英语发展简史

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美式英语简史_范文模板及概述说明

美式英语简史_范文模板及概述说明

美式英语简史范文模板及概述说明引言1.1 概述美式英语是指在美国范围内使用的英语语言变体,它具有独特的发展历程和特征。

本文将对美式英语的起源、发展、主要特征和影响进行探讨。

1.2 文章结构本文分为五个部分进行论述,分别是引言、美式英语简史、美式英语的主要特征介绍、美式英语在不同领域的应用和影响以及结论。

1.3 目的本文旨在通过对美式英语的研究,深入了解其起源和发展,探讨其与传统英式英语之间的区别,并分析其在教育、商务和娱乐领域中的影响。

同时,我们还将展望美式英语未来的发展趋势。

注意:以上内容为参考内容,实际写作时请根据自己的理解进行描写。

2. 美式英语简史:2.1 起源与发展:美式英语作为一种独特的英语变体,起源于17世纪的北美殖民地。

最早的欧洲殖民者带来了他们自己的方言和口音,随着时间的推移,这些方言和口音逐渐融合形成了美式英语。

在18世纪和19世纪,随着更多移民的涌入,特别是来自英国、爱尔兰和德国等地的移民,美式英语得到了进一步发展并不断演化。

此外,美国作为一个移民国家,各种不同语言背景的移民对美式英语产生了深远影响。

从非洲奴隶被迁移到北美开始,他们带来了自己独特的语言风格和词汇。

还有华裔、拉丁裔等不同文化背景的移民也为美式英语增添了新的词汇和表达方式。

2.2 影响因素:美式英语在其发展过程中受到多个因素的影响。

首先是地理环境因素。

北美洲是个广袤而多样化的地区,各个地区在人口聚居、经济发展以及文化背景上存在较大差异,这些差异导致美式英语在不同地区产生了一定程度的变化。

其次,社会文化因素也对美式英语的形成和发展起到了重要作用。

美国是一个多元文化的国家,不同民族和社会群体对语言的使用方式、词汇选择等方面产生了影响。

例如,来自南部地区的人们通常有着独特的口音和词汇用法,在南方英语中可以体现出他们特有的文化价值观。

另外,技术和媒体进步也对美式英语产生了深远影响。

随着电视、电影、互联网和社交媒体等技术的普及,越来越多的美式英语表达方式被推广并传播至全球。

西方翻译简史

西方翻译简史

西方翻译简史
Marcus Fabius Quintilianus 昆体良 (AD 95-?)《演说术原理》 中提出翻译必须与原作“竞争(媲美)”之说。
Jerome 哲罗姆,约340年-420年,早期西方基督教会四大权威神 学家之一,被认为是罗马神父中最有学问的人
“不能字当句对,而必须采取灵活的意译原则;必须区分《圣经》翻译 和世俗文学翻译;只有正确的理解和博学才能进行正确的翻译。”
他还声称翻译又分真正的翻译和机械的翻译。真正的翻译是指文学作 品和自然科学方面的翻译,这类翻译相对较复杂,要求译者有较高的理 解和阐释能力,并能保持原文的风格等等。机械翻译是指实用性的翻 译,如商业翻译,此类翻译相对容易,而且几乎是一种机械的活动。施氏 认为,笔译属于真正的翻译,口译则属于机械的翻译。他的这一翻译类 型区分后来影响了德国功能派赖斯的翻译类型学理论
只有上完课后他才会如释重负。 [误] An experienced teacher once said that before class he felt as if faced with a
formidable enemy, in class he felt like walking on ice, and only after class would he feel relieved. [正] An experienced teacher once said that before class he felt as if faced with a formidable enemy, in class he felt like walking on eggs, and only after class would he feel relieved.

英语发展简史

英语发展简史

英语发展简史英语起源与发展的简短介绍英语真正的历史应该从公元5世纪时入侵英国的三个日耳曼部落说起. 这几个部落分别是, 盎格鲁人, 撒克逊人,和朱特人,他们从今天的德国北部和丹麦出发,然后横渡北海。

那时候英国的本地居民都说凯尔特语。

但由于入侵者的逼迫,他们都被赶到了西部和北部-主要是现在的威尔士,苏格兰和爱尔兰。

盎格鲁人来自Englaland他们的语言称为Englisc(古英语)-这两个词就是现在England和English的前身。

日耳曼入侵者在公元5世界通过英国东海岸和南海岸进入英国。

古英语时代(450-1100AD)入侵英国的这几个日耳曼部落,其语言基本相近,这些语言的融合形成了我们现在称的古语言。

古英语的发音与书写与现在的英语并不一样。

因此以英语为母语的人对于阅读古英语也有很大的困难。

然而,现代英语最常用的词语中,大约就有一半起源于古英语。

例如be,strong和water。

古英语一直被使用到1100年左右。

用古英语写就的诗,《贝奥武夫》的一部分中世纪英语 (1100-1500)1066年,诺曼底(现法国的一部分)公爵威廉率兵征服了英国。

征服者带来了他们的语言-一种法语,而这也成为皇室法庭,统治阶级和商人阶级的语言。

曾经一段时间,出现了以语言区分阶级的现象,下层阶级说英语,上层阶级说法语。

在14世纪英语重新成为英国主流语言,但也增加了许多法语单词,这就是中世纪英语。

伟大的诗人乔叟就是这种语言,但对于今天的人来说仍旧十分难懂。

现代英语早期现代英语 (1500-1800)随着中世纪英语的泯灭,发音突然发生了很大的变化(元音大推移),元音的发音越来越短。

而从16世纪起英国与世界的接触多了起来,再加上文艺复兴的影响,导致越来越多的单词和短语被添加到英语中。

印刷术的发明使得书面语流行起来。

书变得越来越便宜,更多的人开始学习阅读。

拼写和语法变得越来越固定,而由于伦敦市大多数出版社的所在,伦敦方言就变成了标准语言。

英语简史-A BRIEF HISTORY OF ENGLISH

英语简史-A BRIEF HISTORY OF ENGLISH

The Anglo-Saxon Period 410-787 A.D.
Anglo-Saxons-Jutes
Important Events in the (First) AngloSaxon Period
410-450 Angles and Saxons invade from Baltic shores of Germany, and Jutes invade from Jutland peninsula in Denmark, thus driving out the Celts.
Anglo-Saxon Poetry and Riddles The Book of Exeter
Contains more than 30 poems and 90 riddles. Written down by monks in about 975, our primary source of Anglo-Saxon poetry Dominant mood in poetry is elegiac, or mournful Dominant tone of riddles is light and somewhat bawdy (for entertainment purposes- think SNL).
The Most Important Results of the Roman Occupation
Established camps that eventually became towns. Maintained relative peace. Latin heavily influenced the English language. Christianity begins to replace Paganism, especially after St. Augustine converts King Aethelbert in 597.

