英语专业考研语言学复习资料 句法学
英语语言学 句法学
Functional Approach declarative (陈述句), interrogative (疑问句), imperative (祈使句), exclamatory (感叹句).
3.3 IC Analysis (直接成分分析法):
Constituent (构成成分)
immediate constituent（直接成分） ultimate constituent （最终成分）
Aux-movement（助动词移动）
The movement of an auxiliary verb to the sentence-initial position, such as be, have, do, will, can, and should.
eg. John will buy a present. Will John buy a present?
IC Analysis refers to divide the sentence up into immediate constituents by using binary cutting until obtaining its ultimate constituents.
（把句子按其组成部分/成分用两进制切分法/二 分法一直划到最小的语法单位－又称最终成分 －词素。）
The XP rule
The X stands for the head of N,A,V and P.
The X bar theory（X杠理论）
The coordinate rule
3.Sentence （句子）
3.1 The sentence rule
Normally a sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate
英语句法学
英语句法学
英语句法学是语言学的一个分支，其研究范围涵盖英语句子的构成、结构、语序、成分等方面。
其重要性在于了解英语句子的组成结构，从而准确理解和使用英语语言，避免语法错误、歧义、模棱两可的表达方式。
英语句法学主要涉及以下内容：
1. 词性和句子成分的划分：英语单词可以根据其在句子中的作用被分为名词、动词、形容词等词性。
句子成分也可以被划分为主语、谓语、宾语、定语、状语等。
2. 语句的结构：英语句子可以按照结构被分为简单句、并列句、复合句等。
简单句由一个主语和一个谓语构成；并列句由两个或多个简单句通过连接词连接而成；复合句由一个主句和一个或多个从句构成。
3. 语序规则：英语中有一定的语序规则，主语通常放在句子的前面，而定语、宾语等成分通常放在主语或谓语的后面，从而构成正确的语序结构。
4. 句型的变化：英语句子的结构和语法可以通过一定的变化形成不同的句型，例如疑问句、感叹句、条件句等。
通过学习英语句法学，我们可以掌握英语语言的基本结构和规则，进而提高自己的英语水平，更加准确有效地表达自己的意思。
英语语言学复习资料
英语语言学复习资料一：名词解释1. Language (语言) is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2. Linguistics(语言学) is generally defined as the scientific study of language.3. General linguistics(普通/一般语言学)The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.4. Phonetics(语音学) the study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of phonetics.5. Phonology(语音体系) how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.6. Morphology(形态学) these symbols are arranged and combined to form words has constituted the branch of study called morphology.7. Syntax(句法学) then the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages is governed by rules. The study of these rules constitutes a major branch of linguistic studies called syntax.8. Semantics(语意学) the study of meaning is known as semantics.9. Pragmatics(语用学) when the study of meaning is conducted, not in isolation, but in the context of language use, it becomes another branch of linguistic study called pragmatics.10. Phone(音素) is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.11. Phoneme(音位) is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.12. Allophones(音位变体) the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones.13. IPA(International Phonetic Alphabet国际音标) It’s a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription. The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter selected from major European languages to represent one speech sound.14. Diacritics(变音符) it is a set of symbols which are added to the letter-symbols to bring out the finer distinctions.15. broad transcription(宽式标音) one is the transcription with letter-symbols only.16. narrow transcription(严式标音) the other is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics.17. open class words(开放类词) In English , open class words are nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. We can regularly add new words to these classes. 18. closed class words(封闭类词) In English , closed class word are conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns. New words arenot usually added to them.19. Morpheme(词素) the most basic element of meaning is traditionally called morpheme.20. bound morpheme(黏着词素) morphemes which occurs only before other morphemes. They cannot be used alone.21. free morpheme(自由词素) it is the morphemes which can be used alone.22. suprasegmental features(超音段特征) the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features.23. Category(畴) it refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence ,a noun phrase or a verb.24. Phrases(短语) Syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrases.二：简答题1. Three distinct of phonetics(语音学的三个分支？)Articulatory phonetics发音语音学; auditory phonetics听觉语音学; acoustic phonetics声光语音学.2. Main features of language(语言的主要特征？)Language is a system. Language is arbitrary. Language is vocal. Languageis human-specific.3. Synchronic vs. diachronic(共识语言学与历史语言学的区别？)Language exists in time and changes through time. The description ofa language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.A diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.4. Speech and writing (言语与文字的区别？)Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught late r when he goes to school. Written language is only the “revised” record of speech.5. What are the branches of linguistic study?(语言学研究领域中的主要分支有哪些？)1) sociolinguistics; 2) psycholinguistics; 3)applied linguistics and so on.6. Traditional grammar and modern linguistics(传统语法与现代语言学的区别？) Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. Second, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, tended to emphasize,maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.7. Prescriptive vs. descriptive (语言学中描写性与规定性的特征是什么？) Prescriptive and descriptive represent two different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, it is said to be prescriptive. 8. Design features of language (语言的识别特征？)Arbitrariness随意性，productivity生产性, duality 二重性, displacement 不受时空限制的特征, cultural transmission 文化传递系统. 9. Competence and performance (语言能力与语言行为的区别？) Competence is defined as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledgein linguistic communication. Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual. 10. Organs of speech (发音器官)Pharyngeal cavity—the throat, oral cavity—the mouth, nasal cavity—the nose. 11. Word-level categories(决定词畴的三个标准) To determine a word’s category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution.三：问题回答1. Some rules in phonology(音位学规则)sequential rules(序列规则)；assimilation rule (同化规则) ；deletion rule(省略规则)。
英语专业考研语言学复习资料句法学
