道路规划外文文献1
二级公路设计英文参考文献
二级公路设计英文参考文献1. Manzini, R., & Sampath, A. (2015). Design of Rural Road Drainage Systems: A Simple and Effective Analysis Method. Journal of Transportation Engineering, 141(6), 04015014.This paper presents a simple and effective analysis method for designing drainage systems for rural roads. The authors propose a step-by-step approach that includes the determination of catchment areas, estimation of runoff volume, and evaluation of design criteria for culverts and ditches. The method is demonstrated through a case study in a rural area, highlighting its applicability and effectiveness.2. Gupta, A. K., & Kaul, S. K. (2012). Geometric Design of Rural Roads: A Case Study of Jammu & Kashmir in India. International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering, 2(6), 263-269.This case study focuses on the geometric design of rural roads in the Jammu & Kashmir region of India. The authors discuss the design considerations, such as road alignment, cross-section elements, sight distance, and horizontal and vertical curves. They also evaluate the current road design practices in the region and propose improvements based on internationally recognized standards.3. Pathak, N. C., & Das, L. P. (2010). Rural Road Design Guidelines for India. Journal of Transportation Engineering, 136(4), 342-351.This research article presents rural road design guidelines specifically tailored for India. The authors cover various aspects of road design, including alignment, cross-section elements, grading, drainage, and roadside development. The guidelines aim to improve safety and efficiency in the design of rural roads in India and are supported by extensive research and case studies.4. Qi, Y., Song, R., & Xu, W. (2014). Design of Pavement Structure for Rural Roads in Cold, High-Altitude Plateau Regions. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 26(12), 04014065.This study focuses on the design of pavement structures for rural roads in cold, high-altitude plateau regions. The authors investigate the influence of climate, soil conditions, and traffic loads on pavement performance and propose a design method considering these factors. The research provides valuable insights for designing durable andcost-effective pavement structures in challenging environments.5. Thomet, M., Reutter, F., & Betz, F. (2017). Assessment of Safety Measures for Rural Roads: A Case Study in Switzerland. Transportation Research Procedia, 23, 551-558.This case study evaluates safety measures for rural roads in Switzerland. The authors analyze different road design elements, such as geometric design, signage, and delineation, in order to assess their impact on road safety. The findings contribute to the understanding of effective safety measures for rural roads and can inform future design decisions.。
公路路线设计毕业论文外文
公路路线设计毕业论文外文Design of Highway RouteIntroductionHighway transportation plays a vital role in modern society, enabling the efficient movement of goods and people. The design of a highway route is a crucial aspect that ensures safe and convenient travel for users. This paper aims to explore the key elements involved in the design of a highway route and provide an overview of the international practices and guidelines inthis field.Key Elements in Highway Route DesignInternational Practices and GuidelinesDifferent countries have developed their own practices and guidelines for highway route design. The United States, for example, follows the standards outlined in the "A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets" manual, also known as the Green Book. This manual provides detailed guidance on various design elements, such as alignment, cross-section, and geometrics. It emphasizes the importance of considering safety, mobility, and economic factors in the design process.The European Union has developed the "Eurocodes," a set of European standards for highway design. These codes provide guidelines for the design of various aspects, includingalignment, cross-section, and slope. They also emphasize the consideration of sustainability and environmental impact in the design process.ConclusionThe design of a highway route involves various key elements, including alignment, cross-section, slope, and geometrics. International practices and guidelines, such as the Green Book, Eurocodes, and Austroads design guidelines, provide valuable guidance in this field. It is essential for highway route designers to consider factors such as safety, environmental impact, and economic factors in the design process. By following these practices and guidelines, highway routes can be designed to ensure safe and convenient travel for users.。
道路工程毕业设计外文文献翻译
外文文献翻译原文:Asphalt Mixtures-Applications, Theory and Principles1 、ApplicationsAsphalt materials find wide usage in the construction industry、The use of asphalt as a cementing agent in pavements is the most common of its applications, however, and the one that will be consid ered here、Asphalt products are used to produce flexibl e pavements for highways and airports、The term “fl exible” is used to distinguish these pavements from those made with Portland cement, which are classified as rigid pavements, that is, having beam strength、This distinction is important because it provid es they key to the design approach which must be used for successful flexibl e pavement structures、The flexibl e pavement classification may be further broken d own into high and l ow types, the type usually depending on whether a solid or liquid asphalt product is used、The l ow types of pavement are mad e with the cutback, or emulsion, liquid products and are very widely used throughout this country、Descriptive terminol ogy has been developed in various sections of the country to the extent that one pavement type may have several names、However, the general process foll owed in construction is similar for most l ow-type pavements and can be described as one in which the aggregate and the asphalt product are usually applied to the roadbed separately and there mixed or all owed to mix, forming the pavement、The high type of asphalt pavements is made with asphalt cements of some sel ected penetration grad e、Fig、·1 A modern asphalt concrete highway、Shoul der striping is used as a safely feature、Fig、·2 Asphalt concrete at the San Francisco International Airport、They are used when high wheel l oads and high volumes of traffic occur and are, therefore, often designed for a particular installation、2 、Theory of asphalt concrete mix designHigh types of flexible pavement are constructed by combining an asphalt cement, often in the penetration grad e of 85 to 100, with aggregates that are usually divided into three groups, based on size、The three groups are coarse aggregates, fine aggregates, and mineral filler、These will be discussed in d etail in later chapter、Each of the constituent parts mentioned has a particular function in the asphalt mixture, and mix proportioning or d esign is the process of ensuring that no function is negl ected、Before these individual functions are examined, however, the criteria for pavement success and failure should be consid ered so that d esign objectives can be established、A successful fl exible pavement must have several particular properties、First, it must be stable, that is to resistant to permanent displacement under l oad、Deformation of an asphaltpavement can occur in three ways, two unsatisfactory and one desirable、Plastic deformation of a pavement failure and which is to be avoid ed if possible、Compressive deformation of the pavement results in a dimensional change in the pavement, and with this change come a l oss of resiliency and usually a d egree of roughness、This d eformation is less serious than the one just described, but it, too, leads to pavement failure、The desirable type of deformation is an elastic one, which actually is beneficial to flexibl e pavements and is necessary to their long life、The pavement should be durable and should offer protection to the subgrade、Asphalt cement is not impervious to the effects of weathering, and so the design must minimize weather susceptibility、A durable pavement that d oes not crack or ravel will probably also protect the roadbed、It must be remembered that flexible pavements transmit loads to the subgrad e without significant bridging action, and so a dry firm base is absolutely essential、Rapidly moving vehicl es d epend on the tire-pavement friction factor for control and safety、The texture of the pavement surfaces must be such that an adequate skid resistance is developed or unsafe conditions result、The design procedure shoul d be used to select the asphalt material and aggregates combination which provid es a skid resistant roadway、Design procedures which yield paving mixtures embodying all these properties are not available、Sound pavements are constructed where materials and methods are selected by using time-tested tests and specifications and engineering judgments al ong with a so-call ed design method、The final requirement for any pavement is one of economy、Economy, again, cannot be measured directly, since true economy only begins with construction cost and is not fully determinable until the full useful life of the pavement has been record ed、If, however, the requirements for a stable, durable, and safe pavement are met with a reasonable safety factor, then the best interests of economy have probably been served as well、With these requirements in mind, the functions of the constituent parts can be examined with consideration give to how each part contributes to now-established objectives or requirements、The functions of the aggregates is to carry the load imposed on the pavement, and this is accomplished by frictional resistance and interl ocking between the individual pieces of aggregates、The carrying capacity of the asphalt pavement is, then, related to thesurface texture (particularly that of the fine aggregate) and the density, or “compactness,”, of the aggregates、Surface texture varies with different aggregates, and while a rough surface texture is desired, this may not be available in some l ocalities、Dense mixtures are obtained by using aggregates that are either naturally or artificially “well graded”、This means that the fine aggregate serves to fill the voids in the coarser aggregates、In addition to affecting density and therefore strength characteristics, the grading also influences workability、When an excess of coarse aggregate is used, the mix becomes harsh and hard to work、When an excess of mineral filler is used, the mixes become gummy and difficult to manage、The asphalt cement in the fl exibl e pavement is used to bind the aggregate particl es together and to waterproof the pavements、Obtaining the proper asphalt content is extremely important and bears a significant influence on all the items marking a successful pavement、A chief objective of all the design methods which have been devel oped is to arrive at the best asphalt content for a particular combination of aggregates、3 、Mix design principl esCertain fundamental principles underlie the design procedures that have been developed、Before these procedures can be properly studied or applied, some consid eration of these principles is necessary、Asphalt pavements are composed of aggregates, asphalt cement, and voids、Considering the aggregate alone, all the space between particles is void space、The volume of aggregate voids depends on grading and can vary widely、When the asphalt cement is add ed, a portion of these aggregate voids is filled and a final air-void volume is retained、The retention of this air-void volume is very important to the characteristics of the mixture、The term air-void volume is used, since these voids are weightless and are usually expressed as a percentage of the total volume of the compacted mixture、An asphalt pavement carries the applied load by particl e friction and interlock、If the particl es are pushed apart for any reason , then the pavement stability is d estroyed、This factor indicates that certainly no more asphalt shoul d be ad ded than the aggregate voids can readily hold、However ,asphalt cement is susceptibl e to volume change and the pavement is subject to further compaction under use、If the pavement has no air voids when placed, or if it loses them under traffic, then the expanding asphalt will overfl ow in a condition known asbleeding、The l oss of asphalt cement through bleeding weakens the pavement and also reduces surface friction, making the roadway hazard ous、Fig、·3 Cross section of an asphalt concrete pavement showing the aggregate framework bound together by asphalt cement、The need for a minimum air-void volume (usually 2 or 3 per cent ) has been established、In addition, a maximum air-void volume of 5 to 7 per cent shoul d not be exceed、An excess of air voids promotes raveling of the pavement and also permits water to enter and speed up the deteriorating processes、Also, in the presence of excess air the asphalt cement hardens and ages with an accompanying loss of durability and resiliency、The air-void volume of the mix is determined by the d egree of compaction as well as by the asphalt content、For a given asphalt content, a lightly compacted mix will have a large voids volume and a l ower d ensity and a greater strength will result、In the laboratory, the compaction is controlled by using a specified hammer and regulating the number of bl ows and the energy per blow、In the field, the compaction and the air voids are more difficult to control and tests must be made no specimens taken from the compacted pavement to cheek on the d egree of compaction being obtained、Traffic further compact the pavement, and all owance must be mad e for this in the design、A systematic checking of the pavement over an extended period is need ed to given factual information for a particular mix、A change in density of several per cent is not unusual, however、Asphalt content has been discussed in connection with various facets of the ix design problem、It is a very important factor in the mix design and has a bearing an all the characteristics ld a successful pavement: stability, skid resistance, durability, and economy、As has been mentioned, the various d esign procedures are intended to provide a means for selecting the asphalt content 、These tests will be considered in detail in a future chapter ,but the relationship between asphalt content and the measurable properties of stability, unit weight, and air voids will be discussed here、Fig、4 Variations in stability, unit weight, and air-void content with asphalt cement content、If the gradation and type of aggregate, the degree of compaction, and the type of asphalt cement are controll ed, then the strength varies in a predictable manner、The strength will increase up to some optimum asphalt content and then decrease with further additions、The pattern of strength variation will be different when the other mix factors are changed, and so only a typical pattern can be predicted prior to actual testing、Unit weight varies in the same manner as strength when all other variabl e arecontroll ed、It will reach some peak value at an asphalt content near that determined from the strength curve and then fall off with further additions、As already mentioned, the air-void volume will vary with asphalt content、However, the manner of variation is different in that increased asphalt content will d ecrease air-void volume to some minimum value which is approached asymptotically、With still greater additions of asphalt material the particles of aggregate are only pushed apart and no change occurs in air-void volume、In summary, certain principles involving aggregate gradation, air-void volume, asphalt content, and compaction mist be understood before proceeding to actual mix d esign、The proper design based on these principl es will result in sound pavements、If these principles are overlooked, the pavement may fail by one or more of the recognized modes of failure: shoving, rutting, corrugating, becoming slick when the max is too ‘rich’; raveling, cracking,having low durability when t he mix is too ‘l ean’、It should be again emphasized that the strength of flexible is, more accurately, a stability and d oes not indicate any ability to bridge weak points in the subgrade by beam strength、No asphalt mixture can be successful unless it rests on top of a properly designed and constructed base structure、This fact, that the surface is no better than the base, must be continually in the minds of those concerned with any aspect of fl exible pavement work、译文:沥青混合料的应用、理论与原则1、应用沥青材料如今在建筑行业广泛使用。
关于高速公路设计的外文文献
关于高速公路设计的外文文献本文将探讨高速公路设计的外文文献。
高速公路是一种高速公路系统，目的是在快速、安全和有效的方式下运输大量的人和货物。
高速公路建设的目的是提供一个连接城市之间的快速、高效和可靠的道路网络。
