979) Newt53.She Came to the Valley (1979) Bill Lester54.Fighting Mad (1976) Charlie Hunter55.Nashville (1975) Pfc. Glenn Kelly56.Hex (1973) Jimbang57.Gargoyles (1972) (TV) James Reeger58.Angels Hard as They Come (1971) Long John59.Baby Maker, The (1970) Tad Jacks60."Edge of Night, The" (1956) Calvin (1969)Stunts - filmography1.Backdraft (1991) (stunts)0:07:48 Jodie Foster states that this was her favorite character she has ever played. This is a woman who is not very flashy, but someone you can respect, a person who speaks very carefully. Here is a set-up, Crawford sets Clarice up here. He states you don‟t want him in your mind, but that is exactly what is going to happen, it is what he dares not do with Lecter, so he sends a woman rookie。

改变世界的50本环保著作

以下为英国卫报选出的改变世界的50本环保著作1、《沙乡年鉴》，阿尔多-李奥帕德(1949年)2、《寂静的春天》，卡尔逊(1962年)3、《任何速度都不安全》，拉尔夫-纳德(1965年)4、《人口爆炸》，保罗-埃里奇(1968年)5、《地球号太空船操作手册》，富勒(1969年)6、《增长的极限》，丹尼斯-米都斯等(1972年)7、《小的是美好的》，舒马赫(1973年)8、《盖亚》，詹姆斯-洛夫洛克(1979年)9、《转折点》，弗-卡普拉(1982年)10、《我们共同的未来》，世界环境与发展委员会( 1987年)11、《地球的梦想》，托马斯-贝利(1988年)12、《比债务更糟糕的命运》，苏珊-乔治(1988年)13、《活着》，范达娜-席瓦(1989年)14、《绿色经济蓝图》，皮尔斯等(1989年)15、《为了共同的善》，赫尔曼-达利伊(1989年)16、《人类的全面发展》，里夫(1989年)17、《改变经营之道》，斯密德亨尼、可持续发展企业委员会(1992年)18、《商业生态学》，霍肯(1993年)19、《特立独行》，里卡多-塞姆勒(1993年)20、《当公司统治世界》，戴维-克顿(1995年)21、《生物模拟》，珍妮-班娜斯(1997年)22、《餐叉食人族》，约翰-埃尔金顿(1997年)23、《饥饿的灵魂》，查尔斯-汉迪(1997年)24、《穷人的银行家》，穆罕默德-尤努斯(1998年)25、《全球资本主义危机》，索罗斯(1998年)26、《四倍跃进》，恩斯特-乌尔利希-冯-魏茨泽克等(1998年)27、《伪黎明》，约翰-格雷(1998年)28、《以自由看待发展》，阿玛蒂亚-森(199年)29、《NO LOGO：颠覆品牌全球统治》-娜奥米-克莱恩(1999年)30、《自然资本论》，保罗-霍肯等(1999年)31、《打造美体小铺》，安妮塔-罗迪克(2000年)32、《资本的秘密》，赫尔南多-索托(2000年)33、《民用企业》，西蒙-察德克(2001年)34、《快餐国家》，艾力克-施洛瑟(2001年)35、《多疑的环境保护论者》，隆伯格(2001年)36、《摇篮到摇篮》，威廉-麦唐纳等(2002年)37、《全球化的许诺与失落》，约瑟夫-斯蒂格利茨(2002年)38、《大企业》，巴肯(2004年)39、《修练的轨迹》，彼得-圣吉(2004年)40、《金字塔底层的财富》，帕赫拉德(2004年)41、《变黑的河流》，伊丽莎白(2004年)42、《资本主义：仿佛世界是举足轻重的》，波里特(2005年)43、《十字路口的资本主义》，哈特(2005年)44、《崩溃》，贾雷德-戴蒙德(2005年)45、《贫困的终结》，杰弗里-萨克斯(2005年)46、《巨变》，欧文-拉兹洛(2006年)47、《灼热》，乔治-蒙比尔特(2006年)48、《难以忽视的真相》，阿尔-戈尔(2006年)49、《河流干枯时》，弗莱德-皮尔斯(2006年)50、《气候变化经济学》，尼古拉斯-斯特恩(2007年)英文对照1 A Sand County Almanac Aldo Leopold (1949)2 Silent Spring Rachel Carson (1962)3 Unsafe At Any Speed Ralph Nader (1965)4 The Population Bomb Paul L. Ehrlich (1968)5 Operating Manual for Spaceship Earth R. Buckminster Fuller (1969)6 The Limits to Growth Donella H. Meadows, Dennis L. Meadows, J?rgen Randers and William W. Behrens III (1972)7 Small Is Beautiful E.F. Schumacher (1973)8 Gaia James Lovelock (1979)9 The Turning Point Fritjof Capra (1982)10 Our Common Future (‘The Brundtland Report’) World Commission onEnvironment and Development (1987)11 The Dream of the Earth Thomas Berry (1988)12 A Fate Worse Than Debt Susan George (1988)13 Staying Alive Vandana Shiva (1989)14 Blueprint for a Green Economy David Pearce, Anil Markandya and Edward B. Barbier (1989)15 For the Common Good Herman Daly and John B. Cobb Jr (1989)16 Human Scale Development Manfred Max-Neef (1989)17 Changing Course Stephan Schmidheiny and Business Council for Sustainable Development (BCSD) (1992)18 The Ecology of Commerce Paul Hawken (1993)19 Maverick Ricardo Semler (1993)20 When Corporations Rule the World David C. Korten (1995)21 Biomimicry Janine M. Benyus (1997)22 Cannibals with Forks John Elkington (1997)23 The Hungry Spirit Charles Handy (1997)24 Banker to the Poor Muhammad Yunus (1998)25 The Crisis of Global Capitalism George Soros (1998)26 Factor Four Ernst von Weizs?cker, Amory B. Lovins and L. Hunter Lovins (1998)27 False Dawn John Gray (1998)28 Development as Freedom Amartya Sen (1999)29 No Logo Naomi Klein (1999)30 Natural Capitalism Paul Hawken, Amory B. Lovins and L. Hunter Lovins (1999)31 Business as Unusual Anita Roddick (2000)32 The Mystery of Capital Hernando de Soto (2000)33 The Civil Corporation Simon Zadek (2001)34 Fast Food Nation Eric Schlosser (2001)35 The Skeptical Environmentalist Bj?rn Lomborg (2001)36 Cradle to Cradle William McDonough and Michael Braungart (2002)37 Globalization and its Discontents Joseph E. Stiglitz (2002)38 The Corporation Joel Bakan (2004)39 Presence Peter Senge, C. Otto Scharmer, Joseph Jaworski and Betty Sue Flowers (2004)40 The Fortune at the Bottom of the Pyramid C.K. Prahalad (2004)41 The River Runs Black Elizabeth C. Economy (2004)42 Capitalism as if the World Matters Jonathon Porritt (2005)43 Capitalism at the Crossroads Stuart L. Hart (2005)44 Collapse Jared Diamond (2005)45 The End of Poverty Jeffrey D. Sachs (2005)46 The Chaos Point Ervin Laszlo (2006)47 Heat George Monbiot (2006)48 An Inconvenient Truth Al Gore (2006)49 When the Rivers Run Dry Fred Pearce (2006)50 The Economics of Climate Change Nicholas Stern (2007)。

