Research in Qualitative Reasoning builds and uses discrete
Whatisqualitativeresearch定性研究是什么
MODULE ON QUALITATIVE RESEARCHResearch Training for Local ResearchersKampot 22-24 May 2003What is qualitative research?Qualitative research has been associated with social sciences as anthropology, sociology, psychology and socio-linguistics.The fundamental characteristics of qualitative research are:∙Its approach seeks to describe and analyse the culture and peoples‟ behaviours from the point of view of those being studied: events, actions, norms, values (emicapproach)∙It emphasises the comprehensive or holistic understanding of the social settings in which the research is being conducted (context to reflect the reality of everydaylife∙Its approach is flexible and iterative. Research questions and data collection methods can be modified as new information is collected.Qualitative research has a set of data collection methods which are typically used by qualitative researchers. The most common are:Unstructured interviews: widely used method collection in cultural anthropology. No predetermination of question topics or order. Questions emerge from the immediate context and are asked in a natural way (conversational style).Semi-structured interviews: Topics to be covered are specified in advance, but interviewer decides sequence and wording of questions during the interview (interview guide approach).Standardized open-ended interview: Exact wording and sequence of questions determined in advance. Worded so that responses are completely open-ended.Focus groups: A semi-structured, group interview which relies on discussions among participants.Participant observation: Not really a data collection but rather an approach in which the researcher become an active member of the culture under study. Involves unstructured observation and unstructured interviewing.Unstructured observation: Observer is outsider, non-participant (by-passer). That is to be observed is only generally defined and broadly focus, aim is to observe behaviour in their physical social context.Structured observation: Researcher is outsider, non-participant. Observes and records observations in pre-determined manner. Provides precise, numerical data. Can be repeated to monitor change in behaviour over time.When qualitative and quantitative (survey) approaches are most appropriate ?ETHNOGRAPHIC APPROACHThe strategy comprehends the following main elements:1.Field workers (information gatherers) spend a lot of time out in the areas andneighbourhoods where the clients (target population) are located.2.Data are collected through direct observation and from interviewing3.Interviewing is very open-ended and informal, in which we try to get narratives ofevents, …episodes‟, from key informants. Some of those ke y informants must bemembers of the client population4.We also identify culture patterns in the form of local vocabularies (the vernacularlanguage of the client group), plus their definitions of expected activities andbehaviours5.Knowing what they do also how they talk about what they do, will help the (our)intervention programme to communicate effectively with the client populationEthnographic information gathering is an iterative or repetitive open-ended process. Iterative means continually …circle back‟ to revise, correct, expand and reorganized our previous information. New information forces us to change our earlier ideas.Based on the first round of information we go back to our regular key informants and other sources of information asking new questions.Very often the most important information we need is to answer the general question …what is going on here?‟The collection of information can be very much efficient if we are provided with a set of specific questions.Cautions: Interviewers should no hint disapproval or judgemental attitude towardsclients/informantsEthical behaviour towards …client‟ population requires that we always protect confidentiality of individual information sources (regardless the degree of legality or illegality)Start point: Mapping the community preferably with the participation of knowledgeable outreach workers people and community members. Great of additional information comes to light in such process beyond simple details of streets, houses, and other geographical features. Emic and etic perspectivesThe most commonly used and accepted meaning of “the emic perspective” is the “insider‟s point of view”. That is the conceptual categories, language of expression and cultural belief system of the study populat ion. This is contrasted with the etic or outsider‟s (i.e. the researcher‟s) view or interpretation of events. A summary of some of the differences in these two approaches to studying behaviour is presented below.Culture:“Culture” has been defined in hundreds of different ways. For those conducting qualitative research, a useful definition of culture would be “the acquire knowledge that people use tointerpret experience and gui de social behaviour”. This definition put emphasis on the meaning that people give to behaviour, customs, objects or emotions. Culture as a system of meaning serves as a guide for acting and interpreting one‟s experiences, although it does not force one to follow a particular course. Other non-cultural factors (for example, economic conditions) also act as important influences on people‟s behaviour.Gatekeepers:These are persons who control the information, physical access, and other power relationship in a community or client population. Gatekeepers may be formally recognize but usually their power is due to informal relationships. Gaining entrance into a community, organization or other setting where research is to be conducted usually requires obtaining access and permission from these individuals.Key informants:A key informant is someone who is especially knowledgeable about a topic of interest, and who is willing to talk to the researcher about it. Key informants are individuals with whom the researcher develops an especially relationship of information exchange. They assist the researcher in learning about the informants‟ culture, and are usually interviewed many times during the research. The difference between general informant or respondent and a key informant is that respondents give information about themselves, whereas key informants are “experts” on some topic of interest, beyond their own personal beliefs and behaviours. Anyone is a potential key informant including men and women, formal and informal leaders, professionals and …ordinary‟ people.Triangulation:Triangulation refers to the combination of different kinds of data or data collection methods within a single study.The logic of triangulation is based on the premise that each method reveals different aspects of the empiric reality. Triangulation helps to avoid errors linked to a particular method by using multiple methods in which different types of data provide cross-data validity checks. The most common types of triangulation include data triangulation in which the different data sources are used (multiple cases or multiple types of informants for example), and methodological triangulation in which multiple data collection methods are used to study a single problem or programme (other types of triangulation include investigator triangulation in which different investigators are used to study the same problem and theory triangulation in which the use of different perspectives are used to interpret a single set of data.Focus Group Discussions (FDGs):…Focus group discussions‟ is a method of getting information from a group of persons (usually 6 to 8 individuals) who have a common background and are brought together to discuss a topic of interest. One of your team will act as …facilitator‟ or …moderator‟ who leads and stimulates the conversation using a prepared interview and discussion guide and another will take care of recording the discussion.1.Before assembling a discussion group, you should have a very clear idea of whatinformation you intend to focus on. Go through your notes from individual interviews looking for gaps of information or areas of information that you wish to get moreopinions about. Discuss with your team.2.Make a list of key pieces of information that you expect might come out of the groupdiscussion. These …key questions‟ are the main framework of your …interview guide‟.But always remember that the interview guide must not be allowed to interfere withthe free flow of discussion.3.Get help from your key informants in selecting participants for your focus groups4.During the discussions the moderators tries hard to avoid having one or twoindividuals dominate the talking.5.Be sure to get full record of the meeting –in hand written notes plus tape recording.6.Be sure to have at least one person taking ample notes during the discussions. Thosewritten notes will then be available immediately for your team to review and discussthe outcome and the new information. Get as many short quotes and phrases in theparticipant‟s vernacular as you can.7.As soon as possible after a group discussion meeting write out, clean up, and expandwritten notes.Sources:Patricia Hudelson, Qualitative Research for Health Programmes, W HO, 1990;Pertti Pelto, Situation Assessment: Ethnographic methods in AIDS intervention programmes. WHO/GPA, 1993。
QualitativeResearchMethodsResearchMethod
2) Determine the qualitative data collection method(s)
• Women prefer to shave in the shower and under dim lighting
• But men shave in front of a mirror
• Women prefer razors with a firm grip and those that give a clean, smooth shave
Qualitative Research Methods
Ipkin Anthony Wong, PhD Institute For Tourism Studies
Ch 4
2
Three Categories of Research
1. Qualitative research: research involving collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data by observing what people do and say
• Provides extensive of the respondent’s feelings in a more personal setting
– gs:
• Women shave very differently from men
• Women shave more surface area than men but only shave two or three times per week
– Quantitative Research usually comes
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qualitative research method
qualitative research methodQualitative research is a type of social science research method that focuses on understanding the subjective experiences, opinions, and perspectives of individuals. It is a form of exploratory research that aims to uncover the deeper meaning of human behavior and beliefs. This approach is often used in fields such as sociology, anthropology, psychology, and education.Step 1: Identifying research questionThe first step in conducting qualitative research is to identify the research question or problem that you wish to investigate. This can be done through literature review, observations, and conversations with stakeholders. The research question should be clear, concise, and specific to the topic of interest.Step 2: Selecting Participants and SamplingThe next step is to select the participants for the study. Qualitative research often involves small groups of participants or individuals, and sampling strategies are aimed at selecting a diverse range of people who can provide rich and varied perspectives on the research question or topic. The sampling method used in qualitative research is often non-probability, meaning participants are selected based on specific characteristics or criteria.Step 3: Data CollectionData collection in qualitative research is typically done through unstructured or semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, and observations. Researchers aim togather as much data as possible to provide a comprehensive understanding of the topic being investigated. This approach allows for flexibility in data collection, as researchers can probe for more information based on participants' responses.Step 4: AnalysisQualitative data analysis involves interpreting and making sense of the data collected. This can be done through various methods such as thematic analysis, grounded theory analysis, and narrative analysis. Researchers aim to identify recurring themes and patterns within the data that arerelevant to the research question or problem being investigated. Data analysis is an iterative process wheredata is reviewed, coded, and organized until the researcher achieves data saturation, meaning that they have gathered enough information to answer the research question.Step 5: Reporting FindingsThe final step in qualitative research is reporting the findings. The results of the study should be communicated ina clear, concise, and accessible manner. This can be done through a range of mediums such as academic articles, reports, and presentations. The findings should be supported by evidence and convey the perspectives and experiences of the participants.In conclusion, qualitative research is a valuable toolfor exploring complex social phenomena. It provides insight into the subjective experiences of individuals and can aid in understanding social and cultural dynamics. By following the steps outlined above, researchers can develop a robust study that offers meaningful insights into the topic being investigated.。
qualitative research 研究方法