高速公路设计与交通工程、土木工程和环境工程密切相关，需要综合考虑交通流动、安全性、环保因素等问题。
下面将介绍几篇与高速公路设计相关的外文文献。
1. A study on the design of high-speed highways in China本文主要介绍了中国高速公路设计的历史和现状。
作者在研究中发现，中国高速公路建设起步较晚，在技术和管理上仍存在一些困难和挑战。
作者提出了一些改进措施，包括加强高速公路设计的科学性、规范化和现代化管理。
2. Design and construction of high-speed highways in the United States本文介绍了美国高速公路设计和建设的经验。
作者指出，美国在高速公路建设方面拥有丰富的经验，包括道路设计、材料选择、施工技术等方面。
文章还介绍了美国高速公路建设的资金来源和管理模式。
3. The impact of high-speed highways on the environment本文研究了高速公路对环境的影响。
作者认为，高速公路建设会对土地利用、水资源、大气污染等环境因素产生影响。
为了减少这些影响，需要在高速公路设计和建设中考虑环保因素，采用环保材料和技术。
4. Safety design of high-speed highways本文讨论了高速公路的安全设计问题。
作者认为，高速公路的安全设计应考虑交通流动、路面材料、标志标线、交通安全设施等因素。
文章还介绍了在高速公路设计中采用的安全评估方法和技术。
总之，高速公路的设计需要综合考虑交通、安全和环保等因素。
通过研究这些外文文献，可以帮助我们更好地了解高速公路设计和建设的相关问题。
交通工程公路建设中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)英文原文：The Basics of a Good RoadWe have known how to build good roads for a long time. Archaeologists have found ancient Egyptian roadsthat carried blocks to the pyramids in 4600 BCE. Later,the Romans built an extensive road system, using the same principles we use today. Some of these roads are still in service.If you follow the basic concepts of road building, you will create a road that will last. The ten commandments of a good road are:（1）Get water away from the road（2）Build on a firm foundation（3）Use the best materials（4）Compact all layers properly（5）Design for traffic loads and volumes（6）Design for maintenance（7）Pave only when ready（8）Build from the bottom up（9）Protect your investment（10）Keep good records1．Get water away from the roadWe can’t overemphasize the importance of good drainage.Engineers estimate that at least 90% of a road’s problems can be related to excess water or to poor waterdrainage. Too much water in any layer of a road’sstructure can weaken that layer, leading to failure.In the surface layer, water can cause cracks and potholes. In lower layers it undermines support, causing cracks and potholes. A common sign of water in an asphalt road surface is alligator cracking — an interconnected pattern of cracks forming small irregular shaped pieces that look like alligator skin. Edge cracking, frost heaves, and spring breakup of pavements also point to moisture problems.To prevent these problems remember that water:• flows downhill• needs to flow someplace• is a problem if it is not flowingEffective drainage systems divert, drain and dispose of water. To do this they use interceptor ditches and slopes,road crowns, and ditch and culvert systems.Divert —Interceptor ditches, located between the road and higher ground along the road, keep the water from reaching the roadway. These ditches must slope so they carry water away from the road.Drain —Creating a crown in the road so it is higher along the centerline than at the edges encourages water to flow off the road. Typically a paved crown should be 1⁄4" higher than the shoulder for each foot of width from the centerline to the edge. For gravel surfaces the crown should be 1⁄2" higher per foot of width. For this flow path to work, the road surface must be relatively water tight. Road shoulders also must be sloped away from the road to continue carrying the flow away. Superelevations (banking) at the outside of curves will also help drainthe road surface.Dispose —A ditch and culvert system carries water away from the road structure. Ditches should be at least one foot lower than the bottom of the gravel road layer that drains the roadway. They must be kept clean and must be sloped to move water into natural drainage. If water stays in the ditches it can seep back into the road structure and undermine its strength. Ditches should also be protected from erosion by planting grass, or installing rock and other erosion control measures. Erosion can damage shoulders and ditches, clog culverts, undermine roadbeds, and contaminate nearby streams and lakes. Evaluate your ditch and culvert system twice a year to ensure that it works. In the fall, clean out leaves and branches that can block flow. In spring, check for and remove silts from plowing and any dead plant material left from the fall.2．Build on a firm foundationA road is only as good as its foundation. A highway wears out from the top down but falls apart from the bottom. The road base must carry the entire structure and the traffic that uses it.To make a firm foundation you may need to stabilize the roadbed with chemical stabilizers, large stone called breaker run, or geotextile fabric. When you run into conditions where you suspect that the native soil is unstable, work with an engineer to investigate the situation and design an appropriate solution.3．Use the best materialsWith all road materials you “pay now or pay later.” Inferior materials may require extensive maintenance throughout the road’s life. They may also force you to replace the road prematurely.Crushed aggregate is the best material for the base course. The sharp angles of thecrushed material interlock when they are compacted. This supports the pavement and traffic by transmitting the load from particle to particle. By contrast, rounded particles act like ballbearings, moving under loads.Angular particles are more stable than rounded particles.Asphalt and concrete pavement materials must be of the highest quality, designed for the conditions, obtained from established firms, and tested to ensure it meets specifications. 4．Compact all layersIn general, the more densely a material is compacted, the stronger it is. Compaction alsoshrinks or eliminates open spaces (voids) between particles. This means that less water can enter the structure. Water in soil can weaken the structure or lead to frost heaves. This is especially important for unsurfaced (gravel) roads. Use gravel which has a mix of sizes (well-graded aggregate) so smaller particles can fill the voids between larger ones. Goodcompaction of asphalt pavement lengthens its life.5．Design for traffic loads and volumesDesign for the highest anticipated load the road will carry. A road that has been designed only for cars will not stand up to trucks. One truck with 9 tons on a single rear axle does as much damage to a road as nearly 10,000 cars.Rural roads may carry log trucks, milk trucks, fire department pumper trucks, or construction equipment. If you don’t know what specific loads the road will carry, a good rule of thumb is to design for the largest piece of highway maintenance equipment that will be used on the road.A well-constructed and maintained asphalt road should last 20 years without major repairs or reconstruction. In designing a road, use traffic counts that project numbers and sizes of vehicles 20 years into the future. These are only projections, at best, but they will allow you to plan for traffic loadings through a road’s life.6．Design for maintenanceWithout maintenance a road will rapidly deteriorate and fail. Design your roads so they can be easily maintained. This means:• adequate ditches that can be cleaned regularly• culverts that are marked for easy locating in the spring• enough space for snow after it is plowed off the road• proper cross slopes for safety, maintenance and to avoid snow drifts• roadsi des that are planted or treated to prevent erosion• roadsides that can be mowed safelyA rule of thumb for adequate road width is to make it wide enough for a snowplow to pass another vehicle without leaving the travelled way.Mark culverts with a post so they can be located easily.7．Pave only when readyIt is not necessary to pave all your roads immediately. There is nothing wrong with a well-built and wellmaintained gravel road if traffic loads and volume do not require a paved surface. Three hundred vehicles per day is the recommended minimum to justify paving.Don’t assume that laying down asphalt will fix a gravel road that is failing. Before you pave, make sure you have an adequate crushed stone base that drains well and is properly compacted. The recommended minimum depth of crushed stone base is 10" depending on subgrade soils. A road paved only when it is ready will far outperform one that is constructed too quickly.8．Ê Build from the bottom upThis commandment may seem obvious, but it means that you shouldn’t top dress or resurface a road if the problem is in an underlying layer. Before you do any road improvement, locate the cause of any surface problems. Choose an improvement technique that will address the problem. This may mean recycling or removing all road materials down to the native soil and rebuilding everything. Doing any work that doesn’t solve the problem is a waste of money and effort.9．Ê Protect your investmentThe road system can be your municipality’s biggest investment. Just as a home needs painting or a new roof, a road must be maintained. Wisconsin’s severe climate requires more road maintenance than in milder places. Do these important maintenance activities: Surface —grade, shape, patch, seal cracks, control dust, remove snow and iceDrainage —clean and repair ditches and culverts; remove all excess materialRoadside —cut brush, trim trees and roadside plantings, control erosionTraffic service —clean and repair or replace signsDesign roads with adequate ditches so they can be maintained with a motor grader. Clean and grade ditches to maintain proper pitch and peak efficiency. After grading, remove all excess material from the shoulder.10．Keep good recordsYour maintenance will be more efficient with good records. Knowing the road’s construction, life, and repair history makes it much easier to plan and budget its future repairs. Records can also help you evaluate the effectiveness of the repair methods and materials you used.Good record keeping starts with an inventory of the system. It should include the history andsurface condition of the roadway, identify and evaluate culverts and bridges, note ditch conditions, shoulders, signs, and such structures as retaining walls and guardrails.Update your inventory each year or when you repair or change a road section. A formal pavement management system can help use these records and plan and budget road improvements.ResourcesThe Basics of a Good Road#17649, UW-Madison, 15 min. videotape. Presents the Ten Commandments of a Good Road. Videotapes are loaned free through County Extension offices.Asphalt PASER Manual(39 pp), Concrete PASER Manual (48 pp), Gravel PASER Manual (32 pp). These booklets contain extensive photos and descriptions of road surfacesto help you understand types of distress conditions and their causes. A simple procedure for rating the condition helps you manage your pavements and plan repairs.Roadware, a computer program which stores and reports pavement condition information. Developed by the Transportation Information Center and enhanced by the Wisconsin Department of Transportation, it uses the PASER rating system to provide five-year cost budgets and roadway repair/reconstruction priority lists.Wisconsin Transportation Bulletin factsheets, available from the Transportation Information Center (T.I.C.).Road Drainage, No. 4. Describes drainage for roadways, shoulders, ditches, and culverts.Gravel Roads, No. 5. Discusses the characteristics of a gravel road and how to maintain one.Using Salt and Sand for Winter Road Maintenance,No. 6. Basic information and practical tips on how to use de-icing chemicals and sand.Culverts—Proper Use and Installation, No. 15. Selecting and sizing culverts, designing, installing and maintaining them.Geotextiles in Road Construction/Maintenance andErosion Control, No. 16. Definitions and common applications of geotextiles on roadways and for erosion control.T.I.C. workshops are offered at locations around the state.Crossroads,an 8-page quarterly newsletter published by the T.I.C. carries helpful articles, workshop information, and resource lists. For more information on any of these materials, contact the T.I.C. at 800/442-4615.译文：一个良好的公路的基础长久以来我们已经掌握了如何铺设好一条道路的方法，考古学家发现在4600年古埃及使用建造金字塔的石块铺设道路，后来，罗马人使用同样的方法建立了一个庞大的道路系统，这种方法一直沿用到今天。
交通工程专业外文翻译外文文献英文文献
土木工程学院交通工程专业中英文翻译Road Design专业：交通工程英文原文The Basics of a Good RoadWe have known how to build good roads for a long time. Archaeologists have found ancient Egyptian roadsthat carried blocks to the pyramids in 4600 BCE. Later,the Romans built an extensive road system, using the same principles we use today. Some of these roads are still in service.If you follow the basic concepts of road building, you will create a road that will last. The ten commandments of a good road are:（1）Get water away from the road（2）Build on a firm foundation（3）Use the best materials（4）Compact all layers properly（5）Design for traffic loads and volumes（6）Design for maintenance（7）Pave only when ready（8）Build from the bottom up（9）Protect your investment（10）Keep good records1．Get water away from the roadWe can’t overemphasize the importance of good drainage.Engineers estimate that at least 90% of a road’s problems can be related to excess water or to poor waterdrainage. Too much water in any layer of a road’sstructure can weaken that la yer, leading to failure.In the surface layer, water can cause cracks and potholes. In lower layers it undermines support, causing cracks and potholes. A common sign of water in an asphalt road surface is alligator cracking — an interconnected pattern of cracks forming small irregular shaped pieces that look like alligator skin. Edge cracking, frost heaves, and spring breakup of pavements also point to moistureproblems.To prevent these problems remember that water:• flows downhill• needs to flow somepla ce• is a problem if it is not flowingEffective drainage systems divert, drain and dispose of water. To do this they use interceptor ditches and slopes,road crowns, and ditch and culvert systems.Divert —Interceptor ditches, located between the road and higher ground along the road, keep the water from reaching the roadway. These ditches must slope so they carry water away from the road.Drain —Creating a crown in the road so it is higher along the centerline than at the edges encourages water to flow off the road. Typically a paved crown should be 1⁄4" higher than the shoulder for each foot of width from the centerline to the edge. For gravel surfaces the crown should be 1⁄2" higher per foot of width. For this flow path to work, the road surface must be relatively water tight. Road shoulders also must be sloped away from the road to continue carrying the flow away. Superelevations (banking) at the outside of curves will also help drainthe road surface.Dispose —A ditch and culvert system carries water away from the road structure. Ditches should be at least one foot lower than the bottom of the gravel road layer that drains the roadway. They must be kept clean and must be sloped to move water into natural drainage. If water stays in the ditches it can seep back into the road structure and undermine its strength. Ditches should also be protected from erosion by planting grass, or installing rock and other erosion control measures. Erosion can damage shoulders and ditches, clog culverts, undermine roadbeds, and contaminate nearby streams and lakes. Evaluate your ditch and culvert system twice a year to ensure that it works. In the fall, clean out leaves and branches that can block flow. In spring, check for and remove silts from plowing and any dead plant material left from the fall.2．Build on a firm foundationA road is only as good as its foundation. A highway wears out from the top down but falls apart from the bottom. The road base must carry the entire structure and the traffic that uses it.To make a firm foundation you may need to stabilize the roadbed with chemical stabilizers, large stone called breaker run, or geotextile fabric. When you run into conditions where you suspect that the native soil is unstable, work with an engineer to investigate the situation and design an appropriate solution.3．Use the best materialsWith all road materials you “pay now or pay later.” Inferior materials may require extensive maintenance throughout the road’s life. They may also force you to replace the road prematurely.Crushed aggregate is the best material for the base course. The sharp angles of thecrushed material interlock when they are compacted. This supports the pavement and traffic by transmitting the load from particle to particle. By contrast, rounded particles act like ballbearings, moving under loads.Angular particles are more stable than rounded particles.Asphalt and concrete pavement materials must be of the highest quality, designed for the conditions, obtained from established firms, and tested to ensure it meets specifications.4．