英语语言的发展史简述

英语语言的发展史简述

英语语言的发展史简述英语的发展史可以追溯到5世纪,当时为了适应罗马帝国的行政需要,拉丁语作为通用语言传播到不列颠岛。

然而,随着时间的推移,拉丁语在当地的演变和受外界影响逐渐形成了中世纪英语。

以下是英语发展史的简要概述。

中世纪英语(5世纪-1066年)在不列颠岛,拉丁语逐渐与当地的不列颠语融合,形成了一个新的语言,中世纪英语。

这段时期的英语主要是著名的“贝奥武夫”等古英语文学作品的语言。

古英语受到了盎格鲁-撒克逊部落和维京人等外来势力的影响,词汇和语法结构开始发生变化。

中古英语(1066年-1470年)1066年,诺曼底公爵威廉征服了不列颠岛,法语成为统治者和贵族的语言。

这导致了中古英语的出现,它是古英语和法语的混合语言。

尽管法语对英语产生了很大的影响,但人们开始逐渐重新使用英语,并在文字和口语中将它们结合起来。

这个时期的英语词汇扩大了,国家固有的文化和宗教也促进了英语的进一步发展。

早期现代英语(1470年-1800年)这一时期标志着英语的大规模标准化和规范化。

由于印刷术的发展和宗教的推动,英语开始以一种统一的书面形式存在。

著名的英国文豪莎士比亚的作品就是在这个时期产生的。

与此同时,英国的殖民扩张使英语开始传播到其他地区,如北美洲和澳大利亚。

现代英语(1800年至今)工业革命和科技发展在19世纪和20世纪对英语产生了深远的影响。

技术词汇的引入、新的交通和通讯方式以及全球化的发展使英语成为国际语言。

随着时间的推移,英语变得更加多样化,包括美式英语和英式英语等不同的变种。

此外,现代英语也受到媒体的影响,并在音乐、电影、电视等领域中广泛使用。

总结英语的发展史是一个持续不断的过程,从古英语到中古英语,再到早期现代英语和现代英语。

不同历史时期的政治、文化和技术变化都对英语的发展产生了深远的影响。

然而,无论是在古代还是在现代,英语作为一种全球性语言在世界各地都起着重要的作用。

英语发展简史

英语发展简史

精心整理英语发展简史在罗马人入侵英格兰之前﹐来自欧洲地区的凯尔特人(Celts﹕属于今天苏格兰﹐爱尔兰人和威尔士人的祖先)已经在英伦列岛居住多年。

罗马人自公元前55年代开始﹐发动对英格兰的入侵﹐但直到公元43年才完全征服英格兰﹐自罗马人入侵到公元410年撤出英格兰﹐罗马人已经在英格兰盘居长达四百年之久。

在罗马人离开后﹐来自欧洲西日耳曼部落‘Angelen’地区的盎格鲁人(Angles)﹑其它部落的撒克逊人(Saxon)﹑朱特人(Jutes)和弗里斯兰人(Frisian)开始跨海西迁进入英格兰地区(英语中的‘English’就是出自古词‘englisc’﹐‘englise’中的‘Engle’表示‘theAngles’﹐即是‘盎格鲁人’的意思)﹐并与当地的凯尔特人(Celts)为争寻土地发生了长期的战争﹐经历几代后也续渐在英格兰各处定居下来。

凯尔特人(Celts)的国王Arthur在Celts与日耳曼人之间长久的战争中﹐虽然曾一度与日耳曼停战﹐但最终凯尔特人还是不敌日耳曼人而被驱赶到今天的爱尔兰﹑威尔士和马恩(Man)岛地区﹐日耳曼人称威尔士地区的Celts为‘wealas’意即外国人﹐‘Welsh’因此除此之外﹐如以-by作为地区名称的字尾﹕-by:表示‘城填’town﹐例如‘Derby,Rugby’-thorp:表示‘村庄’village﹐例如‘Althorp’-thwaite:表示‘孤立的土地’-toft:表示‘一块土地’从公元750-1050年间,来自北欧日耳曼部落的维京人(Virkings)(也属于丹麦娜威人)一直攻击英格兰﹐并在公元1016年﹐丹麦国王KingSvein还加冕成为了英格兰国王。

到了1042﹐英国人EwardtheConfessor才把王位从丹麦人手中夺回来。

以上是古英语时期的英格兰历史﹐在这段时期中﹐英格兰主要遭到了北方日耳曼人的不断入侵并定居下来成为了英国人的一部份。

之后的日耳曼人的入侵﹐主要分为Danes和Nores两个时期。

简述我国英语教育发展简史

简述我国英语教育发展简史

简述我国英语教育发展简史我国英语教育的发展历程是一个充满挑战和机遇的旅程。

下面简要概括了我国英语教育的发展简史:20世纪初- 1949年:早期阶段在20世纪初,中国的英语教育主要集中在一些大城市的外国传教士学校和私立学校中。

这一时期,英语被视为一种重要的外语,但并没有被广泛推广。

1949年- 1960年代:新中国成立后随着中华人民共和国的成立,英语教育开始经历了重大的变革。

英语作为外语被引入学校教育,英语教材开始编写,英语学习变得更加系统化。

这一时期,中国的英语教育主要集中在学校,强调语法和基础知识。

1970年代- 1980年代:改革开放时期改革开放政策的实施为中国的英语教育带来了变革。

中国开始与外界更紧密地接触,对外国语言的需求增加。

这一时期,英语教育经历了重大改革,教育体系变得更加多元化,包括了初、高中和大学等不同层次。

1990年代- 21世纪初:英语教育的蓬勃发展中国的英语教育开始蓬勃发展,学校数量迅速增加,英语学习的普及率不断提高。

英语考试,如托福和雅思,成为学生升学和就业的重要因素。

外语学习机构也在这一时期迅速兴起。

21世纪初- 至今:互联网和全球化时代随着互联网的普及,英语教育进入了全新的时代。

学生可以通过在线课程、应用程序和各种教育资源来学习英语。

同时,中国的国际交流与合作不断增加,英语成为一种国际通用语言。

总的来说,我国英语教育发展历程经历了从初期的有限资源到现在的广泛推广和全球化的阶段。

随着中国的不断崛起,英语教育将继续扮演重要的角色,促进国际交流和合作。

在未来,英语教育将继续适应社会需求和技术进步,以满足学生和专业人士的要求。

英国文学简史

英国文学简史

英国文学简史古英语时期(Old English Period)时间:450-1600背景:盎格鲁撒克逊人(Anglo-Saxon)入侵英国作品种类:史诗(epic)代表作家:不详代表作品:贝奥武夫(Beowulf)中世纪英语时期(Middle English Period)时间:1066-1500背景:诺曼人(Normans)征服英国作品种类:传奇(Romans)代表作家:不详代表作品:高文爵士和绿骑士(Sir Gawain and the Green Knight)文艺复兴时期(The Renaissance)时间:1500-1660背景:新航路开辟,伊丽莎白一世登基,自然科学技术的发展。