MethodologyThis study is set in the qualitative research paradigm as defined by Strauss and Corbin (1990) to refer to research about “persons’ lives, stories, behaviour…organizational functioning, social movements or interactional relationships” (p.17). The methods used in this study were influenced by the constructs of grounded theory where the purpose is to “reveal participants’ views, feelings, intentions, and actions as well as the contexts and structures of their lives” (Charmaz, 2006, p.26) in order to form ideas from the data. That is, my goal was to understand the writing challenges for students from the perspectives of both students and instructors and in doing so, I needed to consider the social, individual and educational factors that contribute d to the participants’ opinions.I chose interviews as my main data gathering instrument, as according to Creswell (1997), these “play a central role in the data collection in a grounded theory study” (p.122) and I relied on emergent design, integral to a grounded theory study (Charmaz, 2006), where “one begins with an area of study and what is relevant to that area is allowed to emerge” (Strauss & Corbin, 1990, p.23), to design a set of questions that served as a guide for conducting semi-structured interviews with the participants (see Appendix 1 and 2). The interview questions followed the participants’ train of thought and at times, wandered from the pre-scripted questions I had prepared.ParticipantsAll participants in this qualitative study were situated at a medium sized Canadian University within the Faculty of Arts & Social Sciences. They included five second year individual students, a group of nine first year students and five professors. My sampling of participants was strategic, as is suggested by Geisler (2004) to be a more defensible means(rather than merely convenient sampling) with which to “guide (my) choice of cases within a site” (p.18). I first used criterion-based sampling that “specif(ied) a certain relevant criteria” (Geisler, 2004, p.18), in choosing the study participants. Thus, the student participants were drawn from first and second year, which enabled me to acquire perceptions from first year students on their current experiences and comparative reflections from second year students on their experiences with academic writing in the first and second year. The professors are instructors of both first year seminars and regular first year courses, which are described below. This duality provided an opportunity to gather data on their perceptions of students’ writing needs from each of these classroom environments.After choosing the samples based on these criteria, I then used a stratified sampling strategy to “take advantage of knowing something about the existing variations in a site” (Geisler, p.18) and chose both student and instructor participants from a variety of disciplines. This choice allowed me to compare the perceptions of professors and students on a disciplinary basis. Further stratifying amongst the second year students based on varying first year experiences allowed for examination of a variety of pedagogical environments that could affect first year students’ writing ability. These experiences included enrollment in one of the following:(1) First Year Experience, which is an innovative attempt to facilitate the transition for first year students to university by providing smaller classes (maximum 100 students) that are enmeshed ina cluster of four pre-determined courses and then a fifth course of the student’s choice(2) First year seminar, either within or outside of the FYE, which provides an even smaller environment of approximately 25 students where the instructor is expected to provide greater focus on writing development.(3) Mandatory writing course, which is established as one semester of an English literature course.(4) Academic Support Program, which provides the opportunity for university study to students whose high school grades were below the acceptable standard.(5) Regular first year course, which does not have any particular focus on writing and in this study, may have up to 100 students enrolled.The study participants and programs of study are identified by a pseudonym in this thesis for the purposes of maintaining confidentiality. The participants are described as follows: Student Participants. “I mean even if I get a good mark I think that anytime you get a mark less than perfect there has to be a comment or else why didn’t you get perfect?” (March 25, 2009). Alana is 19 years old and English is her first language. Her major is Human Rights and her minor is Mass Communications. Alana is more interested in Mass Communications than Human Rights and plans to switch her major accordingly for next year. Alana was an above average student in high school where she was on the honour roll for two years. Her grades were lower in math and the sciences than in the arts or social science courses as she claimed “they (those subjects) just came easier to me.” Both of her parents have university degre es and they encouraged her to go to university. Alana described herself as an active reader who enjoys reading popular fiction in her spare time. In addition to reading, Alana is a competitive dancer, works as a server in a restaurant and is a volunteer with a local youth organization. Alana was selected for this study as she had participated in a mandated first year writing course at the university she previously attended.“I think it’s (writing) one of the cornerstones of education in university” (February 25, 2009). Ryan is 20 years old and English is his second language, which he began learning at theage of 7. His major is History and his minor is Applied Language Studies. He described himself as a motivated student who is interested in learning about the discipline of history. Ryan described his high school academic experience as “pretty good” and he did not perceive any major problems adapting from high school to university. Both of his parents have university degrees and they expected him to go to university. Ryan enjoys reading, particularly fiction, listening to music, boxing, working out at the gym, camping, cycling, reading the news and surfing the Internet. Ryan was chosen for this study as he participated in a first year seminar outside of the First Year Experience program.“I expect the professors to give a very clear definition of what their expectations are so that I’m not going off in a direction that won’t be beneficial towards the end product” (February 26, 2009). Danielle is 39 years old and both English and French are her first languages. Her major is Political Science and her minor is Religion. She is a highly motivated student and anticipated that a background in political science would give her a better knowledge base from which to understand the historical component of present day political issues and the Religion courses would help her to understand the perspectives of other people’s cultures. Danielle was an average achieving student in high school and did not find it very challenging. Her mother did not finish high school and her father completed one year of college. Her parents are impressed and supportive of Danielle’s decision to return to school. Danielle enjoys reading, particularly books of a philosophical nature. When she’s not a full time student during the academic year, Danielle is an officer in the Canadian Forces, specifically in the field of logistics for the army where she engages in military training during the summer months. Danielle was selected for this study as she participated in a first year seminar within the First Year Experience program.“She kinda directed us through it and showed…like…this is one of the perfect papers, we didn’t really go over it in detail but she definitely gave us access” (February 27, 2009). Paul is 22 years old and English is his first language. He took two years off between high school and university and now feels highly motivated to be in school. His major is philosophy, which he believes he is well suited for as he claims this discipline allows him the freedom to argue his opinions rather than regurgitating facts. Paul enjoys school and is intending to do graduate work in this discipline. Paul was not a high achieving student in high school due to lack of motivation and is grateful that his teachers encouraged him to go to university. His parents were also encouraging, as his father, who has a university degree and his mother, who is in the midst of attaining one, both value higher education. Paul enjoys reading for interest but is consumed with academic reading during the school year. He also plays guitar and video games, enjoys on-line chatting and hanging out with friends. Paul was selected for this study as he was enrolled in the First Year Experience program in first year but did not take a first year seminar.“First year was harder, obviously, and I didn’t have that much to go on…because in high school you don’t do anything, you really don’t” (March 14, 2009). Sarah is 19 years old and her first language is English although she was living in an Arabic speaking environment for the first two years of her life. Her major is Sociology, which she does not seem to have much interest in. She feels there is too much of a focus on writing assignments, which she finds cumbersome and research methods, which she finds boring. She intends to stay with Sociology as she does not know what else to do. Sarah was not motivated in high school and her performance reflected that. Her parents, who both have university degrees, were very supportive of Sarah going to university. Sarah enjoys reading, drawing, painting, playing guitar, editing online music videos and hangingout with friends. She was selected for this study as she participated in the Academic Support Program for first year.In addition to the identified second year students, there was a focus group of nine First Year Experience students in a first year seminar (in English) who participated in an open discussion within the context of their classroom. Initially, I was to observe this class during regular class instruction but their professor had suggested that I conduct an open discussion with the students about their writing needs. She had offered this opportunity as the students had completed their writing assignments for the year and therefore, she did not anticipate much relevant discussion in her class regarding writing instruction.Faculty Participants. The professors range in teaching experience from five to twenty-five years and in the disciplines of English, Philosophy, Language Studies, Psychology and History. They all currently teach first year students both within first year seminars and outside. In addition, four of the five participants have also taught these seminars within the First Year Experience program.DataThe university ethics committee approved this study and I prepared and had completed consent forms for the participants. The data gathering instruments used in this study included: (1) interviews, (2) class discussion, and (3) samples of students’ academ ic writing. Pre-designed questions guided the interviews and class discussion, yet the semi-structure nature of the interviews allowed for divergences as necessary (see interview questions in Appendix 1 and 2).The writing samples that were used included two graded papers from each second year student; one they had written in first year and one in second year, which facilitated our discussion on their writing styles, changes to their writing that may have occurred between firstand second year and written instructor feedback that may have hindered or helped their writing. An additional aim for the collection of student texts was for the purposes of data triangulation, which Tashakkori & Teddlie (1998) refer to as a technique of data collection to study the same phenomenon within the same study (p.18). Furthermore, Lincoln and Guba (1985) insist on triangulation as a requirement to shed some validity on study revelations: “As the study unfolds and particular pieces of information come to light, steps should be taken to validate each against at least one other source (for example, a second interview) and/or a second method (for example, an observation in addition to an interview). No single item of information . . . should ever be given serious consideration unless it can be triangulated” (p. 283). Thus, in this study, I reviewed students’ texts as a means to discover if what the students’ were identifying as writing problems and reasons for such problems, were supported by the texts they produced. ProcedureThe interviews of all of the study participants occurred over a two-month period. I met with each of the individual student participants, on two occasions, each approximately 30 minutes in length. All of the students appeared to be at ease during the interviews and seemingly excited for the opportunity to express their thoughts on this topic. The interviews took place in a private office on the university campus and were audio recorded and later transcribed into MS Word documents, which served as the basis for analytical coding. I also made observational notes that were added to the participants’ documents.The interview questions for the individual student participants were comprised of three parts and were divided over two interviews. The initial interview concentrated on the first and second parts that covered questions on personal history such as language and family background, academic motivation and performance, and extracurricular interests, as well as perceptions onstudents’ academic writi ng needs and the support they have received to meet these needs. The second interview centred on the third part of the questions, which focused on the differences in the students’ writing as per their two provided assignments and corresponding feedback.Prior to the second interview, I read the student’s texts; highlighted the editorial marks, corrections and comments that were made on the papers; and noted differences on style, structure and form between the texts. The second interview had two purposes and was conducted using a discourse based interview approach (Odell, Goswami & Herrington, 1983), “to help uncover writers’ tacit knowledge of, and motivation for, texts” (Prior, 2004, p.196). The first purpose was to see how the students interpreted and were affected by the comments made on their papers and the second, was to gain insight on how the students knew how to write within a particular genre. For example, Sarah had to write a comparative analysis of theoretical approaches to understanding a sociological phenomenon.I met with the focus group of nine first year seminar students on one occasion for approximately 30 minutes. During this time, the professor had purposely exited the classroom to encourage her students to express their thoughts freely. I had arranged the seats in a semi-circle, placing myself at the top-middle position in an attempt to create a more intimate and comfortable environment for the students. The discussion was guided by the following four questions I had prepared: (1) What is the role of writing in the university and the world at large? (2) What are your attitudes about school writing? (3) What are your greatest obstacles to you becoming better writers? (4) What are some sources of help you have received or could receive to improve your writing? In keeping with the emergent design of the study methods, further questions and topics for consideration emerged throughout the discussion.The discussion was audio recorded after having asked the students for their permission to do so. During the discussion, I initiated the questions and asked for the students’ opinions. Five out of the nine students verbally participated in the discussion. I avoided asking specific students their opinions not only because I didn’t know their names but also I intended this discussion to be a comfortable means for the students to express themselves and was not interested in putting anyone on the spot. Before leaving, I invited the students to contact me by email if anyone had some afterthoughts that they’d like to share. For the record, I have not received any further commentary.I met with each of the five professors in their offices on the university campus. We met on one occasion for approximately 40 minutes where the interviews were audio recorded. The interviews focused on the professors’ opinions on the writing needs of first year students and what supports should be in place on campus to meet these needs. All of the participants were seemingly open, comfortable and eager to partake in the interviews.Following the transcription of each interview for both the individual students and the professors, I forwarded the participants a copy of their transcribed session to ensure member checks, which is, according to Lincoln and Guba (1985) “to be the most critical technique for establishing credibility” (as cited in Cresswell, 1998, p.203). The participants reported an overall satisfaction with the text and only requested minor changes to ensure their personal confidentiality.AnalysisStudents’ perceptions of their writing needs are the main focus for this study, therefore I began the analysis with the data that emanated from these participants and then afterwards, compared it