大学、研究生阶段论文写作考试复习资料

Chapter 1 Defining the Dissertation You are asked to write a term paper,a library paper,a review,or a book review in order to demonstrate that you have learned the necessary skills of a general academic ability in the subject taught during the semester.How to define the terms like thesis,dissertation,paper(all be translated into Lun wen论文) vs their relationship.Dissertation is used to refer to "a long essay that you do as part of a degree or other qualification"that you are studying for -that is,a BA or an MA. Thesis is used to refer to "a long piece of writing,based on your own ideas and research that you do as part of your university degree,especially a PhD. So if the assay is part of a BA or MA degree,we call it a dissertation,if a part of a PhD degree we call it a thesis.You write an essay for a certain course during your university studies,we it a paper.BA dissertation学士论文,an MA dissertation硕士论文,a PhD thesis博士论文, term paper论文.Here is in line with the British educational tradition.In America,thesis means a BA lun wen or MA lun wen. Dissertation means a PhD lun wen. thesis,dissertation, and paper,their writing process is more or less the same,the major difference between them lies at the level of originality.Difference and relationship between a summary of information (easier to prepare)and an evaluation of information(include a summary).Academic writing,term paper or research article can aim at summarizing other's studies in the field and presenting the ideas or arguments put forward by other scholars.By contrast,a dissertation or thesis requires more than an acknowledgement of existing studies,it must involve a critical evaluation of research information and this is where the originality of the study lies. When summarize existing studies in the field,you are expected to present to the reader what you have read,how much you have understood,the way you organize all the information.When expected to evaluate previous studies,you must show ability in understanding ,commenting in a scholarly way,consider what factor,how and why factors.A dissertation involves both summarizing and evaluating other's studies in this field,this part of the work is called Literature review.The process of writing a dissertation,steps:we need a kind of yo-yo approach (go backward and forward)proposed by Sorenson ,do not think research process is direct or straightforward.Writing a dissertation is going through a process of doing research.3 steps in process:1.prewriting 2.writing 3.editing and completion.Chapter 2 Basic Writing and Academic WritingTwo types of writing(different genre types and reflect different level of difficulties):1.Basic Writing or practical writing (every day writing and all of us do it)2.Academic Writing(only required in an academic environment)Purpose of Basic Writing:help students learn to write well for everyday purpose,focus is on general writing skills and strategies.Different types of essays:narration,description,exposition,argumentation.Precis writing:(abstract the main points of an essay ,report,book). It is similar to the writing of summaries(the condensation of information)Academic Writing is concerned with academic research.1.Fictional writing (poems,essays,novels)2.non-Fictional writing1.Popular(writing in popular magazines)the major difference between popular and professional writing is that they have different groups of target readers.2.Professional(writing in Professional magazines)A.Technical writing(concerned with practice-based,problem-oriented or application-based research,it is usually written by and for engineers or practitioners for a pragmatic reason)B.Academic writing (based on original research ,concerned with theory-based or theorizing research and is usually written by and for academics)Difference:A comes from research with the application of a theory ,B develops from theorizing.B :Academic writing1.literary writing (concerned with the analysis and appreciation of literary works)2.non-literary writing(a type of scientific writing, scientific research methods are often used in this type)Difference :1 is more subjective, 2 is objective2.Non-literary writinga. Speculative(writings in a university's department of philosophy) speculative-orientedb. Experimental(writings in a university's department of psychology) experimental-oriented Seyfer ,H.&Wu,G.H.Style and mechanicsStyle: the way you present your ideas in your writing.In academic writing,the style is expected to be formal and scholarly ,not to entertain,but to inform to describe or to argue(avoid the use of slang,colloquial words and biased language,your tone and attitude to topic should be serious).The use of pronouns:it is the third-person pronoun he,she,they rather than the first-person pronoun i,me,my,or mine.because use of third-person pronoun suggests subjective opinions and weaken the assertion by implying uncertainty.But the use of impersonal labels such as t he researcher or the writer may distance oneself from what one is saying.As with basic writing,correctness is important mechanistic aspect as we pay attention to grammar,punctuation and other technical matters.If you find a misspelled word in a text you want to quote directly,insert sic.eg.Systematic (sic)functional linguisticUse abbreviations wisely,eg.Systemic Functional Linguistics(hereafter SFL)Chapter 3 Data,Analysis,and Research ParadigmsIn linguistic studies,as Widdowson points out,there are 3 sources of linguistic data.1.introspection(based on the linguist's own intuitive competence of the language.This method is popular because linguistic description can be based on the linguist's introspection.)2.elicitation(members of the speech community are asked to serve as informants to decide whether or not certain description are correct ,accurate or acceptable,eg, questionnaires