外文翻译---建筑的组成部分
建筑外文翻译--建筑类型和设计
building types and designA building is closely bound up with people，for it provides with the necessary space to work and live in .As classified by their use ,buildings are mainly of two types :industrial buildings and civil buildings .industrial buildings are used by various factories or industrial production while civil buildings are those that are used by people fordwelling ,employment ,education and other social activities .Industrial buildings are factory buildings that are available for processing and manufacturing of various kinds ,in such fields as the mining industry ,the metallurgical industry ,machine building ,the chemical industry and the textile industry . factory buildings can be classified into two types single-story ones and multi-story ones .the construction of industrial buildings is the same as that of civil buildings .however ,industrial and civil buildings differ in the materials used and in the way they are used .Civil buildings are divided into two broad categories: residential buildings and public buildings .residential buildings should suit family life .each flat should consist of at least three necessary rooms : a living room ,a kitchen and a toilet .public buildings can be used in politics ,cultural activities ,administration work and other services ,such as schools, office buildings,parks ,hospitals ,shops ,stations ,theatres ,gymnasiums ,hotels ,exhibition halls ,bath pools ,and so on .all of them have different functions ,which in turn require different design types as well.Housing is the living quarters for human beings .the basic function of housing is to provide shelter from the elements ,but people today require much more that of their housing .a family moving into a new neighborhood will to know if the available housing meets its standards of safety ,health ,and comfort .a family will also ask how near the housing is to grain shops ,food markets ,schools ,stores ,the library ,a movie theater ,and the community center .In the mid-1960’s a most important value in housing was sufficient space both inside and out .a majority of families preferred single-family homes on about half an acre of land ,which would provide space for spare-time activities .in highly industrialized countries ,many families preferred to live as far out as possible from the center of a metropolitan area ,even if the wage earners had to travel some distance to theirwork .quite a large number of families preferred country housing to suburban housing because their chief aim was to get far away from noise ,crowding ,and confusion .the accessibility of public transportation had ceased to be a decisive factor in housing because most workers drove their cars to work .people we’re chiefly interested in the arrangement and size of rooms and the number of bedrooms .Before any of the building can begin ,plans have to be drawn to show what the building will be like ,the exact place in which it is to go and how everything is to be done.An important point in building design is the layout of rooms ,which should provide the greatest possible convenience in relation to the purposes for which they are intended .in a dwelling house ,the layout may be considered under three categories : “day”, “night” ,and “services” .attention must be paid to the provision of easy commun ication between these areas .the “day “rooms generally include adining-room ,sitting-room and kitchen ,but other rooms ,such as a study ,may be added ,and there may be a hall .the living-room ,which is generally the largest ,often serves as a dining-room ,too ,or the kitchen may have a dining alcove .the “night “rooms consist of the bedrooms .the “services “comprise thekitchen ,bathrooms ,larder ,and water-closets .the kitchen and larder connect the services with the day rooms .It is also essential to consider the question of outlook from the various rooms ,and those most in use should preferably face south as possible .it is ,however ,often very difficult to meet the optimum requirements ,both on account of the surroundings and the location of the roads .in resolving these complex problems ,it is also necessary to follow the local town-planning regulations which are concerned with public amenities ,density of population ,height of buildings ,proportion of green space to dwellings ,building lines ,the general appearance of new properties in relation to the neighbourhood ,and so on .There is little standardization in industrial buildings although such buildings still need to comply with local town-planning regulations .the modern trend is towardslight ,airy factory buildings .generally of reinforced concrete or metal construction ,a factory can be given a “shed ”type ridge roof ,incorporating windows facing north so as to give evenly distributed natural lighting without sun-glare .翻译：建筑类型和设计建筑物与人们有着紧密的联系，他为人们提供必要的空间，用以工作和生活。
高层建筑展望及建筑结构外文文献翻译、中英文翻译、外文翻译
The future of the tall building and structure of buildings Zoning effects on the density of tall buildings and solar design may raise ethical challenge. A combined project of old and new buildings may bring back human scale to our cities. Owners and conceptual designers will be challenged in the 1980s to produce economically sound, people-oriented buildings.In 1980 the Level House, designed by Skidmore, Owings and Merril1 (SOM) received the 25-year award from the American Institute of Architects “in recogn ition of architectural design of enduring significance”. This award is given once a year for a building between 25and 35 years old .Lewis Mumford described the Lever House as “the first office building in which modern materials, modern construction, modern functions have been combined with a modern plan”. At the time, this daring concept could only be achieved by visionary men like Gordon Bunshaft, the designer , and Charles Luckman , the owner and then-president of Lever Brothers . The project also include d a few “first” : (1) it was the first sealed glass tower ever built ; (2) it was the first office building designed by SOM ;and (3) it was the first office building on Park Avenue to omit retail space on the first floor. Today, after hundreds of look-alike and variations on the grid design, we have reached what may be the epitome of tall building design: the nondescript building. Except for a few recently completed buildings that seem to be people-oriented in their lower floors, most tall buildings seem to be arepletion of the dull, graph-paper-like monoliths in many of our cities. Can this be the end of the design-line for tall buildings? Probably cannot. There are definite signs that are most encouraging. Architects and owners have recently begun to discuss the design problem publicly. Perhaps we are at the threshold of a new era. The 1980s may bring forth some new visionaries like Bunshaft and Luckman. If so, what kinds of restrictions or challenges do they face?Zoning Indications are strong that cities may restrict the density of tall buildings, that is, reduce the number of tall buildings per square mile. In 1980 the termgrid-lock was used for the first time publicly in New York City. It caused a terror-like sensation in the pit of one’s stomach. The t erm refers to a situation in which traffic comes to a standstill for many city blocks in all directions. The jam-up may even reach to the tunnels and bridges .Strangely enough, such as event happened in New York in a year of fuel shortages and high gasoline prices. If we are to avoid similar occurrences, it is obvious that the density of people, places, and vehicles must be drastically reduced. Zoning may be the only long-term solution.Solar zoning may become more and more popular as city residents are blocked from the sun by tall buildings. Regardless of how effectively a tall building is designed to conserve energy, it may at the same time deprive a resident or neighbor of solar access. In the 1980s the right to see the sun may become a most interesting ethical question that may revolutionize the architectural fabric of the city. Mixed-use zoning became a financially viable alternative during the 1970s, may become commonplace during the 1980s, especially if it is combined with solar zoning to provide access to the sun for all occupants.Renovation Emery Roth and Sons designed the Palace Hotel in New York as an addition to a renovated historic Villard house on Madison Avenue. It is a striking example of what can be done with salvageable and beautifully detailed old buildings. Recycling both large and small buildings may become the way in which humanism and warmth will be returned to buildings during the 80s’. If we must continue to design with glass and aluminum in stark grid patterns, for whatever reason, we may find that a combination of new and old will become the great humane design trend of the future.Conceptual design it has been suggested in architectural magazines that the Bank of America office building in San Francisco is too large for the city’s scale. It has also been suggested that the John Hancock Center in Boston in not only out of scale but also out of character with the city. Similar statements and opinions have been made about other significant tall buildings in cities throughout the world. Thesecomments raise some basic questions about the design process and who really make the design decisions on important structures-and about who will make these decisions in the 1980s.Will the forthcoming visionaries-architects and owners-return to more humane designs?Will the sociologist or psychologist play a more important role in the years ahead to help convince these visionaries that a new, radically different, human-scaled architecture is long overdue? If these are valid questions, could it be tha t our “best” architectural designers of the 60s’ and 70s’ will become the worst designers of the 80s’ and 90s’? Or will they learn and respond to a valuable lesson they should have learned in their “History of Architecture” course in college that “architec ture usually reflects the success or failure or failure of a civilized society”? Only time will tell.A building is closely bound up with people, for it provides people with the necessary space to work and live in. As classified by their use, buildings are mainly of two types: industrial buildings and civil buildings. Industrial buildings are used by various factories or industrial production while civil buildings are those that are used by people for dwelling, emplovment, education and other social activities.The construction of industrial buildings is the same as that of civil buildings. However, industrial and civil buildings differ in the materials used, and in the structural forms or systems they are used.Considering only the engineering essentials, the structure of a building can be defined as the assemblage of those parts which exist for the purpose of maintaining shape and stability. Its primary purpose is to resist any loads applied to the building and to transmit those to the ground.In terms of architecture, the structure of a building is and does much more than that. It is an inseparable part of the building form and to varying degrees is a generator of that form. Used skillfully, the building structure can establish or reinforce orders and rhythms among the architectural volumes and planes. It can bevisually dominant or recessive. It can develop harmonies or conflicts. It can be both confining and emancipating. And, unfortunately in some cases, it cannot be ignored. It is physical.The structure must also be engineered to maintain the architectural form. The principles and tools of physics and mathematics provide the basis for differentiating between rational and irrational forms in terms of construction. Artists can sometimes generate shapes that obviate any consideration of science, but architects cannot.There are at least three items that must be present in the structure of a building: stability, strength and stiffness, economy.Taking the first of the three requirements, it is obvious that stability is needed to maintain shape. An unstable building structure implies unbalanced forces or a lack of equilibrium and a consequent acceleration of the structure or its pieces.The requirement of strength means that the materials selected to resist the stresses generated by the loads and shapes of the structure(s) must be adequate. Indeed, a “factor of safety” is usually provided so that under the anticipated loads, a given material is not stressed to a level even close to its rupture point. The material property called stiffness is considered with the requirement of strength. Stiffness is different from strength in that it directly involves how much a structure strain or deflects under load .A material that is very strong but lacking in stiffness will deform too much to be of value in resisting the forces applied.Economy of building structure refers to more than just the cost of the materials used.Construction economy is a complicated subject involving raw materials ,fabrication ,erection ,and maintenance .Design and construction labor costs and the costs of energy consumption must be considered .Speed of construction and the cost of money (interest) are also factors .In most design situations ,more than one structural material requires pletive alternatives almost always exist ,and the choice is seldom obvious .Apart from these three primary requirements ,several other factors are worthy ofemphasis .First ,the structure or structural system must relate to the building’s function .It should not be in conflict in terms of form .For example ,a linear function demands a linear structure ,and therefore it would be improper to roof a bowling alley with a dome .Similarly ,a theater must have large , unobstructed spans but a fine restaurant probably should not .Stated simply , the structure must be appropriate to the function it is to shelter .Second, the structure must be fire-resistant. It is obvious that the structural system must be able to maintain its integrity at least until the occupants are safely out. Building codes specify the number of hours for which certain parts of a building must resist the heat without collapse. The structural materials used for those elements must be inherently fire-resistant or be adequately protected by fireproofing materials. The degree of fire resistance to be provided will depend upon a number of items, including the use and occupancy load of the space, its dimensions, and the location of the building.Third, the structure should integrate well with the buil ding’s circulation systems. It should not be in conflict with the piping systems for water and waste, the ducting systems for air, or (most important) the movement of people. It is obvious building systems must be coordinated as the design progresses. One can design in a sequential step-by-step manner within any one system, but the design of all of them should move in a parallel manner toward completion. Spatially, all the various parts of a building are interdependent.Fourth, the structure must be psychologically safe as well as physically safe. A high-rise frame that sways considerably in the wind might not actually be dangerous but may make the building uninhabitable just the same. Lightweight floor systems that are too “bouncy” can make the users very u ncomfortable. Large glass windows, uninterrupted by dividing motions, can be quite safe but will appear very insecure to the occupant standing next to on 40 floors above the street.Sometimes the architect must make deliberate attempts to increase the apparentstrength or solidness of the structure. This apparent safety may be more important than honestly expressing the building’s structure, because the untrained viewer cannot distinguish between real and perceived safety.The building designer needs to understand the behavior lf physical structures under load. An ability to intuit or “feel” structural behavior is possessed by those having much experience involving structural analysis, both qualitative and quantitative. The consequent knowledge of how forces, stresses, and deformations build up in different materials and shapes is vital to the development of this “sense”.Structural analysis is the process of determining the forces and deformations in structures due to specified loads so that the structure can be designed rationally, and so that the state of safety of existing structures can be checked.In the design of structures, it is necessary to start with a concept leading to a configuration which can then be analyzed. This is done so members can be sized and the needed reinforcing determined, in order to: a) carry the design loads without distress or excessive deformations (serviceability or working conditions); and b)to prevent collapse before a specified overload has been placed on the structure(safety or ultimate condition).Since normally elastic conditions will prevailly undue working loads, a structural theory based on the assumptions of elastic behavior is appropriate for determining serviceability conditions. Collapse of a structure will usually occur only long after the elastic range of the materials has been exceeded at critical points, so that an ultimate strength theory based on the inelastic behavior of the materials is necessary for a rational determination of the safety of a structure against collapse. Nevertheless, an elastic theory can be used to determine a safe approximation to the strength of ductile structures (the lower bound approach of plasticity), and this approach is customarily followed in reinforced concrete practice. For this reason only the elastic theory of structures is pursued in this chapter.Looked at critically, all structures are assemblies of three-dimensional elements,the exact analysis of which is a forbidding task even under ideal conditions and impossible to contemplate under conditions of professional practice. For this reason, an important part of the analyst’s work is the simplification of the actual structure and loading conditions to a model which is susceptible to rational analysis.Thus, a structural framing system is decomposed into a slab and floor beams which in turn frame into girders carried by columns which transmit the loads to the foundations. Since traditional structural analysis has been unable to cope with the action of the slab, this has often been idealized into a system of strips acting as beams. Aldo, long-hand method has been unable to cope with three-dimensional framing systems, so that the entire structure has been modeled by a system of planar subassemblies, to be analyzed one at a time. The modern matrix-computer methods have revolutionized structural analysis by making it possible to analyze entire systems, thus leading to more reliable predictions about the behavior of structures under loads.Actual loading conditions are also both difficult to determine and to express realistically, and must be simplified for purposes of analysis. Thus, traffic loads on a bridge structure, which is essentially both of dynamic and random nature, is usually idealized into statically moving standard trucks, or distributed loads, intended to simulate the most severe loading conditions occurring in practice.The most important use of structural analysis is as a tool in structural design. As such, it will usually be a part of a trial-and error procedure, in which an assumed configuration with assumed dead loads is analyzed, and the members designed in accordance with the results of the analysis. This phase is called the preliminary designed; since this design is still subject to change, usually a crude, fast analysis method is adequate. At this stage, the cost of the structure is estimated, loads and member properties are revised, and the design is checked for possible improvements. The changes are now incorporated in the structure, a more refined analysis is performed, and the member design is revised. This project is carried to convergence,the rapidity of which will depend on the capability of the designer. It is clear that a variety of analysis methods, ranging from” quick and dirty to exact”, is needed for design purposes.An efficient analyst must thus be in command of the rigorous methods of analysis, must be aware of available design and analysis aids, as well as simplifications permitted by applicable building codes. An up-to-date analyst must likewise be versed in the bases of matrix structural analysis and its use in digital computers as well as in the use of available analysis programs or software高层建筑展望及建筑结构区域规划对高层建筑物的密度和对自然采光设计可能引起道德问题将产生影响。
建筑外文翻译（可编辑）