to the data from the professors. Geisler (2004) informs us that, “although manystrains of qualitative analysis exist, most involve coding segments of verbal data as a way of locating phenomenon of interest” (p.xix). Therefore to analyze my data for this study, I used the coding premise of Grounded Theory which Strauss & Corbin (1990) define as a theory that is “inductively derived from the study of the phenomenon it represents” (p. 23) with a purpose “to build theory that is faithful to and illuminates the area under study” (p.24). Furthermore, Charmaz asserts that Grounded Theory coding is an essential tool for data analysis, referring to it as “the pivotal link between collecting data and developing an emergent theory to explain these data” (Charmaz, 2006, p.46).Strauss and Corbin (1990) inform us that, “coding represents the operations by which data are broken down, conceptualized, and put back together in new ways” (p.57). For data analysis in this study, I used their method of open coding, which they defined as “the part of analysis that pertains specifically to the naming and categorizing of phenomena through close examination of data” (p.62). At the first stage of the coding process, I followed Strauss and Corbin’s recommendation of making concepts my basic unit of analysis, which entailed labeling phenomena as follows:Taking apart an observation, a sentence, a paragraph and giving each discrete incident, idea or event, a name, something that stands for or represents a phenomenon. Just how do we do this? We ask questions about each one, like: What is this? What does it represent? We compare incident with incident as we go along so that similar phenomena can be given the same name. (p. 63)(See the excerpt from an interview with a student in Figure 1 below as an illustration of this coding).Figure 1: Labeling Data with Descriptive CodesAfter conceptualizing the data, I engaged in Strauss and Corbin’s second suggested stage in the open coding process, discovering categories. Strauss and Corbin describe the categorization stage in the following way: “Once we have identified particular phenomena in the data, we can begin to group our concepts around them. This is done to reduce the number of units with which we have to work. The process of grouping concepts that seem to pertain to the same phenomena is called categorizing” (p. 65). These scholars then suggest that the categories be given conceptual names that are more abstract than the concepts that are grouped under them. For example, in Figure 1, I grouped the identified concepts into a category called clear expectations (See Figure 2 below as a presentation of further conceptual categories identified from the interviews with students).Figure 2: Categorizing ConceptsAfter categorizing the concepts, I began a third stage of coding, which is based on Strauss & Corbin’s (1990) premise of axial coding as “a set of procedures whereby data are put back together in new ways after open coding, by making connections between categories” (p.96) but differs in intent. Strauss and Corbin’s focus is on specifying a sub-category “in terms of the conditions that give rise to it; the context in which it is embedded; the action/interactional strategies by which it is handled…and the consequences of those strategies” (p.97) whereas I have chosen to simply reassemble the identified categories to form overarching themes. I based this strategy on Charmaz’s (2006) suggestion that “those who prefer simple, flexible guidelines-and can tolerate ambiguity-do not need to do axial coding. They can follow the leads that they define in their empirical materials” (p.61). (See Figu re 3 below for an illustration of the overarching themes that resulted from combining the categorized concepts in figure 2).Figure 3: Overarching ThemesIn addition to analyzing the data from the interviews of the participants, I analyzed two samples of written work from each of the second year students using the existing DELNA (Diagnostic English Language Needs Assessment) rating scale as a guide which according to Knoch (2009) includes nine traits (organization, cohesion, style, data description, interpretation, development of ideas, sentence structure, grammatical accuracy, vocabulary and spelling) each consisting of six band levels ranging from four to nine (p.279). (See Appendix 3 for a replication of the DELNA rating scale and Appendix 4 for my analysis of the students’ texts using this scale).。
国际市场营销课后答案internationalmarketingplanessayque
国际市场营销课后答案internationalmarketingplanessayqueinternational marketing planDeveloping a Global Vision through Marketing ResearchEssay Questions100. (p. 216) Give the traditional definition for marketing research.Marketing research is traditionally defined as the systematic gathering, recording, and analyzing of data to provide information useful in marketing decision making.101. (p. 216) Discuss the differences between traditional marketing research and international marketing research. Although the research processes and methods are basically the same in traditional marketing research and international marketing research, international marketing research involves two additional plications. First, information must be municated across cultural boundaries. Second, the environments within which the research tools are applied are often different in foreign markets.102. (p. 217) International marketers often collect forms of information not normally collected by domestic marketing researchers. Unisys Corporation gives some guidance as to what forms of information need to be collected in theinternational environment. List and briefly discuss each of the five types of information suggested by the UnisysCorporation model.103. (p. 218 and major section titles for the six) List and briefly characterize the six steps in the research process.The steps are: (a) define the research problem and establish research objectives, (b) determine the sources of information to fulfill the research objectives, (c) consider the costs and benefits of the research effort, (d) gather the relevant data from secondary or primary sources, or both, (e) analyze, interpret, and summarize the results, and (f) effectively municate the results to decision makers. Summaries of the steps can be found in the major sections describing each of the six steps.104. (p. 220-223) There are four major problems with using secondary data in international marketing research. What are these four major problems? Briefly, characterize each problem.The four major problems are: (a) availability of data, (b)reliability of data, (c) parability of data, and (d) validating secondary data. For a brief summary see each of the section titles of the four problem areas.105. (p. 223) As a practical matter, the international marketing researcher should ask four questions to effectively judge the reliability (validating secondary data) of secondary data sources. List those four questions.The four questions are: (a) Who collected the data? Would there be any reason for purposely misrepresenting the facts? (b) For what purposes were the data collected? (c) How were the data collected? (methodology) (d) Are the data internally consistent and logical in light of known data sources or market factors?106. (p. 223-225) Demonstrate the difference between quantitative and qualitative research.In quantitative research, usually a large number of respondents are asked to reply either verbally or in writing to structured questions using a specific response format or to select a response from a set of choices. Questions are designed to obtain specific responses regarding aspects of the respondents' behavior, intentions, attitudes, motives, and demographic international marketing plancharacteristics. In qualitative research, if questions are asked they are almost always open-ended or in-depth, and unstructured responses that reflect the person's thoughts and feelings on the subject are sought.107. (p. 229) Discuss the differences between back translation and parallel translation in international marketing research. In back translation the questionnaire is translated from one language to another, and then a second party translates it back into the original. This process pinpoints misinterpretations and misunderstandings before they reach the public. Back translations may not always ensure an accurate translation because of monly used idioms in both languages. Parallel translation is used to e this problem. In this process, more than two translators are used for the back translation; the results are pared, differences discussed, and the most appropriate translation selected.108. (p. 232) It has been suggested that there are at least seven different uses for the Internet in international research.Assume that you are a marketing director for Ty Beanie Babies and are interested in expanding your pany's phenomenal growth into Asia. What are the seven uses suggested in the textand which of the seven would you propose to use to plish your objective?The seven uses are (a) online surveys and buyer panels, (b) online focus groups, (c) Web visitor tracking, (d) advertising measurement, (e) customer identification systems, (f) e-mail marketing lists, and (g) embedded research. The students could make a case for any or all of the above, therefore, the intent of the question is to get the students to first list and then creatively think about options. Discussion of the seven uses may be found on page 232. If the instructor would like to place additional suggestions or parameters on the question, be sure to do so before assigning the question to students.109. (p. 239, Exhibit 8.3) The text suggests four kinds of pany-agency-customer relationships for managing the cultural barrier in international marketing research. Describe or characterize each of these kinds of relationships and designate which one(s) are better suited for managing the cultural barrier across the chain of munication.The four options are: Option A (pany--agency--customers); Option B (pany--agency--local agency--customers); Option C (pany--subsidiary--agency--customers); and, Option D (pany--foreign agency--customers). The text suggests that Options B and C are best for managing the cultural barrier.Global Marketing Management: Planning and Organization Essay Questions101. (p. 310-312) Briefly, explain the benefits of global marketing.When large market segments can be identified, economies of scale in production and marketing can be important petitive advantages of global panies. Other benefits include: (a) a transfer of experience and know-how across countries through improved coordination and integration of marketing activities, (b) ensures access to the toughest customers, and (c) diversity of markets served carries with it additional financial benefits.102. (p. 311-313) Demonstrate the differences among corporate, strategic, and tactical planning.Corporate planning is essentially long term, incorporating generalized goals for the enterprise as a whole. Strategic planning is conducted at the highest levels of management and deals with products, capital, and research, and long- and short-term goals of the pany. Tactical planning pertains to specific actions and tothe allocation of resources used to implement strategic planning goals in specific markets. Tactical plans are made at the local level and address marketing and advertising questions.international marketing plan103. (p. 315, Exhibit 11.1) List and briefly characterize the four phases of the international planning process.The four phases are: (a) Phase 1--Preliminary analysis and screening (matching pany/country needs); (b) Phase 2--Adapting the marketing mix to target markets; (c) Phase 3--Developing the marketing plan; and, (d) Phase 4--Implementation and control.104. (p. 319, Exhibit 11.2) A pany has four different modes of foreign market entry from which to select. List and briefly characterize each of these modes.The modes are exporting, contractual agreements, strategic alliances, and direct foreign investment. Brief characterizations may be found on page 319 in Exhibit 11.2. More detailed descriptions of each mode may be found in the associated sections found on pages 318-330.105. (p. 32-322) Describe the two basic contractual agreements that most panies follow in their attempt to enter aforeign market.Contractual agreements generally involve the transfer of technology, processes, trademarks, or human skills. The two basic forms of contractual agreements are licensing and franchising. Licensing is associated with patent rights, trademark rights, and the rights to use technological processes in foreign markets. It is a favorite strategy for small and medium-sized panies. Franchising involves offering a standard package of products, systems, and management services.106. (p. 323-324) What is a strategic international alliance (SIA)?A SIA is a business relationship established by two or more panies to cooperate out of mutual need and to share risk in achieving a mon objective. SIAs are sought as a way to shore up weaknesses and increase petitive strengths.107. (p. 325-328) Explain the differences between a joint venture and consortia.A joint venture is differentiated from other types of strategic alliances or collaborative relationships in that a joint venture is a partnership of two or more participating panies that join forces to create a separate legal entity. Consortia are similar to jointventures but have two distinguishing characteristics: (a) they typically involve a large number of participants and (b) they frequently operate in a country or market in which none of the participants is currently active.108. (p. 328-329) You have just been hired as a consultant by Apple Computer to advise them on how to enter the South African market. You have decided that direct foreign investment would be the best mode for Apple to follow at this point in time. Write a one-paragraph memo that outlines the benefits of direct foreign investment in a country.Companies that manufacture locally can capitalize on low-cost labor, avoid high import taxes, reduce the high cost of transportation to market, gain access to raw materials, and gain advantages by being perceived as making an investment in the market (as a way to gain entry).109. (p. 331, Exhibit 11.4) With respect to organizational structures used in international marketing, panies are usually structured around one of three alternatives. Assuming that you were a consultant for ATT who desired to create an organization that was able to merge your organization's expertise and skills with that of Sony's cell phone division so that your new jointventure could enter the Scandinavian market, which of the organizational structure alternatives would make most sense? Comment on why the structure might be a good one to use.international marketing planThe three structures are product, geographic, and a matrix approach. Students could select any of the three options, however, the text suggests that the matrix form is preferable in today's market place. A matrix structure permits management to respond to the conflicts that arise between functional activity, product, and geography. Since the new venture will be a joint venture, the matrix structure might allow both of the panies to bring separate