Compact all layersIn general, the more densely a material is compacted, the stronger it is. Compaction also shrinks or eliminates open spaces (voids) between particles. This means that less water can enter the structure. Water in soil can weaken the structure or lead to frost heaves. This is especially important for unsurfaced (gravel) roads. Use gravel which has a mix of sizes (well-graded aggregate) so smaller particles can fill the voids between larger ones. Goodcompaction of asphalt pavement lengthens its life.5．Design for traffic loads and volumesDesign for the highest anticipated load the road will carry. A road that has been designed only for cars will not stand up to trucks. One truck with 9 tons on a single rear axle does as much damage to a road as nearly 10,000 cars.Rural roads may carry log trucks, milk trucks, fire department pumper trucks, or construction equipment. If you don’t know what specific loads the road will carry, a good rule of thumb is to design for the largest piece of highway maintenance equipment that will be used on the road.A well-constructed and maintained asphalt road should last 20 years without major repairs or reconstruction. In designing a road, use traffic counts that project numbers and sizes of vehicles 20 years into the future. These are only projections, at best, but they will allow you to plan for traffic loadings through a road’s life.6．Design for maintenanceWithout maintenance a road will rapidly deteriorate and fail. Design your roads so they can be easily maintained. This means:• adequate ditches that can be cleaned regularly• culverts that are marked for easy locating in the spring• enough space for snow after it is plowed off the road• proper cross slopes for safet y, maintenance and to avoid snow drifts• roadsides that are planted or treated to prevent erosion• roadsides that can be mowed safelyA rule of thumb for adequate road width is to make it wide enough for a snowplow to pass another vehicle without leaving the travelled way.Mark culverts with a post so they can be located easily.7．Pave only when readyIt is not necessary to pave all your roads immediately. There is nothing wrong with a well-built and wellmaintained gravel road if traffic loads and volume do not require a paved surface. Three hundred vehicles per day is the recommended minimum to justify paving.Don’t assume that laying down asphalt will fix a gravel road that is failing. Before you pave, make sure you have an adequate crushed stone base that drains well and is properly compacted. The recommended minimum depth of crushed stone base is 10" depending on subgrade soils. A road paved only when it is ready will far outperform one that is constructed too quickly.8．Ê Build from the bottom upThis commandment may seem obvious, but it means that you shouldn’t top dress or resurface a road if the problem is in an underlying layer. Before you do any road improvement, locate the cause of any surface problems. Choose an improvement technique that will address the problem. This may mean recycling or removing all road materials down to the native soil and rebuilding everything. Doing any work that doesn’t solve the problem is a waste of money and effort.9．Ê Protect your investmentThe road system can be your municipality’s biggest investment. Just as a home needs painting or a new roof, a road must be maintained. Wisconsin’s severe climate requires more road maintenance than in milder places. Do these important maintenance activities: Surface —grade, shape, patch, seal cracks, control dust, remove snow and iceDrainage —clean and repair ditches and culverts; remove all excess materialRoadside —cut brush, trim trees and roadside plantings, control erosionTraffic service —clean and repair or replace signsDesign roads with adequate ditches so they can be maintained with a motor grader. Clean and grade ditches to maintain proper pitch and peak efficiency. After grading, remove all excess material from the shoulder.10．Keep good recordsYour maintenance will be more efficient with good records. Knowing the road’s construction, life, and repair history makes it much easier to plan and budget its future repairs. Records can also help you evaluate the effectiveness of the repair methods and materials you used.Good record keeping starts with an inventory of the system. It should include the history and surface condition of the roadway, identify and evaluate culverts and bridges, note ditch conditions, shoulders, signs, and such structures as retaining walls and guardrails.Update your inventory each year or when you repair or change a road section. A formal pavement management system can help use these records and plan and budget road improvements.ResourcesThe Basics of a Good Road#17649, UW-Madison, 15 min. videotape. Presents the Ten Commandments of a Good Road. Videotapes are loaned free through County Extension offices.Asphalt PASER Manual(39 pp), Concrete PASER Manual (48 pp), Gravel PASER Manual (32 pp). These booklets contain extensive photos and descriptions of road surfacesto help you understand types of distress conditions and their causes. A simple procedure for rating the condition helps you manage your pavements and plan repairs.Roadware, a computer program which stores and reports pavement condition information. Developed by the Transportation Information Center and enhanced by the Wisconsin Department of Transportation, it uses the PASER rating system to provide five-year cost budgets and roadway repair/reconstruction priority lists.Wisconsin Transportation Bulletin factsheets, available from the Transportation Information Center (T.I.C.).Road Drainage, No. 4. Describes drainage for roadways, shoulders, ditches, and culverts.Gravel Roads, No. 5. Discusses the characteristics of a gravel road and how to maintain one.Using Salt and Sand for Winter Road Maintenance,No. 6. Basic information and practical tips on how to use de-icing chemicals and sand.Culverts—Proper Use and Installation, No. 15. Selecting and sizing culverts, designing, installing and maintaining them.Geotextiles in Road Construction/Maintenance andErosion Control, No. 16. Definitions and common applications of geotextiles on roadways and for erosion control.T.I.C. workshops are offered at locations around the state.Crossroads,an 8-page quarterly newsletter published by the T.I.C. carries helpful articles, workshop information, and resource lists. For more information on any of these materials, contact the T.I.C. at 800/442-4615.中文译文一个良好的公路的基础长久以来我们已经掌握了如何铺设好一条道路的方法，考古学家发现在4600年古埃及使用建造金字塔的石块铺设道路，后来，罗马人使用同样的方法建立了一个庞大的道路系统，这种方法一直沿用到今天。
道路路桥工程中英文对照外文翻译文献
道路路桥工程中英文对照外文翻译文献Asphalt Mixtures: ns。
Theory。
and Principles1.nsXXX industry。
XXX。
The most common n of asphalt is in the n of XXX "flexible" XXX them from those made with Portland cement。
XXX2.XXXXXX the use of aggregates。
XXX。
sand。
or gravel。
and a binder。
XXX for the pavement。
XXX。
The quality of the asphalt XXX to the performance of the pavement。
as it must be able to XXX。
3.PrinciplesXXX。
with each layer XXX layers typically include a subgrade。
a sub-base。
a base course。
and a surface course。
The subgrade is the natural soil or rock upon which the pavement is built。
while the sub-base and base courses provide nal support for the pavement。
The surface course is the layer that comes into direct contact with traffic and is XXX。
In n。
the use of XXX.The n of flexible pavement can be subdivided into high and low types。
二级公路毕业设计外文文献
外文资料及翻译Effects of Design Features on Rigid Pavement PerformanceThe performance of rigid pavements is affected by a variety of design features, including slab thickness, base type, joint spacing, reinforcement, joint orientation, load trans fer, dowel bar coatings, longitudinal joint design, joint sealant, tied concrete shoulders ,and subdrainage . A study was made by ERES Consultants, Inc. under FHWA contract on the effects of these features on rigid pavement performance . Ninety-five pavemen tsections located in four major climatic regions were thoroughly evaluated . The following conclusions, which provide some revealing insights into pavement performance, are abstracted from the report (Smith et al., 1990a).Slab Thickness The effect of slab thickness on pavement performance was significant.It was found that increasing slab thickness reduced transverse and longitudinal cracking in all cases. This effect was much more pronounced for thinner slabs than fo rthicker slabs . It was not possible to compare the performance of the thinner slabs and the thicker slabs directly, because the thick slabs were all constructed directly on th esubgrade and the thinner slabs were all constructed on a base course .Increasing the thickness of slab did not appear to reduce joint spalling or join tfaulting . Thick slabs placed directly on the subgrade, especially in wet climates an dexposed to heavy traffic, faulted as much as thin slabs constructed on a base course .Base Type Base types, including base/slab interface friction, base stiffness, base erodibility, and base permeability, seemed to have a great effect on the performance of jointed concrete pavements . The major performance indicators, which were affected by variations in base type, were transverse and longitudinal cracking, joint spalling, and faulting .The worst performing base type, consisted of the cement-treated or soil cement bases, which tended to exhibit excessive pumping, faulting, and cracking. This is most likely due to the impervious nature of the base, which traps moisture and yet can brea- k down and contribute to the movement of fines beneath the slab .The use of lean concrete bases generally produced poor performance . Large curl -ing and warping stresses have been associated with slabs constructed over lean concrete bases. These stresses result in considerable transverse and longitudinal cracking of the slab . The poor performance of these bases can also be attributed to a bathtub design, in which moisture is trapped within the pavement cross section .Dense-graded asphalt-treated base courses ranged in performance from very poor to good. The fact that these types of bases were often constructed as a bathtub design contributed to their poor performance . This improper design often resulted in severe cracking, faulting, and pumping.The construction of thicker slabs directly on the subgrade with no base resulted In a pavement that performed marginally. These pavements were especially susceptible to faulting, even under low traffic levels.Pavements constructed over aggregate bases had varied performance, but were generally in the fair to very good category. In general, the more open-graded the aggregate,the better the performance . An advantage of aggregate bases is that they contribute the least to the high curling and warping stresses in the slab . Even though aggregate bases are not open-graded, they are more permeable and have a lower friction factor than stabilized bases .The best bases in terms of pavement performance were the permeable bases . Typical base courses have permeabilities ranging from 0 to less than 1 ft/day (0 .3 m/day) ; good permeable bases have permeabilities up to 1000 ft/day (305 m/day) . Specific areas of concern were the high corner deflections and the low load transfer exhibited by the permeable bases . These can affect their long-term performance, so the use of dowel bars might be required . An unexpected benefit of using permeable bases was the reduction in "D" cracking on pavements susceptible to this type of distress .Slab Length For JPCP, the length of slabs investigated ranged from 7 .75 to 30 ft(2.4to9.1m). It was found that reducing the slab length decreased both the magnitude of the joint faulting and the amount of transverse cracking. On pavements with random joint spacings, slabs with joint spacings greater than 18 ft (5.5 m) experienced more transverse cracking than did the shorter slabs .For JRCP, the length of slabs investigated ranged from 21 to 78 ft (6 .4 to 23 .9 m) .Generally, shorter joint spacings performed better, as measured by the deteriorated transverse cracks, joint faulting, and joint spalling . However, several JRCP with long joint spacings performed quite well . In particular, the long jointed pavements in New Jersey, which were constructed with expansion joints, displayed excellent performance .An examination of the stiffness of foundation was made through the use of the radius of relative stiffness, f . Generally speaking, when the ratio L/E, where L is the length of slab, was greater than 5, transverse cracking occurred more frequently . Thisfactor was further examined for different base types . It was found that stiffer base courses required shorter joint spacings to reduce or eliminate transverse cracking .Reinforcement The amount of steel reinforcement appeared to have an effect in controlling the amount of deteriorated transverse cracking . Pavement sections with less than 0.1% reinforcing steel often displayed significant deteriorated transverse cracking.A minimum of 0 .1% reinforcing steel is therefore recommended, with larger amounts required for more severe climate and longer slabs.Joint Orientation Conventional wisdom has it that skewed joints prevent the application of two wheel loads to the joint at the same time and thus can reduce load-associated distresses . The results from the limited sample size in this study were ambiguous, but all of the nondoweled sections with skewed joints had a lower PSR than similar designs with perpendicular joints . The available data provide no definite conclusions on the effectiveness of skewing transverse joints for nondoweled slabs . Skewed joints are not believed to provide any benefit to doweled slabs.Load Transfer Dowel bars were found to be effective in reducing the amount of joint faulting when compared with nondoweled sections of comparable designs. The diameter of dowels had an effect on performance, because larger diameter bars provided better load transfer and control of faulting under heavy traffic than did smaller dowels.It appeared that a minimum dowel diameter of 1 .25 in . (32 mm) was necessary to provide good performance .Nondoweled JPCP slabs generally developed significant faulting, regardless of pavement design or climate . This effect was somewhat mitigated by the use of permeable bases. However, the sections in this group had a much lower number of accumulated ESAL, so no definite conclusions can be drawn yet .Dowel Bar Coatings Corrosion-resistant coatings are needed to protect dowels from the adverse effects of moisture and deicing chemicals .While most of the sections in this study did not contain corrosion-resistant dowel bars, those that did generally exhibited enhanced performance. Very little deteriorated transverse cracking was identified on these sections. In fact, one section in New Jersey with stainless steel-clad dowel bars was performing satisfactorily after 36 years of service .Longitudinal Joint Design The longitudinal joint design was found to be a critical design element.Both inadequate forming techniques and insufficient depths of joint can contribute to the development of longitudinal cracking . There was evidence of the ad vantage of sawing the joints over the use of inserts . The depth of longitudinal joints is generally recommended to be one-third of the actual, notdesigned, slab thickness, but might have to be greater when stabilized bases are used .Joint Sealant Joint sealing appeared to have a beneficial effect on performance . This was particularly true in harsh climates with excessive amounts of moisture . Preformed compression sealants were shown to perform well for more than 15 years under heavy traffic.Except where "D" cracking occurred, pavement sections containing preformed sealants generally exhibited little joint spalling and were in good overall conditions.Rubberized asphalt joint sealants showed good performance for 5 to 7 years.Tied Concrete Shoulders It is generally believed that tied concrete shoulders can reduce edge stresses and corner deflections by providing more lateral supports to the mainline pavement, thus improving pavement performance . Surprisingly, this study showed that, although tied concrete shoulders performed better than asphalt shoulders,many of the tied shoulders were not designed properly and actually contributed to poor performance of the mainline pavement . The tiebars were spaced too far apart ,sometimes at a spacing of 40 in.(1016 mm), and were not strategically located near slab corners to provide adequate support . In some cases, tied concrete shoulders were constructed over a stabilized dense-graded base in a bathtub design, resulting in the poor performance of mainline pavement.Subdrainage The provision of positive subdrainage, either in the form of longitudinal edge drains or the combination of a drainage layer and edge drains, generally reduced the amount of faulting and spalling related to "D" cracking . With few exceptions, the load-associated distresses, especially faulting and transverse cracking, decreased as the drainage characteristics improved . The overall pavement performance can be improved by using an open-graded base or restricting the percentage of fines . A filter layer must be placed below the permeable base, and regular maintenance of the outlets must be provided .译文结构特点对刚性路面性能的影响刚性路面的性能受种种结构特点的影响，如板厚、基层类型、接缝间距、钢筋用量、接风方向、荷载传递、传力杆涂层、纵缝设计、接缝填封料、有拉杆混凝土道肩和地下排水等。