冷战时期美国对智利阿连德政府的政策_贺喜

144
冷战时期美国对智利阿连德政府的政策
① 詹姆渐变得对阿连德不利；卢巴纳 · 扎卡利亚 · 库里什（ Lubna Zakia Qureshi ）、斯·彼得拉克（ James Petras）和莫里斯 · 莫利（ Morris Morley ） ② 研究了美国对智利实施的经济封锁；加里布埃尔 · 斯密瑙（ Gabriel Smirnow ）叙述了由征收美资铜矿
19641974 ，Washington，D． C．，Poto① Kristian Gustason，Hostile Intent: U． S． Covert Operations in Chile， mac Books， 2007． ② Jeffrey F． Taffet，M． A．，Alliance For What? : U． S． Development Assistance in Chile During the 1960s （ PHD Thesis），Washington DC： Georgetown University， 2001． ③ Jeffrey F． Taffet，Foreign Aid as Foreign Policy: The Alliance For Porgress in Latin America，New York： Routledge： Taylor and Francis Group LLC， 2007． 2008． ④ Scott G． Monje，The Central Intelligency，A Documentary History，Westport： Greenwood Press， Ambassadors in Foreign Policy， The Influence of Individu⑤ C． Neale Ronning and Albert P． Vannucci eds．， als in U． S． Latin American Policy，New York： Praeger Publishers， 1987． ⑥ Peter Kornbluh，ed．，The Pinochet File: A Declassified Dossier on Atrocity and Accountability，New York： The New Press， 2003． 1985． ⑦ Nathaniel Davis，The Last Two Years of Salvador Allende，London： I． B． T． Tauris Co． Ltd， ⑧ Harold Molineu，U． S． Policy toward Latin America: From Regionalism to Globalism，Boulder： Westview Press， 1986． War: U． S． Chilean Relations During the Gov⑨ Daniel L． Michael，Nixon，Chile and Shadows of the Coldernment of Salvador Allende， 19701973 （ PHD Thesis），Washington DC： Georgetown University， 2005． The Overthrow of Allende and The Politics of Chile， 19641976 ， Pittsburgh： University of 瑠 Paul E． Sigmund，瑏 Pittsburgh Press， 1977．瑡 Losi Hecht Oppenheim，Politics in Chile: Socialism，Authoritarianism，and Market Democracy( Third Edi瑏 tion) ，Boulder，Colorado： Westview Press， 2007． Democratization， Development， and Legality: Chile， 18311973 ， New York： Palgrave Mac瑢 Julio Faundez，瑏 milan， 2007．

分子克隆技术

载体特征： 1.能自主复制的复制子 2.可供筛选的遗传标记 3.适当大小的分子量 4.合适的限制性内切酶位点，方便外源基因的插入 5.在受体细胞中高效复制
TA克隆的idea最初来自1994年。几位学者发现TaqDNA聚合酶在PCR产物的3`末端加上一个脱氧腺苷（A），而且这种特性与模板无关。之后，invitrogen公司发明了TA克隆技术，并拥有全球TA cloning商标的专利权。线性化的T载体在3` 末端拥有一个脱氧胸苷（T），与PCR产物的A尾巴互补。
分子克隆中的关键技术： DNA分子的分离和富集技术；DNA分子的切割与连接技术；载体构建技术；大肠杆菌转化技术；重组DNA分子的筛选和鉴定技术
分子克隆的基本步骤： 1.目的基因的获得 2.目的基因与载体的连接 3.重组DNA分子导入受体细胞 4.筛选出含重组DNA分子的受体细胞克隆 5.克隆基因、克隆基因的表达
分子克隆技术
分子克隆（molecular cloning）
又称为基因克隆、基因工程、DNA克隆、重组DNA技术
克隆（Clone）指通过无性繁殖过程所产生的与亲代完全相同的子代群体。
分子克隆指按照人的意愿，在体外将某种生物的DNA片断插入到载体
（质粒、病毒等）中，形成遗传物质的新组合---重组DNA分子（重组子），然后将重组子转移到宿主细胞中进行复制或表达，即对DNA分子进行克隆，以获得该DNA分子的大量拷贝。
大肠杆菌转化体系的建立：感受态菌制备
经氯化钙处理的大肠杆菌能够摄r)重组质粒DNA及双抗性转化大肠杆菌细胞的获得。
2.真核动物非洲爪蟾的基因在原核细胞中转录
意义：1.解决了无复制能力的DNA片断在宿主细胞中进行繁殖克隆的关键问题；2.质粒分子可作为基因克隆的载体将外源DNA分子导入宿主细胞；3.真核细胞的基因可被转移到原核细胞中进行克隆及表达。

2022年4月6日雅思阅读小范围预测新

2022年4月6日雅思阅读小范围预测题目：the nature of yawning内容：关于打哈欠传染的讨论题型：段落细节匹配5道+特别词匹配4道+填空4道题号：20220922文章大意：讲关于打呵欠传染的讨论，主要有三个讨论机构开展的讨论。