expertise to the table. Since a matrixstructure encourages sharing of experience, resources, expertise, technology, and information, it seem to be a natural in this situation.Products and Services for ConsumersEssay Questions107. (p. 337) Discuss the two dimensions of quality.The two dimensions of quality are market-perceived quality and performance quality. Simply, one dimension deals with how consumers believe the pany, product, or service matches toexpectations of quality. The other dimension, which can be measured, deals with how the product, pany, or service actually performs.108. (p. 339) Describe the process called product homologation.Product homologation is used to describe the changes mandated by local product and service standards. A product may have to change in a number of ways to meet the physical or mandatory requirements of a new market.109. (p. 344-347) Everett Rogers notes that four crucial elements impact the diffusion of new ideas. What are those elements?The elements are (a) an innovation, (b) which is municated through certain channels, (c) over time, and (d) among the members of a social system.110. (p. 350, Exhibit 12.1) Draw and correctly label the product ponent model shown in the text.The model is shown on page 350 (see Exhibit 12.1). Students should include the core, packaging, and support services ponents and the sub-parts of each for full credit.111. (p. 353-355) Consumer services are distinguished byfour unique characteristics. List and characterize each of these four unique characteristics.The characteristics are (a) intangibility--services cannot be touched, (b) inseparability--the service cannot be separated from its consumption, (c) heterogeneous--it is individually produced and is thus virtually unique, and (d) perishability--once created it cannot be stored but must be consumed simultaneously with its creation.112. (p. 356-358) Consumer services face four kinds of barriers as these services are presented to the global market. What are these barriers?The barriers are (a) protectionism, (b) controls on transborder data flows, (c) protection of intellectual property, and (d) cultural requirements for adaptation.113. (p. 358-359, Exhibit 12.2) A successful brand is the most valuable resource a pany has. Comment on why this is true and create an example to illustrate.international marketing planUsing the material on pages 358-359 and including Exhibit 12.2, students should be able to make a case for the value of a brand. To summarize, the brand name passes the years ofadvertising, good will, quality evaluation, productexperience, and other beneficial attributes the market associates with the product. Students may use whatever example they wish, however, it still needs to be appropriate to the material above.114. (p. 363-364) Assuming that you were a new marketing manager for Nike and that your first task was to launch a renewed effort to gain market share in Europe, an Adidas stronghold. Describe the impact that the country-of-origin effect might have on your chances of success.The country-of-origin effect can be defined as any influence that the country of manufacture, assembly, or design has on a consumer's positive or negative perception of a product. Students could discuss stereotypes in the example, mention the difficulties that the U.S. has had with France, the general opinion of American-made products, Nike's publicity as asweatshop broker, or how a home-based rival such as Adidas might react to Nike. If you, as an instructor, would like to set additional parameters for this question, please do so before the exam.International Marketing ChannelsEssay Questions101. (p. 396) Characterize a distribution process.A distribution process includes the physical handling and distribution of goods, the passage of ownership (title), and the buying and selling negotiations between producers and middlemen and between middlemen and customers.102. (p. 397) The Japanese distribution system has four distinguishing characteristics. What are these characteristics? The characteristics are (a) a structure dominated by many small middlemen dealing with many small retailers, (b) channel control by manufacturers, (c) a business philosophy shaped by a unique culture, and (d) laws that protect the foundation of the system--the small retailer.103. (p. 399) How does a manufacturer attempt to control the distribution channel?The manufacturer attempts to control the distribution channel through (a) inventory financing, (b) cumulative rebates, (c) merchandise returns, and (d) promotional support.104. (p. 404) Discuss the impact of the trend from traditional to modern channel structures.The impact of these trends will change traditionaldistribution and marketing systems. While retailing revolution remains in flux, new retailing and middle-men systems will be invented, and established panies will experiment, seeking ways to maintain their petitive edge. Moreover, it is ing more dangerous to think of petitors in terms of individual panies―in international business generally, and distribution systems particularly, a networks perspective is increasingly required. That is, firms must be understood in the context of the mercial networks of which they are a part. These changes will resonate throughout the distribution chain before new concepts are established and the system stabilizes.105. (p. 408) Characterize the difference(s) between agent middlemen and merchant middlemen.The primary difference is that agent middlemen do not take title to the goods they process and the merchant middleman does. Additionally, the merchant middleman normally performs more work tasks that are often general in nature whereas the agent middleman may be more of a specialist.international marketing plan106. (p. 412) Steve Smith has been assigned the task of choosing a foreign market channel that would be mostappropriate for his pany. Assuming that his pany was an automobile pany and he wished to enter the Spanish market, list the four points that were identified in the text as starting places for making the channel selection decision. Be specific with your wording of the points.The points are: (a) identify specific target markets within and across countries; (b) specify marketing goals in terms of volume, market share, and profit margin requirements, (c) specify financial and personnel mitments to the development of international distribution, and (d) identify control, length of channels, terms of sale, and channel ownership.107. (p. 419-421) Channel strategy is thought to have six specific strategic goals. If you were to list these goals for a strategic planner, what would be the six specific goals that the planner should consider?The six Cs of channel strategy are: (a) cost, (b) capital, (c) control, (d) coverage, (e) character, and (f) continuity.108. (p. 396-424) Name and briefly define/describe the five basic points involved in making channel decisions.1. channel decisions - producer's choice of a distribution structure through which goods pass from producer to user. Everycountry market has a distribution structure through which goods pass form producer to user. This structure may have a variety of possible middlmen.2. distribution patterns - the variety of possible distribution paths and distribution channel length through which a product may pass from producer to customer.3. available alternative middlemen - the external middlemen from which specific intermediaries are selected. The middlemen e the means of building and developing the channels for international distribution.4. factors affecting choice of channels - identifying target markets, specifying marketing goals, specifying financial and personnel needs, and identifying control, length of channels, terms of sales, and channel ownership.5. locating, selecting, motivating, terminating, and controlling middlemen - the process of building international distribution requires as a first step locationg prospective middlemen. Selection involves determining which ones can performsatisfactorily. Motivating middlemen may involve financial rewards, psychological rewards, munications, pany support, andcorporate report. Termination is the dismissal of middlemen that have not performed up to standard. Controlling middlemen involves control of the distribution network and includes middlemen meeting standards of performance to insure that product is flowing through desired middlemen.Integrated Marketing Communications and International AdvertisingEssay Questions100. (p. 464) Describe the ponents of integrated marketing munications (IMC).IMC are posed of advertising, sales promotions, trade shows, personal selling, direct selling, and public relations.101. (p. 464) What are sales promotions?Sales promotions are marketing activities that stimulate consumer purchases and improve retailer or middleman effectiveness and cooperation.102. (p. 465) Describe the role of public relations.Creating good relationships with the popular press and other media to help panies municate messages to their publics--customers, the general public, and government regulators--is the role of public relations.international marketing plan103. (p. 470-471) List the seven steps in creating an international advertising campaign.The steps are: (a) perform marketing research, (b) specify the goals of the munication, (c) develop the most effective message(s) for the market segments selected, (d) select effective media, (e) pose and secure a budget, (f) execute the campaign, and (g) evaluate the campaign relative to the goals specified.104. (p. 476) List and describe the steps (stages) in the international munication process.The steps are (a) an information source, (b) encoding, (c) a message channel, (d) decoding, (e) receiver, (f) feedback, and (g) noise. See page 479 for details on each stage.105. (p. 486-493)advertising: newspapers, magazines, radio, television, or direct mail.See pages 486-493 for summaries of each of the mass media forms mentioned. If you wish to give additional instructions for answering this question or set question limits, please do so before assigning the question.106. (p. 470-471) Assume that you are the munications manager for a pany that is seeking to begin amunications process with buyers in a foreign market. Take the steps in the international munications process, list them, and indicate which of the steps will probably present the greatest challenge with respect to munication.The steps are: (a) perform marketing research, (b) specify the goals of the munication, (c) develop the most effective message(s) for the market segments selected, (d) select effective media, (e) pose and secure a budget, (f) execute the campaign, and (g) evaluate the campaign relative to the goals specified. Students should build a case for what they perceive to be the most challenging step. See pages 473 for additional aid.107. (p. 491) Belinda is considering Internet advertising to support her pany's international marketing campaign. She knows the Internet has some limitations as an advertising vehicle. What are the current limitations associated with Internet advertising?In many markets the Internet is limited in its penetration of households. Also, there is petition among Internet marketers for Web surfers.Pricing for International MarketsEssay Questions100. (p. 529) Explain the process called parallel importing.Parallel importing occurs when importers buy products from distributors in one country and sell them in another to distributors who are not part of the manufacturer's regular distribution system. For more information and illustrations see page 531, Exhibit 18.1.101. (p. 532) What is the difference between variable-cost pricing and full-cost pricing.In variable-cost pricing, the firm is concerned only with the marginal or incremental cost of producing goods to be sold in overseas markets. In full-cost pricing, the philosophy insists that no unit of a similar product is different from any other unit in terms of cost and that each unit must bear its full share of the total fixed and variable cost.international marketing plan102. (p. 544) There are two distinct views of what constitutes dumping. Explain each of these views.One approach classifies international shipments as dumped if the products are sold below their cost of production. The other approach characterizes dumping as selling goods in a foreign market below the price of the same goods in the home market.103. (p. 545-549) List and briefly characterize the four formsof countertrade.The four forms are (a) barter--the direct exchange of goods between two parties in a transaction, (b) pensation deal--involves payments in goods and cash, (c) counterpurchase--the seller agrees to sell a product at a set price to a buyer and receives payment in cash; however, a second contract stipulates that the original seller will in turn purchase a like amount of goods from the buyer (or a similar arrangement), and (d) product buy-back agreement--the seller may agree to accept partial payment in manufactured goods from the buyer or the seller can accept full payment in manufactured goods. For additional information and examples see pages 545-549.104. (p. 549) What are the benefits of transfer pricing?The benefits are (a) lowering duty costs by shipping goods into high-tariff countries at minimal transfer prices so that duty base and duty are low, (b) reducing e taxes in high-tax countries by overpricing goods transferred to units in such countries, and (c) facilitating dividend repatriation when dividend repatriation is curtailed by government policy.105. (p. 542) A reasonable price for goods in the home market may more than double in the foreign market. How doeschannel length and transportation costs contribute to the price increase?Channel length is determined by the number of middlemen. Middlemen may increase the price of goods to covertransportation costs and to increase their margins; there is little opportunity for a manufacturer to control retail prices in a foreign country. In addition, transportation costs also contribute to the increase in product costs. Transportation costs include insurance, packing, handling, and shipping charges. Such costs are added to the price of goods to determine the landed cost which es the basis of import tariffs. These costs add to the inflation of the final price of goods.106. (p. 551-553) Discuss the meaning of and nature of cartels. Are these groups beneficial or not? Create an example to illustrate your stance.A cartel exists when various panies producing similar products or services work together to control markets for the types of goods and services they produce. The cartel association may use formal agreements to set prices, establish levels of production and sales for the participating panies, allocate territories, and even redistribute profits. The economic role ofcartels is debatable, but their proponents argue that they eliminate cutthroat petition and rationalize business, permitting greater technical progress and lower prices to consumers. Many do not agree with this view. See the text on pages 551-553 for additional information and examples.。
Qualitative Research
Case study
A study that examines one or more cases in detail by using multiple sources of data. 通过对个案展开深入、详尽的研究来探索个案所属的群体的 特征和特点.