道路规划外文文献1
道路设计1.道路设计的历史首先，本文主要依靠大量的文字叙述，若对您造成理解上的困难，敬请谅解。
由于本文所涵盖的资料单一，本文是此系列中唯一的一篇文章。
本文不像其他文章一样有大量图片说明。
其次，本文主要内容是关于欧洲公路修筑的历史。
在西欧，罗马人是具有重大意义的公路修筑的开创者。
他们看到了修筑公路能使人较快的移动地理位置的作用，这一作用对军用和民用都是极其重要的。
罗马人率先指出，要使公路发展为主要道路，就必须把地坪线提高一米。
公路的最大特点就是没有角落，这是为了降低埋伏的风险。
罗马人对道路的耐久性设定了标准，这一成就远超过了罗马帝国灭亡后所取得的其它成就。
罗马人设计公路的方法本质上与现代使用的是相同。
公路由几个不同层次构成，这从基层增加了公路的强度。
最底层的通常是碎石子，中间层是掺加了石灰的混凝土，而上层则是铺路石或者掺有石灰的厚石板。
每一层的厚度由当地的地质条件决定。
罗马帝国消亡后，它的道路系统一直处于无人修善的状态。
到了中世纪末期，全国的道路系统几乎处于瘫痪状态，唯一的路途就是没有铺石板的路。
一到冬季就泥泞不堪，夏天则尘土飞扬，根本无法通行。
同时为了绕开贫穷的地区，更是导致了道路弯弯曲曲，加大了通行难度。
这种路况加上法律监管不严，意味着除非是疯子或者是无可奈何的情况，没人愿意去走这些路。
这种情况直到1555年国会通过了所有地方政府有责任维修损坏道路的行动后有所改善。
这次行动还包括建立高速公路拯救员职位。
没有薪金和材料再加上技术匮乏，所以这个告示明显地无人理睬且效率低下也就不怎么奇怪了。
……2.交通量分析2.1、交通密度：2.2、交通负荷：3.交通密度4.交通负载5.土方工程6.开挖History of Road DesignFirstly let me apologise for this page. It is largely text based due to the nature of it and if reading is difficult then I am sorry. This is due solely to the material covered and is the only page in the series. This is not typical as the rest have graphics or images to keep you amused. Secondly this page is very much a history of road building in the United Kingdom．The first road builders of any significance in Western Europe were the Romans, who saw the ability to move quickly as essential for both military and civil reasons. It is from the Romans that the term highway comes as all their roads were elevated 1m above the local level of the land. This was to minimise the risk of an ambush, as was the best known characteristic of the roads, their lack of corners. The standards set by the Romans in terms of durability far exceeded anything achieved after the fall of the empir e.The Roman approach to road design is essentially the same as that in current use. The roads were constructed of several different layers, increasing in strength from the bottom. The lowest layer was normally a rubble, intermediate layers were made of li me bound concrete and the upper layer was a flag or lime grouted stone slabs. The thickness of the layers was varied according to the local ground conditions.After the fall of the Roman Empire the road system fell into a state of disrepair and by the end of the middle ages, there was in effect no roadsystem in the country. The only routes available were unpaved tracks, muddy and impassable in winter and dusty and impassable in summer. Diversions around particularly poor stretches resulted in sinuous align ments. The state of the roads combined with the general lawlessness at the time meant only the determined or insane traveled.The first change in this attitude。
公路线形设计外文文献翻译英文参考
外文文献翻译(含：英文原文及中文译文)文献出处：Y Hassan. Geometric Design of Highways[J] Advances in Transportation Studies, 2016, 6(1):31-41.英文原文Geometric Design of HighwaysY HassanA. Alignment DesignThe alignment of a road is shown on the plane view and is a series of straight lines called tangents connected by circular curves. In modern practice it is common to interpose transition or spiral curves between tangents and circular curves.The line shape should be continuous, sudden changes from flat line to small radius curve or sudden change of long line end connected to small radius curve should be avoided, otherwise a traffic accident may occur. Similarly, arcs with different radii end-to-end (complex curves) or short straight lines between two arcs with different radii are bad lines unless an easing curve is inserted between arcs. The long, smooth curve is always a good line because it is beautifully lined and will not be abandoned in the future. However, it is not ideal that the two-way road line shape is composed entirely of curves, because some drivers always hesitate to pass through curved road segments. The long and slow curve is used in thesmaller corners. If you use a short curve, you will see "kinks." In addition, the design of the flat and vertical sections of the line should be considered comprehensively and should not be only one. No matter which, for example, when the starting point of the flat curve is near the vertex of the vertical curve, serious traffic accidents will occur.V ehicles driving on curved sections are subjected to centrifugal force, and they need a force of the same magnitude in the opposite direction due to the height and lateral friction to offset it. From the viewpoint of highway design, the high or horizontal friction cannot exceed a certain value. The maximum, these control values for a certain design speed may limit the curvature of the curve. In general, the curvature of a circular curve is represented by its radius. For the linear design, the curvature is often described by the curvature, ie, the central angle corresponding to the 100-foot curve, which is inversely proportional to the radius of the curve.A normal road arch is set in a straight section of the road, and the curve section is set to a super high, and an excessively gradual road section must be set between the normal section and the super high section. The usual practice is to maintain the design elevation of each midline of the road unchanged. By raising the outer edge and lowering the inner edge to form a super high, for the line shape where the straight line is directly connected with the circle curve, the super high should never start on the straight line before reaching the curve. At the other end of the curve at acertain distance to reach all the ultra-high.If the vehicle is driving at a high speed on a restricted section of road, such as a straight line connected with a small radius circle curve, driving will be extremely uncomfortable. When the car enters the curve section, the super high starts and the vehicle tilts inward, but the passenger must maintain the body because it is not subjected to centrifugal force at this time. When the car reaches the curve section, centrifugal force suddenly occurs, forcing passengers to make further posture adjustments. When the car leaves the curve, the above process is just the opposite. After inserting the relaxation curve, the radius gradually transitions from infinity to a certain fixed value on the circle curve, the centrifugal force gradually increases, and ultra-high levels are carefully set along the relaxation curve, and the centrifugal force is gradually increased, thereby avoiding driving bumps.The easement curve has been used on railways for many years, but it has recently been applied on highways. This is understandable. The train must follow a precise orbit, and the uncomfortable feeling mentioned above can only be eliminated after the ease curve is used. However, the driver of a car can change the lateral position on the road at will, and he can provide a relaxation curve for himself by making a roundabout curve. But doing this in one lane (sometimes in other lanes) is very dangerous. A well-designed relaxation curve makes the above roundaboutnessunnecessary. Multi-cluster safety is a measure, and roads are widely used as transition curves.For a circular curve with the same radius, adding an easing curve at the end will change the relative positions of the curve and the straight line. Therefore, whether or not to use an easing curve should be determined before final alignment survey. The starting point of the general curve is labeled PC or BC and the end point is labeled PT or EC. For curves with transition curves, the usual marker configurations are: TC, SC, CS, and ST.For two-way roads, the road width should be increased at sharp bends. This is mainly based on the following factors: 1. The driver is afraid to get out of the edge of the road. 2. Due to the difference in the driving trajectory of the front and rear wheels of the vehicle, the effective lateral width of the vehicle increases; 3. The width of the front of the vehicle that is inclined relative to the centerline of the road. For roads that are 24 feet wide, the added width is negligible. Only if the design speed is 30 mil / h and the curvature is up to 2 ft. However, for narrow roads, widening is very important even on smooth curve sections. The recommended widening values and widened designs are shown in ". Highway linear design."B. Longitudinal slope lineThe vertical alignment of the highway and its impact on the safety andeconomy of vehicle operation constitute one of the most important elements in highway design. V ertical lines consist of straight lines and vertical parabolas or circular lines called vertical slope lines. When a grade line rises gradually from a horizontal line, it is called an uphill, and vice versa, it is called a downhill slope. In the analysis of slope and slope control, designers usually have to study the effect of changes in slope on the midline profile. In determining the slope, the ideal situation is the balance of excavation and filling, and there is no large amount of borrowers and abandoned parties. All the earth moving is carried down as far as possible and the distance is not long. The slope should change with the terrain and be consistent with the direction of ascent and descent of the existing drainage system. In the mountains, the slopes should be balanced to minimize the total cost. In the plain or grassland areas, the slope is approximately parallel to the surface, but higher than the surface at a sufficient height to facilitate drainage of the surface. If necessary, winds can be used to remove surface snow. If the road is approaching or running along a river, the current height of the slope is determined by the expected flood level. In any case, the gentle slope should be set at the excavation section compared to the short vertical section connecting the short vertical curve due to the upslope downslope, and the section from the downslope upslope should be set at the fill. Road section. Such a good linear design can often avoid the formation of a mound or depressionopposite to the current landscape. Other considerations are much more important when determining the vertical slope line than when filling the balance. Study and make more detailed adjustments to advanced issues. In general, the slope of the design that is consistent with the existing conditions is better, which can avoid some unnecessary costs.In slope analysis and control, the impact of slope on motor vehicle operating costs is one of the most important considerations. As the slope increases, the fuel consumption will obviously increase and the speed will slow down. A more economical solution can balance the annual increase in the annual cost of reducing the slope and increasing the annual cost of running the vehicle without increasing the slope. The exact solution to this problem depends on the understanding of traffic flow and traffic type, which can only be known through traffic investigations.In different states, where the maximum longitudinal gradient is also very different, AASHTO recommends that the maximum longitudinal slope be selected based on the time and terrain. The current design has a maximum longitudinal gradient of 5% at a design speed of 70 mil / h. At a design speed of 30 mil / h, the maximum longitudinal slope is generally 7% - 12% depending on the topography.When using longer sustained climbs, the slope length cannot exceed the critical slope length when no slow-moving vehicle is provided. The critical slope length can vary from 1700 ft in 3% grade to 500 ft in 8%grade. The slope of the continuous long slope must be less than the maximum slope of any end surface of the highway. Usually the long continuous single slope is disconnected and the lower part is designed as a steep slope, while approaching the top of the slope allows the slope to decrease. At the same time, it is necessary to avoid obstruction of the view due to the inclination of the longitudinal section.The maximum longitudinal gradient of the highway is 9%. Only when the drainage of the road is a problem, if the water must be drained to the side ditch or the drainage ditch, the minimum gradient criterion is of importance. In this case, AASHTO recommends a minimum gradient of0.35%.C. sight distanceIn order to ensure the safety of driving, the road must be designed to have a sufficient distance in front of the driver's line of sight, so that they can avoid obstacles other than the obstacles, or safely overtake. The line-of-sight is the length of the road visible to the driver of the vehicle. Two meanings: "parking distance" or "non-passing sight distance" or "overtaking sight distance."No matter what happens, reasonable design requires the driver to see this danger outside a certain distance, and brake the car before hitting it. In addition, it is not safe to think that the vehicle can avoid danger by leaving the driving lane. Because this can cause the vehicle to lose controlor to collide with another car.The parking distance is composed of two parts: The first part is the distance that the driver takes before the driver finds an obstacle and brakes. In this detection and reaction phase, the vehicle travels at its initial speed; the second part is the driver’s Part of the pa rking distance depends on the speed of the vehicle and the driver's visual time and braking time. The second part of the parking distance depends on the speed, the brakes, the tires, the conditions of the road surface, and the line shape and slope of the road.Otherwise, the capacity of the highway will be reduced, and the accident will increase, because the irritable driver would risk a collision and overtake the vehicle if he cannot safely overtake the vehicle. The minimum distance in front of which the driver can safely be seen is called the overtaking distance.When making a decision on whether to pass or not, the driver must compare the visibility distance ahead and the distance required to complete the overtaking movement. The factors that influence him to make a decision are the degree of caution in driving and the acceleration performance of the vehicle. Due to the significant differences between humans, the overtaking behavior, which is mainly determined by human judgments and actions rather than the mechanical theorem, varies greatly from driver to driver. In order to establish the line-of-sight value forovertaking, engineers observed many drivers’ overtaking behavior. Between 1938 and 1941, a basic survey was established to establish a standard of over- sight distance. Assume that the operating conditions are as follows:1. It is driven at a uniform speed by the overtaking vehicle.2. Overtaking When entering the overtaking area, decelerate after being overtaken.3. When arriving at the overtaking area, the driver needs to observe the passing area for a short time and start overtaking.4. In the face of the opposite vehicle, the overtaking is completed in a delayed start-up and a hurried turn. In the overtaking process, overtaking accelerates in the overtaking lane and the average speed is 10 mil / h faster than being overtaken.5. When overtaking returns to its original lane, there must be a safe distance between it and the opposite vehicle on the other lane.The sum of the above five items is the over sight distance.中文译文公路线形设计作者：Y HassanA. 平面设计道路的线形反映在平面图上是由一系列的直线和与直线相连的圆曲线构成的。
城市交通规划外文翻译文献