第一个机构讨论发现打呵欠是人类冷却大脑的一种方式。

后面两个讨论发觉打呵欠和个人的性格、怜悯心、专业背景有关，和性别无关。

最终讲了呵欠产生的过程，提到有一种理论讲的是呵欠可能是人类沟通的一种方式，用于提示同伴你累了需要休息，从而要求对方打起精神应对危急。

部分答案回忆：14. C imagining leads to yawning15. D occupation and inclination to yawning16. A overview of research17. B body temperature and yawning18. B disapprove of a theory19. B not difference in gender20. C mental disorder 文中定位：autism21. A the way we breathe 文中定位：inhale22. B trained yawn more than the untrained23. bond用来联系人类情感24 danger危急的时候警示别人rest特殊是需要休息的时候non-verbal是人类肢体语言的一种题目：the nature of music内容：对音乐的讨论，介绍音乐历史和音乐对人类的影响题型：选择4道+段落信息匹配5道+推断5道参考答案：25. C定位词：第一段中的nature of music ,答案：many elements26. D 定位词：language and music ,答案：STEVE27. A 定位词：Neanderthals 答案：show reactions28. C定位词：Neanderthals and homo sapiens 答案：for partners31 . D 定位词：feature and music ,答案：change in all cultures32. C 定位词：Mithen ,答案：reference for other people33. A定位词：precious research ,答案：limited in the range of research34. E 定位词：power of emotion ,答案：long history35. B 定位词：reviewer disagrees with Mithen ,答案：modem speech 影响音乐36. TRUE most discussion ignore physical factors37. TRUE shared features/small societies/remote areas38. NOT GIVEN people talk to babies/similar to/Neandethals music39. FALSE Mithen support Steve40. NOT GIVEN modem people depend heavily on electronic music题目：Thomas Young ～The Last True Know一It一All题材：人物传记题型：推断7+填空6参考文章：A Thomas Young(1773一1829)contributed 63 articles to the Encyclopedia Britannica, Including 46 Biographical entries(mostly on scientists and classicists) and substantial essays on "Bridge,"Chromatics," "Egypt,""Languages, and"Tides" Was someone who could write authoritatively about so many subjects a polymath, a genius or a dilettante? In an ambitious new biography, Andrew Robinson argues that Young is a good contender for the epitaph"the last man who knew everything” Young has competition, however: The phrase, which Robinson takes for his title, also serves as the subtitle of two other recent biographies: Leonard Warren's 1998 life of paleontologist Joseph Leidy (1823一1891)and Paula Findlen's 2022 book on Athanasius Kircher (1602一1680), another polymath.B Young, of course, did more than write encyclopedia entries . He presented hid first paper to the Royal Society of London at the age of 2O and was elected a Fellow a week after his 2lst birthday. In the paper, Young explained the process of accommodation in the human eye一on how the eye focuses properly on objects at varying distances. Young hypothesized that this was achieved by changes in the shape of the lens. Young also theorized that light traveled in waves and he believed that, to account for the ability to see in color, there must be three receptors in the eye corresponding to the three "principal colors" to which the retina could respond: red, green, violet. All these hypotheses were subsequently proved to be correct.C Later in his life, when he was in his forties, Young was instrumental in cracking the code that Unlocked the unknown s cript on the Rosetta Stone,a tablet that was "found" in Egypt by the Napo leonic army in1799.The stone contains text in three alphabets: Greek, something Unrecognizable and Egyptian hieroglyphs. The unrecognizable s cript is now known as demotic and, as Young deduced, is related directly to hieroglyphic. His initial work on this appeared in his Britannica entry on Egypt. In another entry, he coined the term Indo一European to des cribe the family of languages spoken throughout most of Europe and northern India. These are the landmark achievements of a man who was a child prodigy and who，unlike many remarkable children, did not disappear into oblivion as an adult.D Bom in 1773 in Somerset in England, Young lived from an early age with his maternal Grandfather ,eventually leaving to attend boarding school. He had devoured books from the age of two, and through his own initiative he excelled at Latin, Greek, mathematics and natural philosophy. After leaving school , he was greatly encouraged by his mother's uncle, Richard Brocklesby, a physician and Fellow of the Royal Society.Following Brocklesby lead, Young decided to pursue a career in medicine. He studied in London, following the medical circuit, and then moved on to more formal education