Action study It can be conducted with the assistance of professional researchers in order to improve strategies,practices and knowledge of the environment within which the practice. Phenomenology The research identifies the “essence” of human experiences concerning a phenomenon, as described by participants in a study.
Qualitative Data Analysis
Data analysis in qualitative research is an on-going process involving continual reflection about the data, asking analytic questions, and writing memos throughout the study. It is not sharply divided from the other activities in the process, such as collecting data or formulating research questions. It involves using open-ended data, for the most part. This requires asking general questions and developing an analysis from the information supplied by participants.
如何做定性研究 Qualitative research
Start study with concurrent data collection and analysis. Analysis focused on identifying themes and categories-- similarities in data. Question or purpose may emerge and be refined. Data collection strategies may change
A
12
12
Quota sampling
• Quota sampling begins with two decisions:
– What characteristics? – How many people?
• Characteristics are selected in order to find participants who have experience with or knowledge of the research topic.
• Your Questions
– If flexible format… list of things to be sure to talk about
– To get rich data: PROBE AND FOLLOW
• You and the Interview: attending, listening, thinking, taking
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10
Sampling in Qualitative Studies
定性研究与质的研究
定性研究与质的研究定性研究作为与传统的定量研究有着显著差别的研究类型和研究策略，越来越多地受到社会科学各个学科领域中的研究者的关注和重视。
不同学科中运用定性研究方法开展的社会研究也在不断增加。
正如有学者所指出的，定性研究已逐渐成为“定量研究的有益补充或替代方案”[1]。
然而，或许是由于定性研究方法自身所具有的复杂性和多样性，或者是由于学界对其的了解远不如对定量研究方法深入，因而定性研究方法的应用尚未达到十分广泛的程度，许多社会研究者在认识和运用定性研究方法方面还存在一些迷惑和疑问，以致影响到定性研究的实践效果。
正是在这一背景下，本文试图结合目前学界对定性研究方法的认识和实践，对定性研究的概念和基本类型进行探讨。
一、定性研究与质的研究的区别与联系近些年来，社会科学各专业的研究者和学生常常会有这样的疑问：定性研究与质的研究是两种不同的方法吗?定性研究是不是质性研究?定性研究和质化研究有什么不同吗?定性研究与质的研究、质的研究与质性研究、质性研究与质化研究都是一回事吗?正是这些疑问，让我觉得有必要对国内学术文献中的这几个概念进行一些厘清和探讨。
（一）四种不同概念的产生在有关社会研究方法的英文文献中，Qualitative Research和Quantitative Research是学者们经常使用的一对相关概念。
在相当长的一段时期里，国内学术界主要使用“定性研究”和“定量研究”这两个中文概念来与之相对应。
但近十几年以来，情况发生了变化，与Qualitative Research概念相对应的中文概念开始增多。
经过初步梳理，目前主要有四种不同的中文概念与英文中的Qualitative Research概念相对应。
这四种中文概念分别是：定性研究、质性研究、质化研究、质的研究。
（1）例如，截至2016年8月7日在中国知网上的人文社会科学类核心期刊的范围内，分别以标题含有以上四种概念为关键词逐一进行检索，得到下列结果：含有“定性研究”的标题124篇、含有“质性研究”的标题221篇、含有“质的研究”的标题59篇、含有“质化研究”的标题40篇。
如何做定性研究 Qualitative research电子教案
Selecting participants...
• It is fraught with difficulties in identifying and selecting an appropriate number of participants who can provide useful information about the particular topic and setting being studied
Sampling and data collection determined by theoretical saturation. Analysis based on narrative description
Selecting participants...
• The goal is to get the deepest possible understanding of the setting being studied
To develop detailed understanding
wife/husband, Therapist/disabled,… etc.
Qualitative Research Goals
• Meaning: how people see the world • Context: the world in which people act • Process: what actions and activities people do • Reasoning: why people act and behave the way they do
如何做定性研究 Qualitative research
yy
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Maxwell, 2005
Phases in Qualitative Research
Conceptualize and plan study Use literature,formulate study purpose or question, identify study site,settings where/how data collection will occur, participants and entrée to setting
• Snowball sampling is a form of purposive sampling.
• Participants refer the researcher to other potential participants.
• Snowball sampling is often used to find and recruit “hidden populations” – groups not easily accessible to researchers.
To develop detailed understanding
That might be “useful: information
That might help people “learn” about the phenomenon
That might give voice to “silenced” people
• The researcher goes into the community and selects the predetermined number of people demonstrating the pre-selected characteristics.
02 What Is Qualitative Research
What Is Qualitative Research?Ronald L.Jackson II,Darlene K.Drummond,&Sakile CamaraThe defining nature and characteristics of qualitative research are surveyed in this arti-cle,which identifies key distinctions between method and methodology.The authors note that qualitative research is primarily concerned understanding human beings’experi-ences in a humanistic,interpretive approach.Issues of research design differences between quantitative and qualitative research are traced with an emphasis on identifying diverse methodologies,including those focusing on analysis of text,and diverse forms of data collection along with criteria for evaluating qualitative research.Keywords:Data Collection;Ethnography;Methodologies;Methods;Phenomenology The function of all science is to investigate answers to questions about the evolution of an experience or phenomenon via observation.Social science specifically attempts to discover new or different ways of understanding the changing nature of lived social realities.In trying to grapple with what life means to human beings,social scientists presume there is a systematic way of apprehending critical dimensions to problems that confront our social world.In this pursuit,even the most optimistic scholar knows that he or she can only uncover what is available or accessible at the time of the investigation or the period(s)leading up to the point of inquiry.It is impos-sible to grasp every aspect of a social phenomenon,investigation,or question.Nonetheless,it is the responsibility of every researcher to approach each study with as much objectivity,ethical diligence ,and rigor as possible.Ronald L.Jackson II (Ph.D.,Howard University,1996)is an associate professor of communication and culture in the Department of Communication Arts and Sciences at Pennsylvania State University,234Sparks Bldg,State College,PA 16801,USA.E-mail:rlj6@.Darlene K.Drummond (Ph.D.,Ohio State University,2000)is an assistant professor of communication in the School of Communication at University of Miami.Sakile Camara (Ph.D.,Ohio State University,2001)is an assistant professor of Communication Studies at Cali-fornia State University at Northridge.The authors wish to thank the Africana Research Collaborative for their support of this project.Qualitative Research Reports in CommunicationVol.8,No.1,2007,pp.21–2822R.L.Jackson et al.The approach to ensuring objectivity,ethical diligence,and rigor depends on whether the study is qualitative or quantitative.For years,scholars have argued that the principal distinction between qualitative and quantitative research is that they do not share the same epistemology.Rather than elaborate on this line of thinking,it is far better to understand that key distinctions between the two can be found within both method and methodology.Method refers to how data is collected,and methodology refers to the identification and utilization of the best approach for addressing a theoretical or practical problem(Kaplan,1964).In short,as has been said elsewhere,method is about ‘‘how to’’and methodology is about‘‘why to’’collect data a certain way.Both are pertinent to research design.In designing a study,all social science researchers begin with a set of questions about a social problem.Subsequently,they simultaneously consider constructs and theories that can adequately facilitate how the problem is conceptually understood while also thinking about the practical dimensions of collecting data.Some basic questions a researcher will ask,for example,are as follows:.How will I gain access to and recruit participants?.How will participants respond to my questions?.What will their responses help me to understand about the selected phenomenon under investigation?.Do my research questions reflect what I am seeking to conceptually understand? Each of these questions is very important to beginning an investigation.If you are a quantitative researcher,you will want to statistically assess some aspect of a research problem through the use of experimental or survey design procedures. The purpose of an experiment is to test the impact of an intervention on an outcome while controlling for various factors that might influence that outcome.When a researcher wants to know about certain attitudes,trends,or opinions of a population by studying a sample of that population,a survey design is employed.Both experi-mental and survey designs result in the report of generalizations made by a sample in representation of a particular population(Cresswell,2003).Stake(1995)maintains that there are three major differences between quantitative and qualitative research:(1)the distinction between explanation and understanding as the purpose ofinquiry;(2)the distinction between a personal and impersonal role for theresearcher;and(3)a distinction between knowledge discovered and knowledgeconstructed.(p.37)So,as we discuss our concern in this essay with respect to defining the nature, function,and types of qualitative inquiry,we will also be pointing out the significance of understanding as a purpose of qualitative research as well as the significance of both a personal role and social construction of reality within this paradigm.If you are a qualitative researcher,you will be primarily concerned with what Lincoln and Guba(1985)call‘‘the human as instrument’’approach.In other words,the focus turns to understanding human beings’richly textured experiences and reflections about those experiences.Rather than relying on a set of finite questions to elicitQualitative Research Reports in Communication23 categorized,forced-choice responses with little room for open-ended replies to ques-tions as quantitative research does,the qualitative researcher relies on the participants to offer in-depth responses to questions about how they have constructed or under-stood their experience.This humanistic,interpretive approach is also called‘‘thick-descriptive’’because of the richness and detail to the discussion.By design,the qualitative researcher will get much more information about a phenomenon,realiz-ing that the major drawback will be that the results will not be generalizable to a population because very few participants participate in studies offering so much depth of detail.Moreover,the researcher tends to be more cognizant of his or her personal rather than impersonal role in the research.This recognition of subjectivity also leads to enhanced safeguards for trustworthiness such as member-checking.By doing this,the researcher notes that his or her study of others’experiences borders the investigator’s experience as well,and this has implications for social scientific interpretation of the data collected.Synonymous with non-experimental and ethnographic inquiry,qualitative inquiry or research has its intellectual roots in hermeneutics,the Verstehen tradition,and phenomenology.It encompasses all forms of social inquiry that rely primarily on non-numeric data in the form of words,including all types of textual analyses such as content,conversation,discourse,and narrative analyses.The aim and function of qualitative inquiry is to understand the meaning of human action by describing the inherent or essential characteristics of social objects or human experience(Denzin& Lincoln,2000).There are several types of qualitative inquiry and modes of qualitative data collection that are aligned with the humanistic tradition.Before exploring these types,it is important to note that some scholars think of phenomenology as a methodology,and as methodology it nicely frames what most interpretive researchers see as their concerns.Phenomenology is a multifaceted philosophy that defies simple characterization.Generally,phenomenologists reject the idea that the only legitimate knowledge is that which social scientists discover by ignoring the perceived world of everyday human experience.In fact,phenomen-ologists privilege the subjective description of conscious every-day mundane experi-ences from the perspective of those living them(Crotty,1998).For this reason,this philosophy is at the foundation of much of the qualitative research conducted within the social sciences,including communication.Qualitative MethodologiesMethodologies suggest how inquiries should proceed by indicating what problems are worth investigating,how to frame a problem so it can be explored,how to develop appropriate data generation,and how to make the logical link between the problem,data generated,analysis,and conclusions=inferences drawn.Methodologies have a synergetic relationship with methods and are often defined differently based on the philosophical stance advocated by the researcher(Kaplan,1964).Nevertheless, in exploring types of qualitative inquiry,it is evident that most qualitative researchers first identify a text or social object that is suitable for analysis,even if it is a visual