建筑外文翻译Building a culture rooted in the natural environment of Habitat Different geographical They certainly have different natural environment: topography, sunshine point of view, sun and tides, currents and winds, temperature, pressure, food, land, water, vegetation and so on. As an intermediary between man and nature of the construction, the external should be conducive to the formation of district external environment should be conducive to the protection of the domestic indoor environment Habitat. These buildings, like plants, the roots, making a day, or geographical areas of the natural environment suitable for the requirements of integration with nature In Southeast Asia and South Asia, in China's Hainan Island and Taiwan Island, Coconut Grove dense, hot weather, people with palm leaves, palm-leaf built to adapt to the tropical rainforest of thatched rooms, small, ventilation, cool, lightweight, simple , built a tropical rain forest building In Central Asia, West Asia, in China's western alpine region, people with stones, the mountain has been built on the powerful stone building, take shelter from the wind, blocking snow, heat, warm, building construction has become plateaus. Such as China, Tibet, Qinghai, Sichuan and other ethnic minorities in China's western mountains and on the potential tobuild a wide variety of mountain building Loess Plateau in China, the Gobi Mobei, low rainfall, dry climate, people use the hillside slopes built tunneling room, built with distinct characteristics of immature soil construction. Gansu Dunhuang Art Exhibition Hall of the building buried in the hillside, the semi-open entrance connected hillside retaining wall, construction features of immature soil is very obvious In the eastern part of the United States, in Australia, in China's south, rainfall, mild climate, people use wood, brick and mountains on the potential, in line with local conditions, build a shade shelter from the rain, ventilation, styling and unique architectural humid areas These architectural forms, of various styles, suitable for different regions of the natural environment, with the landscape, vegetation, terrain together, forming a natural environment is rooted in a variety of architectural culture. Building both rooted in the natural environment, but also subject to the natural environment, this is the architects must follow a basic principle Second, the social space-time caused by environmental differences in the diversification of architectural culture Different regions, different countries, different nations have different social and historical patterns. European countries, the Americas, Asia and Africa and other developing countries, land of different religious beliefs, economic development of the different regions have different cultural practices. Habitat in different parts ofthe social differences in time and space environment, resulting in the architectural culture and the diversity of time and space, resulting in ancient or modern Chinese architectural culture, the Russian architectural culture, architectural culture in Southeast Asia, Europe and the United States Architectural Culture, the African Architectural Culture and so on. Ancient Greek architecture in Europe, North Africa, the ancient Egyptian architecture, the South Asian Association for the ancient Indian architecture, ancient Chinese architecture is the world's architectural and cultural history of ethnic origins. Catholic, Jesus taught, Hinduism, Islam, Buddhism, such as the formation and development of religion, a profound impact on the religious beliefs of countries and regions, but also a profound impact on those areas of construction, forming a rich and colorful culture of religious architecture China several thousand years long history, has followed so far, both ancient and extensive, since ancient times by Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism, Zen, such as the impact of ethical thinking. Especially Confucianism ruled China for 2 000 years, deep-rooted. To this culture of Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism and Zen eclectic variety of ideas, together brilliant, independent nations of the world Architectural Culture under certain conditions, can be transformed. Geographical, ethnic and cultural construction under certain conditions, can be transformed into international architectural culture, and international architecturalculture can also be absorbed, the integration of the region and the national character of the new architectural culture. In today's world, building a culture of development and progress, both the transformation of the former to the latter, which also includes the absorption and integration of the former. The two also both opposing reunification, complement each other, affect each other and common development, only the protection and development of a variety of architectural culture of all ethnic groups, the promotion of world architectural culture of pluralism, and ultimately to create a "different and" the human societyThree Chinese and foreign construction and cultural development and blend Architectural Culture in the global "big culture" systems, all nationalities, all geographical construction symbiotic culture in this form the world's architectural culture Symphony. Social process of globalization has brought to the cultural collision with the rendezvous, conflict and blend For thousands of years, the Chinese culture to external sources of long. Buddhist culture have originated in India, Zhang Qian as envoy to the Western Regions of the Western Han Dynasty, Tang Dynasty Master Xuan Zang went to India to learn from their experience Chuan-by, the impact of China's 2,000 years of Buddhism. However, the contents of Buddhism, Buddha, like Maung, the shapes with the Chinese Buddhist temple in cultures, the formation and development of a unique Chinese Buddhist architectural culture As early as the 20th century, 20 years, China's modern architectsreturned from studying abroad, most of whom are scholars in the United States, they are building at the time of Western academic and cultural concepts and China Architectural Culture nationalistic concept of the double impact, emphasizing cultural exchange between Chinese and Western architecture focused on the architectural style for the first time a creative way to design a number of products, creating a cultural exchange between Chinese and foreign construction of a new era. For example, the first batch of U.S. architect Mr. Lv Yanzhi Canton 20's design Zhongshan Memorial Hall, Dr. Sun Yat-sen in Nanjing and so on, in the Chinese construction industry has played a really ground-breaking effect in stimulating the Chinese and foreign architectural culture of the integration process The early founding of New China, the Chinese government, mechanisms copied the Soviet model, the Chinese all over the building of a group of Russian cultural identity building construction, the formation and development of China's 50's "socialism" of architectural culture. Since reform and opening up, China's open-door once again, the introduction of Western economic management model to imitate, "European style", RTHK construction, post-modernism almost swept the country, the formation and development of China's 80's "reform and opening-up" construction culture. It goes without saying that all countries in the world of architectural culture at that time are subject to local political systems, economic conditions, technical level ofrestraint, in conflict with each other, mutual exchanges, mutual influence, mutual integration. However, what kind of fusion and exchange with vitality, stand the test of time and space? Only those who learned the essence of eastern and western cultures, integration-oriented areas of national culture and national character of the construction only has great vitality Fourth, cultural exchange between old and modern architectural exploration and the pursuit of Ancient and modern cultures, the past serve the present, what? Need to analyze the "ancient" and "today" in the construction of content changes that have taken place. These qualitative change is the social system, production technology, living habits, work, cultural values, building materials in the construction sector caused by the inevitable result. As Mr. Wu Yurong in the evaluation of the French engineer Gustave. Eiffel designed the Eiffel Tower noted: "People are trying to adapt to every human life an art form the new direction of development and to make all the human activities and the rapidly changing era of emotion caused by the new suit." To explore ancient and modern blend of traditional architecture and modern architecture combining problem. China's traditional architectural culture has many features, such as the overall layout of buildings, in line with local conditions, and be full of change; architectural style, rich and colorful; space separated, flexible and diverse; interior decoration, pay attention to the connotation; color to use, colorful; garden green, it is implicitlylively, changeable, unique in the world. In the creation of modern architecture, the contemporary architects should learn from ancient architecture and cultural wealth of nutrition, according to the modernization of a wide range of requirements, from the analysis of the various contradictions in the exploration and pursuit of people's lives to adapt to the new direction of development and people's construction activities and the rapid caused by the changing times adapt to new emotions Since the founding of New China, focusing on the succession of Chinese tradition, carry forward the, creative architectural art of the problems the United States experienced a number of exploration and discussion. Experienced the liberation of the early to imitate the "big roof" retro nostalgia period; experienced a critical retro, and copy the Soviet "model" dogmatism stage; experienced the Cultural Revolution, servility to foreigners critical philosophy, the implementation of "dry-base hit," the poor during the transition; experienced early advocate of reform and opening up the West, the popular "Hong Kong style" period. After exploring the difficulties and setbacks, China began to follow the traditional architect, to adapt to function, the use of high-tech, to explore ancient and modern cultures, the realization of the modernization of architectural creation of the correct way In this paper, talking about building a culture of environment and blend only preliminary study, many deep theoretical issues need further study. Our generation of architectsshould be firmly established the "scientific concept of architectural culture" to the Chinese culture as the main body, to accelerate the construction of culture and environment, and the nation, and society, and the blending process with the times.一建筑文化根植于人居自然环境之中不同的地域自然有不同的自然环境:地形地貌、日照角度、日月潮汐、水流风势、气温、气压、食物、土地、水质、植被等等。
建筑术语翻译英文集1
常见的建筑术语的英文翻译集之一以下是一些常见的建筑术语的英文翻译集合之一：1. 建筑设计- Architectural Design2. 建筑结构- Building Structure3. 建筑材料- Building Materials4. 建筑施工- Building Construction5. 建筑成本- Construction Cost6. 建筑风格- Architectural Style7. 建筑师- Architect8. 建筑规划- Building Planning9. 建筑模型- Architectural Model10. 建筑面积- Building Area11. 建筑高度- Building Height12. 建筑容积率- Plot Ratio13. 建筑法规- Building Codes and Regulations14. 建筑节能- Energy Efficiency in Buildings15. 建筑智能化- Intelligent Buildings16. 绿色建筑- Green Buildings17. 可持续建筑- Sustainable Buildings18. 建筑声学- Architectural Acoustics19. 建筑光学- Architectural Optics20. 室内设计- Interior Design21. 景观设计- Landscape Design22. 结构设计- Structural Design23. 给排水设计- Water Supply and Drainage Design24. 暖通空调设计- HVAC Design25. 电气设计- Electrical Design26. 消防设计- Fire Protection Design27. 智能化系统设计- Intelligent System Design28. 施工组织设计- Construction Organization Design29. 施工图设计- Construction Drawing Design30. 装饰装修设计- Decoration and Finishing Design31. 建筑声学设计- Architectural Acoustics Design32. 建筑光学设计- Architectural Optics Design33. 建筑热工设计- Architectural Thermal Design34. 建筑美学设计- Architectural Aesthetic Design35. 建筑环境设计- Architectural Environment Design36. 建筑风水学- Feng Shui37. 建筑日照分析- Solar Analysis for Buildings38. 建筑通风分析- Ventilation Analysis for Buildings39. 建筑声环境分析- Acoustic Environment Analysis for Buildings40. 建筑光环境分析- Daylighting Environment Analysis for Buildings41. 建筑热环境分析- Thermal Environment Analysis for Buildings42. 建筑面积计算- Building Area Calculation43. 建筑楼层高度- Storey Height44. 建筑消防设计- Fire Protection Design for Buildings45. 建筑结构安全评估- Structural Safety Evaluation for Buildings46. 建筑抗震设计- Seismic Design for Buildings47. 建筑防洪设计- Flood-resistant Design for Buildings48. 建筑工程招标- Building Engineering Tendering49. 建筑工程施工许可- Construction Permission for Building Projects50. 建筑工程造价咨询- Engineering Cost Consulting for Building Projects51. 建筑工程监理- Project Supervision for Building Projects52. 建筑工程验收- Acceptance of Building Projects53. 建筑工程质量检测- Quality Detection of Building Projects54. 建筑工程质量评估- Quality Evaluation of Building Projects55. 建筑工程质量保修- Quality Guarantee of Building Projects56. 建筑工程档案- Construction Project Archives57. 建筑工程安全- Construction Safety58. 建筑工程管理- Construction Project Management59. 建筑工程合同- Construction Contract60. 建筑工程保险- Construction Insurance61. 建筑工程材料- Construction Materials62. 建筑工程机械- Construction Machinery63. 建筑工程劳务- Construction Labor64. 建筑工程施工组织设计- Construction Organization Design for Building Projects65. 建筑工程施工图设计- Construction Drawing Design for Building Projects66. 建筑工程施工进度计划- Construction Progress Plan for Building Projects67. 建筑工程施工质量控制- Construction Quality Control for Building Projects68. 建筑工程施工安全管理- Construction Safety Management for Building Projects69. 建筑工程施工现场管理- Construction Site Management for Building Projects70. 建筑工程施工成本管理- Construction Cost Management for Building Projects71. 建筑工程施工环境保护- Environmental Protection in Building Construction72. 建筑工程施工节能管理- Energy-saving Management in Building Construction73. 建筑工程施工水土保持- Soil and Water Conservation in Building Construction74. 建筑工程施工质量控制要点- Key Points of Construction Quality Control for Building Projects75. 建筑工程施工安全控制要点- Key Points of Construction Safety Control for Building Projects76. 建筑工程施工质量验收规范- Acceptance Specification for Construction Quality ofBuilding Projects77. 建筑立面设计- Façade Design78. 建筑剖面设计- Section Design79. 建筑立面分析图- Façade Analysis Diagram80. 建筑剖面分析图- Section Analysis Diagram81. 建筑结构分析图- Structural Analysis Diagram82. 建筑平面图- Floor Plan83. 建筑立面图- Façade Drawing84. 建筑剖面图- Section Drawing85. 建筑轴测图- Axonometric Drawing86. 建筑渲染图- Architectural Rendering87. 建筑模型制作- Model Making88. 建筑绘画- Architectural Drawing89. 建筑表现图- Architectural Representation90. 建筑动画- Architectural Animation91. 建筑摄影- Architectural Photography92. 建筑信息模型- Building Information Modeling (BIM)93. 建筑环境评估- Building Environmental Assessment94. 建筑节能评估- Building Energy Efficiency Assessment95. 建筑可持续性评估- Building Sustainability Assessment96. 建筑健康评估- Building Health Assessment97. 建筑设备系统设计- Building Equipment System Design98. 建筑电气系统设计- Electrical System Design for Buildings99. 建筑给排水系统设计- Water Supply and Drainage System Design for Buildings 100. 建筑暖通空调系统设计- HVAC System Design for Buildings一般建筑术语英文翻译之二101. 建筑燃气系统设计- Gas System Design for Buildings102. 建筑消防报警系统设计- Fire Alarm System Design for Buildings103. 建筑智能化系统集成设计- Intelligent System Integration Design for Buildings 104. 建筑幕墙设计- Curtain Wall Design105. 建筑石材幕墙设计- Stone Curtain Wall Design106. 建筑玻璃幕墙设计- Glass Curtain Wall Design107. 建筑绿化设计- Greening Design for Buildings108. 建筑景观设计- Landscape Design for Buildings109. 建筑室内环境设计- Indoor Environmental Design for Buildings110. 建筑声学装修设计- Acoustic Decoration Design for Buildings111. 建筑光学装修设计- Optical Decoration Design for Buildings112. 建筑材料装修设计- Decorative Materials Design for Buildings113. 建筑历史与理论- Architectural History and Theory114. 建筑美学史- History of Architectural Aesthetics115. 现代建筑设计- Modern Architectural Design116. 后现代建筑设计- Postmodern Architectural Design117. 当代建筑设计- Contemporary Architectural Design118. 解构主义建筑设计- Deconstructivist Architectural Design119. 装饰艺术建筑设计- Art Deco Architectural Design120. 功能主义建筑设计- Functionalist Architectural Design121. 结构主义建筑设计- Structuralist Architectural Design122. 新古典主义建筑设计- Neoclassical Architectural Design123. 折衷主义建筑设计- Eclectic Architectural Design124. 绿色建筑设计- Green Architectural Design125. 人文主义建筑设计- Humanist Architectural Design126. 新地域主义建筑设计- New Regionalist Architectural Design127. 参数化建筑设计- Parametric Architectural Design128. 数字建筑设计- Digital Architectural Design129. 未来主义建筑设计- Futurist Architectural Design130. 智能化建筑设计- Intelligent Building Design131. 生态建筑设计- Ecological Architectural Design132. 城市设计- Urban Design133. 景观设计- Landscape Design134. 城市规划- Urban Planning135. 城市更新- Urban Renewal136. 城市改造- Urban Transformation137. 城市意象- Urban Image138. 城市设计理论- Urban Design Theory139. 城市生态设计- Urban Ecological Design140. 城市交通设计- Urban Transportation Design141. 城市基础设施设计- Urban Infrastructure Design142. 城市天际线设计- Urban Skyline Design143. 城市夜景设计- Urban Nightscape Design144. 城市滨水区设计- Urban Waterfront Design145. 城市开放空间设计- Urban Open Space Design146. 城市街道景观设计- Urban Streetscape Design147. 城市公园设计- Urban Park Design148. 城市居住区设计- Urban Residential District Design149. 城市商业区设计- Urban Commercial District Design150. 城市文化区设计- Urban Cultural District Design151. 城市行政中心设计- Urban Governmental District Design152. 城市会展中心设计- Urban Exhibition and Convention Center Design 153. 城市体育馆设计- Urban Stadium Design154. 城市图书馆设计- Urban Library Design155. 城市博物馆设计- Urban Museum Design156. 城市大剧院设计- Urban Theater Design157. 城市机场设计- Urban Airport Design158. 城市火车站设计- Urban Train Station Design159. 城市地铁站设计- Urban Subway Station Design160. 城市公交车站设计- Urban Bus Stop Design161. 城市景观照明设计- Urban Landscape Lighting Design162. 城市标识系统设计- Urban Signage System Design163. 城市公共艺术装置设计- Public Art Installation Design164. 城市家具设计- Urban Furniture Design165. 城市花坛设计- Urban Flower Bed Design166. 城市儿童游乐设施设计- Urban Playground Design167. 城市植栽设计- Urban Planting Design168. 城市排水系统设计- Urban Drainage System Design169. 城市防洪系统设计- Urban Flood Control System Design170. 城市消防系统设计- Urban Fire Protection System Design171. 城市应急救援系统设计- Urban Emergency Rescue System Design172. 城市废弃物处理系统设计- Urban Waste Management System Design 173. 城市给水系统设计- Urban Water Supply System Design174. 城市污水处理系统设计- Urban Wastewater Treatment System Design 175. 城市雨水排放系统设计- Urban Stormwater Management System Design 176. 城市空调系统设计- Urban Air Conditioning System Design177. 城市供暖系统设计- Urban Heating System Design178. 城市燃气供应系统设计- Urban Gas Supply System Design179. 城市电力供应系统设计- Urban Electrical Power Supply System Design180. 城市智能化管理系统设计- Urban Intelligent Management System Design 181. 城市绿色建筑认证体系- Green Building Certification Systems182. 城市绿色建筑评价体系- Green Building Evaluation Systems183. 可持续城市发展理论- Sustainable Urban Development Theory 184. 生态城市理论- Eco-city Theory185. 低碳城市理论- Low-carbon City Theory186. 紧凑城市理论- Compact City Theory187. 智慧城市理论- Smart City Theory188. 韧性城市理论- Resilient City Theory189. 多规合一城市规划体系- Integrated Urban Planning System 190. 城市设计哲学- Urban Design Philosophy191. 城市设计心理学- Urban Design Psychology192. 城市设计社会学- Urban Design Sociology193. 城市设计地理学- Urban Design Geography194. 城市设计经济学- Urban Design Economics195. 城市设计生态学- Urban Design Ecology196. 城市设计符号学- Urban Design Semiotics197. 城市设计现象学- Urban Design Phenomenology198. 城市设计未来学- Urban Design Futures Studies199. 城市设计艺术史- Urban Design Art History200. 城市设计与公共政策- Urban Design and Public Policy。
外文翻译---高层建筑及结构设计