and interviews)Both introspection and elicitation can be used to obtain data from 2 different sources:1.linguistic competence(abstract knowledge of language) municative competence(communicative use of language)3.Observation(the idea that behaviour ,eg,language use ,can be observed naturalistically, get examples from the corpus)Use which source depends on what you claim the data are evidence of ,and what you are trying to explain.2 Methods/ways of data collection:1.the data collected experimentally (the type of data yielded by the investigation is likely to be quantitative,i,e,information in the form of numbers)2.the data is collected non-experimentally (the type of data yielded by the investigation is likely to be qualitative ,i,e,information in verbal form)The way of looking at and analysing the data depends on the type of data that has been collected.1.Data for research is in quantitative form,use mathematical and statistical manipulations to process and analyse the data.2.Data in qualitative form,analyse the data in verbal formType of analysis :With experimental method and quantitative data,the result can be processed statistically.By contrast,non-experimental method and qualitative data,the result is usually interpretative.Grotjahn ,2 pure research paradigms:1.the exploratory-interpretive paradigm(employs a non-experimental method,yield qualitative data,and provides an interpretive analysis of that data)2.The analytical-nomological paradigm(the data is collected through an experiment and yields quantitative data,which are subjected to statistical analysis )There are 6 mixed paradigms.Types of research:Brown---1.primary research2.secondary research(consist of summarizing previous studies ,reviewing the literature in a given area,and synthesizing the research undertaken by others .Library research and literature review belong to secondary research)Primary research differs from secondary research in that it is derived from the primary sources of information.Primary research:1.qualitative studies (main focus is on making sense of the meanings of psychological ,social,linguisticand other phenomena, collecting accounts is one method.It is popular in discourse analysis and other text-based studies)2.survey studies(Data obtained from surveys can be either descriptive or explanatory ,It is designed to investigate a group's attitudes,opinions or characteristics through questionnaire --ask closed questions or open-ended questions and interview-ask a participant or informant for information about a particular research question,the questions can be tightly or loosely focused)3.statistical studies(comprise quasi-experimental studies and experimental studies.It based on experimental studies,which control the conditions under which the behaviour or phenomenon under investigation is observed)Chapter4 Prewriting (1):Developing the Subject1.Managing your timeKnowing how to manage your time effectively and make a realistic plan is a very important factor in determining your chances of success.When allocate the time,remember to set aside at least 2 days for emergency occasions.2.Locating your interestYour interest in the subject will make you eager to know more of the subject area and that will help a lot in the investigation of the research topic.Choose one subject interests you most,and then you must narrow down the subject area.3.Selecting a topic(How?--consult your tutor,read dissertations completed in previous years and available in your university library.Neither topic too broad or too limited or specialized)2 important factors to take into consideration when choosing a suitable topicA.manageabilityB.the availability of resourcesChapter5 Prewriting(2): Reading the LiteraturePurpose: Help you learn how to obtain information(Where you can get useful and relevant information for your research. How to read the existing literature. How to develop a working bibliography.)Familiarize yourself with the research background:Ways of widening your knowledge of the research topic and the other background information.A traditional way :1.Library research.(to the university library and check the catalogues by 1.subject search 2.keyword search 3.author search 4.title search / find CD-ROM reference materials ,the e-library can provide information and Corpora is used.)e the Internet selectively and wisely. 3.follow existing approaches to the problem by reading papers dealing with similar problems.Discovering existing studies <ways of getting background information>1.Search # in <http://www.baidu/>2. Consult a grammar book.(start with the index/table of content)3. Search <> 中国期刊全文数据库 3. A web page maintained by the British Council </grammar /archive/>Reading the relevant literature:Locate - readThey should read selectively（some read in detail,some read in genera）While reading and digesting other's ideas,you have 3 stages to go through.1.Understand as much as you can and follow the train of thought provided by the author. 2.Critically read and identify the strong points and weak points or areas to be further explored. 