text24R.L.Jackson et al.such as a movie or photograph.Even visual images representing social life and=or social actions can be read as written text(Ricoeur,1981).Methodologies that privi-lege the exploration of texts vary along a continuum from content analysis,discourse analysis,and narrative analysis to conversation analysis.On one end,the focus is on what was said(content;e.g.,content analysis),and at the other end,how something was said(form;e.g.,conversation analysis).In the middle is the concern for both form and content(e.g.,narrative analysis;Coffey&Atkinson,1996).Content analysis is a generic name for a variety of ways for conducting systematic, objective,quantitative,and=or qualitative textual analysis that involves comparing, contrasting,and categorizing a set of data primarily to test hypotheses.This type of analysis usually relies on some statistical procedures for sampling and establishing inter-coder reliability(Krippendorf,1980).Essentially,qualitative content analysis involves interpreting,theorizing,or making sense of data by first breaking it down into segments that can be categorized and coded,and then establishing a pattern for the entire data set by relating the categories to one another(Gubrium&Holstein,1997).Conversation analysis is a form of textual analysis that arose out of the sociological approach of ethnomethodology based in part on the philosophical tradition of phenomenology.Ethnomethodology is interested in how people accomplish every-day,taken-for-granted interactions like making promises and negotiating(Garfinkel, 1967).One method for exploring these interactions is through conversation analysis, as it is concerned with examining the linguistic organization of talk to show how speakers produce orderly social interaction(Silverman,1998).Similarly,discourse analysis is a way for examining language as it is used in specific contexts;however, it is more strictly focused on the content of talk,highlighting the practices that comprise the ideologies,attitudes,ideas,and courses of action that systematically constitute the subjects and objects of which people speak(Foucault,1972).Content analysis,conversation analysis,and discourse analysis are not the only forms of textual analyses popular in communication.A broad term used to refer to a variety of procedures for interpreting stories generated in research,narrative analysis encompasses structural and functional forms of analyses.The researcher examines how a story is developed,organized,begins and ends,as well as,its goals or aims(Riessman,1993).Stories analyzed are of lived experiences often chronicled in life histories,interviews,journals,diaries,autobiographies,memoirs, or biographies(Josselson&Liebech,1995).Unlike the aforementioned methodologies,which seek to deconstruct a text to help us understand the social realities of human beings,one increasingly popular methodology seeks to produce a written text through which we can vicariously experience various social realities.Ethnography is the art and science of describing and interpreting cultural behavior from a close textual-analytic standpoint.The typi-cal ethnography is presented in monograph form and describes the historical events and geographic,economic,political,educational,linguistic,and kinship systems that define a particular group(Wolcott,1987).Embedded within conventional ethnography are critical ethnography and autoeth-nography.They share fundamental characteristics but are distinguishable.Generally,Qualitative Research Reports in Communication25 conventional ethnographers speak for their subjects to an audience of academics, while critical ethnographers speak to a wider audience on behalf of their subjects seek-ing empowerment for them while simultaneously invoking social consciousness and political change(Thomas,1993).Increasingly,communication scholars are engaging in the study of their own communities or cultures by using themselves as the object of study,portending‘‘self as instrument.’’Known as autoethnography,this form of writing attempts to unite ethnographic(looking beyond one’s world)and auto-biographical(looking inward for a personal story)intentions.The purpose of this qualitative inquiry is not to make any claims through interpretations and analyses, but to simply invite readers to share in a lived experience(Ellis&Bochner,2000). Methods of Data Collection‘‘Method’’refers to the tools,techniques,or procedures used to generate data (Kaplan,1964).In conducting qualitative research,interviewing is a set of techniques for generating data from individuals and=or groups utilizing structured,semi-structured,or unstructured questioning formats.Generally,semi-or unstructured, open-ended,informal interviewing is preferred to allow for more flexibility and responsiveness to emerging themes for both the interviewer and respondent.The analysis of transcribed interviews is dependent on the specific methodological approach employed(e.g.,the meticulous word-to-word transcription of conversation analysis to the more broad-based thematic analysis of ethnographic interviews; see Holstein&Gubrium,1995).Often,interviewing is used in conjunction with other modes of data collection like focus groups,case studies,ethnography,and=or or participant observation.As one way of collecting data in qualitative research,focus groups are group inter-views(typically involving5–12people)that rely on the interaction within the group and the questions asked of the moderator to provide insight into specific topics. Focus group interviews can serve as the principal source of data,as a supplementary source of data,or as one component of a multimethod approach to data collection. The primary advantage for the researcher in conducting focus groups is the ability to observe a large amount of interaction among multiple participants on one or more topics in a limited amount of time.However,this is also the primary disadvantage, because focus groups are viewed as unnatural social settings(Morgan,1997),and there is a possibility that groupthink may threaten the dependability of the data, especially in situations where actual or perceived experts and non-experts are both included.Another approach that can be quite intensive is the case study approach to data collection,which is preferred in the following circumstances:1.the researcher wants to answer‘‘how’’or‘‘why’’questions;2.the researcher has little control over the contemporary real-life context to bestudied;and3.when the boundaries between the context and phenomenon are not clear.26R.L.Jackson et al.It can be used for analytic generalization(Yin,1989).Analytic generalization,also referred to as theoretical elaboration,is a type of generalization in which the researcher uses a particular set of circumstances,like a case,as evidence to refine,dis-pute,support or detail a concept,model,or theory.However,the case is never regarded or portrayed as a definitive test of the theory(Vaughan,1992).Also,in a case study,the researcher is often at a distance from the context under examination and is studying the phenomenon by collecting multiple artifacts or kinds of data. These data can include interviews,focus groups,printed materials,media,and other sources of data.Distinguishable from the aforementioned methods of data collection,fieldwork is accomplished through participant observation and is the means by which the ethnographer comes to know a culture.Participant observation requires one to spend time engaged in a setting,taking part in the daily activities of the people under study and recording,as soon as possible,observed activities in the form of fieldnotes (Stocking,1983).The term fieldwork refers to all of the activities one does when at the physical site of a cultural group,such as listening,observing,conversing, recording,interpreting,and dealing with logistical,ethical,and political issues. Participant observation is the traditional methodology employed in fieldwork, although life-histories,oral histories,action research,and other forms of case studies and co-participative inquires also entail aspects of fieldwork(Wolcott,1995). Criteria for Evaluating Qualitative ResearchRather than conventional measures of trustworthiness,such as internal=external validity,reliability,and objectivity,that are at the core of quantitative research,the qualitative research design tests trustworthiness via credibility,transferability, dependability,and confirmability,respectively.Good qualitative research applies standards of trustworthiness such as member-checking,stepwise replication,and audit trails,each of which seeks to verify the substance of what participants said so that interpretations are not subjective iterations of the researcher’s own belief system. Specifically,member-checking assists in validating qualitative research findings,as themes and descriptions are taken back to participants to determine whether or not participants feel they are accurate.Peer briefing and the use of external auditors serve to enhance the credibility of a study by assessing whether the findings resonate with others not connected with the study(Lincoln&Guba,1985).Collectively,these facilitate objectivity,ethical diligence,and rigor.Obviously,when doing an autoethno-graphy,these verification checks are very personal,yet phenomenology has outlined ways in which the researcher can parse out streams of consciousness that are intri-cately entangled in experiences related to the research study(Ellis&Bochner,2000).Because experience is key to qualitative inquiry,observations of interpretive data must be able to account for varying kinds of experiences in a way that is particular-ized or idiographic rather than generalized and law-bound or nomothetic.In grappling with what qualitative research is,we must be ever-conscious that socialQualitative Research Reports in Communication27 experience is always happening,unending,and fluid.Perspectives on experience can change from person to person,yet it is perspective that influences social cognition and social behavior.Perspective influences relationships and interaction patterns. So,even as scholars understand the significance of perspective,there are constantly evolving ways of understanding perspective in varying contexts from very naturalistic to lab-oriented contexts.Of course,observing a phenomenon in its natural setting is often the optimal way to examine what is happening;yet there are compelling reasons to place people in unnatural settings and manipulate the situation to see how people will respond to a stimulus.This sounds like quantitative,experimental research,but qualitative researchers may also do something similar by showing interviewees an object,image,or some other stimulus in order to prompt further reflection.In social scientists’quest for truth and understanding,text and context have value for all, regardless of methodology.As scholars become even more curious and think of expanding ways to collect data using new technologies and approaches,it is important to bear in mind that it is the responsibility of every researcher to approach each study with as much objectivity, ethical diligence,and rigor as possible.ReferencesCoffey,A.&Atkinson,P.(1996).Making sense of qualitative data.London:Sage.Cresswell,J.W.(2003).Research design:Qualitative,quantitative,and mixed methods approaches (2nd ed.).Thousand Oaks,Calif.:Sage.Crotty,M.(1998).The foundations of social research.London:Sage.Denzin,N.K.&Lincoln,Y.S.(Eds.).(2000).Handbook of qualitative research(2nd ed.).Thousand Oaks,Calif.:Sage.Ellis,C.&Bochner,A.P.(2000).Autoethnography,personal narrative,reflexivity:Researcher as subject.In N.K.Denzin&Y.S.Lincoln(Eds.),Handbook of qualitative research (2nd ed.)(pp.733–768).Thousand Oaks,Calif.:Sage.Foucault,M.(1972).The archaeology of knowledge.New York:Pantheon.Garfinkel,H.(1967).Studies in ethnomethodology.Englewood Cliffs,NJ:Prentice Hall. Gubrium,J. F.&Holstein,J. A.(1997).The new language of qualitative method.Oxford, UK:Oxford University Press.Holstein,J.A.&Gubrium,J.F.(1995).The active interview.Thousand Oaks,Calif.:Sage. Josselson,R.&Liebech,A.(Eds.).(1995).Interpreting experience:The narrative study of lives.Thousand Oaks,Calif.:Sage.Kaplan,A.(1964).The conduct of inquiry.New York:Harper&Row.Krippendorf,K.(1980).Content analysis:An introduction to its methodology.Beverly Hills,Calif.: Sage.Lincoln,Y.&Guba,E.(1985).Naturalistic inquiry.Thousand Oaks,Calif.:Sage.Morgan,D.L.(1997).Focus groups as qualitative research(2nd ed.).Thousand Oaks,Calif.:Sage. Ricoeur,P.(1981).The model of the text:Meaningful action considered as a text.In J.B.Thompson(Ed.),Hermeneutics and the human sciences(pp.197–221).Cambridge, UK:Cambridge University Press.Riessman,C.K.(1993).Narrative analysis.Newbury Park,Calif.:Sage.Silverman,D.(1998).Harvey sacks:Social science and conversation analysis.Cambridge,Mass.: Polity.Stake,R.(1995).The art of case study research.Thousand Oaks,Calif.:Sage.28R.L.Jackson et al.Stocking,G.(Ed.).(1983).Observers observed:Essays on ethnographic fieldwork.Madison,Wisc.: University of Wisconsin Press.Thomas,J.(1993).Doing critical ethnography.Newbury Park,Calif.:Sage.Vaughan, D.(1992).Theory elaboration:The heuristics of case analysis.In C. C.Ragin&H.S.Becker(Eds.),What is a case?Exploring the foundations of social inquiry(pp.173–202).Cambridge,UK:Cambridge University Press.Wolcott,H.F.(1987).On ethnographic intent.In G.Spindler&L.Spindler(Eds.),Interpretive ethnography of education:At home and abroad(pp.37–60).Hillsdale,NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum. Wolcott,H.F.(1995).The art of fieldwork.Walnut Creek,Calif.:Altamira.Yin,R.(1989).Case study research:Design and methods(Rev.ed.).Newbury Park,Calif.:Sage.。