作品种类:戏剧(drama),诗歌(poetry)代表作家:莎士比亚(William Shakespeare)代表作品:哈姆雷特(Hamlet)17世纪时期(The 17th Century)时间:1603-1688背景:资产阶级革命与复辟时期作品种类:散文(essay),史诗(epic),寓言故事(allegory),诗歌(poetry)代表作家:弥尔顿(John Milton)代表作品:失乐园(paradise lost)新古典主义时期(The Neoclassical Period)时间:1660-1785背景:启蒙运动作品种类:散文(essay),小说(novel),诗歌(poetry)代表作家:亚历山大.蒲泊(Alexander Pope)代表作品:An Essay on Man浪漫主义时期(The Romantic Period)时间:1798-1832背景:法国大革命,工业革命作品种类:诗歌(poetry)代表作家:雪莱(Percy Bysshe Shelley)代表作品:西风颂(Ode to the West Wind)维多利亚时期(The Victorian Period)时间:1832-1900背景:维多利亚女王统治时期,资本主义经济发展,自然科学的发展作品种类:小说(novel)代表作家:狄更斯(Charles Dickens)代表作品:远大前程(Great Expectations)现代主义时期(The Modern Period)时间:1914-1965背景:第二次世界大战,人们对西方文明的危机感作品种类:诗歌(poetry),小说(poetry)代表作家:艾略特(T.S Eliot)代表作品:荒原(The Waste Land)The Middle English PeriodGeoffrey ChaucerSpecial featuresThe first most significant poet in English literary history to write in Middle English.Help perfect English language as as a literary medium.A first rate story-teller. Reading him can be an immensely enlightening and educational experience.Points of viewEnormous sense of humor.Loyalty to reality. A master of realism.Infinite sense of humanity.Major WorksCanterbury TalesA collection of 20-odd stories.Similar with Boccacio’s Decameron.Including 20 complete stories and 4 fragments---already an amazing number.People come from virtually all walks of life. A picture of 14-century English life.Place women on an equal footing with men.(“The Wife of Bath’s Tale” What is that women desire most?)Prominence: The holy orders and the middle classThomas MoreSpecial featuresThe wisest and noblest person that lived then.Privy councilor to the king.Beheaded by the king because of he did not go along with the king’s divorce.Points of viewMore was first and foremost a humanist at heart.Major WorksUtopiaLook forward to the future of man.Offer an ideal which has inspired generations of serious social thinkers. An imaginary country where democracy replaces tyranny, commonwealth replaces private property.Its strict adherence to conformity, simplicity and monotony is totally incompatible with human nature, and curbs individual rights and freedom.Its slavery system goes against individual dignity and self-worth.The utopian society is clearly male-dominated.RenaissanceSpenserSpecial featuresOne of the most important English poets.Milton calls him his “poetic father”Points of viewDetermined to revive Chaucer’s poetic legacy and reinvent English poetry.Conformed to morality and Christian dogmas.Major WorksThe Faerie QueenA grand epic poem“The only long poem that a lover of poetry can sincerely wish longer”Picturesque, rhyme, theme, plot.William ShakespeareSpecial featuresMost popular and most widely respected writer in all English literature. Careful rumination over human condition andsupreme understanding of human nature.His poets drew great attention for their grace in form, depth in thought, and vivacity in tone.His dramatic works:Early period:histories and comediesMiddle period:tragicLate period:Romances&serenityPoints of viewHis universe is a veritable microcosm of the human world, where all types of people exist.He has the common life of the common run of mankind in mind in his literary creations.His cosmos is highly moral with a sense of certitude and justice.He sees reflection of life as legitimate job of a playwright.Major WorksBlack comedyIndividual worthA faithful record of the mood and tenor of the timesFrancis BaconSpecial featuresHis inductive method of reasoning and learning; he valued experience and observation.His prose is fresh, vigorous, powerful, and aphoristic so that he was able to dominate English prose for decades.Bacon’s essays was the first of its kind to appear in English literature. Major WorksHuman nature, political concerns and socio-economic ideas.John MiltonSpecial featuresThe third greatest English poet after Chaucer and Shakespeare.The greatest to come out of the 17th century.His experience with the telescope helped him visualize haven, earth and hell.Major WorksParadise Lost made its author the greatest modern epic poet in English literary history.About biblical story of creation.Samson Agonistes was patterned on Greek tragedies.The character of Samson offers an obvious outlet of self-expression for the poet who resembled the biblical hero in more than one way. Lycidas has certainly proved to be a frame of reference for the writing of the genre of pastoral elegies.John BunyanSpecial features“No one can please God more than I do.”He was known as “Bishop Bunyan”.His prose has a striking modern ring. It has paved the way for the rise of the modern English novel.He became a great force in the history of English prose without ever desiring it.Major WorksThe Pilgrim’s Progress is an allegory.A medieval miracle play with vivid and lively personifications of virtues and vices and all the human qualities in between.The Classic AgeThomas GraySpecial featuresA poet of transition form the neoclassic to the Romantic period.A forerunner of the Romantic movement both in subjects and simple language.Gray is famous for his letter writing.Oliver GoldsmithSpecial featuresGoldsmith is prone to a kind of idealizing and sentimentality that is always easy for modern people to comprehend.Points of viewGoldsmith’s poem was written in the fashionable heroic couplet of the time.The author’s sentiments of grief and nostalgia are genuine and convincing.Major WorksShe stoops to conquerAs a satire on the artificial and pretentious behavior of the day, the play exalts the quality of t ruth and honest feeling.The salutary influence the play exercised on the 18th century is considerable.Goldsmith’s dialogues are vivacious and immensely humorous, and the whole performance impressed the audience with its vitality and joyful mood.The Vicar of WakefieldHis wit, humor, his craft of planning ballads and tales within tales, and his philosophical depth, which all make for the fascination it holds for its readers, modern as well as ancient.William BlakeSpecial featuresAn important landmark in between two literary periods, pointing directly to that of Romanticism.His poets: his social events and his mysticism.He is noted or his originality both in theme and form.Points of view“Without contrast and contraries, there is no progression.”Blake was basically a visionary. His fight was a “mental” fight, one that he hoped would restore England to spiritual and social health.Major WorksBy far his most powerful and the most permanent are Songs of Innocence and Songs of Experience.Jonathan SwiftSpecial featuresThe literary king of his day. He wrote a lot of powerful satirical essays and books.His lucid and terse prose has contributed not a little toward the development of the best English prose tradition.Points of viewHis satires on human institutions and social ills were all meant tohelp improve the lot of man.Major WorksGulliver’s TravelsGulliver is a man observant to all the 18th century values, while Swift was, on the other hand, a man intensely critical of his time.The author is different from the narrator, and the author would like people to think twice about what Gulliver disapprove of. Gulliver is part of the author’s satire.Daniel DefoeSpecial featuresA firm supporter of the Glorious Revolution.Points of viewHis views on the novel focus on its realism and aesthetic.“Any story failing to deal with the human experience is pure fiction and a lie.”His protagonists are common people with real common names and speak as “I”, telling their own stories in the first-person narrative.As a moralist, he wrote with the conviction that his works wouldbe educational and help people behave.Major WorksRobinson CrusoeA middle class book, offering justifications for the class’forthcoming rise to pre-dominance in national life.A typical show of Puritan individualism.(self-reliance andhard-working)The creation of the world and and self-identity.An ordinary humankind’s self-made success.。