城市交通规划外文翻译文献(文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译)Urban transportation PlanningAn urban transportation system is basic component of an urban area's social，economic，and physical structure. Not only does the design and performance of a transportation system provide opportunities for mobility，but over the long term，it influences patterns of growth and the level of economic activity through the accessibility it provides to land. Planning for the development or maintenance of the urban transportation system is thus an important activity，both for promoting the efficient movement of people andgoods in an urban area and for maintaining the strong supportive role that transportation can play in attaining other community objectives.There are several basic concepts about an urban transportation system that should be kept in mind. Most important，a transportation system in an urban area is defined as consisting of the facilities and services that allow travel throughout the region，providing opportunities for:(I)mobility to residents of an urban area and movement of goods and (2) accessibility to land .Given this definition，an urban transportation system can be further characterized by three major components: the spatial configuration that permits travel from one location to another; the transportation technologies that provide the means of moving over these distances; and the institutional framework that provides for the planning, construction, operation, and maintenance of system facilities.The Spatial Configuration of a Transportation SystemOne way to describe the spatial dimension of an urban transportation system is to consider the characteristics of individual trips from an origin to a destination. For example, a trip can consist of several types of movement undertaken to achieve different objectives. Travelers leaving home might use a local bus system to reach a suburban subway station(a trip collection process)，proceed through the station to the subway platform (a transfer process)，ride the subway to a downtown station (a line-haul process)，and walk to a place of employment (a distribution process). Similarly，one can view a home-to-worktrip by car as consisting of similar segments，with the local street system providing the trip collection process, a freeway providing the line-haul capability，a parking lot in the central business district serving as a transfer point，and walking，as before，serving the distribution function.The facilities and services that provide these opportunities for travel，when interconnected to permit movement from one location to another，form a network. Thus，another way of representing the spatial dimension of an urban transportation system is as a set of road and transit networks. Even in the smallest urban areas，where mass transit is not available，the local street network provides the basic spatial characteristic of the transportation system.The transportation system of a city can influence the way in which the city's social and economic structure, often called the urban activity system，develops. At the same time，changes in this structure can affect the ability of the transportation system to provide mobility and accessibility. Thus , the transportation system is closely related to the urban activity system and; historically, has been an important determinant of urban form.Because of the relation between transportation and urban activities，many of the methods used by transportation planners depend on estimates of trips generated by specific land uses. The relation also suggests that the options available to public officials dealing with transportation problems should include not only those related directly to the transportation system, but also actions such as zoning that affect the distribution of land use, and thus influence theperformance of the transportation system.The foregoing considerations point to two important principles for transportation planning: The transportation system should beConsidered as an integral part of the social and economic system in an urban area.Viewed as a set of interconnected facilities and services designed to provide opportunities for travel from one location to another.The Technology of Urban TransportationThe technology of urban transportation is closely related to the spatial configuration of the transportation system in that the design transportation networks reflects the speed, operating , and cost characteristics of the vehicle or mode of transportation being used. Technology includes the means of propulsion, type of support，means of guidance，and control technique.The development and widespread use of electric streetcars in urban areas during the late nineteenth century was a technological innovation that initiated the transformation of most North American cities. The advent of the electric streetcar permitted urban areas to expand beyond the boundaries that had been dictated by previous transportation technologies (e. g.，walking，horse，horsecar)，spawning `streetcar suburbs' with dramatically lower residential densities along streetcar lines radiating from the central city. Whereas many industries had decentralized along railroad lines leading from the central city，and workers initially had to live near these factories, the introduction of streetcars now permitted more distant living.The success of the streetcar in providing access from selected suburban areas to central business districts was followed by public acceptance of a second major technological innovation-the automobile，powered by the internal combustion engine. Increasing consumer preferences for lower-density living and for an ability to travel beyond established urban boundaries sparked a phenomenal growth in automobile ownership and usage，beginning in the 1920s .④The automobile continues and accelerated the evolution of urban structure started by the electric streetcar. Its availability permitted further expansion of urban areas and, more important, provided access to land between the radial streetcar and railroad lines leading into the central city.The technology of the internal-combustion engine，however, also led to the decline of other transportation modes used in urban areas by providing a less expensive and more flexible replacement for rail-based modes. While the automobile provided new opportunities for personal mobility and urban growth, motor buses rapidly replaced electric streetcars, to the extent that only five North American cities today still operate large-scale streetcar systems-Boston, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Toronto, and San Francisco (although this trend has reversed somewhat in recent years with new `light rail' systems in operation in Edmonton, Calgary, San Diego, and Buffalo). At the same time, the growth of private automobile use has dramatically reduced the use of public transportationin general, particularly since the end of World War II. According to the latest census figures, in 1980, 62. 3 million Americans normally drove alone to work each day, another 19 million car-pooled, and 6 million used public transportation.The technologies and the resulting modes available today for urban transportation are common to most cities but are often applied in different ways to serve different purposes. It should be noted that certain types of modes are appropriate than others in serving different types of urban trips.The technological dimension of the urban transportation system suggests a third principle for urban transportation planning:Transportation planners must consider the transportation system as consisting of different modes , each having different operational and cost characteristics.From; Michael D. Meyer and Eric J. Miller "Urban Transportation Planning", 1984城市交通规划城市交通系统是市区的社会、经济、和物质结构的一个基本组成部分。
公路线形设计外文翻译文献
公路线形设计外文翻译文献(文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译)Geometric Design of HighwaysA Alignment Designof a road is shown on the plane view and is a series of straight lines called tangents connected by circular. In modern practice it is common to interpose transition or spiral curves between tangents and circular curves.Alignment must be consistent. Sudden changes from flat to sharp curves and long tangents followed by sharp curves must be avoided; otherwise, accident hazards will be created. Likewise, placing circular curves of different radii end to end (compound curves) or having a short tangent between two curves is poor practice unless suitable transitions between them are provided. Long, flat curves are preferable at all times, as they are pleasing in appearance and decrease possibility of future obsolescence. However, alignment without tangents is undesirable on two-lane roads because somedrivers hesitate to pass on curves. Long, flat curves should be used for small changes in direction, as short curves appea r as “kink”. Also horizontal and vertical alignment must be considered together, not separately. For example, a sharp horizontal curve beginning near a crest can create a serious accident hazard.A vehicle traveling in a curved path is subject to centrifugal force. This is balanced by an equal and opposite force developed through cannot exceed certain maximums, and these controls place limits on the sharpness of curves that can be used with a design speed.Usually the sharpness of a given circular curve is indicated by its radius. However, for alignment design, sharpness is commonly expressed in terms of degree of curve, which is the central angle subtended by a 100-ft length of curve. Degree of curve is inversely proportional to the radius.Tangent sections of highways carry normal cross slope; curved sections are super Provision must be made for gradual change from one to the other. This usually involves maintaining the center line of each individual roadway at profile grade while raising the outer edge and lowering the inner edge to produce the desired super is attained some distance beyond the point of curve.If a vehicle travels at high speed on a carefully restricted path made up of tangents connected by sharp circular curve, riding is extremely uncomfortable. As the car approaches a curve, super begins and the vehicle is tilted inward, but the passenger must remain vertical since there is on centrifugal force requiring compensation. When the vehicle reaches the curve, full centrifugal force develops at once, and pulls the rider outward from his vertical position. To achieve a position of equilibrium he must force his body far inward. As the remaining super takes effect, further adjustment in position is required. This process is repeated in reverse order as the vehicle leaves the curve. When easement curves are introduced, the change in radius from infinity on the tangent to that of the circular curve is effected gradually so that centrifugal force also develops gradually. By careful application of super along the spiral, a smooth and gradual application of centrifugal force can be had and the roughness avoided.Easement curves have been used by the railroads for many years, but their adoption by highway agencies has come only recently. This is understandable. Railroad trains must follow the precise alignment of the tracks, and the discomfort described here can be avoided only by adopting easement curves. On the other hand, the motor-vehicle operator is free to alter his lateral position on the road and can provide his own easement curves by steering into circular curves gradually. However, this weaving within a traffic lane (but sometimes into other lanes) is dangerous. Properly designed easement curves make weaving unnecessary. It is largely for safety reasons, then, that easement curves have been widely adopted by highway agencies.For the same radius circular curve, the addition of easement curves at the ends changes the location of the curve with relation to its tangents; hence the decision regarding their use should be made before the final location survey. They point of beginning of an ordinary circular curve is usually labeled the PC (point of curve) or BC (beginning of curve). Its end is marked the PT (point of tangent) or EC (end of curve). For curves that include easements, the common notation is, as stationing increases: TS (tangent to spiral), SC (spiral to circular curve), CS (circular curve to spiral), and ST (spiral go tangent).On two-lane pavements provision of a wilder roadway is advisable on sharp curves. This will allow for such factors as (1) the tendency for drivers to shy away from the pavement edge, (2) increased effective transverse vehicle width because the front and rear wheels do not track, and (3) added width because of the slanted position of the front of the vehicle to the roadway center. For 24-ft roadways, the added width is so small that it can be neglected. Only for 30mph design speeds and curves sharper than 22°does the added width reach 2 ft. For narrower pavements, however, widening assumes importance even on fairly flat curves. Recommended amounts of and procedures for curve widening are given in Geometric Design for Highways.B GradesThe vertical alignment of the roadway and its effect on the safe and economical operation of the motor vehicle constitute one of the most important features of roaddesign. The vertical alignment, which consists of a series of straight lines connected by vertical parabolic or circular curves, is known as the “grade line.” When the grad e line is increasing from the horizontal it is known as a “plus grade,” and when it is decreasing from the horizontal it is known as a “minus grade.” In analyzing grade and grade controls, the designer usually studies the effect of change in grade on the center profile.In the establishment of a grade, an ideal situation is one in which the cut is balanced against the fill without a great deal of borrow or an excess of cut to be wasted. All hauls should be downhill if possible and not too long. The grade should follow the general terrain and rise and fall in the direction of the existing drainage. In mountainous country the grade may be set to balance excavation against embankment as a clue toward least overall cost. In flat or prairie country it will be approximately parallel to the ground surface but sufficiently above it to allow surface drainage and, where necessary, to permit the wind to clear drifting snow. Where the road approaches or follows along streams, the height of the grade line may be dictated by the expected level of flood water. Under all conditions, smooth, flowing grade lines are preferable to choppy ones of many short straight sections connected with short vertical curves.Changes of grade from plus to minus should be placed in cuts, and changes from a minus grade to a plus grade should be placed in fills. This will generally give a good design, and many times it will avoid the appearance of building hills and producing depressions contrary to the general existing contours of the land. Other considerations for determining the grade line may be of more importance than the balancing of cuts and fills.Urban projects usually require a more detailed study of the controls and finer adjustment of elevations than do rural projects. It is often best to adjust the grade to meet existing conditions because of the additional expense of doing otherwise.In the analysis of grade and grade control, one of the most important considerations is the effect of grades on the operating costs of the motor vehicle. An increase in gasoline consumption and a reduction in speed are apparent when grades are increase in gasoline consumption and a reduction in speed is apparent whengrades are increased. An economical approach would be to balance the added annual cost of grade reduction against the added annual cost of vehicle operation without grade reduction. An accurate solution to the problem depends on the knowledge of traffic volume and type, which can be obtained only by means of a traffic survey.While maximum grades vary a great deal in various states, AASHTO recommendations make maximum grades dependent on design speed and topography. Present practice limits grades to 5 percent of a design speed of 70 mph. For a design speed of 30 mph, maximum grades typically range from 7 to 12 percent, depending on topography.Wherever long sustained grades are used, the designer should not substantially exceed the critical length of grade without the provision of climbing lanes for slow-moving vehicles. Critical grade lengths vary from 1700 ft for a 3 percent grade to 500 ft for an 8 percent grade.Long sustained grades should be less than the maximum grade on any particular section of a highway. It is often preferred to break the long sustained uniform grade by placing steeper grades at the bottom and lightening the grade near the top of the ascent. Dips in the profile grade in which vehicles may be hidden from view should also be avoided.Maximum grade for highway is 9 percent. Standards setting minimum grades are of importance only when surface drainage is a problem as when water must be carried away in a gutter or roadside ditch. In such instances the AASHTO suggests a minimum of 0.35%.C Sight DistanceFor safe vehicle operation, highway must be designed to give drivers a sufficient distance or clear version ahead so that they can avoid unexpected obstacles and can pass slower vehicles without danger. Sight distance is the length of highway visible ahead to the driver of a vehicle. The concept of safe sight distance has two facets: “stopping” (or “no passing”) and “passing”.At times large objects may drop into a roadway and will do serious damage to amotor vehicle that strikes them. Again a car or truck may be forced to stop in the traffic lane in the path of following vehicles. In dither instance, proper design requires that such hazards become visible at distances