in Edinburgh, G6ttingen and Cambridge. After completing his medical training at the University of Cambridge in 1808, Young set up practice as a physician in London. He soon became a Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians and a few years later was appointed physician at St. George’s Hospital.E Young’s skill as a physician, however, did not equal his skill as a scholar of natural philosophy or linguistics. Earlier, in 1801, he had been appointed to a professorship of natural philosophy at the Royal Institution, where he delivered as many as 60 lectures in a year. These were published in two volumes in 1807. In 1804 Young had become secretary to the Royal Society, a post he would hold until his death. His opinions were sought on civic and national matters, such as the introduction of gas lighting to London and methods of ship construction. From 1819 he was superintendent of the Nautical Almanac and secretary to the Board of Longitude. From 1824 to 1829 he was physician to and inspector of calculations for the Palladian Insurance Company. Between 1816 and 1825 he contributed his many and various entries to the Encyclopedia Britannica, and throughout his career he authored numerous books, essays and papers.F Young is a perfect subject for a biography - perfect, but daunting. Few men contributed so much to so many technical fields. Robinson^ aim is to introduce non-scientists to Young5s work and life. He succeeds, providing clear expositions of the technical material (especially that on optics and Egyptian hieroglyphs). Some readers of this book will, like Robinson, find Young’s accomplishments impressive; others will see him as some historians have - as a dilettante. Yet despite the rich material presented in this book, readers will not end up knowing Young personally. We catch glimpses of a playful Young, doodling Greek and Latin phrases in his notes on medical lectures and translating the verses that a young lady had written on the walls of a summerhouse into Greek elegiaes.Young was introduced into elite society, attended the theatre and learned to dance and play the flute. In addition, he was an accomplished horseman. However, his personal life looks pale next to his vibrant career and studies.G Young married Eliza Maxwell in 1804, and according to Robinson, "their marriage was a happy one and she appreciated his work11 Almost all we know about her is that she sustained her husband through some rancorous disputes about optics and that she worried about money when his medical career was slow to take off. Veiy little evidence survives about the complexities of Young5s relationships with his mother and father. Robinson does not credit them, or anyone else, with shaping Young5 s extraordinary mind. Despite the lack of details concerning Young5 s relationships, however, anyone interested in what it means to be a genius should read this book.参考答案：Questions 1-7Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1 ?In boxes 1 -7 on your answer sheet, write TRUE if the statement is true FALSE if the statement is falseNOT GIVEN if the information is not given in the passage1 The last man who knew everything’ has also been claimed to other people. True2 All Young articles were published in Encyclopedia Britannica. False3 Like others, Young wasn’t so brilliant when grew up. False4 Young talents as a doctor are surpassing his other skills. NG5 Young advice was sought by people responsible for local and national issues. True6 Young was interested in various social pastimes. True7 Young suffered from a disease in his later years. NGQuestions 8-13Answer the questions below.Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS AND/OR A NUMBER from the passage for each answer.8 How many life stories did Young write for Encyclopedia Britannica? 469 What aspect of scientific research did Young do in his first academic paper? Human eye accommodation10 What name did Young introduce to refer to a group of languages? Indo-European11 Who inspired Young to start the medical studies? Richard Brocklesby12 Where did Young get a teaching position? Royal Institution13 What contribution did Young make to London? Gas lighting文档内容到此结束，欢迎大家下载、修改、丰富并分享给更多有需要的人。