简述我国英语专业发展简史

简述我国英语专业发展简史

简述我国英语专业发展简史我国英语专业的发展历程可以追溯到清朝末期,随着西方列强的入侵和文化的渗透,英语逐渐成为我国教育体系中的重要学科。

下面我将简述我国英语专业发展简史。

一、萌芽期在清朝末期,我国开始接触英语,一些开明人士认识到英语的重要性,开始倡导英语教育。

1862年,京师同文馆成立,这是中国历史上第一所正式的英语教学组织,也是中国近代教育的先声。

同文馆的成立标志着我国英语教育的开始,但当时学习英语的人数很少,主要是外交官、翻译等精英人士。

二、发展期在新文化运动时期,我国开始大规模推广英语教育。

1918年,北京大学成立了英文系,这是我国第一个英语专业系。

随着新文化运动的推动,英语教育逐渐普及,学习英语的人数不断增加。

在20世纪20年代至40年代,我国的英语教育得到了较大的发展,一些大学开始设立英语专业,培养英语人才。

三、动荡期在抗日战争和解放战争期间,我国的英语教育经历了较大的动荡。

由于战争的影响,许多英语教育机构被迫关闭或迁移,教师和学生也流离失所。

这个时期我国的英语教育发展受到了很大的影响。

四、繁荣期新中国成立后,我国的英语教育逐渐复苏。

1954年,教育部决定在北京大学设立英语专业,这标志着我国英语教育的新起点。

随后,各省市也相继建立了英语专业,培养了大批英语人才。

这个时期我国的英语教育得到了较大的发展,学习英语的人数逐年增加。

五、改革期改革开放后,我国的英语教育开始了新的改革。

1979年,教育部发布了《关于高等学校开设英语专业的意见》,提出要在全国范围内开设英语专业,并将英语列为高考必考科目。

这一政策的出台推动了我国英语教育的快速发展。

六、多元化期进入21世纪后,我国的英语教育呈现多元化趋势。

随着社会的发展和经济的全球化,英语已经成为各行各业必备的技能之一。

学习英语的人数逐年增加,而且学习者的目的也变得多元化。

从为了应对考试到为了提高自身素质,从为了学习知识到为了交流沟通,学习者的需求不断变化。

介绍英语简史作文

介绍英语简史作文

介绍英语简史作文
英语,作为世界上使用最广泛的语言之一,有着悠久而迷人的历史。

它的起源可以追溯到公元5世纪,当时盎格鲁-撒克逊人入侵了不列颠群岛,并带来了他们的语言。

这种语言逐渐演变成了古英语,这是英语的早期形式。

在1066年,诺曼征服英格兰后,法语对英语产生了深远的影响。

这个时期,英语吸收了大量的法语词汇,形成了中古英语。

这种语言在14世纪末到15世纪初的乔叟时代得到了进一步的发展,他的《坎特伯雷故事集》是中古英语文学的代表作。

到了16世纪,英语经历了一次重大的转变,被称为早期现代英语。

这是由于文艺复兴时期对古典文化的兴趣,以及印刷机的发明,这使得书籍的传播变得更加广泛。

莎士比亚的作品就是这个时期英语的杰出代表。

18世纪的启蒙时代,英语继续发展,形成了现代英语。

这个时期,语言变得更加规范化,词汇量也大大增加。

到了19世纪,随着大英帝国的扩张,英语传播到了世界各地,成为了国际交流的重要语言。

20世纪,随着全球化的发展,英语的地位得到了进一步的巩固。

它成为了国际商务、科学、技术、文化和政治交流的主要语言。

如今,英语是联合国的官方语言之一,也是许多国际组织的官方语言。

英语的发展史是一个不断演变和适应的过程,它吸收了多种语言的影响,形成了今天我们所使用的丰富多样的语言。

学习英语的历史,不仅能够帮助我们更好地理解这门语言,还能够让我们对文化交流和语言发展有更深的认识。

研究生综合英语 第二版 曾建彬主编 课文翻译Unit1

研究生综合英语 第二版 曾建彬主编 课文翻译Unit1

Unit one英语简史保罗·罗伯茨想要掌握英语这门语言就必须了解英语的历史,然而对此我们只能做到略有所知。

因为英语的历史漫长而复杂,我们只能抓住其发展过程中的几个关键时期。

英语的历史起源于公元600年之后,而对于公元600年之前的英语史前阶段,我们只能揣测而无法证实。

公元前1000年左右,英语民族的祖先(盎格鲁一撒克逊人)生活在北欧森林之中,他们的语言属于印欧语系中的日耳曼语支。

这些盎格鲁撤克逊人是如何迁移到英格兰的,对此我们知之甚少。

然而据我们所知,在很长一段时间内盎格鲁人、撒克逊人、朱特人一直在为巩固他们在英格兰的定居地而战。

他们与凯尔特人的战争持续了100多年,直到英格兰境内的凯尔特人不是被杀,就是被迫流亡到威尔士或沦为奴隶。

这就是亚瑟王时期。

亚瑟王不完全是一个传说人物,他是个受过罗马文明影响的凯尔特人,是一位将领,或许不是一位国王。

他也曾打败过盎格鲁撤克逊人,但只是一时的胜利。

到了公元550年前后,盎格鲁一撤克逊人才最终定居下来。

英语从此也在英格兰落脚。

我们习惯上把英语的历史分为三个阶段:古英语时期,中世纪英语时期和现代英语时期。

古英语时期从最早的历史记载即公元7世纪到大约1100年;中世纪英语时期从1100年到1450或1500年;现代英语时期从1500年至今。

现代英语也可以再分为早期现代英语(1500年到1700年)和后期现代英语(1700年至今)。

根据最早的历史记戴,当时的英格兰分裂为几个相对自治的王国。

在一定时期,其中的某一个王国对其他王国实行一定程度的统治。

公元6世纪,实力最强大的诺森伯里亚王国取得了令人瞩目的发展,达到了全欧洲最发达的文明程度。

也是在这一时期产生了包括贝奥武夫史诗这样的古英语时期最杰出的文学作品。

到公元8世纪,诺森伯里亚王国衰落了,势力中心向南转移到英格兰中部的麦西亚王国。

一个世纪后,势力中心又转移到位于西撒克逊的威萨克斯,威萨克斯成为实力最强的王国。

我国英语教育简史我国的英语教育始于清朝,至今已有近140年的历史。随

我国英语教育简史我国的英语教育始于清朝,至今已有近140年的历史。随

我国英语教育简史我国的英语教育始于清朝,至今已有近140年的历史。

随着历史的进步和世界外语教育事业的发展,我国的英语教育也取得了很大的进步,为我国的社会主义建设做出了巨大贡献。

中学和大学制定了英语教学大纲,有了较稳定的英语教材,师资培训和英语教学研究都有所加强。

但从总体上讲,我国的英语教育还相当落后。

本文从早期、清末、民国时期以及新中国成立以后几个时期对英语教学的历史进行初步探讨,并对我国英语教育的现状及发展趋势予以浅析,希望能对广大的英语教育者有所启发和帮助。

1.中国的早期英语教育19世纪60年代京师同文馆开办之前,中国没有正规的英语学校,英语教学只限于外国传教士开办的教会学校,而教会学校也只集中于上海、宁波、福州、厦门、广州等5个沿海通商口岸。

鸦片战争以前,清政府禁止洋人在中国传教,不许非经商洋人在广州久留。

在这样的历史条件下,尽管早在19世纪初就有美国传教士来到中国秘密传教,开办教会学校,但中国的教会学校在鸦片战争前没有得到发展。

鸦片战争以后,软弱无能的清政府被迫与西方帝国主义列强签定了一系列不平等条约,废除了禁止外国人在中国传教的规定,允许他们在通商口岸建造礼拜堂,并在中国国内解除“教禁”。

自此,西方传教士大批涌入中国,竭力扩展在中国的传教活动。

随着传教活动的发展,大批教会学校也先后建立起来。

教会学校的教员多由英美人士担任,课程设置与当时社会上的私塾、义学相似,只是增加了读《圣经》及简单的算学,英语教学的课时及深浅程度各校不一。

由于教会学校的教学规模极小,教学效果甚微,一般不被视为中国正规英语教育的开端。

京师同文馆是满清政府于1862年创办的第一所外语学校。

该校的创办有其独特的历史和政治背景。

鸦片战争结束以后,清政府与帝国主义列强签定了一系列不平等条约,被迫与帝国主义列强发生政治、经济、文化匕的联系,外交事务骤然增加。

当时,中国没有自己的翻译人才,一与洋人会商,都要请洋人作翻译其中难免会有偏袒欺蒙之弊。

英语简史(English Version)

英语简史(English Version)