great enough that drivers can stop before hitting them. Further more, it is unsafe to assume that one oncoming vehicle may avoid trouble by leaving the lane in which it is traveling, for this might result in loss of control or collision with another vehicle.Stopping sight distance is made up of two elements. The first is the distance traveled after the obstruction comes into view but before the driver applies his brakes. During this period of perception and reaction, the vehicle travels at its initial velocity. The second distance is consumed while the driver brakes the vehicle to a stop. The first of these two distances is dependent on the speed of the vehicle and the perception time and brake-reaction time of the operator. The second distance depends on the speed of the vehicle; the condition of brakes, times, and roadway surface; and the alignment and grade of the highway.On two-lane highways, opportunity to pass slow-moving vehicles must be provided at intervals. Otherwise capacity decreases and accidents increase as impatient drivers risk head-on collisions by passing when it is unsafe to do so. The minimum distance ahead that must be clear to permit safe passing is called the passing sight distance.In deciding whether or not to pass another vehicle, the driver must weigh the clear distance available to him against the distance required to carry out the sequence of events that make up the passing maneuver. Among the factors that will influence his decision are the degree of caution that he exercises and the accelerating ability of his vehicle. Because humans differ markedly, passing practices, which depend largely on human judgment and behavior rather than on the laws of mechanics, vary considerably among drivers. To establish design values for passing sight distances, engineers observed the passing practices of many drivers. Basic observations on which passing sight distance standards are based were made during the period 1938-1941. Assumed operating conditions are as follows:1.The overtaken vehicle travels at a uniform speed.2.The passing vehicle has reduced speed and trails the overtaken one as it entersthe passing section.3.When the passing section is reached, the driver requires a short period of timeto perceive the clear passing section and to react to start his maneuver.4.Passing is accomplished under what may be termed a delayed start and ahurried return in the face of opposing traffic. The passing vehicle accelerates during the maneuver and its average speed during occupancy of the left lane is 10 mph higher than that of the overtaken vehicle.5.When the passing vehicle returns to its lane there is a suitable clearancelength between it and an oncoming vehicle in the other lane.The five distances, in sum, make up passing sight distance.公路线形设计A 平面设计道路的线形反映在平面图上是由一系列的直线和与直线相连的圆曲线构成的。
城市规划外文文献翻译(适用于毕业论文外文翻译+中英文对照)
外文文献翻译（一）题目：HongKong:The FactTown Planning一、内容简介：近年来，香港城市规划的目的是提供一个优质的生活环境，促进经济发展，促进健康，安全，指导和控制的发展和土地使用的方便和一般社区福利。
遵循可持续发展的原则，城市规划旨在带来一个有组织的，有效地为社会生活和工作中的和可取的。
在香港土地适宜性发展是稀缺的，有需要的方式利用有限的土地资源的竞争性需求的住房，商业，工业，交通，娱乐，自然保护的平衡，和其他社区的需求。
香港的城镇规划系统：香港的发展战略规划法定部门计划在当地水平的领土和各种类型。
指导的制备是香港规划标准和指导方针，发展有关的相关政策的原则和社会各界的意见。
二、外文文献原稿HongKong:The FactTown PlanningPurpose of Town Planning: Town Planning aims atproviding a quality living environment, facilitating economicdevelopment, and promoting the health, safety, convenienceand general welfare of the community by guiding andcontrolling development and the use of land. Following theprinciple of sustainable development, town planning seeksto bring about an organized, efficient and desirable place forthe community to live and work in. As land suitable fordevelopment in Hong Kong is scarce, there is a need tostrike a balance in utilizing the limited land resource to meetthe competing demands for housing, commerce, industry,transport, recreation, nature conservation, heritagepreservation and other community needs.Planning Organisations: The Planning and Lands Branchof the Development Bureau is in charge of the policyportfolios of planning, land use, buildings and urbanrenewal in Hong Kong. Taking directives from theDevelopment Bureau,the Planning Department (PlanD) isresponsible for formulating, monitoring and reviewing landuse at the territorial level. PlanD also prepares district/localplans, area improvement plans, the Hong Kong PlanningStandards and Guidelines as well as undertakes actionsagainst unauthorized land uses.The principal body responsible for statutory planningin Hong Kong is the Town Planning Board (TPB). It isformed under the Town Planning Ordinance (TPO) andserved by the PlanD. Comprising predominantlynon-official members, the TPB oversees the preparation ofdraft statutory plans, considers representations to suchdraft plans and considers applications for planningpermission and amendments to plans. There are twostanding committees under the TPB, namely, the MetroPlanning Committee and the Rural and New TownPlanning Committee. Under the TPO, the TPB may alsoappoint a committee among its members to considerrepresentations to draft statutory plans.Planning System: Hong Kong’s planning systemcom prises development strategies at the territorial leveland various types of Statutory and Departmental Plans atthe district/local level. Guiding the preparation of theseplans is the Hong Kong Planning Standards andGuidelines, relevant development related policy andprinciples and community views.Territorial Development Strategy: The strategy aims atproviding a broad planning framework to guide futuredevelopment and the provision of strategic infrastructure inHong Kong. It also serves as a basis for the preparation ofdistrict plans. The findings of Hong Kong 2030: PlanningVision and Strategy (the HK2030 Study), a study toformulate the planning framework for Hong Kong up to2030, were promulgated in October 2007. The HK2030Study has adopted sustainable development as itsover-arching goal. The recommended strategy, focusing onthe three broad directions of providing a quality livingenvironment, enhancing economic competitiveness andstrengthening links with the Mainland, aims to help HongKong achieve its vision as “Asia’s world city”.With increasing economic integration and socialinteraction between Hong Kong and the Mainland,cross-boundary surveys are commissionedregularly tocollect statistical information on various aspects ofcross-boundary activities, e.g. travel pattern andbehaviour, Hong Kong residents’ experience of andaspirations for taking up residence in the Mainland. Thefindings of these surveys provide valuable input for theplanning of cross-boundary infrastructure and theformulation of development strategies. The planning studytitled Coordinated Development of the Greater Pearl RiverDelta Townships, jointly commissioned by Hong Kong,Guangdong and Macao to formulate a regionaldevelopment framework, was completed and its findingswere promulgated in October 2009.Statutory Plans: Two types of statutory plans areprepared and published by the TPB under the provisions ofthe TPO. In 2005, the TPO was amended to streamlinehe plan-making process and planning approvalprocedures, enhance the openness and transparency ofthe planning system and strengthen planning enforcementcontrol in the rural New Territories.The first type is Outline Zoning Plan (OZP) whichmajor road systems of an individual planning area. Areascovered by OZPs are in general zoned for uses such asresidential, commercial, industrial, green belt, openspace,government/institution/community uses or other specifiedpurposes. Attached to each OZP is a Schedule of Notesshowing the uses which are always permitted (Column 1uses) in a particular zone and other uses for which priorpermission from the TPB must be sought (Column 2 uses).The second type is Development Permission Area(DPA) Plan. DPA Plans are prepared to provide interimplanning control, and development guidance for rural areasin the New Territories until more detailed OZPs areprepared. DPA Plans indicate broad land use zones andare also accompanied by Schedules of Notes showingColumn 1 and 2 uses. DPA Plans are effective for a periodof 3 years and will be replaced by rmation on statutory plans, related guidelines andprocedures as well as the agenda and decisions of theopen meetings of the TPB and its Committees can beaccessed online from the TPB website at.hk/tpb/ and the Statutory PlanningPortal at.hk/. The public may alsoobserve those open meetings in the Public Viewing Roomlocated in North Point Government Offices, 333 JavaRoad, North Point, Hong Kong.Departmental Plans: Outline Development Plans andLayout Plans are administrative plans prepared within theframework of the statutory plans. With a much larger scale,these departmental plans show more detailed levelplanning parameters e.g. site boundaries, location ofaccess points and footbridges, specific types ofgovernment or community uses to facilitate thecoordination of public works, land sales and landreservation for specific uses.Views from the public are essential considerations forthe formulation of development strategies and preparationof plans. Public engagement in the form of public forums,workshops, exhibitions, etc. has become a very importantcomponent of the planning process.Hong Kong Planning Standards and Guidelines: It is areference manual setting out the criteria for determiningthe scale, location and site requirements of various landuses and facilities. It is used in the preparation of townplans and planning briefs and is a tool that helps toregulate development.Urban Renewal and Regeneration: The Urban RenewalAuthority (URA) is a statutory body established in 2001 tospeed up the renewal of old urban areas and to executethe Urban Renewal Strategy formulated by theGovernment. PlanD co-ordinates with the URA under thestatutory provisions in the planning of urban renewal andregeneration projects for the improvement of the old urbanareas.The Government has launched a review of the UrbanRenewal Strategy in 2008 in three stages – envisioning,public engagement and consensus building, and isscheduled for completion in 2010. The Strategy willprovide a broad policy guidance for urban renewal in HongKong.New Town and New Development Areas: Large-scalenew town development in the New Territories began in theearly 1970s. PlanD’s District Planning Offices have workedclosely with the Civil Engineering and DevelopmentDepartment’s Development Offices t o prepare plans andoversee the development of these new towns. At present,nine new towns, namely,Tsuen Wan, Sha Tin, Tuen Mun,Tai Po, Yuen Long, Fanling/Sheung Shui, Tseung Kwan O,Tin Shui Wai and North Lantau are in various stages ofdevelopment and will accommodate about four millionpeople upon full development. However, large-scale newtowns will not be pursued in the foreseeable future. Instead,medium-scale new development areas such as Kai Tak andnew development areas in the New Territories will bedeveloped. Enquiry Counters located at:- 17/F, North Point Government Offices,333 Java Road, North Point, Hong Kong- 14/F, Sha Tin Government Offices,1 Sheung Wo Che Road, Sha Tin, New TerritoriesFor enquiries, please call 2231 5000, fax to 2877 0389 or*************************.hk.三、外文翻译部分城市规划：城市规划的目的是提供一个优质的生活环境，促进经济发展，促进健康，安全，指导和控制的发展和土地使用的方便和一般社区福利。
欧洲道路结构设计外文文档
欧洲道路结构设计外文文档European Road Infrastructure Design: A ReviewAbstract: This paper aims to review the design of road infrastructure in Europe. It examines the principles, guidelines, and standards used in the design process. The focus is on the categorization of roads, geometric design elements, safety considerations, and sustainability aspects. The research also explores the role of European organizations in developing road infrastructure design standards. The findings provide a comprehensive understanding of the factors guiding road infrastructure design in Europe, highlighting areas for further improvement.1. IntroductionRoad infrastructure plays a vital role in facilitating transportation and ensuring mobility in Europe. The design of road infrastructure is crucial for the safety, efficiency, and sustainability of transportation systems. This paper reviews the design principles and standards used in European road infrastructure design processes.2. Categorization of RoadsThe categorization of roads is an essential aspect of road infrastructure design. European countries have different classification systems, but there is an overall agreement on the hierarchical classification, whichtypically includes motorways, primary roads, secondary roads, and local roads. Each category has specific design considerations that cater to the traffic volume, speed, and functionality of the road.3. Geometric Design ElementsGeometric design elements refer to the physical features of the road, such as alignment, cross-sectional profiles, and intersections. In European road infrastructure design, there are guidelines and standards for each element that ensure safe and efficient road operations. These include principles for horizontal and vertical alignment, road width, shoulder design, and provision of adequate sight distances.4. Safety ConsiderationsRoad safety is a significant concern in European road infrastructure design. European countries have adopted various safety measures, such as the use of safety barriers, roundabouts, and traffic calming techniques. Design principles aim to reduce the risk of accidents and minimize the severity of injuries in case of a collision. Additionally, road markings, signage, and lighting play a vital role in enhancing road safety.5. Sustainability aspectsEuropean road infrastructure design takes into account sustainabilityconsiderations. This includes minimizing environmental impacts, optimizing land use, and promoting modes of transport that are less harmful to the environment. Measures such as the provision of pedestrian and cycling infrastructure, public transportation integration, and use of environmentally friendly construction materials are considered in road design.6. European Organizations in Road Infrastructure DesignSeveral European organizations play a crucial role in developing road infrastructure design standards. The European Union, through its various directives and regulations, sets the minimum requirements for road infrastructure design across member states. The European Conference of Ministers of Transport (ECMT) and International Road Federation (IRF) also contribute to the development of road infrastructure design guidelines.7. ConclusionRoad infrastructure design in Europe follows a comprehensive approach, considering categorization, geometric design elements, safety, and sustainability aspects. European organizations play a significant role in standardizing road infrastructure design practices. However, there arestill areas for improvement, such as harmonizing classification systems and addressing emerging challenges, including the integration of new technologies.。
欧洲道路结构设计外文文档
欧洲道路结构设计外文文档在欧洲，道路结构设计是基于许多国家的经验和最佳实践，在欧盟成员国之间达成的共识基础上进行的。
这些设计基于道路交通的安全性、效率和可持续性。
以下是一些与欧洲道路结构设计相关的外文文档：1. "Road design manual: European local roads" by European Union Road Federation (ERF)这是欧盟道路联盟发布的关于欧洲本地道路设计的手册，介绍了道路设计的原则、方法和指南。
2. "Design manual for roads and bridges" by Highways England Highways England发布了这本手册，提供了英国道路设计的详细指南和规范。
3. "Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures" by European Committee for Standardization (CEN)欧洲标准化委员会发布了这个关于混凝土结构设计的欧洲标准，其中包括有关道路结构设计的规定。
4. "Design manual for bicycle traffic" by Danish Road Directorate 这本手册由丹麦道路总局发布，重点介绍了自行车交通的道路结构设计，包括自行车道和自行车交叉口的设计原则。
5. "Design manual for pedestrian traffic" by Netherlands Institute for Safety Research荷兰安全研究所发布了这本手册，提供了关于步行交通的道路结构设计的指南，包括人行道、过街天桥和人行横道的设计原则。
这些外文文档可以提供关于欧洲道路结构设计的具体指南和最佳实践，对于研究和实践者来说都是有用的参考资料。
公路设计英文参考文献
公路设计英文参考文献虽然满足您所有特定要求的完整英文公路设计参考文献在这里难以直接呈现（因为通常需要结构化的学术格式），但我可以为您提供几个符合口语化、独立段落且语言特点各异的公路设计英文段落示例。
请注意，这些段落并非完整的学术论文，而是为了满足您的特定要求而编写的。
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段落一：Highway design is not just about drawing lines on a map. It's a blend of art and science, where each curve and straightaway has a purpose. The landscape, climate, and traffic patterns all come into play when you're laying outa highway.段落二：You know, one of the key factors in highway design issafety. It's not just about making sure cars can go fast,it's about making sure they can stop safely too. That's why you see those long, gradual curves instead of sharp turns.段落三：Environmental impact is a big consideration too. Wedon't want to just bulldoze through a forest or wetlands to build a highway. So, we have to find ways to minimize the impact, like using bridges and tunnels to go over or under sensitive areas.段落四：And let's not forget about aesthetics. A highway is not just a means of transportation, it's also a part of the landscape.。