1、教育中的定性研究是什么,什么问题适合这种方法
Qualitative Research in Education: Where it Fits and What it IsLaurie Puchner, Southern Illinois University EdwardsvilleTypes of researchEmpirical vs. non-empirical researchEmpirical：1、Based on or derived from observation or experiment 2、Answer a question through data collectionNon-empirical：1、Not based on observation or experiment 2、Answer a question by looking at the literature, for exampleBasic Research TypesQuantitative research (empirical)Qualitative research (empirical)Mixed methods (empirical)Literature-based or library-based research (non-empirical)Action Research (empirical)Quantitative Research: Three Purposes1. DescribeDescriptive research answers the question “What exists?”Typically uses survey2. CompareExamine relationships and similarities and differencesMore common than descriptive, often use correlation3. Attribute causalityExample: What is the effect of cooperative learning on student classroom relationships? Qualitative ResearchNon-numericalTypically uses in-depth interviews and observationsGoal is a good understanding of participant perspectiveWe’ll come back to this later…Mixed Methods Research：Combines qualitative and quantitative methods Example: “How effective is the “Star”program for children with autism?”Quantitative Parts：1、Begin with a quantitative survey of staff and parent perceptions of the program 2、Also do analysis of achievement data.Qualitative Part：Based on the survey results, do follow-up in-depth interviews with small number of staff and parentsWhat is Action Research?(Practitioner Research)Research that solves a problem in YOUR OWN practiceSample Action Research questions:1、“How can I promote more verbal engagement among ALL my students and hence more learning during lessons?”2、How can I increase critical thinking skills of my students?Good Action Research Projects:Focus on an issue you control and are very interested in improvingUse multiple data sources (e.g., interviews, observations, student work, journaling)Rely mainly on qualitative data (it’s very hard to collect valid quantitative data on your own practice)Use systematic, rigorous, data collection methodsAction Research ExerciseDevelop and write down one Action Research question relevant to your professional practice. Make sure you use the word “I”in your question. (For example, “How can I…”) Tell it to the person next to you.PART 2: QUALITA TIVE RESEARCH: AN IN-DEPTH LOOK A few introductory factsQualitative research and action research are very common in the United StatesMost graduate programs in education cover both qualitative and quantitative research, and many students do qualitative thesesSome programs, especially those focused on advanced preparation of practitioners (as opposed to researchers), emphasize qualitative action researchWhy Do Qualitative Research?Qualitative research recognizes that objectivity is impossible, and emphasizes processes and meanings that cannot be experimentally measuredIt stresses the “socially constructed nature of reality, the intimate relationship between the researcher and what is studied, and the situational constraints that shape inquiry”(Denzin & Lincoln, 2005, p.10)Why Qualitative Research?, cont.Thus qualitative research in social science is a philosophical and methodological revolt against positivism (hard data and so-called scientific research)This academic revolt is political in that it seeks to transform knowledge production in the academy In a society marked by classism, racism, sexism, and other inequalities, it recognizes that there is no universalistic, objective standpoint, and focuses on making previously silenced voices heard Political ComparisonQuantitative ：PositivismObjectivity exists and quantitative research is objectiveUniversal truths can be found via research and are politically neutralDominant paradigm in Western societyResearchers on average more politically conservativeQualitative：Knowledge as culturally situated & interpretiveObjectivity is a mythEverything is political and ideologicalFocus on power differences in societyInterest in representing marginalized groups and individualsResearchers on average more politically liberalPolitical Dimensions, cont.Qualitative researchers tend to be more left-leaning politically than quantitative researchers, and more likely to be interested in equity and social justice. And some qualitative researchers completely reject quantitative research and vice versa. However, many researchers recognize the value of both kinds of research. Further, there are many social justice advocates who use quantitative research to reduce inequality. (e.g., Linda Darling-Hammond, Russell Skiba)Characteristics of qualitative researchGoal of qualitative research is to find out the meaning of an experience or event from the perspective of the participantsQualitative research is like a funnel:Funnel:begin very open —ended，then narrow as you go alongQualitative vs quantitative researchQuantitative research:1、Numerical data and results2、Large number of participants3、Cause and effect or comparison questions:What is the impact of X on Y?ORWhat is the relationship between X and Y?4、Small amount of time collecting data5、Deductive reasoning:Generalization (such as a theory) leads to prediction about a specific instanceQualitative research:1、Data and results NOT numerical2、Small number of participants3、Exploratory Questions:What is happening during X?What is the experience of Y?4、Lots of time in the field collecting data5、Inductive reasoning:Observations of many instances leads to generalizationAdvantage of qualitative research1、You develop a good understanding of a situation or of the perspective of a group of people2、Conducting qualitative research helps students develop deep reflective skills useful for educatorsKey concepts in qualitative research1、Symbolic Interaction2、Insider versus outsider perspective3、“Make the familiar strange”(Erickson, 1986, p. 121)Symbolic interaction1、Things and events have no independent meaning2、Meaning of things and events are conferred on them by people3、So meaning of a thing or an event depends on how the thing or event is interpreted by people4、A thing or event can have many different meaningsExample of symbolic interaction“What is homework”:different subjects have different interpretations1、For Student #1 homework = “Way to continue showing how smart and obedient I am”For Student #2 homework = “Confusing problems and questions I do not understand and that will continue to reveal how stupid I am”For Student #3 homework = “Papers I bring home in my bag every afternoon but never take out”2、For Teacher #1 homework = “Important practice of concepts learned in school”For Teacher #2 homework = “Way to sort good students (those who do homework) from bad students (those who do NOT do homework)For Parent #1 homework = “Source of fighting and misery for me and my child every evening”Symbolic interaction exerciseCome up with 3 different meanings for:High schoolEating lunchDiscuss these with the person next to youInsider or outsider perspectiveQuantitative Research:Obtain an outsider viewQualitative Research:Obtain an insider viewInsider vs outsider view,example1、Evaluation of national preschool program, 1970s, USA (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007, p. 223) OUTSIDERVIEW：Quantitative data collection Survey of preschool directors Found that number of students with disabilities had increased to the required 10%INSIDER VIEW：Qualitative data collection Observations of preschools and interviews with staff Found no change in students, just a change in how “disability”is defined2、The government had recently mandated that the program increase by 10% the number of students with disabilities that it served.3、So the research question was: Had there been an increase in the number of students with disabilities served by the program?4、Used qualitative and quantitative methodsInsider vs outsider view exerciseThink of an insider and an outsider view of a single event or situation that you have experienced or seen. Describe it to the person sitting next to you.“Making the familiar strange ”(Erickson, 1986)One function of qualitative research in education is to make researchers see everyday events in a new way. In other words, to “make the familiar strange.”Making the familiar strange ，an exampleA teacher decides to do a small qualitative study of “discipline”at her high schoolShe interviews a student who is frequently disciplined for misbehavior.Student tells the teacher that unpopular students are frequently punished for behaviors that popular students are not punished for.Teacher does not believe the student, but decides to investigateExample of Making the familiar strange，contTeacher conducts observations in the cafeteria at lunchtime, paying close attention to what students and teachers doDiscovers the student is correct:Sees two unpopular, low-status students get punished by teachers for cutting in the lunch line, and then later sees an athlete cut in line with no consequenceSees teachers closely monitoring behavior of unpopular students at one table, while ignoring equally boisterous behavior of popular students at another tableThe teacher had been in that lunchroom many times before, but until she began systematically observing, she had not noticed the phenomenon that the student had told her about.Doing her small qualitative study “made the familiar strange”for her; it made her see everyday events with a new lensReferences:Bogdan, R. C. & Biklen, S. K. (2007). Qualitative Research for Education. Boston: Pearson. Erickson, F. (1986). Qualitative methods in research on teaching. In M. C. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (pp. 119-161). New York, NY: Macmillan Esterberg, K. G. (2002). Qualitative Methods in Social Research. Boston: McGraw-Hill.。
QualitativeResearch解读
Qualitative research is empirical research where the data are not in the form of numbers.(Punch, 1998:4)
（陈向明，2000，2001） 质性研究是以研究者本人作为研究工具，在自然情境下，
Qualitative Research (定性研究)
Content
1
2 3
Definitions
Characteristics&Types qualitative methods Qualitative data analysis
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5 6
When
Difference
Definitions
Qualitative research is an inquiry process of understanding based on distinct methodological traditions of inquiry that explore a social or human problem. The researcher builds a complex、holistic picture, analyzes words, reports detailed views of informants, and conducts the study in a natural setting.(Creswell,1994:210)
Purpose
Steer a researcher's thinking away from literature and personal experiences;
Avoid standard ways of thinking ;
介绍一种社会研究方法英文