A Brief Look at the History of EnglishThe history of English is conventionally, if perhaps too neatly, divided into three periods usually called Old English (or Anglo-Saxon), Middle English, and Modern English. The earliest period begins with the migration of certain Germanic tribes from the continent to Britain in the fifth century A. D., though no records of their language survive from before the seventh century, and it continues until the end of the eleventh century or a bit later. By that time Latin, Old Norse (the language of the Viking invaders), and especially the Anglo-Norman French of the dominant class after the Norman Conquest in 1066 had begun to have a substantial impact on the lexicon, and the well-developed inflectional system that typifies the grammar of Old English had begun to break down. The following brief sample of Old English prose illustrates several of the significant ways in which change has so transformed English that we must look carefully to find points of resemblance between the language of the tenth century and our own. It is taken from Aelfric's "Homily on St. Gregory the Great" and concerns the famous story of how that pope came to send missionaries to convert the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity after seeing Anglo-Saxon boys for sale as slaves in Rome:Eft he axode, hu ðære ðeode nama wære þe hi of comon. Him wæs geandwyrd, þæt hi Angle genemnode wæron. Þa cwæð he, "Rihtlice hi sind Angle gehatene, for ðan ðe hi engla wlite habbað, and swilcum gedafenað þæt hi on heofonum engla geferan beon."A few of these words will be recognized as identical in spelling with their modern equivalents -- he, of, him, for, and, on -- and the resemblance of a few others to familiar words may be guessed -- nama to name, comon to come, wære to were, wæs to was -- but only those who have made a special study of Old English will be able to read the passage with understanding. The sense of it is as follows: "Again he [St. Gregory] asked what might be the name of the people from which they came. It was answered to him that they were named Angles. Then he said, 'Rightly are they called Angles because they have the beauty of angels, and it is fitting that such as they should be angels' companions in heaven.' " Some of the words in the original have survived in altered form, including axode (asked), hu (how), rihtlice (rightly), engla (angels), habbað (have), swilcum (such), heofonum (heaven), and beon (be). Others, however, have vanished from our lexicon, mostly without a trace, including several that were quite common words in Old English: eft "again," ðeode "people, nation," cwæð"said, spoke," gehatene "called, named," wlite "appearance, beauty," and geferan "companions." Recognition of some words is naturally hindered by the presence of two special characters, þ, called "thorn," and ð, called "edh," which served in Old English to represent the sounds now spelled with th.Other points worth noting include the fact that the pronoun system did not yet, in the late tenth century, include the third person plural forms beginning with th-: hi appears where we would use they. Several aspects of word order will also strike the reader as oddly unlike ours. Subject and verb are inverted after an adverb -- þa cwæð he "Then said he" -- a phenomenonnot unknown in Modern English but now restricted to a few adverbs such as never and requiring the presence of an auxiliary verb like do or have. In subordinate clauses the main verb must be last, and so an object or a preposition may precede it in a way no longer natural: þe hi of comon "which they from came," for ðan ðe hi engla wlite habbað"because they angels' beauty have."Perhaps the most distinctive difference between Old and Modern English reflected in Aelfric's sentences is the elaborate system of inflections, of which we now have only remnants. Nouns, adjectives, and even the definite article are inflected for gender, case, and number: ðære ðeode "(of) the people" is feminine, genitive, and singular, Angle "Angles" is masculine, accusative, and plural, and swilcum "such" is masculine, dative, and plural. The system of inflections for verbs was also more elaborate than ours: for example, habbað "have" ends with the -að suffix characteristic of plural present indicative verbs. In addition, there were two imperative forms, four subjunctive forms (two for the present tense and two for the preterit, or past, tense), and several others which we no longer have. Even where Modern English retains a particular category of inflection, the form has often changed. Old English present participles ended in -ende not -ing, and past participles bore a prefix ge- (as geandwyrd "answered" above).The period of Middle English extends roughly from the twelfth century through the fifteenth. The influence of French (and Latin, often by way of French) upon the lexicon continued throughout this period, the loss of some inflections and the reduction of others (often to a final unstressed vowel spelled -e) accelerated, and many changes took place within the phonological and grammatical systems of the language. A typical prose passage, especially one from the later part of the period, will not have such a foreign look to us as Aelfric's prose has; but it will not be mistaken for contemporary writing either. The following brief passage is drawn from a work of the late fourteenth century called Mandeville's Travels. It is fiction in the guise of travel literature, and, though it purports to be from the pen of an English knight, it was originally written in French and later translated into Latin and English. In this extract Mandeville describes the land of Bactria, apparently not an altogether inviting place, as it is inhabited by "full yuele [evil] folk and full cruell."In þat lond ben trees þat beren wolle, as þogh it were of scheep; whereof men maken clothes, and all þing þat may ben made of wolle. In þat contree ben many ipotaynes, þat dwellen som tyme in the water, and somtyme on the lond: and þei ben half man and half hors, as I haue seyd before; and þei eten men, whan þei may take hem. And þere ben ryueres and watres þat ben fulle byttere, þree sithes more þan is the water of the see. In þat contrében many griffounes, more plentee þan in ony other contree. Sum men seyn þat þei han the body vpward as an egle, and benethe as a lyoun: and treuly þei seyn soth þat þei ben of þat schapp. But o griffoun hath the body more gret, and is more strong, þanne eight lyouns, of suche lyouns as ben o this half; and more gret and strongere þan an hundred egles, suche as we han amonges vs. For o griffoun þere wil bere fleynge to his nest a gret hors, 3if he may fynde him at the poynt, or two oxen 3oked togidere, as þei gon at the plowgh.The spelling is often peculiar by modern standards and even inconsistent within these few sentences (contré and contree, o [griffoun] and a [gret hors], þanne and þan, for example). Moreover, in the original text, there is in addition to thorn another old character 3, called "yogh," to make difficulty. It can represent several sounds but here may be thought of as equivalent to y. Even the older spellings (including those where u stands for v or vice versa) are recognizable, however, and there are only a few words like ipotaynes "hippopotamuses" and sithes "times" that have dropped out of the language altogether. We may notice a few words and phrases that have meanings no longer common such as byttere "salty," o this half "on this side of the world," and at the poynt "to hand," and the effect of the centuries-long dominance of French on the vocabulary is evident in many familiar words which could not have occurred in Aelfric's writing even if his subject had allowed them, words like contree, ryueres, plentee, egle, and lyoun.In general word order is now very close to that of our time, though we notice constructions like hath the body more gret and three sithes more þan is the water of the see. We also notice that present tense verbs still receive a plural inflection as in beren, dwellen, han, and ben and that while nominative þei has replaced Aelfric's hi in the third person plural, the form for objects is still hem. All the same, the number of inflections for nouns, adjectives, and verbs has been greatly reduced, and in most respects Mandeville is closer to Modern than to Old English.The period of Modern English extends from the sixteenth century to our own day. The early part of this period saw the completion of a revolution in the phonology of English that had begun in late Middle English and that effectively redistributed the occurrence of the vowel phonemes to something approximating their present pattern. (Mandeville's English would have sounded even less familiar to us than it looks.) Other important early developments include the stabilizing effect on spelling of the printing press and the beginning of the direct influence of Latin and, to a lesser extent, Greek on the lexicon. Later, as English came into contact with other cultures around the world and distinctive dialects of English developed in the many areas which Britain had colonized, numerous other languages made small but interesting contributions to our word-stock.The historical aspect of English really encompasses more than the three stages of development just under consideration. English has what might be called a prehistory as well. As we have seen, our language did not simply spring into existence; it was brought from the Continent by Germanic tribes who had no form of writing and hence left no records. Philologists know that they must have spoken a dialect of a language that can be called West Germanic and that other dialects of this unknown language must have included the ancestors of such languages as German, Dutch, Low German, and Frisian. They know this because of certain systematic similarities which these languages share with each other but do not share with, say, Danish. However, they have had somehow to reconstruct what that language was like in its lexicon, phonology, grammar, and semantics as best they can through sophisticated techniques of comparison developed chiefly during the last century. Similarly, because ancientand modern languages like Old Norse and Gothic or Icelandic and Norwegian have points in common with Old English and Old High German or Dutch and English that they do not share with French or Russian, it is clear that there was an earlier unrecorded language that can be called simply Germanic and that must be reconstructed in the same way. Still earlier, Germanic was just a dialect (the ancestors of Greek, Latin, and Sanskrit were three other such dialects) of a language conventionally designated Indo-European, and thus English is just one relatively young member of an ancient family of languages whose descendants cover a fair portion of the globe.。

简述我国英语教育发展简史

简述我国英语教育发展简史

简述我国英语教育发展简史【原创实用版2篇】篇1 目录I.英语教育在我国的发展背景II.我国英语教育的早期发展A.清朝时期的英语教育B.民国时期的英语教育C.20世纪50年代的英语教育D.20世纪60-70年代的英语教育III.我国英语教育的新阶段A.20世纪80年代的英语教育改革B.20世纪90年代的英语教育普及C.21世纪初的英语教育国际化D.近年来英语教育的多元化发展篇1正文一、英语教育在我国的发展背景自改革开放以来,我国经济和社会发展取得了巨大成就,英语作为全球通用语言,已成为我国教育体系中的重要科目。