公路建设外文翻译文献
公路建设外文翻译文献(文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译)PavementHighway pavements are divided into two main categories: rigitand flexible.The wearing surfaceof a rigid pavement is usually constructed of Portland cement concrete such that it acts like a beam over any irregularities in the underlying supporting material.The wearing surface of flexible pavements, on the other hand, is usually constructed of bituminous material such that they remain in contact with the underlying material even when minor irregularities occur.Flexible pavements usually consist of a bituminous surface underlaid with a layer of granular material and a layer of a suitable mixture of coarse and fine materials.Coarse aggregatesFine aggregatesTraffic loads are transferred by the wearing surface to the underlying supporting materials through the interlocking of aggregates, the frictionaleffect of the granular materials, and the cohesion of the fine materials.Flexible pavements are further divided into three subgroups: high type, intermediate type, and low type. High-type pavements have wearing surfaces that adequately support the expected traffic load without visible distress due to fatigue and are not susceptible to weather conditions.Intermediate-type pavements have wearing surfaces that range from surface treated to those with qualities just below that of high-type pavements. Low-type pavements are used mainly for low-cost roads and have wearing surfaces that range from untreated to loose natural materials to surface-treated earth.✹The components of a flexible pavement include the subgradeor prepared roadbed, the subbase, basecourse, and the surface course (Fig.11.1).✹Upper surface courseMiddle surface courseLower surface courseThe performance of the pavement depends on the satisfactory performance of each component, which requires proper evaluation of the properties of each component separately.✹The subgrade is usually the natural material located along the horizontal alignment of the pavement and serves as the foundation of the pavement structure.✹The subgrademay also consist of a layer of selected borrow materials, well compacted to prescribedspecifications.✹Compacting plantCompaction deviceCompactnessIt may be necessary to treat the subgrade material to achieve certain strength properties required for the type of pavement being constructed.Located immediately above the subgrade, the subbase component consists of a superior quality to that which generally is used for subgrade construction. The requirements for subbase materials are usually given in terms of the gradation, plastic characteristics, and strength. When the quality of the subgrade material meets the requirements of the subbase material, the subbase component may be omitted.In cases where suitable subbase material is not readily available ,the available material can be treated with other materials to achieve the necessary properties. This process of treating soils to improve their engineering properties is know as stabilization.✹The base course lies immediately above the subbase. It is placed immediately above the subgrade if a subbase course is not used.✹This course usually consists of granular materials such as crushed stone, crushed or uncrushed.The specifications for base course materials usually include stricter requirements than those for subbase materials, particularly with respect to their plasticity, gradation, and strength.Materials that do not have the required properties can be used as base materials if they are properly stabilized with Portland cement, asphalt, or lime .In some cases, high-quality base course materials may also be treated with asphalt or Portland cement to improve the stiffness characteristics of heavy-duty pavementsThe surface course is the upper course of the road pavement and is constructed immediately above the base course. The surface course in flexible pavement usually consists of a mixture of mineral aggregates and asphaltic materials.It should be capable of withstanding high tire pressures, resisting the abrasive forces due to traffic, providing a skid-resistant driving surface, and preventing the penetration of surface water into the underlying layers.✹The thickness of the wearing surface can vary from 3 in. to more than 6 in.（inch，英寸，2.54cm）, depending on the expected traffic on the pavement.It was shown that the quality of the surface course of a flexible pavement depends on the mix design of the asphalt concrete used.✹Rigid highway pavements usually are constructed to carry heavy traffic loads, although they have been used for residential and local roads. Properly designed and constructed rigid pavements have long service lives and usually are less expensive to maintain than the flexible pavements.✹The Portland cement concrete commonly used for rigid pavements consists of Portland cement, coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, and water. Steel reinforcing rods may or may not be used, depending on the type of pavement being constructed.Rigid highway pavements be divided into three general type: plain concrete pavements, simply reinforced concrete pavements, and continuously reinforced concrete pavement. The definition of each pavement type is related to the amount of reinforcement used.Plain concrete pavement has no temperature steel or dowels for load transfer.However, steel tie bars are often used to provide a hingeeffect at longitudinal joints and to prevent the opening of these joints. Plain concrete pavements are used mainly on low-volume highways or when cement-stabilized soils are used as subbase.Joints are placed at relatively shorter distances (10 to 20 ft) than with the other types of concrete pavements to reduce the amount of cracking.In some case, the transverse joints of plain concrete pavements are skewed about 4 to 5 ft in plan, such that only one wheel of a vehicle passes through the joint at a time. This helps to provide a smoother ride.Simply reinforced concrete pavements have dowels for the transfer of traffic loads across joints, with these joints spaced at larger distances, ranging from 30 to 100 ft. Temperature steel is used throughout the slab, with the amount dependent on the length of the slab. Tie bars are also commonly used in longitudinal joints.Continuously reinforced concrete pavements have no transverse joints, except construction joints or expansion joints when they are necessary at specific positions, such as at bridges.These pavements have a relatively high percentage of steel, with the minimum usually at 0.6 percent of the cross section of the slab. They also contain tie bars across the longitudinal joints.h/2h/25~10cm填缝料 横向施工缝构造填缝料平缝加拉杆型Bituminous Surface CoursesThe bituminous surface course has to provide resistance to the effects of repeated loading by tyres and to the effects of the environment.✹In addition, it must offer adequate skid resistance in wet weather as well as comfortable vehicle ride. It must also be resistant to rutting and to cracking.✹It is also desirable that surface course is impermeable, except in the case of porous asphalt.Hot rolled asphalt (HRA) is a gapgraded material with less coarse aggregate. In fact it is essentially a bitumen/fine aggregate/filler mortar into which some coarse aggregate is placed.The mechanical propertiesare dominated by those of the mortar. This material has been extensively used as the wearing course on major road in the UK, though its use has recently declined as new materials have been introduced.✹It provides a durablelayer with good resistance to cracking and one which is relatively easy to compact. The coarse aggregate content is low (typically 30%) which results in the compacted mixture having a smooth surface. Accordingly, the skid resistance is inadequate and precoated chippings are rolled into the surface at the time of laying to correct this deficiency.In Scotland, HRA wearing course remains the preferred wearing course on trunk roads including motorway but，since 1999 thin surfacings have been the preferred option in England and Wales. Since 1999 in Northern Ireland, HRA wearing course and thin surfacings are the preferred permitted options.Porous asphalt (PA) is a uniformly graded material which is designed to provide large air voids so that water can drain to the verges within the layer thickness. If the wearing course is to be effective, the basecourse below must be waterproof and the PA must have the ability to retain its open textured properties with time.Thick binder films are required to resist water damage and ageing of the binder. In use, this material minimizes vehicle spray, provides a quiet ride and lower rolling resistance to traffic than dense mixtures.✹It is often specified for environmental reasons but stone mastic asphalt (SMA) and special thin surfacings are generally favoured in current UK practice.There have been high profile instances where a PA wearing course has failed early in its life. The Highways Agency does not recommend the use of a PA at traffic levels above 6000 commercial vehicles per day.✹Asphaltic concrete and dense bitumen macadam (DBM) are continuously graded mixtures similar in principle to the DBMs used in roadbases and basecourses but with smaller maximum particle sizes. Asphaltic concrete tends to have a slightlydenser grading and is used for road surfaces throughout the world with the excepting of the UK.✹It is more difficult to meet UK skid resistance Standards with DBMs than HRA, SMA or PA. This problem can be resolves by providing a separate surface treatment but doing so generally makes DBM economically unattractive.✹Stone mastic asphalt (SMA) material was pioneeredin Germany and Scandinavia and is now widely used in the UK. SMA has a coarse, aggregrate skeleton, like PA, but the voids are filled with a fine aggregate/filler /bitumen mortar.✹In mixtures using penetration grade bitumen , fibres are added to hold the bitumen within the mixture (to prevent “binder drainage”).Bitumen✹oil bitumen( earth oil)✹natural bitumen✹TarWhere a polymer modified bitumen is used, there is generally no need for fibres. SMA is a gap-graded material with good resistance to rutting and high durability. modified bitumen✹SBS✹SBR✹PE\EV A✹It differs from HRA in that the mortar is designed to just fill the voids in the coarse aggregate whereas, in HRA, coarse aggregate is introduced into the mortar and does not provide a continous stone matrix. The higher stone content HRAs ,however, are rather similar to SMA but are not wide used as wearing courses in the UK, being preferred for roadbase and basecourse construction.A variety of thin and what were called ultra thin surfacings (nowadays, the tendency is to use the term …thin surfacings‟ for both thin and ultra thin surfac ings ) have been introduced in recent years, principally as a result of development work concentrated in France.These materials vary in their detailed constituents but usually have an aggregate grading similar to SMA and often incorporate a polymer modified bitumen.They may be used over a high stiffness roadbase and basecourse or used for resurfacing of existing pavements. For heavy duty pavements (i .e those designed to have a useful life of forty years), the maintenance philosophy is one of minimum lane occupancy, which only allows time for replacement of the wearing course to these …long life‟ pavement structures. The new generation of thin surfacings allows this to be conveniently achieved.The various generic mixture types described above can be compared with respect to their mechanical properties and durability characteristics by reference to Fig.12.1. This shows, in principle, how low stone content HRA, asphaltic concrete, SMA and PA mixtures mobilize resistance to loading by traffic.Asphaltic concrete (Fig.12.1a)) presents something of a compromise when well designed, since the dense aggregate grading can offer good resistance to the shear stresses which cause rutting, while an adequate binder content will provide reasonable resistance to the tensile stresses which cause cracking.In general, the role of the aggregate dominates. DBMs tend to have less dense gradings and properties which, therefore, tend towards good rutting resistance andaway from good crack resistance.HRA (Fig.12.1b)) offers particularly good resistance to cracking through the binder rich mortar between the coarse aggregate particles. This also provides good durability but the lack of coarse aggregate content inhibits resistance to rutting.SMA and PA are shown in the same diagram ( Fig.c)) to emphasis the dominant role the coarse aggregate. In both case, well coated stone is used. In PA, the void space remains available for drainage of water, whilst in SMA, the space is occupied by a fine aggregate/ filler/ bitumen/ fibre mortar.Both materials offer good rutting resistance through the coarse aggregate content. The tensile strength of PA is low whilst that of SMA is probably adequate but little mechanical testing data have been reported to date.Drainage for Road and Airports✹Provision of adequate drainage is important factor in the location and geometric design of road and airports. Drainage facilities on any highway, street and airport should adequately provide for the flow of water away from the surface of the pavement to properly designed channels.Inadequate drainage will eventually result in serious damage to the structure.✹In addition, traffic may be slowed by accumulated water on the pavement, and accidents may occur as a result of hydroplaning and loss of visibility from splash and spray. The importance of adequate drainage is recognized in the amount of highway construction dollars allocated to drainage facilities. About25 percent of highway construction dollars are spent for erosion control anddrainage structures, such as culverts, bridges, channels, and ditches.✹Highway Drainage Structures✹One of the main concerns of the highway engineer is to provide an adequate size structure, such that the waterway opening is sufficiently large to discharge the expected flow of water.Inadequately sized structures can result in water impounding, which may lead to failure of the adjacent sections of the highway due to embankments being submerged in water for long periods.✹The two general categories of drainage structures are major and minor. Major structures are those with clear spans greater than 20 feet, whereas minor structures are those with clear spans of 20 feet or less .✹Major structures are usually large bridges, although multiple-span culverts may also be included in this class. Minor structures include small bridges and culverts.Emphasis is placed on selecting the span and vertical clearancerequirements for major structures. The bridge deck should be located above the high water mark .The clearance above the high water mark depends on whether the waterway is navigable ✹If the waterway is navigable, the clearance above the high water mark should allow the largest ship using the channel to pass underneath the bridge without colliding with the bridge deck. The clearance height, type, and spacing of piers also depend on the probability of ice jams and the extentto which floating logs and debris appear on the waterway during high water.✹An examination of the banks on either side of the waterway will indicate the location of the high water mark, since this is usually associated with signs of erosion and debris deposits. Local residents, who have lived near and observed the waterway during flood stages over a number of years, can also give reliable information on the location of the high water mark. Stream gauges that have been installed in the waterway for many years can also provide data that can be used to locate the high water mark.Minor structures, consisting of short-span bridges and culverts, are the predominant type of drainage structures on highways. Although openings for these structures are not designed to be adequate for the worst flood conditions, they shouldbe large enough to accommodate the flow conditions that might occur during the normal life expectancy of the structure.✹Provision should also be made for preventing clogging of the structure due to floating debris and large boulders rolling from the banks of steep channels.✹Culverts are made of different materials and in different shapes. Materials used to construct culverts include concrete（reinforced and unreinforced）, corrugated steel, and corrugatedaluminum. Other materials may also be used to line the interiorof the culvert to prevent corrosion and abrasionor to reduce hydraulic resistance. For example, asphaltic concrete may be used to line corrugated metal culverts. The different shapes normally used in culvert construction include circular, rectangular (box), elliptical, pipe arch, metal box, and arch.✹The drainage problem is increased in these areas primarily for two reasons: the impervious nature of the area creates a very high runoff; and there is little room for natural water courses. It is often necessary to collect the entire storm water into a system of pipes and transmit it over considerable distances before it can be loosed again as surface runoff. This collection and transmission further increase the problem, since all of the water must be collected with virtually no pending, thus eliminating any natural storage; and through increased velocity the peak runoffs are reached more quickly.Also, the shorter times of peaks cause the system to be more sensitive to short-duration,high intensive rainfall.Storm sewers,like culverts and bridges,are designed for storms of various intensity-return-period relationships, depending upon the economy and amount of ponding that can be tolerated.✹Airport Drainage✹The problem of providing proper drainage facilities for airports is similar in many ways to that of highways and streets. However, because of the large and relatively flat surface involved, the varying soil conditions, the absence of natural water courses and possible side ditches, and the greater concentration of discharge at the terminus of the construction area, some phases of the problem are more complex. For the average airport the over-all area to be drained is relatively large and an extensive drainage system is required. The magnitude of such a system makes it even more imperative that sound engineering principles based on all of the best available data be used to ensure the most economical design.Overdesigning of facilities results in excessive money investment with no return, and underdesigning can result in conditions hazardous to the air traffic using the airport. In order to ensure surfaces that are smooth, firm, stable, and reasonably free from flooding, it is necessary to provide a system which will do several things.It must collect and remove the surface water from the airport surfaces; intercept and remove surface water flowing toward the airport from adjacent areas; collect and remove any excessive subsurface water beneath the surface of the airport facilities and in many cases lower the ground-water table; and provide protection against erosion of the sloping areas.路面公路的路面被分为两类：刚性的和柔性的。