介绍一种社会研究方法英文AbstractQualitative research is a valuable method for understanding and exploring social phenomena in depth. This article provides an overview of qualitative research, including its definition, characteristics, and various research techniques. It also discusses the advantages and limitations of qualitative research, emphasizing its importance in contributing to the social sciences and informing policy development.1. Definition of Qualitative ResearchQualitative research involves the collection and analysis ofnon-numerical data to gain insights into social phenomena. Unlike quantitative research that focuses on measurable data and statistical analysis, qualitative research emphasizes the subjective meanings individuals attach to events and experiences. It seeks to understand the social and cultural factors that influence human behavior and interactions.2. Characteristics of Qualitative ResearchQualitative research exhibits several key characteristics, distinguishing it from quantitative research:- Focuses on the subjective experiences and meanings of individuals- Utilizes open-ended and flexible research instruments, such as interviews, observations, and document analysis- Aims to uncover underlying motivations, beliefs, and cultural influences - Offers a holistic and contextual understanding of social phenomena - Emphasizes researcher interpretation and reflexivity3. Research Techniques in Qualitative ResearchQualitative research employs a variety of techniques to gather and analyze data, including:- Interviews: Researchers conduct open-ended interviews, allowing participants to share their perspectives and experiences.- Observations: Researchers observe and record behaviors, interactions, and environments to gain a deeper understanding of social phenomena. - Focus groups: Researchers facilitate group discussions to explore shared beliefs, attitudes, and opinions.- Document analysis: Researchers analyze documents, such as diaries, academic papers, or media sources, to uncover social insights.- Case studies: Researchers conduct in-depth investigations of specific cases or individuals to develop detailed narratives and understand complex social processes.4. Advantages of Qualitative ResearchQualitative research offers several advantages, including:- Depth and richness of data: Through open-ended interviews and observations, qualitative research allows for a detailed exploration of social phenomena and the factors influencing them.- Flexibility: Qualitative research methods can adapt to the research context, providing researchers with the freedom to explore unexpected areas and adapt research instruments.- Contextual understanding: Qualitative research provides a holistic view of social phenomena, taking into account the social, cultural, and historical contexts that shape them.- Capacity for exploring sensitive topics: Qualitative research methods facilitate the exploration of sensitive topics, allowing participants to share and reflect on personal experiences.5. Limitations of Qualitative ResearchWhile qualitative research has numerous strengths, it also has limitations, including:- Subjectivity: Qualitative research relies on researcher interpretation, potentially introducing bias and reducing objectivity.- Limited generalizability: Due to the small sample sizes andcontext-specific nature of qualitative research, findings may have limited applicability to broader populations.- Time and resource-intensive: Qualitative research can betime-consuming and requires significant resources to conduct interviews, transcribe data, and analyze findings.- Scope of analysis: The depth of analysis in qualitative research often limits the breadth of topics explored.ConclusionQualitative research is an important method in the social sciences, offering a deep understanding of complex social phenomena. Its utilization of open-ended interviews, observations, and document analysis provides a rich and nuanced exploration of subjective experiences and meanings. Although qualitative research has its limitations, its strengths lie in its capacity for contextual understanding, flexibility, and exploration of sensitive topics. Policymakers and researchers alike can benefit from incorporating qualitative research into their studies to gain a comprehensive understanding of social issues and inform evidence-based decision-making.。
调研方法的英语作文
调研方法的英语作文Title: Research Methods in Academic Studies。
Research is an indispensable part of academic studies, playing a pivotal role in advancing knowledge and understanding various phenomena. To conduct effective research, scholars employ various methods tailored to their specific inquiries. In this essay, we will explore several research methods commonly utilized in academic studies.1. Quantitative Research:Quantitative research involves the collection and analysis of numerical data to understand patterns, relationships, and trends. This method employs structured surveys, experiments, or statistical analyses to derive conclusions. Researchers use statistical tools such as regression analysis, correlation, and hypothesis testing to analyze the data. Quantitative research provides objective and measurable results, facilitating generalizations andcomparisons across different groups or situations.2. Qualitative Research:Qualitative research focuses on exploring and understanding complex phenomena through detailed examination of non-numerical data. This method relies on techniques such as interviews, focus groups, observations, or content analysis to gather rich, descriptive data. Researchers immerse themselves in the subject matter to gain insights into attitudes, behaviors, and motivations. Qualitative research emphasizes context, allowing researchers to uncover nuances and meanings that quantitative methods may overlook.3. Mixed-Methods Research:Mixed-methods research integrates both quantitative and qualitative approaches to provide a comprehensive understanding of the research topic. Researchers employ a combination of data collection techniques and analyses to triangulate findings and enhance the validity of results.By leveraging the strengths of both quantitative and qualitative methods, mixed-methods research offers a more holistic perspective and deeper insights into complex phenomena.4. Experimental Research:Experimental research involves manipulating variables and observing the effects to establish cause-and-effect relationships. Researchers design controlled experiments with randomly assigned participants to test hypotheses and validate theories. This method allows for rigorous testing of hypotheses under controlled conditions, enabling researchers to draw causal inferences. Experimental research is particularly effective in the natural and social sciences where controlled experimentation is feasible.5. Survey Research:Survey research entails collecting data from a sample of individuals through questionnaires or interviews.Researchers use surveys to gather information on attitudes, opinions, behaviors, or demographics from a large and diverse population. Surveys offer a cost-effective and efficient way to collect data from a large number of respondents. Researchers must carefully design survey instruments to ensure reliability and validity of the data collected.6. Case Study Research:Case study research involves in-depth examination of a single case or a small number of cases to understand complex phenomena within their real-life context. Researchers collect and analyze various sources of data such as documents, interviews, and observations to reconstruct the case narrative. Case studies provide rich, detailed insights into specific instances, allowing researchers to explore unique circumstances and contexts in depth.7. Action Research:Action research is a participatory approach in which researchers collaborate with stakeholders to address practical problems and effect positive change. Researchers engage in iterative cycles of planning, action, observation, and reflection to identify and implement solutions in real-world settings. Action research emphasizes collaboration, empowerment, and reflexivity, enabling stakeholders to actively participate in the research process and drive meaningful improvements.In conclusion, various research methods offer distinct approaches to investigating phenomena and generating knowledge in academic studies. Whether employing quantitative, qualitative, mixed-methods, experimental, survey, case study, or action research, researchers must carefully select and apply appropriate methods to address their research questions effectively. By employing rigorous and systematic research methods, scholars can advance understanding, contribute to scholarly discourse, and address pressing societal challenges.。
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Building on recent progress in robot exploration and map-building, we propose an ontological hierarchy of representations for knowledge of large-scale space . 'This work has taken place in the Qualitative Reasoning Group at the Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, The University of Texas at Austin . Research of the Qualitative Reasoning Group is supported in part by NSF grants IRI16584and IRI-9504138, by NASA contract NCC 2-760, and by the Texas Advanced Research Program under grant no . 003658-242 .
An ontological hierarchy shows how multiple representations for the same kind of knowledge can coexists . Each level of the hierarchy has its own ontology (the set of objects and relations it uses for describing the world) and its own set of inference and problem-solving methods . The objects, relations, and assumptions required by each level are provided by those below it . The dependencies among levels in the hierarchy help clarify which combinations of representations are coherent, and which states of incomplete knowledge are meaningful . In this paper, we formalize the computational model of the cognitive map as developed by Kuipers and his students (Kuipers 1978 ; Kuipers & Byun 1988 ; 1991) . That theory was motivated by two insights from observations of human spatial reasoning skills and the characteristic stages of child development (Lynch 1960 ; Piaget & Inhelder 1967 ; Hart & Moore 1973) . First, a topological description of the environment is central to the cognitive map, and is logically prior to the metrical description . Second, the spatial representation is grounded in the sensorimotor interaction between the agent and the environment . The Spatial Semantic Hierarchy (SSH) (Kuipers & Levitt 1988) abstracts the structure of an agent's spatial knowledge in a way that is relatively independent of its sensorimotor apparatus and the environment within which it moves . The following informally describes the knowledge at the different SSH levels, which will be described more formally below . The sensorimotor system of the robot provides continuous sensors and effectors, but no direct access to the global structure of the environment, or the robot's position or orientation within it . At the control level of the hierarchy, the ontology is an egocentric sensorimotor one, without knowledge of fixed objects or places in an external environment . A distinctive state is defined as the local maximum found by a hill-climbing control strategy, climbing the gradient of a selected sensory feature, or distinctiveness measure . Trajectory-following control laws take the robot from one distinctive state to the neighborhood of the next, where hill-climbing can Kuipers
The Spatial Semantic Hierarchy
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find a local maximum, reducing position error and preventing its accumulation . " At the causal level of the hierarchy, the ontology consists of views, which describe the sensory images at distinctive states, and actions, which represent trajectories of control laws by which the robot moves from one view to another . A causal graph of associations (V, A, V') among views, actions, and resulting views represents both declarative and imperative knowledge of routes or action procedures. " At the topological level of the hierarchy, the ontology consists of places, paths, and regions, with connectivity and containment relations . Relations among the distinctive states and trajectories defined by the control level, and among their summaries as views and actions at the causal level, are effectively described by the topological network . This network can be used to guide exploration of new environments and to solve new route-finding problems. Using the network representation, navigation among distinctive states is not dependent on the accuracy, or even the existence, of metrical knowledge of the environment . " At the metrical level of the hierarchy, the ontology for places, paths, and sensory features is extended to include metrical properties such as distance, direl features are extracted from sensory input, and represented as annotations on the places and paths of the topological network . Two fundamental ontological distinctions are embedded in the SSH . First, the continuous world of the sensorimotor and control levels is abstracted to the discrete symbolic representation at the causal and topological levels, to which the metrical level adds continuous properties . Second, the egocentric world of the sensorimotor, control, and causal levels is abstracted to the world-centered ontologies of the topological and metrical levels . Formalizing the levels of the hierarchy draws on different bodies of relevant theory: the sensorimotor and control levels on control theory and dynamcal systems ; the causal level on logic and stochastic transition models ; the topological level on logic and simple topology ; the geometrical level on estimation theory and differential geometry. The Spatial Semantic Hierarchy approach contrasts with more traditional methods, which place geometrical sensor intepretation (the most expensive and error-prone step) on the critical path prior to creation of the topological map (Chatila & Laumond 1985 ; Moravec & Elfes 1985) . The SSH is consistent with, but more specific than, Brooks' (1986) subsumption architecture, particularly levels 2 and 3 . The SSH representational framework has been implemented on several different simulated and physical robots. Figure 1 (modified from (Kuipers & Byun 1991)) shows how the control level definition of states