随着全球化的深入,英语教育的发展对于提高我国人才的国际竞争力具有重要意义。

二、我国英语教育的早期发展我国英语教育的历史可以追溯到清朝时期,那时只有少数精英阶层有机会接受英语教育。

到了民国时期,英语教育逐渐普及,但仍局限于精英阶层。

20世纪50年代,我国开始重视英语教育,将其作为外语教学的重要科目。

20世纪60-70年代,由于社会动荡和政治原因,英语教育一度中断。

三、我国英语教育的新阶段20世纪80年代,我国开始了英语教育的改革,将英语教学重心从精英阶层转向大众教育。

20世纪90年代,随着改革开放的深入,英语教育逐渐普及,越来越多的人开始接受英语教育。

21世纪初,我国开始将英语教育国际化作为国家战略,加强与国际社会的交流与合作。

篇2 目录I.英语教育在我国的发展背景II.我国英语教育的早期发展a.清朝末期的英语教学b.民国时期的英语教学III.我国英语教育的发展历程a.20世纪50年代的英语教学b.20世纪60年代的英语教学c.20世纪70年代的英语教学d.20世纪80年代的英语教学e.20世纪90年代的英语教学f.21世纪初的英语教学IV.我国英语教育的发展现状及未来趋势a.当前我国英语教育的现状b.我国英语教育的未来发展趋势篇2正文一、英语教育在我国的发展背景随着全球化的不断深入,英语作为全球通用语言,在我国教育体系中的地位日益凸显。

英语发展简史 History of the English Language

英语发展简史 History of the English Language

英语发展简史作为英语的爱好者或憎恶者,你到底对其了解多少呢?让我们从它的出身一探其面吧标签: 英语 起源 美式英语 拉丁语A brief chronology of EnglishBC 55 Roman invasion of Britain by Julius Caesar. Local inhabitants speakCeltishBC 43Roman invasion and occupation. Beginning of Roman rule of Britain.436 Roman withdrawal from Britain complete. 449 Settlement of Britain by Germanic invaders begins 450-480 Earliest known Old English inscriptions. Old English1066William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy, invades and conquers England.c1150 Earliest surviving manuscripts in Middle English. Middle English1348English replaces Latin as the language of instruction in most schools.1362English replaces French as the language of law. English is used in Parliament for the first time.c1388 Chaucer starts writing The Canterbury Tales . c1400 The Great Vowel Shift begins.1476 William Caxton establishes the first English printing press. Early Modern English1564 Shakespeare is born.Part of Beowulf , a poem written in Old English.An example of Middle English by Chaucer.Hamlet's famous "To be, or not to be" lines, written in Early Modern English by Shakespeare.英语发展历史英语起源与发展的简短介绍英语真正的历史应该从公元5世纪时入侵英国的三个日耳曼部落说起. 这几个部落分别是:盎格鲁人,撒克逊人和朱特人,他们从今天的德国北部和丹麦出发,然后横渡北海。

关于英语的发展史的书籍

关于英语的发展史的书籍

关于英语的发展史的书籍
关于英语的发展史,有以下几本书籍可供参考:
* 《英语发展史》:张勇先编写的这本书通俗易懂,内容全面,可以作为了解英语发展史的入门读物。

* 《英语语言文化概览——英语发展史研究》:这本书由中国人民大学出版社出版,作者张勇先。

该书从英语语言文化角度入手,对英语发展史进行了全面梳理。

* 《剑桥英语史》:这部6卷本的巨著内容极其丰富,堪称英语发展史研究的权威之作。

对于希望深入了解英语发展历程和背景的朋友来说,这部作品无疑具有很高的参考价值。

此外,还有一些相关书籍如《英语简史》、《英语词汇史》、《英语词源学》等,这些书籍可以从不同角度帮助你了解英语的发展历程。

英语发展简史

英语发展简史

The language historian divides English history into three times:2、M i d d l e E n g l i s h 中古英语时期1、A n c i e n t E n 古英语时3、M o d e r n E n g li sh 现代英语时期(又称盎格鲁-萨克森时期公元450—1100年)英语的历史从1500多年前的北欧开始。

在7语。

form of the English.1、Ancient EnglishNorse).在8世纪末,斯堪的那维亚人攻占英国。

战争持续了将近200年。

在这个时期,很多拉丁语、丹麦和古斯堪的那维亚的单词融入英语。

象炊具和杯子与生活息息相关一样,拉丁语给了英语很多单词。

从丹麦语和古斯堪的那维亚语中,英国人借鉴过来了皮肤、腿、以及各种词格的代词"他们"、"他们的"。

来自古斯堪的那维亚语的很多同义词统一到英语中,例如,愤怒(英语的wrath和古斯堪的那维亚语的anger);生病(英语的sick 和古斯堪的那维亚语的ill),都在英语中进行了统一。

古英语的词汇有着浓厚的日尔曼语族的特点要表现为复合法是重要的构词方法。

复合语词汇中占有显著的地位。

据统计,在史武夫》3183行诗句中,竟有1069个复合词。

合词中不重读部分,渐渐失去了独立地位,成了词缀,如for-, in-, -ful等派生法在古英语广泛使用。

共有二十四个名词后缀、十五个形后缀,-dom, -hood, -ship, -ness, -the, -ful,-等词缀都可溯源到古英语时期。

古英语时期的有一种特殊的修辞手法,即头韵(alliteration)由此产生的许多短语一直保留到现of love。

(公元1100—象征,但穷人主要讲英语。

在14世纪末,英语再次成为第一语言。

到这时,英国人使用的很多词汇来自法语或者拉丁语,并且许多早期的词汇已经不复存在。

英语的起源与发展简史

英语的起源与发展简史

英语的起源与发展简史The Origin and Evolution of English: A Brief History.English, a language that has captivated the world, has a rich and fascinating history. Its origin can be traced back to the 5th century when the Anglo-Saxons, a Germanic tribe, settled in Britain. Over the centuries, English has evolved and transformed,吸收 influence from various languages and cultures, 最终 becoming the global language of communication.The Early Stages: Anglo-Saxon England.The earliest form of English, known as Old English or Anglo-Saxon, was brought to Britain by the Anglo-Saxons. This language, which was closely related to other Germanic languages such as German and Dutch, was the predominant language in England until the Norman Conquest of 1066. During this period, English was primarily used for religious, legal, and administrative purposes.The Norman Conquest and the Influence of French.The Norman Conquest brought significant changes to English. The Normans, who were French-speaking, introduceda large number of French words and phrases into the language. This influx of French vocabulary and grammar hada profound impact on English, resulting in the developmentof Middle English. Middle English, which emerged in the11th century, was a hybrid language that combined Anglo-Saxon vocabulary with French grammar and syntax.The Renaissance and the Standardization of English.The Renaissance period, which began in the 14th century, marked a significant turning point in the history of English. During this time, there was a renewed interest in classical literature and languages, which led to the widespread adoption of Latin and Greek words into English. Additionally, the printing press, invented in the 15th century, allowed for the widespread dissemination of books and literature, further promoting the standardization anddevelopment of English.The 16th and 17th centuries saw further changes in English. The Protestant Reformation led to the translation of the Bible into English, making the language more accessible to the common people. Shakespeare, a renowned playwright and poet, used a rich vocabulary and innovative grammar in his works, which significantly contributed to the development and refinement of Modern English.The Global Spread of English.The global spread of English can be attributed to the British Empire's colonial expansion. As the British Empire expanded throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, English became the lingua franca of the Empire, serving as the common language of communication between the colonizers and the colonized. This led to the widespread adoption of English in countries such as the United States, Canada, Australia, and India.The 20th and 21st centuries saw the further ascendancyof English as the global language of communication. The advent of the internet and globalization has accelerated the spread of English, making it the most widely spoken language in the world. English is now used in international business, politics, education, and culture, and it is the official language of numerous countries and international organizations.In conclusion, the history of English is a fascinating tapestry of cultural exchange and linguistic evolution. From its humble beginnings as a Germanic tribal language to its current status as the global language of communication, English has transformed and adapted, drawing influence from various sources and reflecting the rich diversity of human history and culture.。