Improvements to the ceramic nozzle flame outlets f

专利名称：Improvements to the ceramic nozzle flame outlets for welding plugs onto nuclear fuelrods, the manufacturing process for therods and their corresponding plugs发明人：Alonso, Jesus Garcia c/o EMPRESA NAC.DEL URAN.,S.A,Lopez, Pablo Gut. c/o EMPRESANAC.DEL URANIO, S.A.申请号：EP97500062.1申请日：19970402公开号：EP0869512A1公开日：19981007专利内容由知识产权出版社提供专利附图：摘要：The invention refers to the optimization of the laminar flow produced at the outlet of a flame (1), by a double ceramic nozzle (3-9) for welding, specifically applicable to weld plugs to the corresponding ends of the pipes forming the fuel rods in nuclear reactors, the welding being performed by an electric arc jumping from a tungsten electrode (6) to the object to be welded, inside a tight chamber full of inert gas. The use of this double nozzle (3-9) allows welding at a high inert gas pressure, hence eliminating the sealing phase required in the production processes of nuclear fuel rods.申请人：EMPRESA NACIONAL DEL URANIO, S.A.地址：Santiago Rusinol, 12 E-28040 Madrid ES国籍：ES代理机构：Carpintero Lopez, Francisco更多信息请下载全文后查看。