中文3220字附录：毕业设计外文翻译院（系）建筑工程学院专业土木工程班级姓名学号导师2011年4月15日英文：High-Rise Buildings and StructuralDesignAbstract：It is difficult to define a high-rise building . One may say that a low-rise building ranges from 1 to 2 stories . A medium-rise building probably ranges between 3 or 4 stories up to 10 or 20 stories or more . Although the basic principles of vertical and horizontal subsystem design remain the same for low- , medium- , or high-rise buildings , when a building gets high the vertical subsystems become a controlling problem for two reasons . Higher vertical loads will require larger columns , walls , and shafts . But , more significantly , the overturning moment and the shear deflections produced by lateral forces are much larger and must be carefully provided for .Key Words：High-Rise Buildings Structural Design Framework Shear Seismic SystemIntroductionThe vertical subsystems in a high-rise building transmit accumulated gravity load from story to story , thus requiring larger column or wall sections to support such loading . In addition these same vertical subsystems must transmit lateral loads , such as wind or seismic loads , to the foundations. However , in contrast to vertical load , lateral load effects on buildings are not linear and increase rapidly with increase in height . For example under wind load , the overturning moment at the base of buildings varies approximately as the square of a buildings may vary as the fourth power of buildings height , other things being equal.Earthquake produces an even more pronounced effect.When the structure for a low-or medium-rise building is designed for dead and live load , it is almost an inherent property that the columns , walls , and stair or elevator shafts can carry most of the horizontal forces . The problem is primarily shear resistance . Moderate addition bracing for rigid frames in“short”buildings can easily be provided by filling certain panels ( or even all panels ) without increasing the sizes of the columns and girders otherwise required for vertical loads.Unfortunately , this is not is for high-rise buildings because the problem is primarily resistance to moment and deflection rather than shear alone . Special structural arrangements will often have to be made and additional structural material is always required for the columns , girders , walls , and slabs in order to made a high-rise buildings sufficiently resistant to much higher lateral deformations .As previously mentioned , the quantity of structural material required per square foot of floor of a high-rise buildings is in excess of that required for low-rise buildings . The vertical components carrying the gravity load , such as walls , columns , and shafts , will need to be strengthened over the full height of the buildings . But quantity of material required for resisting lateral forces is even more significant .With reinforced concrete , the quantity of material also increases as the number of stories increases . But here it should be noted that the increase in the weight of material added for gravity load is much more sizable than steel , whereas for wind load the increase for lateral force resistance is not that much more since the weight of a concrete buildings helps to resist overturn . On the other hand , the problem of design for earthquake forces . Additional mass in the upper floors will give rise to a greater overall lateral force under the of seismic effects .In the case of either concrete or steel design , there are certain basic principles for providing additional resistance to lateral to lateral forces and deflections in high-rise buildings without too much sacrifire ineconomy .1、Increase the effective width of the moment-resisting subsystems . This is very useful because increasing the width will cut down the overturn force directly and will reduce deflection by the third power of the width increase , other things remaining cinstant . However , this does require that vertical components of the widened subsystem be suitably connected to actually gain this benefit.2、Design subsystems such that the components are made to interact in the most efficient manner . For example , use truss systems with chords and diagonals efficiently stressed , place reinforcing for walls at critical locations , and optimize stiffness ratios for rigid frames .3、Increase the material in the most effective resisting components . For example , materials added in the lower floors to the flanges of columns and connecting girders will directly decrease the overall deflection and increase the moment resistance without contributing mass in the upper floors where the earthquake problem is aggravated .4、Arrange to have the greater part of vertical loads be carried directly on the primary moment-resisting components . This will help stabilize the buildings against tensile overturning forces by precompressing the major overturn-resisting components .5、The local shear in each story can be best resisted by strategic placement if solid walls or the use of diagonal members in a vertical subsystem . Resisting these shears solely by vertical members in bending is usually less economical , since achieving sufficient bending resistance in the columns and connecting girders will require more material and construction energy than using walls or diagonal members .6、Sufficient horizontal diaphragm action should be provided floor . This will help to bring the various resisting elements to work together instead of separately .7、Create mega-frames by joining large vertical and horizontal components such as two or more elevator shafts at multistory intervalswith a heavy floor subsystems , or by use of very deep girder trusses .Remember that all high-rise buildings are essentially vertical cantilevers which are supported at the ground . When the above principles are judiciously applied , structurally desirable schemes can be obtained by walls , cores , rigid frames, tubular construction , and other vertical subsystems to achieve horizontal strength and rigidity . Some of these applications will now be described in subsequent sections in the following .Shear-Wall SystemsWhen shear walls are compatible with other functional requirements , they can be economically utilized to resist lateral forces in high-rise buildings . For example , apartment buildings naturally require many separation walls . When some of these are designed to be solid , they can act as shear walls to resist lateral forces and to carry the vertical load as well . For buildings up to some 20storise , the use of shear walls is common . If given sufficient length ,such walls can economically resist lateral forces up to 30 to 40 stories or more .However , shear walls can resist lateral load only the plane of the walls ( i.e.not in a diretion perpendicular to them ) . Therefore ,it is always necessary to provide shear walls in two perpendicular directions can be at least in sufficient orientation so that lateral force in any direction can be resisted . In addition , that wall layout should reflect consideration of any torsional effect .In design progress , two or more shear walls can be connected to from L-shaped or channel-shaped subsystems . Indeed , internal shear walls can be connected to from a rectangular shaft that will resist lateral forces very efficiently . If all external shear walls are continuously connected , then the whole buildings acts as a tube , and is excellent Shear-Wall Systems resisting lateral loads and torsion .Whereas concrete shear walls are generally of solid type withopenings when necessary , steel shear walls are usually made of trusses . These trusses can have single diagonals , “X”diagonals , or“K”arrangements . A trussed wall will have its members act essentially in direct tension or compression under the action of view , and they offer some opportunity and deflection-limitation point of view , and they offer some opportunity for penetration between members . Of course , the inclined members of trusses must be suitable placed so as not to interfere with requirements for windows and for circulation service penetrations though these walls .As stated above , the walls of elevator , staircase ,and utility shafts form natural tubes and are commonly employed to resist both vertical and lateral forces . Since these shafts are normally rectangular or circular in cross-section , they can offer an efficient means for resisting moments and shear in all directions due to tube structural action . But a problem in the design of these shafts is provided sufficient strength around door openings and other penetrations through these elements . For reinforced concrete construction , special steel reinforcements are placed around such opening .In steel construction , heavier and more rigid connections are required to resist racking at the openings .In many high-rise buildings , a combination of walls and shafts can offer excellent resistance to lateral forces when they are suitably located ant connected to one another . It is also desirable that the stiffness offered these subsystems be more-or-less symmertrical in all directions .Rigid-Frame SystemsIn the design of architectural buildings , rigid-frame systems for resisting vertical and lateral loads have long been accepted as an important and standard means for designing building . They are employed for low-and medium means for designing buildings . They are employed for low- and medium up to high-rise building perhaps 70 or 100 stories high . When compared to shear-wall systems , these rigid frames bothwithin and at the outside of a buildings . They also make use of the stiffness in beams and columns that are required for the buildings in any case , but the columns are made stronger when rigidly connected to resist the lateral as well as vertical forces though frame bending .Frequently , rigid frames will not be as stiff as shear-wall construction , and therefore may produce excessive deflections for the more slender high-rise buildings designs . But because of this flexibility , they are often considered as being more ductile and thus less susceptible to catastrophic earthquake failure when compared with ( some ) shear-wall designs . For example , if over stressing occurs at certain portions of a steel rigid frame ( i.e.,near the joint ) , ductility will allow the structure as a whole to deflect a little more , but it will by no means collapse even under a much larger force than expected on the structure . For this reason , rigid-frame construction is considered by some to be a “best”seismic-resisting type for high-rise steel buildings . On the other hand ,it is also unlikely that a well-designed share-wall system would collapse.In the case of concrete rigid frames ,there is a divergence of opinion . It true that if a concrete rigid frame is designed in the conventional manner , without special care to produce higher ductility , it will not be able to withstand a catastrophic earthquake that can produce forces several times lerger than the code design earthquake forces .Therefore , some believe that it may not have additional capacity possessed by steel rigid frames . But modern research and experience has indicated that concrete frames can be designed to be ductile , when sufficient stirrups and joinery reinforcement are designed in to the frame . Modern buildings codes have specifications for the so-called ductile concrete frames . However , at present , these codes often require excessive reinforcement at certain points in the frame so as to cause congestion and result in construction difficulties 。
建筑专业英语课文翻译
建筑专业英语课文翻译建筑专业英语课文翻译建筑的们，我们的课本上有很多专业的文章大家知道怎么样翻译吗？以下是店铺精心准备的建筑专业英语课文翻译，大家可以参考以下内容哦！建筑专业英语课文翻译【1】一般术语1. 工程结构 building and civil engineering structures房屋建筑和土木工程的建筑物、构筑物及其相关组成部分的总称。
2. 工程结构设计design of building and civil engineering structures在工程结构的可靠与经济、适用与美观之间，选择一种最佳的合理的平衡，使所建造的结构能满足各种预定功能要求。
3. 房屋建筑工程 building engineering一般称建筑工程，为新建、改建或扩建房屋建筑物和附属构筑物所进行的勘察、规划、设计、施工、安装和维护等各项技术工作和完成的工程实体。
4. 土木工程 civil engineering除房屋建筑外，为新建、改建或扩建各类工程的建筑物、构筑物和相关配套设施等所进行的勘察、规划、设计、施工、安装和维护等各项技术工作和完成的工程实体。
5. 公路工程 highway engineering为新建或改建各级公路和相关配套设施等而进行的勘察、规划、设计、施工、安装和维护等各项技术工作和完成的工程实体。
6. 铁路工程 railway engineering为新建或改建铁路和相关配套设施等所进行的勘察、规划、设计、施工、安装和维护等各项技术工作和完成的工程实体。
7. 港口与航道工程 port ( harbour ) and waterway engineering为新建或改建港口与航道和相关配套设施等所进行的勘察、规划、设计、施工、安装和维护等各项技术工作和完成的'工程实体。
8. 水利工程 hydraulic engineering为修建治理水患、开发利用水资源的各项建筑物、构筑物和相关配设施等所进行的勘察、规划、设计、施工、安装和维护等各项技术工作和完成的工程实体。
外文翻译---建筑生命周期
外文文献：THE LIFE CYCLE OF BUILDINGABSTRACTSustainable Building is a global issue. The life cycle of building influences the life cycles ofthe whole planet dramatically.Some of the methods concerning Environmentally-Sound and Healthy Building, developed and used in The Netherlands will be presented and discussed in the perspective of world wide effects. Awareness about and development of those methods and approaches are actually yet not at their end.The scientific and technical complexity of the theme and the fact that the objectives are items of commercial and political interests make Sustainable Building a delicate problem.However, after having seen how complicated it is to contribute to a Sustainable Development substantially, we will conclude with some Rules of Thumb and Innovative proposals, in order to stimulate more significant contributions in the future.INTRODUCTIONKnowledge on Sustainable Building was an item of highest importance already in the begin of human culture and civilisation. Looking back, in history, we find that Sustainable Building was a question of survival. Protection against weather circumstances, dangerous animals and hostile fellow men belong(ed) to the main functions of a building. In order to fulfil these demands it was necessary to find an equilibrium between the environmentally or ecologically based possibilities of resources and their limits and the needs and wishes for a durable home. Beside this it was determining for a built result, which and how much capacities for the realisation were available. Energy for building purposes was mainly given by human power, and for a part by the use of animals and more indirectly sometimes by fire or wind. But fire was dependent from fuel. Similarly there was only building material at hand, which could be found near to the site, because it was generally too costly, nearly impossible, to transport main materials from a source far away. When humankind started to exploit or produce ('hard) energy on a large scale - at least a part, inthe so called West - by steam, electricity from fuels like coal, mineral oil, gas, hydropower and finally nuclear power, the scene of building changed dramatically, certainly in the rich countries, which used and still use to exploit others.In spite of pollution, deterioration and exploitation - these phenomena even mostly fully ignored - the socalled industrial revolution started. Independent from a vital need, mass production firstly of all kinds of goods and later of more and more building products started. With the economical interest and power it was possible to create markets and to sell the mass products, even to far away located consumers, while the relative easy new transportation lines of train and ship and later of truck and airplane, helped and help still to bring or catch raw materials from far away. Regional building disappeared in big parts of the world and with an International Architecture it was even postulated, that everything could be the same everywhere.In the last decades we slowly recognized the terrible effects of this way to build in our environment as well as on ourselves. The mondial disaster might be, for approximately a third, the effect of the building activities, while the Sick Building Syndrome is fully created by the recent and nowadays way to build and to dwell. At the same time we should be aware that the rich appearing, technological advanced countries, which are approximately 20% of the whole humankind, can effort this 'style' only by exploiting the + 80% of humankind, which are called the Poor, under whom a population of about 20% hardly can survive.It seems extraordinary difficult to increase the awareness of the first World concerning these relations within our mondial society. But even more difficult it is to transform our behaviour towards more balanced circumstances in the world. This contribution aims to help, modestly, to support a strategy together with the necessary 'know how' towards Sustainable Building as an essential part of Sustainable Development.The entire building process – from cradle to grave or even from cradle to cradle – in itsrelation to the environment in terms of energy use and emission between digging (in put)out of the environment and bringing back (out put) into the environment.On the way of this life cycle we face exploitation, pollution and deterioration of the environment. Partial reuse is always good, but it is only a very low compensation for the damages, which the whole process causes.LIFE CYCLELooking more carefully (than usual) to the Life Cycle of materials and products (and similarly also to the flow of energy), applied for all kinds of purposes, including building, it is useful to distinguish in the relationship of the changes a material (or an energy) undergoes with space and time. Doing so, we systematically can focus on the various impacts which the chain of causes and effects of the life cycle of a material has, in different scales and on short, middle, and long term. Before and after the final application and destination of a material, as a component in a building, while it is used - the actual goal of a building material - we can distinguish a number of characteristic activities. There are roughly the following activities: Before the phase of using a material it firstly has to be digged or 'harvested' out of the environment.Secondly the building material has to be made out or produced from the raw material.Thirdly and mostly there is a certain assemblage needed in order to get a useful building component. In between these main activities, transport and storage is needed very often.All of these acts need energy and there is hardly one of them which does not create emissions.To make a building useful, it needs the finishing touch together with the integration of all equipment and furniture, which will go on during the use of the building together with cleaning, care taking and exploiting the building. Heating and/or cooling and lighting are conditional in this period as well. Again, all of these handlings need energy and there is hardly one of them, which does not pollute the environment.After and partially already during the phase of use, it will appear, that changes, or, at least strong, maintenance is needed. Partial demolition will be one of the consequences, than partial or full renewal or refurbishment can take place. Although there is a resource - saving possibility of reuse of various gradations with more or less manipulations, needed for a final proper reuse - again 'we can sing the refrain of the need of energy and emission'.Finally, everything, including the energy flow, ends up in the environment. But on the way, unfortunately, the handling mostly was executed without consideration for the availability of resources on long term, in other words exploitation, without consideration for pollution either of the environment and/or concerned and committed persons and people. Already nowadays we got the proof, that many of the negative effects will last for a long and very long time.We recognize the whole life cycle as an extraordinary plot on the environment, and, paradoxicalenough, very often also as a plot against our own health and safety, certainly on a long term.If we would like to reach a Sustainable Development we have to reduce the consumption generally, we have to reduce the consumption of energy, directly and indirectly used, and we have to minimize or even to exclude the pollution. Concerning deterioration of the landscape and exploitation of resources we earnestly have to search for renewable sources, whichs applications lead only to a short lasting deterioration.EFFECTSThe effects of building activities are manifold. In the former chapter we spent attention to the life cycle of a (building) material, mainly in terms of phases or periods, shortly in terms of time. Concerning space it is possible to distinguish a number of dimensions or scales, in order to be able to specify effects in this field(s). There is a practical order with the dimension of:-Local -Regional - Fluvial - Continental - Mondial, and even- Cosmic - with reference to the fact, that the production and traffic processes, shipping and space exploration.Thus six dimensions.The areas which (can) undergo an impact and influence can be distinguished into:-Earth (the ground, including the Mineral Kingdom) - Water (all kinds of rivers, lakes, seas, ..) - Air (the atmosphere) - Energy (mainly the energy sources), furthermore the Plants Kingdom - the Animal Kingdom - Humans (to be understood also as a part of nature) with their (valuable) Cultural Artefacts and possibly miscellaneous, Nine areas in total.These areas, just explained, can be found on local, regional, fluvial, continental and mondial scale. This means, that an impact or influence, caused by a production process or the use of building can affect or effect these areas locally, fluvially, continentally, mondially or even cosmically. Thus six dimension.Beside this, it is necessary to realise, that the effects can come from the various activities, connected to the whole life cycle of a building material or product and the concerned processes. We distinguished nine of those activities. Three before, three during and three after the use of a building, nine together.The possible effects are innumerable. Sick Building Syndrome on the one hand, pollution, deterioration and exploitation on the other hand, are only rather summarizing effects.The reports on base of measurements and enquiries concerning building related illnesses, human- and ecotoxicological problems, amongst others in the food chains of animals and men, changes of landscapes and ending resources, beside the elianated and decreasing cultural values, goes already in the tens, hundreds, thousands, perhaps tenthousands . Worldwide.If we would like to measure, to rank, to weight in order to judge the impact or influence of a building material in its life cycle in terms of concerned quantities - with some completeness - we have to deal with more than thousand data - for each.In addition to this it has to be considered, that the data will change dependent from a changed choice of the used source of more or less renewable energy or farer or nearer places of to be found raw materials, or harder or softer production processes, etc. etc.It seems it will be an unsolvable task to get a correct result of the environmental and health impact assessment this means to calculate it, as it should. However it also seems that all attempts have to be made to convince us how to make our future choices.DUTCH CONTRIBUTIONSHere it will be not possible to give an unbroken historical report on all attempts towards Sustainable Development and Sustainable Building made in the Netherlands since the energy crisis in the begin of the seventies. However two lines will be sketched - a governmental and a non-governmental one, which even started before the energy crisis, around the time of the first signs given by the Club of Rome.Both of these lines developed consciousness as well as later regulations on Sustainable Building. And, of course, the practical realisations always take longer and they are much weaker than the formulation and postulation of aims.The energy crisis led to a socalled 'Brede Maatschappelijke Discussie' - BMD, a Broad Social Debate in order to choose or approach new scenarios for gaining and using energy.At the end of the seventies there appeared a governmental report 'Zorgen voor Morgen' (Care for Tomorrow) and after this the first NMP - National Environmental Policy Plan, A Clean Environment - Choose it or Loose it. The Building Sector was addressed there with issues asA NMP+, and, after four years at times, a NMP1, a NMP2 and a NMP3 followed.Nowadays the NMP4 is in preparation.Side by side there came a semi-governmental institution into existence: NOVEM, which unified quite a lot of former particular and private initiatives in the field of mainly (alternative) energy use like e.g. 