中西翻译简史第8章

中西翻译简史第8章

《奥德赛》,大受欢迎。1755年约翰逊编纂《英语词典》,第一次把英语
作为全民语言记录下来 • 5)现在英语成为世界上词汇量最大、适用范围最广的语言,同时也是最接 近人类共同语的语言。
第二节
马丁. 路德的圣经翻译与德语的形成
一、德语的历史发展 • 1. 公元5世纪至8世纪日耳曼语中发生的音变使德语从共同日耳曼语中分离 出来,逐渐成为独立的语言; 中世纪初期德语(Deutsch)这个词首次出现。 但是,中世纪时期,德国境内诸侯割据,在当时德语只是许多德国境内方言
德语唯一的规则作品。
一、德语的历史发展 • 3. 翻译在德语发展史上一直是重要因素。
• 《圣经》和文学文本的翻译传统可以追溯到公元8世纪,当时出现了第一部 《圣经》术语汇编,接着出现隔行对照版和较自由的诗体翻译版。中世纪德语
《圣经》译本是根据哲罗姆的《通俗拉丁文本圣经》翻译过来的。可以说高地
德语成为书面语是通过《圣经》的民族语译本发展起来的。受拉丁文的影响, 德语发展成为一种文学语言。中世纪晚期,德语最终代替拉丁文成为文学和科 学语言
对英国民族语言和文学的发展有很大影响。
• 翻译并仿效法国诗人的作品,如用伦敦方言翻译法国中世纪长篇叙事诗《玫瑰传 奇》;翻译意大利作品《特罗伊勒斯和克丽西达》。
• 创作有《坎特伯雷故事集》,艺术成就很高,远远超出了之前和同时代的英国文学
作品,英国文学史上第一部现实主义作品; • 《论星盘》乔叟的创作标志着英语作为民族语言的重新确立
• 1380年至1382年与几位译者将《圣经》译成英文,结束了拉丁语宗教语言的地位,
英语自此成为英国全民语言;1385年又进一步成为官方教育语言
三、中古英语时期
• 2)杰弗里. 乔叟
• 出生贵族之家。当过外交使节,是一位能力出众的廷臣和艺术造诣高的作家。精通 至少拉丁语、意大利语和法语等外语。率先采用伦敦方言写作,创作英雄双韵体。

介绍英语简史作文

介绍英语简史作文

介绍英语简史作文The English language, as we know it today, is a rich and diverse linguistic tapestry woven over centuries of cultural exchange and historical evolution. This essay aims to provide a concise overview of the major milestones in the development of English, from its ancient roots to its status as a global lingua franca.Anglo-Saxon Roots (5th-11th Century)The story of English begins with the invasions of Germanic tribes, the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, who brought their language to Britain in the 5th century. This early form, known as Old English or Anglo-Saxon, was heavily influenced by Germanic languages and featured a complex system of inflections.The Viking Influence (8th-11th Century)During the Viking invasions, Old Norse was introduced to England, which led to a significant lexical borrowing. Many everyday words in modern English, such as "sky" and "egg," have Norse origins.The Norman Conquest (1066)The Norman Conquest of 1066 marked a pivotal moment in the history of English. The Normans, who spoke Old French, became the ruling class and introduced a vast array of French vocabulary, particularly in the areas of law, government, and the arts.Middle English (11th-15th Century)By the 12th century, the language had evolved into Middle English, which was significantly different from its Old English predecessor. The most notable work from this period is Geoffrey Chaucer's "The Canterbury Tales," which provides a snapshot of the language at the time.The Great Vowel Shift (14th-15th Century)A significant change in English pronunciation, known as the Great Vowel Shift, occurred during the late Middle Ages. This shift altered the way vowels were pronounced without changing the spelling, which is why English spelling often seems inconsistent with pronunciation.Early Modern English (15th-17th Century)The advent of the printing press by William Caxton in the15th century helped standardize English spelling. The Early Modern English period also saw the works of William Shakespeare, whose writings have had a profound influence on the language.Global Expansion (16th-20th Century)With the British Empire's expansion, English began to spread across the globe. This led to the development of various English dialects and creoles, and English started to be recognized as an international language.Modern English (Late 20th Century - Present)The 20th century saw English become the language of international business, science, and diplomacy. The rise ofthe United States as a superpower further solidifiedEnglish's status. Today, it is estimated that over 1.5billion people speak English, either as a first or second language.In conclusion, the English language has a complex and fascinating history shaped by invasions, cultural exchanges, technological advancements, and global expansion. It continues to evolve and adapt, reflecting the dynamic nature of human communication and the societies in which it is spoken.。

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英语发展简史在罗马人入侵英格兰之前﹐来自欧洲地区的凯尔特人(Celts﹕属于今天苏格兰﹐爱尔兰人和威尔士人的祖先)已经在英伦列岛居住多年。

罗马人自公元前55年代开始﹐发动对英格兰的入侵﹐但直到公元43年才完全征服英格兰﹐自罗马人入侵到公元410年撤出英格兰﹐罗马人已经在英格兰盘居长达四百年之久。

在罗马人离开后﹐来自欧洲西日耳曼部落‘Angelen’ 地区的盎格鲁人(Angles) ﹑其它部落的撒克逊人(Saxon) ﹑朱特人(Jutes) 和弗里斯兰人(Frisian)开始跨海西迁进入英格兰地区(英语中的‘English’就是出自古词‘englisc ’﹐‘englise’中的‘ Engle’表示‘ the Angles ’﹐即是‘盎格鲁人’的意思)﹐并与当地的凯尔特人(Celts) 为争寻土地发生了长期的战争﹐经历几代后也续渐在英格兰各处定居下来。

凯尔特人(Celts)的国王 Arthur在Celts与日耳曼人之间长久的战争中﹐虽然曾一度与日耳曼停战﹐但最终凯尔特人还是不敌日耳曼人而被驱赶到今天的爱尔兰﹑威尔士和马恩(Man)岛地区﹐日耳曼人称威尔士地区的Celts为‘wealas’意即外国人﹐‘ Welsh ’和‘Wales’亦因此而得名。

英语作为最初期日耳曼人使用的语言﹐自从在英伦半岛生根成长到今天﹐整个语言的演进基本上可以划分为以下4个时期﹕1. Pre-old English. 前古英语时期(从日耳曼人入侵开始至公元500年罗马人撤出英格兰)2. Old English. 古英语时期(公元500-1100)3. Middle English. 中古英语时期(公元1100-1500)4. Modern English. 现代英语时期(公元1500-现在)古英语时期在前古英语时期﹐表记文字只有凯尔特人和日耳曼人受罗马字母影响而产生的RUNES字母。

但是从597年后开始﹐St. Augustine 主持了Kent国王Ethelberht 的受洗仪式﹐令他皈依了基督教。

自此﹐日耳曼人开始纷纷接受基督信仰。

随着罗马天主教的流行﹐拉丁字母也渐渐取代了昔日的固有文字﹐而成为英语的书写字母。

古英语中使用的字母与今天的英语有一定的差别﹐但最不同之处是单词的拼写方式有很大的差异。

而且在古英语中﹐有一些今天没有的字母如æ﹑Þ等。

要等到中古英语时期﹐英语单词的拼写才开始接近现代英语。

以下是同一句子通过古英语与中古英语所作出的两种不一样的表达方式﹐我们可以发现古英语的句子与现代英语相去甚远﹐而中古英语的就比较容易辨认了。

古英语: Gemiltca minum suna.中古英语: Have mercy on my sone.现代英语﹕Have mercy on my son.这些定居在英格兰的盎格鲁人﹑萨克逊人和朱特人分布在不同的地区﹐形成了各种不同的方言﹐造成各说各话的现象。

在英格兰东南部的Wessex 王国﹐在国王Alfred统治下开始变得强大﹐而且在871年﹐Wessex 国王Alfred还着手把拉丁文文献翻译成英文﹐以拉丁字母取代固有的RUNES字母﹐所以这地区的英语成为了古英语的主流。