施一公个人简历：

je施一公博士个人简历●出生于河南省郑州市；●1985年9月—1989年8月，清华大学，生物学学士, 提前一年毕业●1990年9月—1995年4月美国约翰霍普金斯大学(Johns Hopkins University), 分子生物物理博士学位●1996年1月—1998年1月，纽约斯隆——凯特林癌症研究中心(Memorial Sloan-Kettering CancerCenter) 结构生物学实验室博士后；●1998年2月—2001年10月，普林斯顿大学(Princeton University)分子生物学系,助理教授；●2001年10月—2003年3月，普林斯顿大学终身教授，副教授衔，●2003年3月—2007年3月，普林斯顿大学终身教授，正教授衔●2007年3月至今，普林斯顿大学Warner-Lambert/Parke-Davis教授学术兼职：●2005年12月至今，华人生物学家协会会长(Chinese Biological Investigators Society)●2006年至今，MacChess同步辐射中心学术顾问●2004年至今，T etralogic制药公司高级学术顾问, 学术顾问委员会主席；●2007年至今，美国科协(American Association for Advancement of Science, AAAS)国际科学顾问委员会（Advisory Committee for International Science）委员学术奖励：●2003年，获―国际蛋白学会‖颁发的鄂文西格青年科学家奖(Irving Sigal Young Investigator’sAward from the Protein Society)●1999年至2002年，获舍尔学者基金会颁发的舍尔学者奖（Searle Scholar Award）●1999年至2002年，获雷拓爱伦基金会颁发的雷拓爱伦学者奖(Rita Allen Scholar Award)；●1995年，获约翰霍普金斯大学医学院颁发的保罗鄂立信基础科学研究奖（Paul Ehrlich ResearchAward in Basic Science）●获清华大学最高奖学金, , 提前一年毕业；●获全国高中数学联赛一等奖；研究领域：施一公教授运用结构生物学和生物物理生物化学手段研究肿瘤发生和细胞调亡的分子机制，集中于肿瘤抑制基因和细胞凋亡调节基因的研究。

医学史知识点总结

巴斯德在医学上有何贡献
在微生物发展史上，巴斯德是个里程碑。对微生物做出奠基性贡献的学者之一。他的功绩主要有： 1.科学的阐明了发酵和有机物腐败的原理。在研究腐败和预防葡萄酒酸败时发明了“巴斯德消毒法”。 2.将细菌与传染病联系起来。巴斯德通过实验证明了“流行病由微生物引起和传播的观点”。帮助预防炭疽、白喉、霍乱、黄热病和其他疾病的爆发。巴斯德关于细菌与传染病之间的研究为现代传染病理论的建立做出了巨大贡献。 3.巴斯德在传染病的预防和治疗方面也取得令人瞩目的成果。巴斯德培养出了鸡霍乱疫苗和抗狂犬病疫苗，开创了人工减毒疫苗的研究。
近代外科学发展的基础
1.麻醉剂的发现和应。各种麻醉剂和麻醉方法的使用，消除了手术中的疼痛，提高了手术的安全系数，扩大了手术的范围，促进了外科学的发展 2.消毒防腐方法的发现。他有效的解决了术后感染的问题。 3.输血技术的突破。ABO血型的发现导致输血时血型配合原则的提出，使得输血成为实际可行的重要治疗措施，从而解决了因手术失血过多而死亡的问题，外科学也因此搬掉了一块阻碍其发展的拦路石。
6、Caesarean section 帝王切开（剖腹产）
7、阿拉伯医学黄金时代最著名医生阿维森纳完成东西方权威、经典的医学著作《医典》。 8、世界最早的医学校是意大利西海岸那不勒斯南部的萨勒诺医学校，也是当时的医学中心。
9、在医学史占有极其重要地位，且誉为解剖学之父：维萨里 10、意大利教授桑克托瑞斯首次将量度观念应用到医学中，并设计了最早的体温计和脉动计，分别测量人体的体温和脉搏。 11、意大利的莫干尼被誉为病理解剖学之父。 12、法国的拉美特里著作《人是机器》，理论：用力学观点解释人体。
24、加拿大的医生班廷发现了胰岛素，获得诺贝尔生理学或医学奖。 25、德国的多马克因磺胺类药物（百浪多息）等相关研究获诺贝尔奖 26、德国医学家艾利希(Paul Ehrlich)发现了能特异性杀灭病原微生物的药物——606，他称之为魔弹。 27、显微镜的发明者列文.虎克 28、贞纳发明牛痘疫苗(1796)