'Energie Anders' (A different Energy).Together with SEV, the Group dealing with Experiments in Housing and SBR, Foundation Building Research started with the governmental supported institute Duurzaam Bouwen -DuBo Sustainable Building.Along this development, important to mention, there appeared five times (yearly) aPaasbrief - an Eastermessage of Rgd - Rijksgebouwendienst the governmental section,which takes care for all governmental buildings.Regulations like 'Bouwbesluit' (Decision to build) and the 'Plan van aanpak' (How toGrasp) and Nationaal Pakket (National Package) voor Woningbouw (Housing) and later Utiliteitsbouw (Utility Building) were further steps in the development.Nowadays we see a state of a relative awareness about the necessity of Sustainable Building also in its complexity, but it seems at the same time, that the relatively easy possible, 'small steps' give already a satisfaction, with which the majority of the planners and builders remain.The number of model projects of Sustainable Building is growing, but their consequence in following the main aims of a Sustainable Development is far from the desirable, far from a substantial contribution to the world problems.COMPLEXITYThe Life Cycle of Building has – as we already have seen a high complexity concerning its technical structure in time and space. Beside this it also has a complicated and even delicate place and meaning concerning its social and economical importance. Being a main part of eachs country’s national economy and being in the hands of profit-orientated industries in relation with employment or unemployment of large numbers of workers in the building and construction industry it is not easy to change the concerned habits from an environmental damaging, unhealthy way to build towards an environmentally-sound and healthy one.In the Metamodel for an Integral Bio-Logical Architecture we see the complexity – visualised, and this mandala like diagram with its pictograms is made as a kind of checklist, but also as a(n) (design) aid and to support a fundamental contemplative and reflective view on architecture,building and planning and the manifold processes within and around.It might be helpful also to look to the cost consequences of the Life Cycle of Building integrally and on long term.In the Iceberg Theory it is stated, that the real costs of building are approximately ten times higher than the prices we pay usually for a building or also for the most other more or less high advanced industrial products.The reasons for these hidden costs are to find in mainly three circumstances:FirstlySooner or later we will have to compensate and to repair the damages in the natural environment as a consequence of the (life) cycles of many building materials and the use of energy, as already described previously. The (costly) sometimes repeated attempts we make and will make will not be successful in all cases.SecondlySooner or later we will have to cure the damages of the health of coming generations as a consequence of toxic, and otherwise harmful materials, processes and products, as already mentioned previously. Also these (costly sometimes repeated) attempt will not always be successful.ThirdlyWe also have to take into account , that the usual prices we pay for energy and raw materials, but labour as well – often from the Third World countries – are, compared with what in the advanced countries would be asked for, extraordinary low.It might be – beside the loss of priceless values in nature, and – culture – that the hiddencosts will even be more than ten times the usual prices in some cases.RULES OF THUMBIn this key note paper about the Life Cycle of Building we only will give two rules of thumb, which – in case of application – can help to bring us (significally) nearer towards Sustainable Building and a Sustainable Development.The first rule of thumb is the rule for co-operation, collaboration, teamwork. A mondial and disciplines crossing synthesis and a symbiosis of even opposing ideas, approaches strategies andexpectations are needed in order to survive as humankind at least with a minimum of health.The Method Holistic Participation – MHP is such an instrument, which can help to bring the factors of a complex problem together in order to find or create an optimal solution. By means of the rotating and ‘weaving structure’ in the sequence of exploration, developing, de sign but also consultation and decision phases it is possible that the opposing participants of experts, users and clients can come to a common solution which will respect the minority and which will be better for the whole than any possibly partially good looking solution.We could compare our (humankinds) situation with the situation of Crew of a boat or a space ship in danger. Everybody has to cooperate positively in order to make the chance for success high as possible.The second rule of thumb is a rule for a proper choice of a building material. A matrixhelps to orientate on the possible choices:On the left side we distinguish the various origins of a material:growing plants – growing animal – minerals (metals included) – mixtures.On the right side we see the gradations of the impact on the raw material in order to makeit suitable for the application:without treatment – (s)lightly treated – heavy treated – transformed.In both groups of categories we can see the lower we look the more risks we will face because of the facts that the material is not renewable or difficult to reuse and the fact ….. more energy and transport will be needed.The risks for health hazards as well as damages of the environment are the bigger thelower in the diagram a choice will be made for a building material.INNOVATIONSIn the last years, more and more customers asked for healthy and/or environmentally - sound dwellings and working places. They seem to be still in the minority. Even much less experts strive towards buildings with the described qualities in spite of so many attempts by some NGOs and a growing number of governments.Looking to conferences and various publications one could get the impression, that some progress is made: lots of conferences are dedicated to sustainability and Building and Construction, oftenalso in relation to Health. Ten years ago it was only the name, which carried Sustainability. Nowadays we get already contributions, which contents have a serious relation to sustainability. Still we see an enormous gap between the possibilities, the taken opportunities and especially the willingness towards sustainable building.The models and realised model projects, currently propagated by various professional and governmental institutions reflect a kind of more or less usual sustainable building:Replacing of highly poisoned materials or materials with a lot of embedded energy, be less poisoned or clean materials or materials which less embedded energy; more efficient installation and equipment than the standard describes; some energy saving during the exploitation by the implementation of passive and active solar technologies, whereby the question remains whether active solar power with all necessary equipment is really more environment friendly than the traditional solutions; waste management during the production and on the site; and some more similar precautions are - of course - already highly welcome!Excursions to objects, which fulfils these criteria, exhibitions of those projects and buildings and some competitions, held in order to gain ideas and plans for sustainable buildings and settlements brought the whole development clearly further.Surprisingly enough - the results of the competitions went hardly beyond the relatively easy reachable possibilities. And the usual way of sustainable building is still far away from a substantial contribution towards significant minimised use of resources and energies.After a period (starting 1965) of designing and realising a few (early historical examples of) healthy and environmental conscious buildings - specifically under the term - IntegralBio-Logical Architecture (IBA) - the author started also to develop building principles and systems Gaia-Building-Systems (GBS) which answer the demands of higher than usual sustainability for building Redundant to mention that sustainability do not go (automatically) hand in hand with durability.The Straw Panel SystemThere are at least two approaches, which basically could help the Poor as well as the Rich in the world to reach Sustainable Building. This means roof- and homelessness can be solved by rather low efforts and extremely low-investments for large needs on the one hand and the Rich could bring down their exaggerated energy and resource consumption on the other hand.The one approach to reach this ideal, but for the balance in the world necessary situation, is, to build mainly with easy and continuously renewable materials - much easier renewable than timber or wood, namely materials like grass, elephant grass, straw, reed, bamboo, Jeruzalem artichoke, maize, sunflowers ....The other approach is to use highly advanced materials and products, but only in the smallest, thinnest and lightest quantities and dimensions.Both these approaches can be worthwhile in all parts of the world. A start, even based on some marginal traditions with similar developments is already made. Building with e.g. strawbales and reed roofing, bamboo and various other plantmaterials is wellknown as well as the use of fabrics, foils and wires for building purposes.The Straw Panel System (SPS)The biggest volume of available matter - certainly including the most renewable material is the biomass on the surface of the planet in all continents, reproduced each year. From the above mentioned kinds of plants we are able to produce manually or industrialised - sandwich panels. Those panels are filled with honey -comb-like fillings of straws and traw-like pipes or materials. With some pressure, literally, the material provides us with a natural adhesive or glue, gets locally also higher strength, can become transparent, nearly like glass, reaches a high thermic insulation value (when thick enough), can be shaped in the most fantastic forms, but remains light of weight and easy to handle.The briefly described elements or components, possible to be manufactured or produced, can be composed to a building system. The Straw Panel System can be applied for low, but also for huge and high (multi-storey) buildings together with e.g. a skeleton.The SPS is finally fully biodegradable - after perhaps some other use in a kind of ‘cascade’.CONCLUSIONWe introduced the place and meaning of the Life Cycle of Building as well as the knowledge about, w ithin a Sustainable Development.The Life Cycle of the entire building process itself has an extraordinary strong impact onhealth and environment.In order to register all influences of the Life Cycle on health and environment we need anenormous amount of data, being aware, that they can change more or less continuously.The official Dutch Contributions to Sustainable Building are impressive in their aims. The practical realisation takes place with small steps.The non-governmental attempts towards aSustainable Development always were and are still far ahead. They have a stimulating influence on the practice, but – according to the pioneers – much more has to be done in order to support Sustainable Building significantly.The complexity of the Life Cycle of Buildings makes it not easy to apply the already found principles and requirements. When the technical aspects are known, there are still economical interests, which makes it difficult and yet impossible to realise Sustainable Building in practice. In order to help the process of becoming aware as well as to apply the insights, two conditions –translated into rules of thumb –have to be fulfilled, namely ‘collaboration’ (e.g. by the Method Holistic Participation– MHP) and the proper choice of building materials (by the Matrix for the choice of Material with minimizing risks for health and damage of the environment), representative for similar necessary actions.There are innovative proposals for Gaia Building Systems, but there is still a change in paradigms and habits needed in order to be able to build really sustainable.REFERENCES- Dutch Ministry for Housing Regional Planning and Environmental Affairs: Dutch Environmental Policy Plan ‘To loose or to choose’ (NMP) The Hague, 1989, NMP+ 1990, NMP II 1993, NMP III1998- United Nations: Our Common Future (Brundtland Report) New York- World Watch Institute: State of the World, annual report, since more than 10 years- GAIA, an Atlas of Planet Management- SIEP Putting Habitat Agenda to work- CIB Agenda 21 on sustainable construction, CIB Report Publication 237, July 1999- VIBA, Association Integral Bio-Logical Architecture, Den Bosch, NetherlandsDISSERTATIONS:- Xiaodong LiMEANING OF THE SITEA holistic approach towards site analysis on behalf of the development of a design tool based on a comparative case-studybetween Feng Shui and Kevin Lynch’s system, December 14, 1993- Heinz FrickSTRUCTURES OF INDONESIAN BUILDING CONSTRUCTIONDevelopment of methodic principles for a constructive pattern language, exemplary introduced by the constructionof traditional houses in Central Java, January 17, 1995- John OlieA TYPOLOGY OF JOINTS(supporting sustainable development in building) based on a case-study of the typo-morphological principles of thewindow in the cavity-wall, September 3, 1996- Michiel HaasTHE TWIN-MODELAn assessment-model in building, based on sustainability aspectsA contribution for a scientific approach of the dilemma to choose building materials, products and constructions andstructures in consideration with the complete lifecycle, September 8, 1997- Ferdinand BeetstraTHE ECOLEMMA MODELSocial Costs in Building ConstructionA monetary evaluation of the environmental impact of direct deterioration caused by building materialsand buildings in the light of sustainable development , September 30, 1998 MAGAZINES:- Gezond Bouwen & Wonen, Uitgeverij Van Westering, Baarn, The Netherlands- Baubiologie, Fachzeitschrift der Schweizerischen Interessengemeinschaft für Baubiologie/Bauökologie (SIB) und desÖsterreichischen Institutes für Baubiologie und -ökologie (IBO), Switzerland- Wohnung + Gesundheit, Fachzeitschrift für ökologisches Bauen + Leben, Herausgeber: Institut für Baubiologie + Ökologie, Neubeuern, Germany- Eco Design, Gaia Publication, Great Britain- IAED Bulletin, International Association for Ecological Design (IAED), Svedala, Sweden- Gesundes Bauen & Wohnen, Fachzeitschrift für Baubiologie und Bauökologie, Herausgeber und Verlag: Bundesverband中文译文：建筑生命周期摘要可持续建筑是一个全球性的问题。
外文翻译---《建筑的组成部分》
外文翻译《建筑的组成部分》Structural Systems to resist lateral loadsCommonly Used structural SystemsWith loads measured in tens of thousands kips, there is little room in the design of high-rise buildings for excessively complex thoughts. Indeed, the better high-rise buildings carry the universal traits of simplicity of thought and clarity of expression. It does not follow that there is no room for grand thoughts. Indeed, it is with such grand thoughts that the new family of high-rise buildings has evolved. Perhaps more important, the new concepts of but a few years ago have become commonplace in today‟ s technology.Omitting some concepts that are related strictly to the materials of construction, the most commonly used structural systems used in high-rise buildings can be categorized as follows:1. Moment-resisting frames.2. Braced frames, including eccentrically braced frames.3. Shear walls, including steel plate shear walls.4. Tube-in-tube structures.5. Tube-in-tube structures.6. Core-interactive structures.7. Cellular or bundled-tube systems.Particularly with the recent trend toward more complex forms, but in response also to the need for increased stiffness to resist the forces from wind and earthquake, most high-rise buildings have structural systems built up of combinations of frames, braced bents, shear walls, and related systems. Further, for the taller buildings, the majorities are composed of interactive elements in three-dimensional arrays.The method of combining these elements is the very essence of the design process for high-rise buildings. These combinations need evolve in response to environmental, functional, and cost considerations so as to provide efficient structures that provoke the architectural development to new heights. This is not to say that imaginative structural design can create great architecture. To the contrary, many examples of fine architecture have been created with only moderate support from the structural engineer, while only fine structure, not great architecture, can be developed without the genius and the leadership of a talented architect. In any event, the best of both is needed to formulate a truly extraordinary design of a high-rise building.While comprehensive discussions of these seven systems are generally available in the literature, further discussion is warranted here .The essence of the design process is distributed throughout the discussion.Moment-Resisting FramesPerhaps the most commonly used system in low-to medium-rise buildings, the moment-resisting frame, is characterized by linear horizontal and vertical members connected essentially rigidly at their joints. Such frames are used as a stand-alonesystem or in combination with other systems so as to provide the needed resistance to horizontal loads. In the taller of high-rise buildings, the system is likely to be found inappropriate for a stand-alone system, this because of the difficulty in mobilizing sufficient stiffness under without the genius and the leadership of a talented architect. In any event, the best of both is needed to formulate a truly extraordinary design of a high-rise building.While comprehensive discussions of these seven systems are generally available in the literature, further discussion is warranted here .The essence of the design process is distributed throughout the discussion.Moment-Resisting FramesPerhaps the most commonly used system in low-to medium-rise buildings, the moment-resisting frame, is characterized by linear horizontal and vertical members connected essentially rigidly at their joints. Such frames are used as a stand-alone system or in combination with other systems so as to provide the needed resistance to horizontal loads. In the taller of high-rise buildings, the system is likely to be found inappropriate for a stand-alone system, this because of the difficulty in mobilizing sufficient stiffness under lateral forces.Analysis can be accomplished by STRESS, STRUDL, or a host of other appropriate computer programs; analysis by the so-called portal method of the cantilever method has no place in today‟s technology.Because of the intrinsic flexibility of the column/girder intersection, and because preliminary designs should aim to highlight weaknesses of systems, it is not unusual to use center-to-center dimensions for the frame in the preliminary analysis. Of course, in the latter phases of design, a realistic appraisal in-joint deformation is essential.Braced FramesThe braced frame, intrinsically stiffer than the moment –resisting frame, finds also greater application to higher-rise buildings. The system is characterized by linear horizontal, vertical, and diagonal members, connected simply or rigidly at their joints. It is used commonly in conjunction with other systems for taller buildings and as a stand-alone system in low-to medium-rise buildings.While the use of structural steel in braced frames is common, concrete frames are more likely to be of the larger-scale variety.Of special interest in areas of high seismicity is the use of the eccentric braced frame. Again, analysis can be by STRESS, STRUDL, or any one of a series of two –or three dimensional analysis computer programs. And again, center-to-center dimensions are used commonly in the preliminary analysis.Shear wallsThe shear wall is yet another step forward along a progression of ever-stiffer structural systems. The system is characterized by relatively thin, generally (but not always) concrete elements that provide both structural strength and separation between building functions.In high-rise buildings, shear wall systems tend to have a relatively high aspect ratio, that is, their height tends to be large compared to their width. Lacking tension in the foundation system, any structural element is limited in its ability to resist overturning moment by the width of the system and by the gravity load supported by the element. Limited to a narrow overturning, One obvious use of the system, which does have the needed width, is in the exterior walls of building, where the requirement for windows is kept small.Structural steel shear walls, generally stiffened against buckling by a concrete overlay, have found application where shear loads are high. The system, intrinsically more economical than steel bracing, is particularly effective in carrying shear loads down through the taller floors in the areas immediately above grade. The sys tem has the further advantage of having high ductility a feature of particular importance in areasof high seismicity.The analysis of shear wall systems is made complex because of the inevitable