交通建设项目工程专业外文翻译外文文献英文文献.doc
土木工程学院交通工程专业中英文翻译Road Design专业：交通工程英文原文The Basics of a Good RoadWe have known how to build good roads for a long time. Archaeologists have found ancient Egyptian roadsthat carried blocks to the pyramids in 4600 BCE. Later,the Romans built an extensive road system, using the same principles we use today. Some of these roads are still in service.If you follow the basic concepts of road building, you will create a road that will last. The ten commandments of a good road are:（1）Get water away from the road（2）Build on a firm foundation（3）Use the best materials（4）Compact all layers properly（5）Design for traffic loads and volumes（6）Design for maintenance（7）Pave only when ready（8）Build from the bottom up（9）Protect your investment（10）Keep good records1．Get water away from the roadWe can’t overemphasize the importance of good drainage.Engineers estimate that at least 90% of a road’s problems can be related to excess water or to poor waterdrainage. Too much water in any laye r of a road’sstructure can weaken that layer, leading to failure.In the surface layer, water can cause cracks and potholes. In lower layers it undermines support, causing cracks and potholes. A common sign of water in an asphalt road surface is alligator cracking — an interconnected pattern of cracks forming small irregular shaped pieces that look like alligator skin. Edge cracking, frost heaves, and spring breakup of pavements also point to moisture problems.To prevent these problems remember that water:• flows downhill• needs to flow someplace• is a problem if it is not flowingEffective drainage systems divert, drain and dispose of water. To do this they use interceptor ditches and slopes,road crowns, and ditch and culvert systems.Divert —Interceptor ditches, located between the road and higher ground along the road, keep the water from reaching the roadway. These ditches must slope so they carry water away from the road.Drain —Creating a crown in the road so it is higher along the centerline than at the edges encourages water to flow off the road. Typically a paved crown should be 1⁄4" higher than the shoulder for each foot of width from the centerline to the edge. For gravel surfaces the crown should be 1⁄2" higher per foot of width. For this flow path to work, the road surface must be relativelywater tight. Road shoulders also must be sloped away from the road to continue carrying the flow away. Superelevations (banking) at the outside of curves will also help drainthe road surface.Dispose —A ditch and culvert system carries water away from the road structure. Ditches should be at least one foot lower than the bottom of the gravel road layer that drains the roadway. They must be kept clean and must be sloped to move water into natural drainage. If water stays in the ditches it can seep back into the road structure and undermine its strength. Ditches should also be protected from erosion by planting grass, or installing rock and other erosion control measures. Erosion can damage shoulders and ditches, clog culverts, undermine roadbeds, and contaminate nearby streams and lakes. Evaluate your ditch and culvert system twice a year to ensure that it works. In the fall, clean out leaves and branches that can block flow. In spring, check for and remove silts from plowing and any dead plant material left from the fall.2．Build on a firm foundationA road is only as good as its foundation. A highway wears out from the top down but falls apart from the bottom. The road base must carry the entire structure and the traffic that uses it.To make a firm foundation you may need to stabilize the roadbed with chemical stabilizers, large stone called breaker run, or geotextile fabric. When you run into conditions where you suspect that the native soil is unstable, work with an engineer to investigate the situation and design an appropriate solution.3．Use the best materialsWith all road materials you “pay now or pay later.” Inferior materials may require extensive maintenance throughout the road’s life. They may also force you to replace the road prematurely.Crushed aggregate is the best material for the base course. The sharp angles of thecrushed material interlock when they are compacted. This supports the pavement and traffic by transmitting the load from particle to particle. By contrast, rounded particles act like ballbearings, moving under loads.Angular particles are more stable than rounded particles.Asphalt and concrete pavement materials must be of the highest quality, designed for the conditions, obtained from established firms, and tested to ensure it meets specifications. 4．Compact all layersIn general, the more densely a material is compacted, the stronger it is. Compaction also shrinks or eliminates open spaces (voids) between particles. This means that less water can enter the structure. Water in soil can weaken the structure or lead to frost heaves. This is especially important for unsurfaced (gravel) roads. Use gravel which has a mix of sizes (well-graded aggregate) so smaller particles can fill the voids between larger ones. Goodcompaction of asphalt pavement lengthens its life.5．Design for traffic loads and volumesDesign for the highest anticipated load the road will carry. A road that has been designed only for cars will not stand up to trucks. One truck with 9 tons on a single rear axle does as much damage to a road as nearly 10,000 cars.Rural roads may carry log trucks, milk trucks, fire department pumper trucks, or construction equipment. If you don’t know what specific loads the road will carry, a good rule of thumb is to design for the largest piece of highway maintenance equipment that will be used on the road.A well-constructed and maintained asphalt road should last 20 years without major repairs orreconstruction. In designing a road, use traffic counts that project numbers and sizes of vehicles 20 years into the future. These are only projections, at best, but they will allow you to plan for traffic loadings through a road’s life.6．Design for maintenanceWithout maintenance a road will rapidly deteriorate and fail. Design your roads so they can be easily maintained. This means:• adequate ditches that can be cleaned regularly• culverts that are marked for easy locating in the spring• enough space for snow after it is plowed off the road• proper cross slopes for safety, maintenance and to avoid snow drifts• roadsi des that are planted or treated to prevent erosion• roadsides that can be mowed safelyA rule of thumb for adequate road width is to make it wide enough for a snowplow to pass another vehicle without leaving the travelled way.Mark culverts with a post so they can be located easily.7．Pave only when readyIt is not necessary to pave all your roads immediately. There is nothing wrong with a well-built and wellmaintained gravel road if traffic loads and volume do not require a paved surface. Three hundred vehicles per day is the recommended minimum to justify paving.Don’t assume that laying down asphalt will fix a gravel road that is failing. Before you pave, make sure you have an adequate crushed stone base that drains well and is properly compacted. The recommended minimum depth of crushed stone base is 10" depending on subgrade soils. A road paved only when it is ready will far outperform one that is constructed too quickly.8．Ê Build from the bottom upThis commandment may seem obvious, but it means that you shouldn’t top dress or resurface a road if the problem is in an underlying layer. Before you do any road improvement, locate the cause of any surface problems. Choose an improvement technique that will address the problem. This may mean recycling or removing all road materials down to the native soil and rebuilding everything. Doing any work that doesn’t solve the problem is a waste of money and effort.9．Ê Protect your investmentThe road system can be your municipality’s biggest investment. Just as a home needs painting or a new roof, a road must be maintained. Wisconsin’s severe climate requires more road maintenance than in milder places. Do these important maintenance activities: Surface —grade, shape, patch, seal cracks, control dust, remove snow and iceDrainage —clean and repair ditches and culverts; remove all excess materialRoadside —cut brush, trim trees and roadside plantings, control erosionTraffic service —clean and repair or replace signsDesign roads with adequate ditches so they can be maintained with a motor grader. Clean and grade ditches to maintain proper pitch and peak efficiency. After grading, remove all excess material from the shoulder.10．Keep good recordsYour maintenance will be more efficient with good records. Knowing the road’s construction, life, and repair history makes it much easier to plan and budget its future repairs. Records can also help you evaluate the effectiveness of the repair methods and materials you used.Good record keeping starts with an inventory of the system. It should include the history and surface condition of the roadway, identify and evaluate culverts and bridges, note ditch conditions, shoulders, signs, and such structures as retaining walls and guardrails.Update your inventory each year or when you repair or change a road section. A formal pavement management system can help use these records and plan and budget road improvements.ResourcesThe Basics of a Good Road#17649, UW-Madison, 15 min. videotape. Presents the Ten Commandments of a Good Road. Videotapes are loaned free through County Extension offices.Asphalt PASER Manual(39 pp), Concrete PASER Manual (48 pp), Gravel PASER Manual (32 pp). These booklets contain extensive photos and descriptions of road surfacesto help you understand types of distress conditions and their causes. A simple procedure for rating the condition helps you manage your pavements and plan repairs.Roadware, a computer program which stores and reports pavement condition information. Developed by the Transportation Information Center and enhanced by the Wisconsin Department of Transportation, it uses the PASER rating system to provide five-year cost budgets and roadway repair/reconstruction priority lists.Wisconsin Transportation Bulletin factsheets, available from the Transportation Information Center (T.I.C.).Road Drainage, No. 4. Describes drainage for roadways, shoulders, ditches, and culverts.Gravel Roads, No. 5. Discusses the characteristics of a gravel road and how to maintain one.Using Salt and Sand for Winter Road Maintenance,No. 6. Basic information and practical tips on how to use de-icing chemicals and sand.Culverts—Proper Use and Installation, No. 15. Selecting and sizing culverts, designing, installing and maintaining them.Geotextiles in Road Construction/Maintenance andErosion Control, No. 16. Definitions and common applications of geotextiles on roadways and for erosion control.T.I.C. workshops are offered at locations around the state.Crossroads,an 8-page quarterly newsletter published by the T.I.C. carries helpful articles, workshop information, and resource lists. For more information on any of these materials, contact the T.I.C. at 800/442-4615.中文译文一个良好的公路的基础长久以来我们已经掌握了如何铺设好一条道路的方法，考古学家发现在4600年古埃及使用建造金字塔的石块铺设道路，后来，罗马人使用同样的方法建立了一个庞大的道路系统，这种方法一直沿用到今天。
城市交通 经典英文书籍
城市交通经典英文书籍
以下是几本关于城市交通的经典英文书籍：
1. "The Death and Life of Great American Cities" by Jane Jacobs：这是一本经典的城市规划书籍，其中详细介绍了城市交通规划的重要性，以及如何通过良好的交通规划来提高城市的生活质量。
2. "Cities and the Automobile" by Peter Norton：这本书从历史和文化的角度探讨了汽车对城市发展的影响，以及如何通过交通规划来缓解汽车带来的问题。
3. "The End of Traffic and the Future of City Mobility" by Carlo Ratti：这本书探讨了未来城市交通的发展趋势，包括智能交通、共享出行、绿色出行等方面，是一本关于未来城市交通的展望。
这些书籍都是关于城市交通的经典之作，对于了解城市交通的历史、现状和未来发展都有很大的帮助。
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道路设计
1.道路设计的历史
首先，本文主要依靠大量的文字叙述，若对您造成理解上的困难，敬请谅解。
由于本文所涵盖的资料单一，本文是此系列中唯一的一篇文章。
本文不像其他文章
一样有大量图片说明。
其次，本文主要内容是关于欧洲公路修筑的历史。
在西欧，罗马人是具有重大意义的公路修筑的开创者。
他们看到了修筑公路能
使人较快的移动地理位置的作用，这一作用对军用和民用都是极其重要的。
罗马人
率先指出，要使公路发展为主要道路，就必须把地坪线提高一米。
公路的最大特点
就是没有角落，这是为了降低埋伏的风险。
罗马人对道路的耐久性设定了标准，这
一成就远超过了罗马帝国灭亡后所取得的其它成就。
罗马人设计公路的方法本质上与现代使用的是相同。
公路由几个不同层次构成，这从基层增加了公路的强度。
最底层的通常是碎石子，中间层是掺加了石灰的混凝土，而上层则是铺路石或者掺有石灰的厚石板。
每一层的厚度由当地的地质条件决定。
罗马帝国消亡后，它的道路系统一直处于无人修善的状态。
到了中世纪末期，
全国的道路系统几乎处于瘫痪状态，唯一的路途就是没有铺石板的路。
一到冬季就
泥泞不堪，夏天则尘土飞扬，根本无法通行。
同时为了绕开贫穷的地区，更是导致
了道路弯弯曲曲，加大了通行难度。
这种路况加上法律监管不严，意味着除非是疯
子或者是无可奈何的情况，没人愿意去走这些路。
这种情况直到1555年国会通过了所有地方政府有责任维修损坏道路的行动后有
所改善。
这次行动还包括建立高速公路拯救员职位。
没有薪金和材料再加上技术匮乏，所以这个告示明显地无人理睬且效率低下也就不怎么奇怪了。
……
2.交通量分析
2.1、交通密度：
2.2、交通负荷：
3.交通密度
4.交通负载
5.土方工程
6.开挖
History of Road Design
Firstly let me apologise for this page. It is largely text based due to the nature of it and if reading is difficult then I am sorry. This is due solely to the material covered and is the only page in the series. This is not typical as the rest have graphics or images to keep you amused. Secondly this page is very much a history of road building in the United Kingdom．
The first road builders of any significance in Western Europe were the Romans, who saw the ability to move quickly as essential for both military and civil reasons. It is from the Romans that the term highway comes as all their roads were elevated 1m above the local level of the land. This was to minimise the risk of an ambush, as was the best known characteristic of the roads, their lack of corners. The standards set by the Romans in terms of durability far exceeded anything achieved after the fall of the empir e.
The Roman approach to road design is essentially the same as that in current use. The roads were constructed of several different layers, increasing in strength from the bottom. The lowest layer was normally a rubble, intermediate layers were made of li me bound concrete and the upper layer was a flag or lime grouted stone slabs. The thickness of the layers was varied according to the local ground conditions.
After the fall of the Roman Empire the road system fell into a state of disrepair and by the end of the middle ages, there was in effect no road
system in the country. The only routes available were unpaved tracks, muddy and impassable in winter and dusty and impassable in summer. Diversions around particularly poor stretches resulted in sinuous align ments. The state of the roads combined with the general lawlessness at the time meant only the determined or insane traveled.
The first change in this attitude。