3. Decide on how to use the existing writing.Taking notes(a important step in preparing for your dissertation writing, because you quote and paraphrasing or summarizing previous studies )2 ways of taking notes: 1. Write useful ideas ,quotations on note cards(traditional, Direct quotation,Summary,Outline form) 2.record notes by using a computer(new) You must record correctly and check carefully whether it is correctly copied.Advantage of taking notes by computer: I n due course you can transfer the quotations directly into your dissertation without having to recopy them. Disadvantages :you may have difficulties in sorting out the quotations according to meaning or inserting the related quotation in the appropriate place. Discovering questions and problems:By looking at the existing studies,can easily find that there are many questions and problems that need to be further investigated.Focusing on your research:you can have a thorough study if your topic is not too broad.Preparing a working bibliography(the name implies the bibliography that you will be working with until your final draft has been submitted and accepted.)The entries条目of references in the working bibliography must be listed in an alphabetical order.If the reference is a book,you should have the author, title,publisher, place of publication, year of publication,s ource of the item. Use one format and follow it all the time.Chapter 6 prewriting (3)Thesis Formulation and Research QuestionsThesis :1.A thesis is an idea or theory that is expressed as a statement and is discussed in a logical way.论点2.A thesis is a long piece of writing ,based on your own ideas and research that you do as a part of a university degree.论文Thesis formation论点形成Thesis statement 论点陈述：also called the statement of the problem /the thesis sentence(states or suggests the research subject or the main topic,making thesis statement can help you focus on the research topic and avoid reading unrelated materials--clarify your thinking .In many cases,a thesis statement is also stated in the form of a problem that you attempt to solve in your research,in which case the thesis statement is a statement of solution to the problem.)The research question:the answer to the question or the hypothesis itself is in fact the thesis statement The research topic can be stated as a question (stimulate exploratory research)or as a hypothesis(the research focus is on a tentative explanation or argument that your research attempts to test)The research method(obtain data by observation ,searching the existing corpora available )In describing the research method,one can say that is data-driven or data-based and t he method can be qualitative rather than quantitative or qualitative and quantitative.Chapter 8 writing (1) : Elements of a DissertationThe Macrostructure……The abstract:is the first source of information, which gives the reader a general idea of your research and writing. The abstract serves as a summary of the research from which the reader gets a bird's-eye view of the whole dissertation.Elements in the abstract :1.subject matter/area 2.background information 3.purpose of the present study 4. Method5.findings 6. Implications.The introduction:1.rationale原理阐述for the research(or background to the research,reason/motivation) 2.aims and objectives 3.research questions 4.data 5.research method 6.theoretical framework 7.structure of the dissertation.The function of this rationale for the research is to orientate the reader by guiding him to the proposed study.Structure of the dissertation gives the reader a macrostructural view of the whole dissertation.\The literature review(a part of the secondary research)Purposes :1.show what has been previously studied in the field and what can be improved or modified 2.summarize other people's writings 3.to define or review definitions and key concept 4.clear the ground for your own research.The theoretical framework:The theoretical basis of your research. To outline the theoretical framework is to situate your research.Research method and data:discussion on 1.materials or data 2.design of the research 3.analysis 4.procedureAnalysis and discussion:the relationship between them (the analysis provides the evidence and the discussion gives the explanation and interpretation). If you have evidence (the linguistic phenomenon)but cannot discuss it in a justifiable way,people will challenge the usefulness of the analysis. If your explanation and interpretation are not based on analysis and evidence,people will challenge the objectivity of your research.The conclusion:get a general idea of the research. Purposes :1.bring the discussion to a close 2.summarize your research findings 3.discuss implications of the study 4.make suggestions for further studies.Chapter 9 Writing (2):Organizing ideasThe language of the elements of structure:the language in the introductory chapter serves the function of introducing the reader to the topic of discussion or focusing on the topic.(the first sentence's function is to state the purpose and the scope of the research)--aim,purpose,concernedReferring to previous studies(this is a way to show that the researcher is aware of the research background and the present research situation)Purposes:1.survey the research situation 2.follow other's research traditions 3.get theoretical support……3 ways of referring to previous studies:1.by quoting directly or indirectly 2.by paraphrasing other's words 3.by summarizing other's ideas.One way to avoid quoting a long passage is to break it into smaller parts so that it does not give the reader the impression of letting someone else do some of your writing for you.Ignoring the existing literature implies you are not familiar with the research situation ,not quote other's work suggest that the researcher is not aware of what has been done in the field.Summarizing:unlike quoting and paraphrasing,which retain more or less the same number fo words ,summarizing involves shortening the original passage by keeping the main points.Re-organizing ideas:One way to avoid put other's words directly into writing: re-organize the ideas by integrating them into a coherent whole. 