presence of large openings through these walls. Preliminary analysis can be bytruss-analogy, by the finite element method, or by making use of a proprietary computer program designed to consider the interaction, or coupling, of shear walls. Framed or Braced TubesThe concept of the framed or braced or braced tube erupted into the technology with the IBM Building in Pittsburgh, but was followed immediately with the twin110-story towers of the World Trade Center, New York and a number of other buildings .The system is characterized by three –dimensional frames, braced frames, or shear walls, forming a closed surface more or less cylindrical in nature, but of nearly any plan configuration. Because those columns that resist lateral forces are placed as far as possible from the cancroids of the system, the overall moment of inertia is increased and stiffness is very high.The analysis of tubular structures is done using three-dimensional concepts, or bytwo- dimensional analogy, where possible, whichever method is used, it must be capable of accounting for the effects of shear lag.The presence of shear lag, detected first in aircraft structures, is a serious limitation in the stiffness of framed tubes. The concept has limited recent applications of framed tubes to the shear of 60 stories. Designers have developed various techniques for reducing the effects of shear lag, most noticeably the use of belt trusses. This system finds application in buildings perhaps 40stories and higher. However, except for possible aesthetic considerations, belt trusses interfere with nearly every building function associated with the outside wall; the trusses are placed often at mechanical floors, mush to the disapproval of the designers of the mechanical systems. Nevertheless, as a cost-effective structural system, the belt truss works well and will likely find continued approval from designers. Numerous studies have sought to optimize the location of these trusses, with the optimum location very dependent on the number of trusses provided. Experience would indicate, however, that the location of these trusses is provided by the optimization of mechanical systems and byaesthetic considerations, as the economics of the structural system is not highly sensitive to belt truss location.Tube-in-Tube StructuresThe tubular framing system mobilizes every column in the exterior wall in resisting over-turning and shearing forces. The term…tube-in-tube‟is largely self-explanatory in that a second ring of columns, the ring surrounding the central service core of the building, is used as an inner framed or braced tube. The purpose of the second tube is to increase resistance to over turning and to increase lateral stiffness. The tubes need not be of the same character; that is, one tube could be framed, while the other could be braced.In considering this system, is important to understand clearly the difference between the shear and the flexural components of deflection, the terms being taken from beam analogy. In a framed tube, the shear component of deflection is associated with the bending deformation of columns and girders (i.e, the webs of the framed tube) while the flexural component is associated with the axial shortening and lengthening of columns (i.e, the flanges of the framed tube). In a braced tube, the shear component of deflection is associated with the axial deformation of diagonals while the flexural component of deflection is associated with the axial shortening and lengthening of columns.Following beam analogy, if plane surfaces remain plane (i.e, the floor slabs),then axial stresses in the columns of the outer tube, being farther form the neutral axis, will be substantially larger than the axial stresses in the inner tube. However, in thetube-in-tube design, when optimized, the axial stresses in the inner ring of columns may be as high, or even higher, than the axial stresses in the outer ring. This seeming anomaly is associated with differences in the shearing component of stiffness between the two systems. This is easiest to under-stand where the inner tube is conceived as a braced (i.e, shear-stiff) tube while the outer tube is conceived as a framed (i.e,shear-flexible) tube.Core Interactive StructuresCore interactive structures are a special case of a tube-in-tube wherein the two tubes are coupled together with some form of three-dimensional space frame. Indeed, the system is used often wherein the shear stiffness of the outer tube is zero. The United States Steel Building, Pittsburgh, illustrates the system very well. Here, the inner tube is a braced frame, the outer tube has no shear stiffness, and the two systems are coupled if they were considered as systems passing in a straight line from the “hat” structure. Note that the exterior columns would be improperly modeled if they were considered as systems passing in a straight line from the “hat” to the foundations; these columns are perhaps 15% stiffer as they follow the elastic curve of the braced core. Note also that the axial forces associated with the lateral forces in the inner columns change from tension to compression over the height of the tube, with the inflection point at about 5/8 of the height of the tube. The outer columns, of course,carry the same axial force under lateral load for the full height of the columns because the columns because the shear stiffness of the system is close to zero.The space structures of outrigger girders or trusses, that connect the inner tube to the outer tube, are located often at several levels in the building. The AT&T headquarters is an example of an astonishing array of interactive elements:1. The structural system is 94 ft (28.6m) wide, 196ft(59.7m) long, and 601ft (183.3m) high.2. Two inner tubes are provided, each 31ft(9.4m) by 40 ft (12.2m), centered 90 ft (27.4m) apart in the long direction of the building.3. The inner tubes are braced in the short direction, but with zero shear stiffness in the long direction.4. A single outer tube is supplied, which encircles the building perimeter.5. The outer tube is a moment-resisting frame, but with zero shear stiffness for the center50ft (15.2m) of each of the long sides.6. A space-truss hat structure is provided at the top of the building.7. A similar space truss is located near the bottom of the building8. The entire assembly is laterally supported at the base on twin steel-plate tubes, because the shear stiffness of the outer tube goes to zero at the base of the building. Cellular structuresA classic example of a cellular structure is the Sears Tower, Chicago, a bundled tube structure of nine separate tubes. While the Sears Tower contains nine nearly identical tubes, the basic structural system has special application for buildings of irregular shape, as the several tubes need not be similar in plan shape, It is not uncommon that some of the individual tubes one of the strengths and one of the weaknesses of the system.This special weakness of this system, particularly in framed tubes, has to do with the concept of differential column shortening. The shortening of a column under load is given by the expression△=∑fL/EFor buildings of 12 ft (3.66m) floor-to-floor distances and an average compressive stress of 15 ksi (138MPa), the shortening of a column under load is 15(12)(12)/29,000 or 0.074in (1.9mm) per story. At 50 stories, the column will have shortened to 3.7 in. (94mm) less than its unstressed length. Where one cell of a bundled tube system is, say, 50stories high and an adjacent cell is, say, 100stories high, those columns near the boundary between .the two systems need to have this differential deflection reconciled.Major structural work has been found to be needed at such locations. In at least one building, the Rialto Project, Melbourne, the structural engineer found it necessary to vertically pre-stress the lower height columns so as to reconcile the differential deflections of columns in close proximity with the post-tensioning of the shorter column simulating the weight to be added on to adjacent, higher columns.结构系统抵抗横向荷载常用的结构体系与负载检测成千上万kips ，很少有房的设计，高层建筑的过于复杂的想法。
建筑类外文翻译+译文
Architecture in a Climate of ChangePage52-Page62Low energy techniques for housingIt would appear that,for the industrialised countries,the best chance of rescue lies with the built environment because buildings in use or in the course of erection are the biggest single indirect source of carbon emissions generated by burning fossil fuels,accounting for over 50 per cent of total emissions.If you add the transport costs generated by buildings the UK government estimate is 75 per cent.It is the built environment which is the sector that can most easily accommodate fairly rapid change without pain.In fact,upgrading buildings, especially the lower end of the housing stock,creates a cluster of interlocking virtuous circles. Construction systemsHaving considered the challenge presented by global warming and the opportunities to generate fossil-free energy,it is now time to consider how the demand side of the energy equation can respond to that challenge.The built environment is the greatest sectoral consumer of energy and,within that sector,housing is in pole position accounting for 28 per cent of all UK carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions.In the UK housing has traditionally been of masonry and since the early 1920s this has largely been of cavity construction.The purpose was to ensure that a saturated external leaf would have no physical contact with the inner leaf apart from wall ties and that water would be discharged through weep holes at the damp-proof course level.Since the introduction of thermal regulations,initially deemed necessary to conserve energy rather than the planet,it has been common practice to introduce insulation into the cavity.For a long time it was mandatory to preserve a space within the cavity and a long rearguard battle was fought by the traditionalists to preserve this‘sacred space’.Defeat was finally conceded when some extensive research by the Building Research Establishment found that there was no greater risk of damp penetration with filled cavities and in fact damp through condensation was reduced.Solid masonry walls with external insulation are common practice in continental Europe and are beginning to make an appearance in the UK.In Cornwall the Penwith Housing Association has built apartments of this construction on the sea front, perhaps the most challenging of situations.The advantages of masonry construction are:● It is a tried and tested technology familiar to house building companies of all sizes.● It is durable and generally risk free as regards catastrophic failure–though not entirely.A few years ago the entire outer leaf of a university building in Plymouth collapsed due to the fact that the wall ties had corroded.● Exposed brickwork is a low maintenance system; maintenance demands rise considerably if it receives a rendered finish.● From the energy efficiency point of view,masonry homes have a relatively high thermal mass which is considerably improved if there are high density masonryinternal walls and concrete floors.Framed constructionVolume house builders are increasingly resorting to timber-framed construction with a brick outer skin,making them appear identical to full masonry construction.The attraction is the speed of erection especially when elements are fabricated off site. However,there is an unfortunate history behind this system due to shortcomings in quality control.This can apply to timber which has not been adequately cured or seasoned.Framed buildings need to have a vapour barrier to walls as well as roofs. With timber framing it is difficult to avoid piercing the barrier.There can also be problems achieving internal fixings.For the purist,the ultimate criticism is that it is illogical to have a framed building clad in masonry when it cries out for a panel,boarded,slate or tile hung external finish.Pressed steel frames for homes are now being vigorously promoted by the steel industry.The selling point is again speed of erection but with the added benefit of a guaranteed quality in terms of strength and durability of the material.From the energy point of view,framed buildings can accommodate high levels of insulation but have relatively poor thermal mass unless this is provided by floors and internal walls.Innovative techniquesPermanent Insulation Formwork Systems (PIFS) are beginning to make an appearance in Britain.The principle behind PIFS is the use of precision moulded interlocking hollow blocks made from an insulation material,usually expanded polystyrene.They can be rapidly assembled on site and then filled with pump grade concrete.When the concrete has set the result is a highly insulated wall ready for the installation of services and internal and exterior finishes.They can achieve a U-value as low as 0.11 W/m2K.Above three storeys the addition of steel reinforcement is necessary. The advantages of this system are:● Design flexibility; almost any plan shape is possible.● Ease and speed of erection;skill requirements are modest which is why it has proved popular with the self-build sector.Experienced erectors can achieve 5 m2 per man hour for erection and placement of concrete.● The finished product has high structural strength together with considerable thermal mass and high insulation value.Solar designPassive solar designSince the sun drives every aspect of the climate it is logical to describe the techniques adopted in buildings to take advantage of this fact as‘solar design’. The most basic response is referred to as‘passive solar design’.In this case buildings are designed to take full advantage of solar gain without any intermediate operations.Access to solar radiation is determined by a number of conditions:● the sun’s position relative to the principal facades of the building(solar altitude and azimuth);● site orientation and slope;● existing obstructions on the site;● potential for overshadowing from obstructions outside the site boundary.One of the methods by which solar access can be evaluated is the use of some form of sun chart.Most often used is the stereographic sun chart in which a series of radiating lines and concentric circles allow the position of nearby obstructions to insolation,such as other buildings,to be plotted.On the same chart a series of sun path trajectories are also drawn(usually one arc for the 21st day of each month); also marked are the times of the day.The intersection of the obstructions’outlines and the solar trajectories indicate times of transition between sunlight and shade. Normally a different chart is constructed for use at different latitudes (at about two degree intervals).Sunlight and shade patterns cast by the proposed building itself should also be considered.Graphical and computer prediction techniques may be employed as well as techniques such as the testing of physical models with a heliodon.Computer modelling of shadows cast by the sun from any position is offered by Integrated Environmental Solutions (IES) with its‘Suncast’program.This is a user-friendly program which should be well within normal undergraduate competence. The spacing between buildings is important if overshading is to be avoided during winter months when the benefit of solar heat gain reaches its peak.On sloping sites there is a critical relationship between the angle of slope and the level of overshading.For example, if overshading is to be avoided at a latitude of 50 N,rows of houses on a 10 north-facing slope must be more than twice as far apart than on 10 south-facing slope.Trees can obviously obstruct sunlight.However,if they are deciduous,they perform the dual function of permitting solar penetration during the winter whilst providing a degree of shading in the summer.Again spacing between trees and buildings is critical.Passive solar design can be divided into three broad categories:● direct gain;● indirect gain;● attached sunspace or conservatory.Each of the three categories relies in a different way on the‘greenhouse effect’as a means of absorbing and retaining heat.The greenhouse effect in buildings is that process which is mimicked by global environmental warming.In buildings,the incident solar radiation is transmitted by facade glazing to the interior where it is absorbed by the internal surfaces causing warming.However,re-emission of heat back through the glazing is blocked by the fact that the radiation is of a much longer wavelength than the incoming radiation.This is because the re-emission is from surfaces at a much lower temperature and the glazing reflects back such radiation to the interior.Direct gainDirect gain is the design technique in which one attempts to concentrate the majority of the building’s glazing on the sun-facing facade.Solar radiation is admitted directly into the space concerned.Two examples 30 years apart are the author’s housein Sheffield,designed in 1967 and the Hockerton Project of 1998 by Robert and Brenda Vale.The main design characteristics are:● Apertures through which sunlight is admitted should be on the solar side of the building, within about 30 of south for the northern hemisphere.● Windows facing west may pose a summer overheating risk.● Windows should be at least double glazed with low emissivity glass (Low E) as now required by the UK Building Regulations.● The main occupied living spaces should be located on the solar side of the building.● The floor should be of a high thermal mass to absorb the heat and provide thermal inertia,which reduces temperature fluctuations inside the building.● As regards the benefits of thermal mass,for the normal daily cycle of heat absorption and emission,it is only about the first 100 mm of thickness which is involved in the storage process.Thickness greater than this provides marginal improvements in performance but can be useful in some longer-term storage options.● In the case of solid floors,insulation should be beneath the slab.● A vapour barrier should always be on the warm side of any insulation.● Thick carpets should be avoided over the main sunlit and heatabsorbing portion of the floor if it serves as a thermal store.However,with suspended timber floors a carpet is an advantage in excluding draughts from a ventilated underfloor zone. During the day and into the evening the warmed floor should slowly release its heat, and the time period over which it happens makes it a very suitable match to domestic circumstances when the main demand for heat is in the early evening.As far as the glazing is concerned,the following features are recommended: ● Use of external shutters and/or internal insulating panels might be considered to reduce night-time heat loss.● To reduce the potential of overheating in the summer,shading may be provided by designing deep eaves or external louvres. Internal blinds are the most common technique but have the disadvantage of absorbing radiant heat thus adding to the internal temperature.● Heat reflecting or absorbing glass may be used to limit overheating.The downside is that it also reduces heat gain at times of the year when it is beneficial. ● Light shelves can help reduce summer overheating whilst improving daylight distribution.Direct gain is also possible through the glazing located between the building interior and attached sunspace or conservatory;it also takes place through upper level windows of clerestory designs.In each of these cases some consideration is required concerning the nature and position of the absorbing surfaces.In the UK climate and latitude as a general rule of thumb room depth should not be more than two and a half times the window head height and the glazing area should be between about 25 and 35 per cent of the floor area.Indirect gainIn this form of design a heat absorbing element is inserted between the incident solar radiation and the space to be heated;thus the heat is transferred in an indirectway.This often consists of a wall placed behind glazing facing towards the sun,and this thermal storage wall controls the flow of heat into the building.The main elements● High thermal mass element positioned between sun and internal spaces,the heat absorbed slowly conducts across the wall and is liberated to the interior some time later.● Materials and thickness of the wall are chosen to modify the heat flow.In homes the flow can be delayed so that it arrives in the evening matched to occupancy periods. Typical thicknesses of the thermal wall are 20–30 cm.● Glazing on the outer side of the thermal wall is used to provide some insulation against heat loss and help retain the solar gain by making use of the greenhouse effect.● The area of the thermal storage wall element should be about 15–20 per cent of the floor area of the space into which it emits heat.