1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。

Paul EhrlichPaul Ehrlich (14 March 1854 – 20 August 1915) was a German scientist in the fields of hematology, immunology, and chemotherapy, and a Nobel laureate. He is noted for discovering the syphilis treatment salvarsan, the first drug targeted against a specific pathogen; and for his research in autoimmunity, calling it "horror autotoxicus". He coined the term chemotherapy and popularized the concept of a magic bullet.ResearchIn his dissertation at the University of Leipzig, he picked up the topic again ("Contributions to the Theory and Practice of Histological Staining", Beiträge zur Theorie und Praxis der histologischen Färbung). He married Hedwig Pinkus (then aged 19) in 1883. The couple had two daughters, named Stephanie and Marianne. After his clinical education and habilitation ("The Need of the Organism for Oxygen", Das Sauerstoffbedürfnis des Organismus) at the Charité in Berlin in 1886, he received a call from Robert Koch to join the Institute of Infectious Diseases in Berlin (1891).Ehrlich spent two years in Egypt, recovering from tuberculosis. Thereafter he worked with his friend Emil Adolf von Behring on the development of a diphtheria serum. The serum was successfully used during an epidemic in Germany. Ehrlich skillfully transformed diphtheria antitoxin into an effective preparation, his first world-renown achievement. However, von Behring cheated Ehrlich out of both recognition and financial reward. Only von Behring received the first Nobel Prize in Medicine, in 1901, for contributions in research of diphtheria.These works inspired Ehrlich's famous side-chain theory (Seitenkettentheorie) from 1897. This theory explained the effects of serum and enabled measurement of the amount of antigen. In 1896 Ehrlich became the director of the newly founded Institute of Serum Research and Examination (Institut für Serumforschung und Serumprüfung) in Steglitz (Berlin). In 1899 the institute was moved to Frankfurt (Main) and extended into the Royal Institute of Experimental Therapy (Institut für experimentelle Therapie). Here Ehrlich researched chemotherapy and infectious diseases. In 1904 Ehrlich became honorary professor of the University of Göttingen.[2]Ehrlich received the Nobel Prize for Medicine together with Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov in 1908.[3] In 1906 he discovered the structural formula of atoxyl, a chemical compound which had been shown to be able to treat sleeping sickness. Following this discovery, he tried to create a less toxic version of the medicament. In 1909 he and his student Sahachiro Hata developed Salvarsan, a treatment effective against syphilis. Discovered in the fall of 1909, Salvarsan was in clinical use by 1910. Salvarsan proved to be amazingly effective, particularly when compared with the conventional therapy of mercury salts. Manufactured by Hoechst AG, Salvarsan became the most widely prescribed drug in the world. It was the most effective drug for treating syphilis until penicillin became available in the 1940s.[3][4] Ehrlich's work illuminated the existence of the blood-brain barrier.Magic bulletThe concept of a "magic bullet" drug comes from the experience of 19th century German chemists with selectively staining tissues for histological examination, and in particular, selectively staining bacteria (Ehrlich was an exceptionally gifted histological chemist, and invented the precursor technique to Gram staining bacteria). Ehrlich reasoned that if a compound could be made that selectively targeted a disease-causing organism, then a toxin for that organism could be delivered along with the agent of selectivity. Hence, a "magic bullet" would be created that killed only the organism targeted.A problem with the use of the magic bullet concept as it emerged from its histological roots is that people confused the dye with the agent of tissue selectivity and antibiotic activity. Prontosil, a sulfa drug whose active component is sulfanilamide, is a classic example of the fact that color is not essential to antibacterial activity.The concept of a "magic bullet" was fully realized with the invention of monoclonal antibodies.The name "magic bullet" was used in the 1940 movie Dr. Ehrlich's Magic Bullet, which depicts his life and focuses on Salvarsan (arsphenamine, "compound 606"), his cure for syphilis.保罗·埃尔利希保罗·埃尔利希（Paul Ehrlich，1854年3月14日－1915年8月20日）是一位德国科学家，曾经获得1908年的诺贝尔生理学或医学奖。