2 ways:1.quoting only when necessary 2.illustrating the ideas with examplesAdvice on quoting:when you do not have access to the original source,you can quote as the other author did,to pretend that you have come across the quotation by yourself.Advice on the choice of reporting verbs:argue, assume, believe, characterize, claim,describe, explain,indicate,observe, point out ,report,reveal,show,state,suggest,write.Chapter11 Avoiding Plagiarism避免剽窃Definition ：Plagiarism is "the use of another person's ideas or wording without giving appropriate credit"Two types of Plagiarism:1.intentional (the writer knows that he is copying other people's ideas,opinions,or language deliberately without thinking of giving acknowledgments,it's stealing,serious.)2.unintentional(the writer does not cite the source correctly.unconscious or accidental. So it is important for you to learn how to cite the source correctly.)The temptation to plagiarize Reasons :1.taking existing ideas and wording from the literature is much easier than organizing and proposing your ideas and writing in your own words.2.when you cannot meet the deadline.3.they synthesize a number of papers on the same topic and the result becomes their own writing."clever".The cost of plagiarism:immeasurable.it may ruin a person's career or reputation or even his life.people can become discredited when be accused of committing plagiarism.Paraphrasing vs plagiarism:If you need to quote or summarize or paraphrase other people's ideas or words,do this selectively and wisely. EXEMPLE:change grammatical structure and propositional meaning of passages.How to avoid plagiarism? Method:use an introductory clause or phrase to introduce other people's ideas or wording, to indicate the source of information.(As is observed by Liu /as is pointed out by Liu...According to Widdowson/' interpretation/ As widdowson interprets it...,,"....")this is better because the source of the information is clearly indicated by the use of introductory words.we can give due credit to the authors,provides all necessary information aboutthe source of ideas. Use our own language can successfully integrated the ideas into an appropriate context by paraphrasing.Advice :1.Quote other people's ideas if you need to or have to,but always do so properly,selectively and wisely. 2.Never try to pretend that you are not aware of the existing literature and ideas.Chapter 13 References and AppendixesFunction of documenting sources：to acknowledge your indebtedness ,to credit your sources,to lend greater credence to your argument,to establish the validity of your research,to provide the reader with additional bibliographical information.Preliminary bibliography,which is a working bibliography ,defined as something you will be working with until the final version of your writing has been submitted and accepted.Reference and bibliography,both refer to a list of books ,article reference works,etc.that have been used or referred to in the dissertation.A bibliography can also include books,articles.periodicals that are not used or referred to in a book,dissertation,etc..in which case reference cannot be used instead.Different styles of referencingSorenson 5 styles: 1.the APA(American Psychological Association)style2.the MLA(Modern Language Association)parenthetical style3.the MLA endnote style4.the MLA footnote style5.the MLA numbered styleThe APA style requires citation of documentation source within the text (the body of the dissertation) not endnotes尾注or footnotes脚注. The author's surname姓(the last name),the date of publication ,etc.,may be put into the text itself or within parentheses圆括号Use a consistent documentation style throughout the dissertation.Chapter14 submission and EvaluationWorking with your tutor cooperatively who not only helps you in the writing of the dissertation but is also the first person to evaluate your writing. Your tutor's responsibility is to guide you. You go to your tutor to report on the progress of your research and should be well-prepared.You learn to make good use of your tutor,knowing your tutor and his approach to helping students is also very important.Do nor give your work to the tutor for comment or revision at the last minute,before the deadline. Work out a plan with your tutor.Submission:when your tutor is pleased with your copy,you can submit. Before submit the dissertation to the department office,you must check the details which are concerned with the requirements set out by the university regulations.(any pages missing,whether is the last line of the page,page numbers). Once submitted,it is too late to make any modifications because it is going through another stage_the evaluation of your work.Evaluation criteria:The tutor has the responsibility of quality control,the comments on your dissertation given by your tutor have a important role to play, the tutor's opinions will influence the examiners in the committee.3 basic ways of (criteria for ) evaluating a dissertation: 1. The first criterion is mechanical in nature.(concerned with questions such as whether it meets requirements set out in the university regulations,the length,number of words,plagiarism).The second and third ways are mainly concerned with the members of the examination committee of your dissertation. One way is to look at the content,the meaning,the idea,etc. to see whether the dissertation has reached the level of a BA dissertation in terms of the content. The other way is to look at the form,the expression and presentation of ideas to see whether the student has written in an academic manner.The dissertation defence论文答辩The duration of a BA dissertation is about 30 minutes,here are steps:1.presentation of 10 minutes 2.the committee members ask questions 3.discuss and evaluates both dissertation itself and the oral examination,the candidate's performance during the presentation and the question-answer interaction.How to perform well:1.be familiar with what he has written in the dissertation. 2.be able to answer appropriately the questions raised by the examiners.If the examiner is challenging your ideas,you try to justify your points ,do not agree with everything he says nor argue with him. Keep calm and have a positive attitude.。