● In order to derive more immediate heat benefit,air can be circulated from the building through the air gap between wall and glazing and back into the room.In this modified form this element is usually referred to as a Trombe wall. Heat reflecting blinds should be inserted between the glazing and the thermal wall to limit heat build-up in summer.In countries which receive inconsistent levels of solar radiation throughout the day because of climatic factors (such as in the UK),the option to circulate air is likely to be of greater benefit than awaiting its arrival after passage through the thermal storage wall.At times of excess heat gain the system can provide alternative benefits with the air circulation vented directly to the exterior carrying away its heat,at the same time drawing in outside air to the building from cooler external spaces.Indirect gain options are often viewed as being the least aesthetically pleasing of the passive solar options,partly because of the restrictions on position and view out from remaining windows,and partly as a result of the implied dark surface finishes of the absorbing surfaces.As a result,this category of the three prime solar design technologies is not as widely used as its efficiency and effectiveness would suggest.Attached sunspace/conservatoryThis has become a popular feature in both new housing and as an addition to existing homes.It can function as an extension of living space,a solar heat store,a preheater for ventilation air or simply an adjunct greenhouse for plants.On balance it is considered that conservatories are a net contributor to global warming since they are often heated.Ideally the sunspace should be capable of being isolated from the main building to reduce heat loss in winter and excessive gain in summer.The area of glazing in the sunspace should be 20–30 per cent of the area of the room to which it is attached.The most adventurous sunspace so far encountered is in the Hockerton housing development which will feature later.Ideally the summer heat gain should be used to charge a seasonal thermal storage element to provide background warmth in winter.At the very least,air flow paths between the conservatory and the main building should be carefully controlled.Active solar thermal systemsA distinction must be drawn between passive means of utilising the thermal heat of the sun, discussed earlier,and those of a more‘active’nature Active systems take solar gain a step further than passive solar.They convert direct solar radiation into another form of energy.Solar collectors preheat water using a closed circuit calorifier.The emergence of Legionella has highlighted the need to store hot water at a temperature above 60 C which means that for most of the year in temperate climes active solar heating must be supplemented by some form of heating.Active systems are able to deliver high quality energy.However,a penalty is incurred since energy is required to control and operate the system known as the ‘parasitic energy requirement’.A further distinction is the difference between systems using the thermal heat of the sun,and systems,such as photovoltaic cells, which convert solar energy directly into electrical power.For solar energy to realise its full potential it needs to be installed on a district basis and coupled with seasonal storage.One of the largest projects is at Friedrichshafen.The heat from 5600 m2 of solar collectors on the roofs of eight housing blocks containing 570 apartments is transported to a central heating unit or substation.It is then distributed to the apartments as required.The heated living area amounts to 39 500 m2.Surplus summer heat is directed to the seasonal heat store which,in this case, is of the hot water variety capable of storing 12 000 m3.The scale of this storage facility is indicated by Figure 5.9.The heat delivery of the system amounts to 1915 MWh/year and the solar fraction is 47 per cent.The month by month ratio between solar and fossil-based energy indicates that from April to November inclusive,solar energy accounts for almost total demand,being principally domestic hot water.In places with high average temperatures and generous sunlight,active solar has considerable potential not just for heating water but also for electricity generation.This has particular relevance to less and least developed countries.环境变化影响下的建筑学房屋设计中的低能耗技术显而易见，在工业化国家，最好的营救机会依赖于建筑环境，因为不论是在使用的建筑或者是在建设的建筑，都是最大的、单一的、间接地由化石燃料的燃烧所引起的碳排放的源头，而这些站了所有排放的50%。
外文翻译---高层建筑及结构设计
外文翻译---高层建筑及结构设计High-rise XXX to define。
Generally。
a low-rise building is considered to be een 1 to 2 stories。
while a medium-rise building ranges from 3 or 4 stories up to 10 or 20 stories or more。
While the basic principles of vertical and horizontal subsystem design remain the same for low-。
medium-。
or high-rise buildings。
the vertical subsystems XXX high-XXX requiring larger columns。
walls。
XXX。
XXX.The design of high-rise buildings must take into account the unique XXX by their height and the need to withstand lateral forces such as wind and earthquakes。
One important aspect of high-rise design is the framework shear system。
XXX。
braced frames。
or XXX the appropriate system depends on the specific building characteristics and the seismicity of the n in which it is located.Another key n in high-rise design is the seismic system。
建筑英文大全
建筑英文大全1. 概述建筑是人类文明发展的重要组成部分，是人们居住、工作、学习和娱乐的场所。
为了更好地了解和学习建筑，掌握建筑领域的专业英文词汇是很重要的。
本文档将提供一份建筑英文大全，包括建筑材料、建筑结构、建筑类型和建筑流程等方面的词汇。
2. 建筑材料•Concrete：混凝土•Steel：钢铁•Brick：砖•Wood：木材•Glass：玻璃•Ceramic：陶瓷•Stone：石材•Clay：黏土•Tile：瓷砖•Asphalt：沥青3. 建筑结构•Foundation：基础•Beam：梁•Column：柱•Wall：墙•Roof：屋顶•Floor：地板•Ceiling：天花板•Staircase：楼梯•Balcony：阳台•Elevator：电梯4. 建筑类型•Residential building：住宅建筑•Commercial building：商业建筑•Educational building：教育建筑•Government building：政府建筑•Industrial building：工业建筑•Hospital building：医院建筑•Sports facility：体育设施•Cultural facility：文化设施•Religious building：宗教建筑•Skyscraper：摩天大楼5. 建筑流程•Design：设计•Planning：规划•Construction：建设•Renovation：翻修•Demolition：拆除•Inspection：检查•Permit：许可证•Budget：预算•Project management：项目管理•Quality control：质量控制6. 结论本文档提供了一份建筑英文大全，包括建筑材料、建筑结构、建筑类型和建筑流程等方面的词汇。
掌握这些专业英文词汇将有助于提高对建筑领域的理解和学习。
在进一步研究建筑或行业交流中，这些词汇将发挥重要作用。
建筑学外文文献
Introduction of a Panelized Brick Veneer Wall System and ItsBuilding Science EvaluationJianhai Liang1and Ali M. Memari21 Project Engineer, Thornton Tomasetti, 51 Madison Ave., Floor 17, New York, NY 10010.2 Professor, Dept. of Architectural Engineering, Pennsylvania State Univ., 104 Engineering Unit A, UniversityPark, PA 16802.(Accepted 17 June 2010; published online 15 February 2011) Introduction topThe use of steel stud backup wall for brick veneer systems has been on the rise during the previous three decades. The reasons for the increased popularity of steel stud backup wall systems include reduced weight, cost savings, and shorter construction time. However, there are some problems with the brick veneer over steel stud (BV/SS) backup wall system. Unlike concrete masonry unit (CMU) backup walls, light-gauge steel studs used in backup systems are very flexible. Therefore, they can have a large deflection under a strong wind load leading to the cracking of the brick veneer (BV). Wind-driven rain can potentially penetrate the cracked BV and corrode the metal ties and steel studs (SS). Because, in most systems, ties are the only connections between the BV and the steel stud backup (SSB), corroded ties can lead to a hazardous failure of the BV under high wind load or other out-of-plane loading situations. Conventional BV over both CMU backup walls and SSB systems may also have potential problems during earthquakes. In both systems, gaps under the shelf angles serve as horizontal movement joints and are supposed to prevent the BV from participating in the in-plane seismic load resistance. However, during recent earthquakes, some walls failed or cracked as a result of in-plane seismic forces. One major reason for this poor performance is attributable to the closure of the gaps as a result of the differential movement of the BV and the backup. This movement joint, acting as an isolation mechanism, can malfunction, and as a result, BV walls may crack or fail because of the in-plane seismic forces.These failures, together with a slow rate of construction caused by the extra time needed to lay bricks and erect scaffolding at the job site, are considered the shortcomings of a conventional BV/SS system. To improve these issues, the concept of a prefabricated and panelized BV with a steel framework backup wall system was developed at the Pennsylvania State University. For brevity, the system will be referred to as a panelized brick veneer over steel stud (PBVSS) backup wall system in this paper. The pilot research program consisted of the design and development of the system that included the consideration of the building science-related issues, a three-dimensional (3D)finite-element modeling and analysis, a full-scale simulated wind-loading test, and a full-scale seismic racking test to evaluate the performance of the proposed PBVSS design. Details of the entire research program were described in Liang (200632); this paper discusses the building science-related research results after introducing the design features of the proposed PBVSS system.Literature Review of Major Issues with Conventional System and Overview of Panelized Systems top Anchored BV over backup wall systems can be designed more efficiently than single-wythe masonry barrier walls to keep wind-driven rainwater out of the building and to allow the placement of insulation boards inside the wall cavity (Drysdale and Suter 199115). The BV with backup wall systems mainly serve three functions in buildings: structural functions, screen functions, and comfort functions (Drysdale and Suter 199115; Kroger 200529; Straube and Burnett 200546). To provide these functions, the following components are included in most designs of BV with backup wall systems [Brick Industry Association (BIA) 19998; Devalapura et al. 199613; Drysdale and Hamid 200814; Drysdale and Sutter 199115; Grimm 199322; Hatzinikolas et al. 198525; KPFF Consulting Engineers 199828; The Masonry Standards Joint Committee (MSJC) 200235]: veneer, backup wall and frame, sheathing, ties, air cavity, shelf angle, movement joints, thermal insulation, vapor retarder, air barrier, flashing, and weep holes.The failure of unreinforced masonry (URM) buildings and of some BV walls in earthquakes and tornados withlife-safety hazards; as well as problems related to rainwater penetration, corrosion of masonry ties and anchor bolts, visible cracking of the brick veneer, and bowing of the wall; have been reported [Brock 19969; Cowie 199012; Earthquake Engineering Research Institute (EERI) 199016, 199517, 200118; Hagel et al. 200723; Hamid et al. 198524; Jalil et al. 199326; LaBelle 200430; McGinley and Ernest 200438; Peterson and Shelton 200942; Schulatz et al. 199945]. One of the primary reasons for the poor performance of BV wall systems is that they are generally considered as “nonstructural” walls that are not designed to participate in resisting gravity and lateral loads, whereas in reality, they participate to some degree unless property isolated. A misunderstanding of the structural function and the importance of the load-bearing role of BV walls has led to the failure of these systems. According to Schindler (200444), inadequate attention to the nonstructural intent of the construction details for isolation purposes has been a common source of problems. Moreover, a simple serviceability problem such as water leakage through a BV wall can lead to the corrosion of ties and anchor bolts and result in a life-safety hazard during high wind or even during a moderate earthquake situation.Current earthquake design details for anchored BV walls call for horizontal movement joints under shelf angles to accommodate interstory lateral drifts. The small gap under the shelf angle is provided to accommodate the differential vertical deformation attributable to temperature, creep, and moisture between the clay BV and the structural frame. If constructed properly, this gap can also function as a horizontal isolation joint allowing story drifts without restraining the BV walls. However, in some existing buildings, this movement joint was poorly constructed, and a recent study (Memari et al. 2002a39, b40) has described the potential damage during earthquakes because of the absence of the gap or because of the closure of the gap by mortar.A design assumption for out-of-plane wind-loading on BV/SS is that the BV will crack because the SSB wall is more flexible than the BV (Chen and Trestain 200410). When ties are corroded, the out-of-plane resistance of the BV under high wind loads or earthquake events will likely be jeopardized with potential fallout consequences. On the basis of Grimm’s literature review (199221), the recommendation by some designers is to use a heavy concrete masonry backup wall to avoid the problems associated with a conventional BV/SS system. However, such a design will lose the advantages that lightweight SSB walls can offer. Therefore, to take advantage of the weight savings of BV/SS wall systems in seismic regions, an innovative design of BV wall systems should address the potential problems under both high wind and seismic loading conditions.BV problems are not limited to performance-related issues under environmental and other loading conditions. One can still see masons on scaffolding several stories high laying bricks one-by-one. Reports of scaffolding failures attributable to various causes including excessive brick weight and scaffolding connection failures that result in casualties are not scarce (Gonchar 200120). The construction method for BV also has room for improvement.The built-on-site character of brickwork makes its construction highly dependent on the weather and its quality control relatively difficult. One solution to such problems is to panelize and prefabricate the brick wall construction (Tawresey 200448). Concrete wall panels with embedded thin bricks and precast concrete cladding with a face that looks like a brick wall have been commercially prefabricated (Anderson 19966). Although some wall manufacturers can cast concrete panels with a variety of face shell textures including bricklike patterns, many owners and architects would still like to use real exterior clay BV walls because of their aesthetically pleasing appearance. Lindow and Jasinski (200333) described a panelized BV wall system for which the backup wall, insulation, and shelf angle were assembled as a panel at the factory, and the BV wythe was constructed at the job site. Moreover, it is possible to develop a prefabricated clay BV without a backup wall system by using vertical steel reinforcement (Palmer 199941) or by employing posttensioning (Laursen and Ingham 200031). Louis (199934) described many of the issues that should be considered in the development of prefabricated brick wall panels including veneer wall panels. Although in panelized BV walls the brick still has to be laid one-by-one, the process can always be done on the ground in the controlled environment of a fabrication plant. Workers will not have to lay bricks at a high elevation. The manufacturing process is not influenced by harsh weather like rain, snow, or extremely low temperature. Continuous production is guaranteed, and the total erection time can be decreased by up to 75% (Lindow and Jasinski 200333).The panelization of walls also makes it possible to adopt better seismic isolation connections. Conventional BV are supposed to be isolated from the seismic movements of the main frame through horizontal movement joints under the shelf angles. However, the movement joints may be closed by differential movements or construction error causing the BV to be involved during in-plane seismic force resistance. To reduce the potential for such problems in conventional systems, perhaps the design professional should require a close inspection of all horizontal movement joints as part of the approval process. For panelized BV with backup walls, a special seismic isolation mechanism can be included in the connections between the wall panels and the main structural frame. The connections may also be used to isolate the panels from in-plane wind load transferred from the rest of the building and from movements of the main structural frame.Some other advantages of panelized BV systems include the omission of scaffolding or swing stage, better brickwork quality, uniformity, and less site space required for construction (Palmer 199941). Issues with the performance of the panelized products currently available, as well as limitations on the usage of the panels, have also been discussed by Louis (199934). Some of the problems are typical for all precast members; others are just for the BV panels. The major issues discussed include the relative difficulty of transportation, the limit on the minimum size of a project, the design of the joints between panels, and the limited research and design guidelines currently available.Conceptual Design of the Proposed PBVSS topGiven the background of the potential deficiencies of conventional BV/SS wall systems, it is desirable to minimize both the BV cracking possibility and the crack width under high wind loads and to have an in-plane seismic isolation of the BV wall from the primary structural system. One can add to this the desirability of avoiding the use of scaffolding and its related potential hazards. To address these issues, a PBVSS system was recently developed at the Pennsylvania State University by prefabricating the wall system as a panel. Regarding the cracking of BV under high wind loads, itshould be noted that, according to the commentary in Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures (MSJC 200235), the design of BV wall systems asserts and supposes the following guidelines and assumptions: (1) the veneer may crack in flexure under service load; (2) the deflection of the backup should be limited to control crack width in the veneer and to provide veneer stability; and (3) water penetration through the BV is expected and the wall system should be designed, detailed, and constructed to prevent water penetration into the building. The proposed PBVSS is expected to better control the number and width of cracks compared to conventional BV/SS walls so that a desirable performance of the BV walls can be achieved. Cracks may still form in the BV component, but the overall performance will be improved in terms of moisture penetration.The panelized BV wall system is enhanced by means of a structural steel framework that will support the weight of the BV and SSB wall during transportation and erection. Fig. 1 shows the detail of a vertical section of the entire wall panel as installed. The structural steel frame consists of a lower beam, an upper beam, and two vertical load carrying members. The lower member, which performs the function of a conventional shelf angle, consists of a channel and an angle bolted together at three points—at the two ends of the member and at midspan. However, whereas shelf angles in conventional designs support only the BV, the lower member supports both the BV and the SSB wall. The angle supports the BV; the channel sitting on the floor slab supports the SS. The upper member consists of a channel and a steel plate bolted together, where the channel is positioned under the floor above (i.e., the bottom of the slab or the spandrel beam of the floor above) separated by movement joints. The steel plate attached to the channel needs to be extended all the way to near the top of the slab to provide the out-of-plane support for the BV. The two vertical members are constructed of steel channels sitting between the top and bottom channels and are designed for the gravity loads of the wall panel when lifted by a crane. The vertical channels are orientated so that the webs of the channels will face the interior of the panel. Fig. 2 shows several photos of the PBVSS mock-up taken during construction.Fig 1.Elevation of the PBVSSView first occurrence of Fig. 1 in article.Fig 2.PBVSS mock-up during constructionView first occurrence of Fig. 2 in article.Typically, 18 gauge studs at 400–600 mm center-to-center spacing (more often at 400 mm) are used for the SSB in conventional walls (BIA 19998; Suter et al. 199047). To increase the flexural out-of-plane stiffness, heavier gauge SS (e.g., 12 gauge) framing or structural steel channels can also be used (McGinley 200037). For the proposed PBVSS system, because a larger out-of-plane stiffness was desired, 12 gauge studs were used in the SSB frame. The more commonly used stud spacing of 400 mm was chosen for the PBVSS so that only the gauge of the studs were different from the conventional BV/SS. The studs could normally be connected to the BV with various types of ties such asV-Tie ties, Z-Tie ties, corrugated metal ties, or ladder shape ties (Drysdale and Hamid 200814). Choi and LeFave (200411) have recently evaluated the behavior of corrugated metal ties. For the proposed PBVSS system, a new tie system, Stud Shear Connector ties, was used in the experiments so that its performance could be evaluated. According to the manufacturer (FERO Corporation 200919), “The Stud Shear Connector was developed to transfer shear between the brick veneer and the backup wall. With the use of this shear resisting connector, composite load carrying action is achieved between the brick veneer and backup wall, resulting in a wall system with a changed and improved load resistance capacity.” Therefore, the light-gauge Stud Shear Connector ties (shown in Fig. 3) were attached to the webs of the studs to more effectively engage them in an out-of-plane lateral load resistance.Fig 3.Schematic use of Stud Shear Connector tieView first occurrence of Fig. 3 in article.To prevent the lateral buckling of the studs and to further increase the out-of-plane stiffness of the studs, in the proposed design shown here, two 