在9世纪的时候﹐丹麦和娜威人(Danes)( 以下简称‘丹娜人’) 开始入侵英格兰。

878年Wessex 国王Alfred对入侵者一场意外的胜仗﹐令到双方签定了和平条约。

条约规定丹娜人控制东北部﹐英国人在英格兰的南部﹐并要求丹娜人接受基督教信仰。

因此英格兰的东北部﹐又称为Danelaw﹐意即Danes Law(丹麦法律)所管辖之地。

丹麦人把他们的词语引入到当地语言中﹐令到现代英语的同意词数量得到了增加。

They﹐them﹐their这些代名词就是来自丹娜人的。

下表还有一些延用至今的丹麦词语﹕除此之外﹐如以-by作为地区名称的字尾﹕-by: 表示‘城填’town﹐例如‘Derby, Rugby’-thorp: 表示‘村庄’village﹐例如‘Althorp’-thwaite: 表示‘孤立的土地’-toft: 表示‘一块土地’从公元750-1050年间, 来自北欧日耳曼部落的维京人(Virkings)(也属于丹麦娜威人)一直攻击英格兰﹐并在公元1016年﹐丹麦国王King Svein还加冕成为了英格兰国王。

到了1042﹐英国人Eward the Confessor才把王位从丹麦人手中夺回来。

以上是古英语时期的英格兰历史﹐在这段时期中﹐英格兰主要遭到了北方日耳曼人的不断入侵并定居下来成为了英国人的一部份。

之后的日耳曼人的入侵﹐主要分为Danes和Nores两个时期。

在古英语的语法方面明显具有了古‘印-欧’屈折语的特点﹐就如同古希腊和古拉丁语一样﹐从中还可以见到﹐甚至是现代德语里某些早期的语言特色。

古英语语法﹕* 名词﹑(人称和事物)代名词和形容词具有三个‘数量格’﹕单数﹑双数(dual)和复数(表示超过2的数量)。

这个‘双数’量可以视之为早期人类从一到多数﹐属于这种数量认识过程中的一个过渡性阶段。

* 名词有3个性别格(阳﹑阴和中性) 。

这种性别格的分配是硬性规定的﹐其实与具体事物(包括非‘生物’)的性别没有关系﹐只能视为名词外的一种额外信息﹐作为在句子中与这名词有关单词之间的一种匹配性标记﹐例如形容词通过性别格与名词匹配﹐这样肯定了这个形容词只修饰这一个名词。

* 5 个语格﹕主格Nominative﹐宾格Accusative, 属格Genitive, 与格Dative和工具格Instrumental。

以下以名词‘fox’(狐狸) ﹐‘learning’ (学习) ﹐‘animal’(动物) 和‘foot’(脚) 来说明古英语中的语格情况(与中古英语作对比)﹕古英语的情况﹕中古英语的情况﹕(可见中古英语又比古英语简化了一步)* 冠词有3个数量格。

单数冠词有5个语格﹐复数有4个语格。

* 代名词也有3个数量格﹐每一个数量格各自有4个语格。

如下(与现代英语对比)﹕* 动词有7个分类﹐其中3种是弱动词﹐词尾随数量﹐时态﹐语气﹐人称而变化﹔而且有3个人称格和2个数量格。

语气分为陈述(Indicative)和虚拟(subjunctive)语气两种。

动词时态变化分为现在时﹑过去时﹑现在分词﹑过去分词和动名词5种。

以古英语动词 dēman作例子﹐等于现代英语judge﹐意即‘判断﹑认为相信’﹐英语解释是‘judge, deem’ ﹕现代英语只剩下以下这4种形式﹐明显简单很多:judge, judges, judged, judging。

* 形容词也最多可以有11种不同的词尾变化形式。

因为要配合被修饰名词的数量格﹑语格和性别格变化﹐所以也出现了多变的形式。

例如形容词gōd﹐即现代英语的‘good(好的) ’。

当要修饰其它名词时﹐也就有了以下变化形式了﹕“sē gōd fox’ —the good fox (主/宾格﹑单数格和中性格)‘gōd dēor’ —good animals (主格﹑复数格和阳性格﹐单词外形与前者相同)‘þā gōdan fēt’ —the good feet(主/宾格﹑复数格和阳性格.)当我们了解到古英语中复杂多变的语格﹐我们也可以明白到古英语的语序就如同拉丁和古希腊语一般﹐变得不重要﹐也就是处于‘无语序’状态。

笔者想特别提到的是﹐在古英语的子句中主要使用‘主宾谓(SOV) ’语序﹐这一点与有‘血缘关系’的现代德语一样﹐可见德语中保留了较多的古老语法内容。

以下的例子要说明的只是语序情况﹐并同时与现代英语作比较﹐所以古英语的单词(包含‘语格’)由现代英语单词代替﹐完全省略语格成份﹕中古英语到现代英语﹕在1066年﹐诺曼底(Normandy)的William打败国王Harold II带领的英军﹐加冕为征服者‘威廉一世’ (William I the Conqueror)。

在接着来的250年中﹐法语成为英国的官方语言。

那时期的诺曼底人来自法国的诺曼底王朝﹐这个王朝是由来自北方的日耳曼人所建立﹐但是他们完全接受法语文化﹐不过他们所操的法语是一种法语方言﹐这与巴黎地区的法语不一样。

在诺曼底王朝时期﹐拉丁语和法语词汇大量引入到英语中﹐英语语法也得到更进一步的简化﹐这就促成了‘中古英语’的产生。

中古英语的词汇大量增加﹐同一意思的单词往往出现了几种不同的拼写法。

很多法语词被引入而成为英语﹐这样出现了很多与固有英语词并列的同意词﹐但这令英语单词变得更专门化。

这样法语作为统治者的语言﹐统治者所管辖的就是政府行政与司法机关﹐于是英语中有关司法﹑法制和政治方面的词汇大部份都来自法语词。

至于书写方面﹐在当时也是完全使用法语和拉丁语。

自此﹐每一个英国诺曼底王朝的国王都使用法语﹐直至1399到了享利四世即位前﹐已有10000个法语词汇成为了英语词汇的一部份。

公元1204在约翰国王的时代﹐位于法国的诺曼底母王朝被国王腓烈统治的法国所取代。

因此﹐在英格兰的诺曼底王朝统治者开始意识到他们是英国人﹐而非法国人。

自此﹐由统治阶级到政府开始慢慢使用平民大众的语言—英语。

直至1362年﹐法院还使用法语﹐但只限于官方使用。

牛津大学直至14世纪后﹐也不再要求学生学习法语。

首都伦敦的扩大﹐令牛津剑桥的学生成为英语的传播者﹐因为在当时﹐各地的英语不能相通﹐所以需要时间把各地的方言渐渐统一起来。

15世纪﹐William Caxton(1422-1491) 成为第一个用英语印刷书本的人。

因为印刷品的流行﹐这令到统一的词汇拼写显得十分的逼切﹐而印刷品在各地的流行也令到各地的英国人视印刷品上的语言为标准语言。

再加上在这时期中﹐出现了大量使用英文创作的文学创作家﹐例如是莎士比亚(William Shakespeare 1564-1616)﹐他们的作品不仅令英语更趋向于统一﹐还为英语增加了很多前所未见的表达方式﹐大大丰富了当时的英语内容﹐这些崭新的表达方式包括﹐副语转换形容语和名词转动词的使用方法等﹐还有产生了大量的组合词。

1430-1700时期﹐英语已经成为了社会上主要的语言﹐再加上贸易与工业的发展﹐英语也随之向英国之外的地区传播开去。

在这个中古英语到现代英语的时期﹐英语发生了以下的巨大变化﹕*数量格中的双数格撤底消失。

*名词的性别格到12世纪中完全消失。

名词的语格由5个也减少到只有主/宾格的2个。

名语的复数变化由6种简化形式减为只有今天的2种-s 和–en的形式﹐例﹕kid/kids, child/children ﹐古老的元音变形式只限于以下的情况﹕tooth/teeth foot/feet*随着语格的简化﹐语序也固定为‘主谓宾(SVO)’形式。

*在性别格消失后﹐形容词的尾变由当初最多的11个减至只有2个﹐只保留单/复数的数量格而已。

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