12 gauge SS back-to-back were used at the center. Typical vertical spacing between ties is 400 mm. Research (Kelly et al. 199027) has shown that ties at the top will have larger forces than the forces on other ties if they are uniformly spaced in the vertical direction. Therefore, a smaller tie spacing (200 mm) was used at the top in the proposed PBVSS design. The actual spacing to be used varies with the actual height of the panel and construction details. Both the heavy gauge SS and the Stud Shear Connector ties, if used in conventional BV/SS wall systems, can enhance the out-of-plane performance of the walls. However, because of the use of a structural steel support framework and the resulting two-way bending of the walls, the beneficial effects of the heavy gauge SS and the Stud Shear Connector ties are more pronounced in the PBVSS system. A detailed discussion of the individual and the combined effects of these aspects can be found in Liang (200632).The in-plane performance of conventional BV/SS wall systems can be complicated because the backup wall is supported directly by the floor slab, and the brick veneer is supported by a shelf angle. For cases in which the horizontal movement joint under the shelf angle was closed by mortar or by the vertical thermal and moisture expansion of the brickwork, the BV can actually experience in-plane vertical compression and can crack or even fail (Hamid et al. 198524; Memari et al. 2002a39, b40). Therefore, instead of solely relying on the horizontal joints, in the proposed PBVSS system, a seismic isolation system was used to allow an in-plane movement of the panel with respect to the main structure system. The connection of the proposed prefabricated panel to the structure can be made through bearing and lateral (i.e., tieback) connections as a swaying system or through slotted-hole connections for a rocking response to the lateral interstory drift, as is common in precast concrete panels (McCann 199536). The former is the conventional type of connection used in the United States and is the type shown in Fig. 1. The bearing connection consists of placing the bottom channel over the floor slab through threaded rods embedded in the slab. Once the threaded rods are through the predrilled holes in the channel, nuts are used to fasten the channel to the floor. The lateral (i.e., tieback) connection consists of a rod attached to the floor system at three points as shown in Fig. 1.The threaded rods can restrain the out-of-plane movement of the panels. For in-plane movements, however, the rods will bend and allow the wall panel to move with the supporting slab. These lateral connections can be used on the vertical members of the support steel frame or on the top channel as construction details allow. A more detailed discussion of the in-plane loading performance of the PBVSS system was presented in Liang (200632).Building Science-Related Design top Enclosure design considers the following four main functions: support, control, finish, and distribution. The support function has been discussed in the structural design of the system, and the finish and distribution functions will not be covered in this paper. In the design of the proposed PBVSS, three control functions; heat flow control, water vapor diffusion control, and air leakage control; have been considered. As shown in Fig. 1, the space between steel studs is filled with a fiberglass batt insulation. However, if only a batt insulation is used, there can still be excessive heat transfer through the uninsulated steel members, which can bypass the insulation. This will decrease the thermal insulation efficiency of the walls and increase the potential for condensation. To avoid these problems, two layers of 25 mm thick Thermax insulation boards should be placed on the exterior face of the studs to provide thermal insulation. Two layers of 25 mm thick Thermax boards should be used instead of one layer of 50 mm thick board to minimize the potential deficiency in the event that a single thick insulation board is damaged during construction. In addition to the thermal insulation functions of the Thermax boards, the aluminum foil surface of the core foam will face the air cavity to reduce radiative heat transfer. This surface can also serve as a vapor retarder and a drainage surface for water. Moreover, if properly attached, the aluminum foil surface can also prevent air leakage through the panels. However, to minimize air leakage through the system, a layer of an air barrier such as Tyvek housewrap should be installed.The two layers of Thermax insulation boards and the Tyvek housewrap, together, should be held against the stud space by the insulation board supports of the same Stud Shear Connector ties shown in Fig. 3. The housewrap should be overlapped at the joints, which should be taped. In addition to the insulation boards, a 10 mm thick gypsum board should be attached to the interior face of the studs as interior sheathing. The gypsum boards should be attached to the interior surface on-site after the panels are installed. A 12 mm thick plywood board should be attached to the exterior face of the studs as exterior sheathing. These sheathings not only provide stiff surfaces for the application of insulations and paints, but they can also provide lateral support to the studs to help them resist in-plane loading and buckling. Finally, although the system is designed to allow minimum water leakage, in the event that there is still a small amount of water leaking through the exterior layers, the exterior sheathing can serve as temporary water storage so that water cannot get into the building interior.Thermal and Hygrothermal Analysis topIn BV/SS walls, because of the thermal bridging, the thermal efficiency of steel stud frames with insulation installed only in the stud cavities is 41–66% [American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) 20044]. To meet the code required thermal resistance value (R-value), exterior insulation must be used (Bombino 19997). Theoretically, having all the insulation on the exterior side of the stud cavity is the most efficient for both thermal insulation and condensation concerns. However, this will increase the thickness of the wall and will also cost more because an exterior rigid insulation is more expensive than the fiberglass batt insulation normally used in a stud cavity. Accordingly, combined cavity insulation and exterior insulation are suggested for use in the proposed PBVSS system. Another advantage of using exterior insulation in addition to the fiberglass batt insulation is that, byincreasing the thermal resistance at the stud locations, the exterior insulation can also moderate the thermal bridging effect. Therefore, the actual thermal resistance of the system will be increased by more than the nominal R-value of the exterior insulation material when adding exterior insulation in addition to using fiberglass batt insulation.A thermal analysis was carried out on the PBVSS system with four different SS configurations as follows:Case 1: All seven studs were 18 gauge studs;Case 2: All seven studs were 12 gauge studs;Case 3: All studs were 12 gauge studs with double back-to-back studs at the center; andCase 4: Double back-to-back 12 gauge studs were at the center, rolled steel channel sections (MC8×16) were on the ends, and the remaining vertical members were 12 gauge single steel studs.Case 4 represents the proposed PBVSS system. The spacing between SS in all four cases was assumed to be400 mm. For this comparison study, only the thermal resistance of the panels themselves was considered as is normally used by design professionals; the performance of the joints between adjacent panels was not considered because only one panel was used for the study. The results were checked with the code requirement for the thermal resistance of the wall. Because of the thermal bridging effect of the steel frame, the thermal analysis of the wall section was more complicated than that for a normal wall construction. On the basis of previous research results, the modified zone method is the most accurate method, and the discrepancy between the analytical results and the test results was within 2% (ASHRAE 20055). Therefore, the modified zone method introduced by the ASHRAE Handbook with some minor adjustments was used. In the adjusted method, the convective heat transfer of the airflow in the air cavity was not considered and therefore may slightly overestimate the thermal resistance of the systems.For brevity in this paper, only the results of the calculations for Case 4, which represents that of the proposed PBVSS system, are shown in Table 1. In addition, the overall thermal resistances of all four configurations are summarized in Table 2. The thermal insulation shown in Table 1 for the stud space was back-calculated by subtracting the thermal resistance of the interior sheathing, the exterior sheathing, and the rigid board insulation from the effective thermal resistance of the combined section. The summary in Table 2 shows that both the thickness and the width of the flange affected the thermal resistance of the walls. The width of the flange seemed to have the larger effect, which is consistent with the results of research done by others (Bombino 19997). The difference in the thermal resistance between the system with the least steel (i.e., Case 1) and the one with the most steel (i.e., Case 4) was about0.55 K·m2/W. The results also showed that because of the existence of thick thermal insulation boards, the effect of thermal bridging was largely mitigated. More importantly, the results showed that the thermal resistance of all four systems exceeded the code required value, which is either R19 or R21 (3.35 or 3.70 K·m2/W), depending on the location. When considering these results, however, two issues should be noted: (1) the convective heat exchange in the air cavity was omitted, and (2) the local conductance between metal components (e.g., between the bottom channel and vertical members) was also omitted. If better thermal performance is desired for a certain project, extra thermal insulation should be added to block the heat exchange between the metal components. For example, thermal insulation can be inserted between the bottom steel angle and the bottom steel channel.For vapor diffusion, the largest concern is condensation. Figs. 4,5 show the partial pressure attributable to the water vapor of the wall in extreme winter and summer conditions, respectively. In the analysis, the indoor temperature and the relative humidity were assumed to be 20°C and 30%, respectively. The outdoor temperature was assumed to be 52.22°C in summer and -20°C in winter, which corresponds to the extreme summer and winter temperatures in central Pennsylvania considering the solar effect. The outdoor relative humidity was assumed to be 80%. In the figures, Ps is the saturated water vapor pressure of a layer in the walls corresponding to the temperature at that layer; Pc is the calculated water vapor pressure at that layer by using the water vapor resistance of the materials; and Pa is the adjusted water vapor pressure calculated for saturation.Fig 4.Water vapor pressure under extreme winter conditionView first occurrence of Fig. 4 in article.Fig 5.Water vapor pressure under extreme summer conditionView first occurrence of Fig. 5 in article.The analysis showed that if the vapor resistance of the aluminum foils of the Thermax board was assumed to be the manufacturer’s recommend ation, condensation will not be a problem for either winter or summer. However, it was not the design intention to limit the board insulation to a single product. Also, damage to the aluminum foil during manufacturing and joint sealing can affect the vapor resistance of the aluminum foils. Therefore, to be conservative, the contribution of the aluminum foil to the vapor resistance of the wall assembly was ignored in this example. Fig. 4 shows that in winter, the partial pressure because the water vapor at any location of the wall was lower than the saturation pressure at the same location, which indicates that no condensation attributable to vapor diffusion would occur. Also in winter, the condensation attributable to air leakage can be 2 to 6 times the condensation attributable to vapor diffusion. The condensation attributable to air leakage is also likely to occur before condensation attributable to vapor diffusion takes place (Bombino 19997). Therefore, vapor diffusion was not a concern for brick veneer with steel stud walls in winter.For extreme summer conditions, Fig. 5 shows that the water vapor pressure on the plywood sheathing can reach the saturation pressure, which indicates that condensation can occur. If a vapor retarder is used on the exterior side of the interior sheathing, and there is air conditioning inside, moisture carried by the warm infiltrating air can condense on the exterior surface of the cold interior sheathing. To decrease the amount of condensation and the potential water accumulation for the proposed PBVSS system, the vapor retarder on the exterior side of the interior sheathing was removed, and a material with a relatively high vapor resistance (i.e., the surface of the Thermax insulation board) was used on the exterior face of the thermal insulation.In the proposed PBVSS system, to prevent condensation in the stud cavity because of excessive air leakage, the perimeter of the stud cavity and the joints were sealed to make the system as airtight as possible. The combination of cavity insulation and exterior rigid insulation was chosen to keep the temperature on the interior surface of the exterior sheathing above the dew point of the exfiltrating air in most weather conditions. Fig. 6 shows the temperature gradients for the PBVSS system under extreme winter conditions together with dew temperature of the exfiltration air for typical indoor relative humidity with three levels of relative humidity -30, 40, and 50%. The temperature gradient of the PBVSS system under extreme summer condition is also shown here. However, only the extreme winter condition is used for the discussion; the summer condition is shown just for reference.。
建筑外文翻译外文文献英文文献混凝土强度和现代建筑材料
建筑外文翻译外文文献英文文献混凝土强度和现代建筑材料以下是为大家整理的建筑外文翻译外文文献英文文献混凝土强度和现代建筑材料的相关范文，本文关键词为建筑,外文,翻译,文献,英文,混凝土,强度,现代,建筑材料,，您可以从右上方搜索框检索更多相关文章，如果您觉得有用，请继续关注我们并推荐给您的好友，您可以在英语学习中查看更多范文。
外文出处：buildingandenvironment12(20XX)186-191附件1：外文资料翻译译文混凝土强度和现代建筑材料文章摘要：钢筋混凝土可以用在框架结构上，常常用在预制构件并主要用在工业建筑相同结构建筑物上，混凝土也可以用在壳式建筑施工中，其表面同时也成为结构的组成部分。
现代建筑材料：大多数较大的建筑物都是由钢结构，钢筋混凝土以及预应力混凝土构成。
关键词：混凝土强度；现代建筑材料；高层建筑；框架结构在许多结构中,混凝土同时受到不同方向各种应力的作用.例如在梁中大部分混凝土同时承受压力和剪力,再楼板和基础中,混凝土同时承受两个相互垂直方向的压力外加剪力的作用.根据材料力学学习中已知的方法,无论怎样复杂的复合应力状态,都可化为三个相互垂直的主应力,它们作用在材料适当定向的单元立方体上.三个主应力中的任意一个或者全部既可是拉应力,也可是压应力.如果其中一个主应力为零,则为双轴应力状态。
如果有两个主应力为零，则为单轴应力状态，或为简单压缩或为简单拉伸。
在多数情况下，根据简单的试验，如圆柱体强度f'c和抗拉强度f't，只能够确定材料在单轴应力作用下的性能。
为了预测混凝土在双轴应力或三轴应力作用下的结构强度，在通过试验仅仅知道f'c或f'c与f't的情况下，需要通过计算确定混凝土在上述复合应力状态下的强度。
尽管人们连续不断地进行了大量的研究，但仍然没有得出有关混凝土在复合应力作用下的强度的通用理论。
经过修正的各种强度理论，如最大拉应力理论、莫尔-库仑理论和八面体应力理论(以上理论都在材料力学课本中讨论过)应用于混凝土，取得了不同程度的进展。
建筑类外文文献及中文翻译
forced concrete structure reinforced with anoverviewReinSince the reform and opening up, with the national economy's rapid and sustained development of a reinforced concrete structure built, reinforced with the development of technology has been great. Therefore, to promote the use of advanced technology reinforced connecting to improve project quality and speed up the pace of construction, improve labor productivity, reduce costs, and is of great significance.Reinforced steel bars connecting technologies can be divided into two broad categories linking welding machinery and steel. There are six types of welding steel welding methods, and some apply to the prefabricated plant, and some apply to the construction site, some of both apply. There are three types of machinery commonly used reinforcement linking method primarily applicable to the construction site. Ways has its own characteristics and different application, and in the continuous development and improvement. In actual production, should be based on specific conditions of work, working environment and technical requirements, the choice of suitable methods to achieve the best overall efficiency.1、steel mechanical link1.1 radial squeeze linkWill be a steel sleeve in two sets to the highly-reinforced Department with superhigh pressure hydraulic equipment (squeeze tongs) along steel sleeve radial squeeze steel casing, in squeezing out tongs squeeze pressure role of a steel sleeve plasticity deformation closely integrated with reinforced through reinforced steel sleeve and Wang Liang's Position will be two solid steel bars linkedCharacteristic: Connect intensity to be high, performance reliable, can bear high stress draw and pigeonhole the load and tired load repeatedly.Easy and simple to handle, construction fast, save energy and material, comprehensive economy profitable, this method has been already a large amount of application in the project.Applicable scope : Suitable for Ⅱ, Ⅲ, Ⅳgrade reinforcing bar (including welding bad reinfor cing bar ) with ribbing of Ф 18- 50mm, connection between the same diameter or different diameters reinforcing bar .1.2must squeeze linkExtruders used in the covers, reinforced axis along the cold metal sleeve squeeze dedicated to insert sleeve Lane two hot rolling steel drums into a highly integrated mechanical linking methods.Characteristic: Easy to operate and joining fast and not having flame homework , can construct for 24 hours , save a large number of reinforcing bars and energy. Applicable scope : Suitable for , set up according to first and second class antidetonation requirement -proof armored concrete structure ФⅡ, Ⅲgrade reinforcing bar with ribbing of hot rolling of 20- 32mm join and construct live.1.3 cone thread connectingUsing cone thread to bear pulled, pressed both effort and self-locking nature, undergo good principles will be reinforced by linking into cone-processing thread at the moment the value of integration into the joints connecting steel bars.Characteristic: Simple , all right preparatory cut of the craft , connecting fast, concentricity is good, have pattern person who restrain from advantage reinforcing bar carbon content.Applicable scope : Suitable for the concrete structure of the industry , civil buil ding and general structures, reinforcing bar diameter is for Фfor the the 16- 40mm one Ⅱ, Ⅲgrade verticality, it is the oblique to or reinforcing bars horizontal join construct live.conclusionsThese are now commonly used to connect steel synthesis methods, which links technology in the United States, Britain, Japan and other countries are widely used. There are different ways to connect their different characteristics and scope of the actual construction of production depending on the specific project choose a suitable method of connecting to achieve both energy conservation and saving time limit for a project ends.钢筋混凝土构造中钢筋连接综述改革开放以来，伴随国民经济旳迅速、持久发展，多种钢筋混凝土建筑构造大量建造，钢筋连接技术得到很大旳发展。
建筑-外文翻译讲解学习
外文文献：Risk Analysis of the International Construction ProjectBy: Paul Stanford KupakuwanaCost Engineering Vol. 51/No. 9 September 2009ABSTRACTThis analysis used a case study methodology to analyse the issues surrounding the partial collapse of the roof of a building housing the headquarters of the Standards Association of Zimbabwe (SAZ). In particular, it examined the prior roles played by the team of construction professionals. The analysis revealed that the SAZ’s traditional construction project was generally characterized by high risk. There was a clear indication of the failure of a contractor and architects in preventing and/or mitigating potential construction problems as alleged by the plaintiff. It was reasonable to conclude that between them the defects should have been detected earlier and rectified in good time before the partial roof failure. It appeared justified for the plaintiff to have brought a negligence claim against both the contractor and the architects. The risk analysis facilitated, through its multi-dimensional approach to a critical examination of a construction problem, the identification of an effective risk management strategy for future construction projects. It further served to emphasize the point that clients are becoming more demanding, more discerning, and less willing to accept risk without recompense. Clients do not want surprise, and are more likely to engage in litigation when things go wrong.KEY WORDS:Arbitration, claims, construction, contracts, litigation, project and risk The structural design of the reinforced concrete elements was done by consulting engineers Knight Piesold (KP). Quantity surveying services were provided by Hawkins, Leshnick & Bath (HLB). The contract was awarded to Central African Building Corporation (CABCO) who was also responsible for the provision of a specialist roof structure using patented “gang nail” rooftrusses. The building construction proceeded to completion and was handed over to the owners on Sept. 12, 1991. The SAZ took effective occupation of the headquarters building without a certificate of occupation. Also, the defects liability period was only three months .The roof structure was in place 10 years before partial failure in December 1999. The building insurance coverage did not cover enough, the City of Harare, a government municipality, issued the certificate of occupation 10 years after occupation, and after partial collapse of the roof .At first the SAZ decided to go to arbitration, but this failed to yield an immediate solution. The SAZ then decided to proceed to litigate in court and to bring a negligence claim against CABCO. The preparation for arbitration was reused for litigation. The SAZ’s quantified losses stood at approximately $ 6 million in Zimbabwe dollars (US $1.2m) .After all parties had examined the facts and evidence before them, it became clear that there was a great probability that the courts might rule that both the architects and the contractor were liable. It was at this stage that the defendants’ lawye rs requested that the matter be settled out of court. The plaintiff agreed to this suggestion, with the terms of the settlement kept confidential .The aim of this critical analysis was to analyse the issues surrounding the partial collapse of the roof of the building housing the HQ of Standard Association of Zimbabwe. It examined the prior roles played by the project management function and construction professionals in preventing/mitigating potential construction problems. It further assessed the extent to which the employer/client and parties to a construction contract are able to recover damages under that contract. The main objective of this critical analysis was to identify an effective risk management strategy for future construction projects. The importance of this study is its multidimensional examination approach.Experience suggests that participants in a project are well able to identify risks based on their own experience. The adoption of a risk management approach, based solely in past experience and dependant on judgement, may work reasonably well in a stable low risk environment. It is unlikely to be effective where there is a change. This is because change requires the extrapolation of past experience, which could be misleading. All construction projects are prototypes to some extent and imply change. Change in the construction industry itself suggests that past experience is unlikely to be sufficient on its own. A structured approach is required. Such a structure can not and must not replace the experience and expertise of the participant. Rather, it brings additional benefits that assist to clarify objectives, identify the nature of the uncertainties, introduces effective communication systems, improves decision-making, introduces effective risk control measures, protects the project objectives and provides knowledge of the risk history .Construction professionals need to know how to balance the contingencies of risk with their specific contractual, financial, operational and organizational requirements. Many construction professionals look at risks in dividually with a myopic lens and do not realize the potential impact that other associated risks may have on their business operations. Using a holistic risk management approach will enable a fi rm to identify all of the organization’s business risks. This will increase the probability of risk mitigation, with the ultimate goal of total risk elimination .Recommended key construction and risk management strategies for future construction projects have been considered and their explanation follows. J.W. Hinchey stated that there is and can be no ‘best practice’ standard for risk allocation on a high-profile project or for that matter, any project. He said, instead, successful risk management is a mind-set and a process. According to Hinchey, the ideal mind-set is for the parties and their representatives to, first, be intentional about identifying project risks and then to proceed to develop a systematic and comprehensiveprocess for avoiding, mitigating, managing and finally allocating, by contract, those risks in optimum ways for the particular project. This process is said to necessarily begin as a science and ends as an art .According to D. Atkinson, whether contractor, consultant or promoter, the right team needs to be assembled with the relevant multi-disciplinary experience of that particular type of project and its location. This is said to be necessary not only to allow alternative responses to be explored. But also to ensure that the right questions are asked and the major risks identified. Heads of sources of risk are said to be a convenient way of providing a structure for identifying risks to completion of a participant’s part of the project. Effective risk management is said to require a multi-disciplinary approach. Inevitably risk management requires examination of engineering, legal and insurance related solutions .It is stated that the use of analytical techniques based on a statistical approach could be of enormous use in decision making . Many of these techniques are said to be relevant to estimation of the consequences of risk events, and not how allocation of risk is to be achieved. In addition, at the present stage of the development of risk management, Atkinson states that it must be recognized that major decisions will be made that can not be based solely on mathematical analysis. The complexity of construction projects means that the project definition in terms of both physical form and organizational structure will be based on consideration of only a relatively small number of risks . This is said to then allow a general structured approach that can be applied to any construction project to increase the awareness of participants .The new, simplified Construction Design and Management Regulations(CDM Regulations) which came in to force in the UK in April 2007, revised and brought together the existing CDM 1994 and the Construction Health Safety and Welfare(CHSW) Regulations 1996, into a single regulatory package.The new CDM regulations offer an opportunity for a step change in health and safety performance and are used to reemphasize the health, safety and broader business benefits of a well-managed and co-ordinated approach to the management of health and safety in construction.I believe that the development of these skills is imperative to provide the client with the most effective services available, delivering the best value project possible.Construction Management at Risk (CM at Risk), similar to established private sector methods of construction contracting, is gaining popularity in the public sector. It is a process that allows a client to select a construction manager (CM) based on qualifications; make the CM a member of a collaborative project team; centralize responsibility for construction under a single contract; obtain a bonded guaranteed maximum price; produce a more manageable, predictable project; save time and money; and reduce risk for the client, the architect and the CM.CM at Risk, a more professional approach to construction, is taking its place along with design-build, bridging and the more traditional process of design-bid-build as an established method of project delivery.The AE can review the CM’s approach to the work, making helpful recommendations. The CM is allowed to take bids or proposals from subcontractors during completion of contract documents, prior to the guaranteed maximum price (GMP), which reduces the CM’s risk and provides useful input to design. The procedure is more methodical, manageable, predictable and less risky for all.The procurement of construction is also more business-like. Each trade contractor has a fair shot at being the low bidder without fear of bid shopping. Each must deliver the best to get the projec. Competition in the community is more equitable: all subcontractors have a fair shot at the work .A contingency within the GMP covers unexpected but justifiable costs, and a contingency above the GMP allows for client changes. As long as the subcontractors are within the GMP they are reimbursed to the CM, so the CM represents the client in negotiating inevitable changes with subcontractors.There can be similar problems where each party in a project is separately insured. For this reason a move towards project insurance is recommended. The traditional approach reinforces adversarial attitudes, and even provides incentives for people to overlook or conceal risks in an attempt to avoid or transfer responsibility.A contingency within the GMP covers unexpected but justifiable costs, and a contingency above the GMP allows for client changes. As long as the subcontractors are within the GMP they are reimbursed to the CM, so the CM represents the client in negotiating inevitable changes with subcontractors.There can be similar problems where each party in a project is separately insured. For this reason a move towards project insurance is recommended. The traditional approach reinforces adversarial attitudes, and even provides incentives for people to overlook or conceal risks in an attempt to avoid or transfer responsibility.It was reasonable to assume that between them the defects should have been detected earlier and rectified in good time before the partial roof failure. It did appear justified for the plaintiff to have brought a negligence claim against both the contractor and the architects.In many projects clients do not understand the importance of their role in facilitating cooperation and coordination; the design is prepared without discussion between designers, manufacturers, suppliers and contractors. This means that the designer can not take advantage of suppliers’ or contractors’ knowledge of build ability or maintenance requirements and the impact these have on sustainability, the total cost of ownership or health and safety .This risk analysis was able to facilitate, through its multi-dimensional approach to a critical examination of a construction problem, the identification of an effective risk management strategy for future construction projects. This work also served to emphasize the point that clients are becoming more demanding, more discerning, and less willing to accept risk without recompense. They do not want surprises, and are more likely to engage in litigation when things go wrong.中文译文：国际建设工程风险分析保罗斯坦福库帕库娃娜工程造价卷第五十一期2009年9月9日摘要此次分析用实例研究方法分析津巴布韦标准协会总部（SAZ）的屋顶部分坍塌的问题。
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Literature translation.Construction constituentMaterials and structural forms are combined to make up the various parts of a building, including the load-carrying frame, skin, floors, and partitions. The building also has mechanical and electrical systems, such as elevators, heating and cooling systems, and lighting systems. The superstructure is that part of a building above ground, and the substructure and foundation is that part of a building below ground.The skyscraper owes its existence to two developments of the 19th century: steel skeleton construction and the passenger elevator. Steel as a construction material dates from the introduction of the Bessemer converter in 1885.Gustave Eiffel (1832-1932) introduced steel construction in France. His designs for the Galerie des Machines and the Tower for the Paris Exposition of 1889 expressed the lightness of the steel framework. The Eiffel Tower, 984 feet (300 meters) high, was the tallest structure built by man and was not surpassed until 40 years later by a series of American skyscrapers.Elisha Otis installed the first elevator in a department store in New York in 1857.In 1889, Eiffel installed the first elevators on a grand scale in the Eiffel Tower, whose hydraulic elevators could transport 2,350 passengers to the summit every hour.Load-Carrying FrameUntil the late 19th century, the exterior walls of a building were used as bearing walls to support the floors. This construction is essentially a post and lintel type, and it is still used in frame construction for houses. Bearing-wall construction limited the height of building because of the enormous wall thickness required；for instance, the 16-story Monadnock Building built in the 1880’s in Chicago had walls 5 feet (1.5 meters) thick at the lower floors. In 1883, William Le Baron Jenney (1832-1907) supported floors on cast-iron columns to form a cage-like construction. Skeleton construction, consisting of steel beams and columns, was first used in 1889. As a consequence of skeleton con struction, the enclosing walls become a “curtain wall” rather than serving a supporting function. Masonry was the curtain wall materialuntil the 1930’s, when light metal and glass curtain walls were used. After the introduction of buildings continued to increase rapidly.All tall buildings were built with a skeleton of steel until World War Ⅱ. After the war, the shortage of steel and the improved quality of concrete led to tall building being built of reinforced concrete. Marina Tower (1962) in Chicago is the tallest concrete building in the United States；its height—588 feet (179 meters)—is exceeded by the 650-foot (198-meter) Post Office Tower in London and by other towers.A change in attitude about skyscraper construction has brought a return to the use of the bearing wall. In New York City, the Columbia Broadcasting System Building, designed by Eero Saarinen in 1962,has a perimeter wall consisting of 5-foot (1.5meter) wide concrete columns spaced 10 feet (3 meters) from column center to center. This perimeter wall, in effect, constitutes a bearing wall. One reason for this trend is that stiffness against the action of wind can be economically obtained by using the walls of the building as a tube；the World Trade Center building is another example of this tube approach. In contrast, rigid frames or vertical trusses are usually provided to give lateral stability.FloorsThe construction of the floors in a building depends on the basic structural frame that is used. In steel skeleton construction, floors are either slabs of concrete resting on steel beams or a deck consisting of corrugated steel with a concrete topping. In concrete construction, the floors are either slabs of concrete on concrete beams or a series of closely spaced concrete beams (ribs) in two directions topped with a thin concrete slab, giving the appearance of a waffle on its underside. The kind of floor that is used depends on the span between supporting columns or walls and the function of the space. In an apartment building, for instance, where walls and columns are spaced at 12 to 18 feet (3.7 to 5.5 meters), the most popular construction is a solid concrete slab with no beams. The underside of the slab serves as the ceiling for the space below it. Corrugated steel decks are often used in office buildings because the corrugations, when enclosed by another sheet of metal, form ducts for telephone and electrical lines.Soils and FoundationsAll building are supported on the ground, and therefore the nature of the soil becomes an extremely important consideration in the design of any building. The design of a foundation depends on many soil factors, such as type of soil, soil stratification, thickness of soil lavers and their compaction, and groundwater conditions. Soils rarely have a single composition；they generally are mixtures in layers of varying thickness. For evaluation, soils are graded according to particle size, which increases from silt to clay to sand to gravel to rock. In general, the larger particle soils will support heavier loads than the smaller ones. The hardest rock can support loads up to 100 tons per square foot(976.5 metric tons/sq meter), but the softest silt can support a load of only 0.25 ton per square foot(2.44 metric tons/sq meter). All soils beneath the surface are in a state of compaction；that is, they are under a pressure that is equal to the weight of the soil column above it. Many soils (except for most sands and gavels) exhibit elastic properties—they deform when compressed under load and rebound when the load is removed. The elasticity of soils is often time-dependent, that is, deformations of the soil occur over a length of time which may vary from minutes to years after a load is imposed. Over a period of time, a building may settle if it imposes a load on the soil greater than the natural compaction weight of the soil. Conversely, a building may heave if it imposes loads on the soil smaller than the natural compaction weight. The soil may also flow under the weight of a building；that is, it tends to be squeezed out.Due to both the compaction and flow effects, buildings tend settle. Uneven settlements, exemplified by the leaning towers in Pisa and Bologna, can have damaging effects—the building may lean, walls and partitions may crack, windows and doors may become inoperative, and, in the extreme, a building may collapse. Uniform settlements are not so serious, although extreme conditions, such as those in Mexico City, can have serious consequences. Over the past 100 years, a change in the groundwater level there has caused some buildings to settle more than 10 feet (3 meters). Because such movements can occur during and after construction, careful analysis of the behavior of soils under a building isvital.The great variability of soils has led to a variety of solutions to the foundation problem. Wherefirm soil exists close to the surface, the simplest solution is to rest columns on a small slab of concrete(spread footing). Where the soil is softer, it is necessary to spread the column load over a greater area；in this case, a continuous slab of concrete(raft or mat) under the whole building is used. In cases where the soil near the surface is unable to support the weight of the building, piles of wood, steel, or concrete are driven down to firm soil.The construction of a building proceeds naturally from the foundation up to the superstructure. The design process, however, proceeds from the roof down to the foundation (in the direction of gravity). In the past, the foundation was not subject to systematic investigation. A scientific approach to the design of foundations has been developed in the 20th century. Karl Terzaghi of the United States pioneered studies that made it possible to make accurate predictions of the behavior of foundations, using the science of soil mechanics coupled with exploration and testing procedures. Foundation failures of the past, such as the classical example of the leaning tower in Pisa, have become almost nonexistent. Foundations still are a hidden but costly part of many buildings.Although there have been many advancements in building construction technology in general, spectacular achievements have been made in the design and construction of ultrahigh-rise buildings.The early development of high-rise buildings began with structural steel framing. Reinforced concrete and stressed-skin tube systems have since been economically and competitively used in a number of structures for both residential and commercial purposes. The high-rise buildings ranging from 50 to 110 stories that are being built all over the United States are the result of innovations and development of new structural systems.Greater height entails increased column and beam sizes to make buildings more rigid so that under wind load they will not sway beyondan acceptable limit. Excessive lateral sway may cause serious recurring damage to partitions, ceilings, and other architectural details. In addition, excessive sway may cause discomfort to the occupants of the building because of their perception of such motion. Structural systems of reinforced concrete, as well as steel, take full advantage of the inherent potential stiffness of the total building and therefore do not require additional stiffening to limit the sway.In a steel structure, for example, the economy can be defined in terms of the total average quantity of steel per square foot of floor area of the building. Curve A in Fig.1 represents the average unit weight of a conventional frame with increasing numbers of stories. Curve B represents the average steel weight if the frame is protected from all lateral loads. The gap between the upper boundary and the lower boundary represents the premium for all lateral loads. The gap between the upper boundary and the lower boundary represents the premium for height for the traditional column-and-beam frame. Structural engineers have developed structural systems with a view to eliminating this premium.Tube in tubeAnother system in reinforced concrete for office buildings combines the traditional shear wall construction with an exterior framed tube. The system consists of an outer framed tube of very closely spaced columns and an interior rigid shear wall tube enclosing the central service area. The system (Fig.2), known as the tube-in-tube system, made it possible to design the world’s present tallest (714 ft or 218 m) lightweight concrete building (the 52-story One Shell Plaza Building in Houston) for the unit price of a traditional shear wall structure of only 35 stories.Systems combining both concrete and steel have also been developed, an example of which is the composite system developed by Skidmore, Owings & Merrill in which an exterior closely spaced framed tube in concrete envelops an interior steel framing, thereby combining the advantages of both reinforced concrete and structural steel systems. The 52-story One Shell Square Building in New Orleans is based on this system.Keyword: Components of A Building and Tall，Buildings Load-Carrying Frame，Floors Soils and Foundations，Tube in ponents of A Building and Tall Buildings文献翻译建筑的组成部分材料和结构类型是构成建筑物各方面的组成部分，包括承重结构、围护结构、楼地面和隔墙。