Chapter 4：SyntaxI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Syntax is a subfied of linguistics that studies the sentence structure oflanguage, including the combination of morphemes into words.2.Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.3. Sentences are composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order,with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic.4.Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rulesthat comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker are known as linguistic competence.5. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is nolimit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.6. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinatingthe other.7. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss ofgrammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.8. Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixedand new members are allowed for.9. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonlyrecognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.10. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct objectusually follows the verb.11.What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete listof words and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.12. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.13. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon,generate sentences at the level of D-structure.14. WH-movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence from affirmativeto interrogative.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:15. A s________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subjectand a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.16.? A s______ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises anumber of words to form a complete statement, question or command.17. A s______ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedesthe predicate.18. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase andwhich says something about the subject is grammatically called p_________.19. A c_________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which isincorporated into the other.20. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normallycalled an e_______ clause.21. Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sense that new wordsare constantly added.22. A _____ Condition on case assignment states that a case assignor and a caserecipient should stay adjacent to each other.23. P_______ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages.24. The theory of C_____condition explains the fact that noun phrases appearonly in subject and object positions.III. There are four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:25.? A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammati-cal knowledge in the mind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical26.? A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word thatintroduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC. prepositionD. subordinator27. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.27.? A. recursive B. grammaticalC. socialD. functional28. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand _____________.A.? how words and phrases form sentences.B.?? what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC.? how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD.? All of the above.29. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called ________. ????? A.? transformational rulesB.?? generative rulesC.? phrase structure rulesD.? x-bar theory30. The theory of case condition accounts for the fact that __________.A.?? noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.B.?? noun phrases can be used to modify another noun phraseC.?? noun phrase can be used in adverbial positionsD.?? noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary.31. The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. Only hierarchicalC. complexD. both linear and hierarchical ?32. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite ?33. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases to formgrammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational34._______ rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.A. GenerativeB. TransformationalC. X-barD. Phrase structure ?IV. Define the following terms:35. syntax 36. Sentence 37. coordinate sentence 38. syntactic categories 39. grammatical relations 40. linguistic competence 41. transformational rules42. D-structureV. Answer the following questions:43.? What are the basic components of a sentence?44.? What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples.45.? Are the elements in a sentence linearly structured? Why?46.? What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentencestructures?47.? What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples.I.? Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:l.F 2.T 3.F 4.T 5.T 6.T 7.T 8.F 9.F 10.T 11.F 12.T 13.T 14.TII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:15. simple, 16. sentence 17. subject 18. predicate 19. complex20.embedded 21. open 22.adjacency 23.Parameters 24.CaseIII. There are four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:25. D 26. D 27. A 28. D 29. A 30. A31. D 32. C 33. D 34. BIV. Define the following terms:35.? syntax: Syntax is a subfield of linguistics. It studies the sentencestructure of language. It consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences.36.? Sentence: A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usuallycomprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and apredicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.37.? coordinate sentence: A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joinedby a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or".38.? syntactic categories: Apart from sentences and clauses, a syntacticcategory usually refers to a word (called a lexical category) or a phrase ( called a phrasal category) that performs a particular grammatical function.39. grammatical relations: The structural and logical functional relationsof constituents are called grammatical relations. The grammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. In many cases, grammatical relations in fact refer to who does what to whom .40. linguistic competence: Universally found in the grammars of all humanlanguages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.41. Transformational rules: Transformational rules are the rules thattransform one sentence type into another type.42. D-structure: D- structure is the level of syntactic representation thatexists before movement takes place. Phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure. V. Answer the following questions:43.? What are the basic components of a sentence?Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.44.? What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples. Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences. They are simple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence. A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence, for example:John reads extensively.A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example: John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparingfor her history exam.A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do not have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For example:Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in linguistics.45.? Are the elements in a sentence linearly structured? Why?No. Language is both linearly and hierarchically structured. When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence. A closer examination of a sentence shows that a sentence is not composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic. In fact, sentences are also hierarchically structured. They are organized by grouping together words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase (NP) or verb phrase (VP), as can be seen from the following tree diagram:SNP VPDet N Vt NPDet NThe boy likes the music.46. What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures?The tree diagram can not only reveal a linear order, but also a hierarchical structure that groups words into structural constituents. It can, in addition, show the syntactic category of each structural constituent, thus it is believed to most truthfully illustrate the constituent relationship among linguistic elements.47. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples.NP movement involves the movement of a noun phrase. NP-movement occurs when, for example, a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice:(A) The man beat the child.(B). The child was beaten by the man.B is the result of the movement of the noun phrases "the man" and "the child" from their original positions in (A) to new positions. That is, "the man" is postposed to the right and "the child" is preposed to the left.Not all instances of NP-movement, however, are related to changing a sentence from the active voice to the passive voice. For example:(C) It seems they are quite fit for the job.(D) They seem quite fit for the job.These sentences are identical in meaning, but different in their superficialsyntactic representations. It is believed that they have the same underlying structure, but (27b) is the result of an NP movement.。
英语专业考研语言学复习资料句法学word精品
Chapter 4 ：SyntaxI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Syntax is a subfied of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language,including the combination of morphemes into words.2. Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.3. Sentences are composedof sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order,with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic.4. Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntacticrules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a languagespeaker are known as linguistic competence.5. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but thereis no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able toproduce and comprehend.6. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinatingthe other.7. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss ofgrammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.8. Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixed andnew members are allowed for.9. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognizedand discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliaryphrase.10. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usuallyfollows the verb.11. What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list ofwords and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.12. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.13. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon,generate sentences at the level of D-structure.14. WH-movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence from affirmative tointerrogative.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:15. A s _______ sentence consists of a single clause which contains asubject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.16. A s _______ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprisesa number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.17. A s ____ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usuallyprecedes the predicate.18. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and whichsays something about the subject is grammatically called p .19. A c _______ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of whichis incorporated into the other.20. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normallycalled an e ______________ clause.21. Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sense that new words areconstantly added.22. A ___ Condition on case assignment states that a case assignor anda case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.23. P _____ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principlesto operate in one wayor another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages.24. The theory of C ___ c ondition explains the fact that noun phrasesappear only in subject and object positions.III. There are four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:25. A sentence is considered _______ when it does not conform to thegrammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical26. A __________ in the embeddedclause refers to the introductory wordthat introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC. prepositionD. subordinator27. Phrase structure rules have __ properties.27. A. recursive B. grammaticalC. socialD. functional28. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand ___________________ .A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. All of the above.29. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally calledA. transformational rulesB. generative rulesC. phrase structure rulesD. x-bar theory30. The theory of case condition accounts for the fact that _______ .A. noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.B. noun phrases can be used to modify another noun phraseC. noun phrase can be used in adverbial positionsD. noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary.31. The sentence structure is ______ .A. only linearB. Only hierarchicalC. complexD. both linear and hierarchical32. The syntactic rules of any language are ___ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite33. The ______ rules are the rules that group words and phrases toform grammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational34. ______ rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.A. GenerativeB. TransformationalC. X-barD. Phrase structureIV. Define the following terms:35. syntax 36. Sentence 37. coordinate sentence 38. syntactic categories39. grammatical relations 40. linguistic competence 41. transformational rules 42. D-structureV. Answer the following questions:43. What are the basic components of a sentence?44. What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples.45. Are the elements in a sentence linearly structured? Why?46. What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentencestructures?47. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples.I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:l.F 2.T 3.F 4.T 5.T 6.T 7.T 8.F 9.F 10.T 11.F12.T 13.T 14.TII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:15. simple, 16. sentence 17. subject 18. predicate 19. complex20.embedded 21. open 22.adjacency 23.Parameters 24.CaseIII. There are four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:25. D 26. D 27. A 28. D 29. A 30. A31. D 32. C 33. D 34. BIV. Define the following terms:35. syntax: Syntax is a subfield of linguistics. It studies the sentence structure oflanguage. It consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to becombined with other words to form grammatical sentences.36. Sentence: A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usuallycomprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question orcommand. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and apredicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.37. coordinate sentence: A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by alinking word called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or".38. syntactic categories: Apart from sentences and clauses, a syntactic categoryusually refers to a word (called a lexical category) or a phrase ( called aphrasal category) that performs a particular grammatical function.39. grammatical relations: The structural and logical functional relations ofconstituents are called grammatical relations. The grammatical relations of a sentence concern the wayeach noun phrase in the sentence relates to theverb. In many cases, grammatical relations in fact refer to who does what towhom .40. linguistic competence: Universally found in the grammars of all humanlanguages, syntactic rules comprise the system ofintern alized lin guistic kno wledge of a Ian guage speaker known aslin guistic compete nee.41. Transformational rules: Transformational rules are the rules thattran sform one sentence type into ano ther type.42. D-structure: D- structure is the level of syntactic representationthat exists before moveme nt takes place. Phrase structure rules,with the in serti on of the lexic on, gen erate senten ces at the levelof D-structure.V. An swer the follow ing questi ons:43. What are the basic comp onents of a senten ce?Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate whichcontains a finite verb or a verb phrase.44. What are the major types of senten ces? Illustrate them with examples.Traditio nally, there are three major types of senten ces. They are simplesentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence. A simplesentence consists of a single clause which contains a subjectand a predicate and sta nds alone as its own senten ce, for example:Joh n reads exte nsively.A coordi nate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coord in ati ng conjun cti on, such as "an d", "but", "or". Forexample:Joh n is read ing a lin guistic book, and Mary is prepari ngfor her history exam.A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do nothave equal status, one is subordi nate to the other. For example:Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in linguistics.45. Are the elements in a sentence linearly structured? Why?No. Language is both linearly and hierarchically structured. When a sentence isuttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after ano ther in a seque nee. A closer exam in ati on of a sentence shows that a sentence is not composed of sequenee of words arranged in a simple linear order with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic. I n fact, sen ten ces are alsohierarchically structured. They are organized by grouping together words of thesamesyntactic category, such as noun phrase (NP) or verb phrase (VP), as can be seen from the following tree diagram:sentence structures?The tree diagram can not only reveal a lin ear order, but also a hierarchical structure that groups words into structural con stitue nts.It can, in addition, show the syntactic category of each structural constituent, thus it isbelieved to most truthfully illustrate the constituent relationship among linguistic elements. NP VPDetVt NPDetThe boy likes the mus|c. tree diagrams in the an alysis of 46. What are the adva ntages of using47. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples.NPmovementinvolves the movementof a noun phrase. NP-movementoccurs when, for example, a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice:(A) The man beat the child.(B) . The child was beaten by the man.B is the result of the movementof the noun phrases "the man" and "the child" from their original positions in (A) to new positions. That is, "the man" is postposed to the right and "the child" is preposed to theleft.Not all instances of NP-movement, however, are related to changing a sentence from the active voice to the passive voice. For example:(C) It seems they are quite fit for the job.(D) They seem quite fit for the job.These sentences are identical in meaning, but different in their superficial syntactic representations. It is believed that they have the same underlying structure, but (27b) is the result of an NP movement.。
语言学第四章句法学考研真题
Chapter Four: SyntaxI 名词解释1.（上海外国语大学2000年考题）deep structure考点分析：考查深层结构的定义Answer: Deep structure refers to the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction, i.e. the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents, such as the relation between the underlying subject and its verb, or a verb and its object.2. (中山大学2004，吉林大学2000年考题) category考点分析：范畴的定义Answer: The term “category” in some approaches refers to classes and functions in a narrow sense, e.g. noun, verb, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. more specifically, it refers to the defining properties of these general units: the categories of the noun, for example, include number, gender, case and countability; and of the verb, for example, tense, aspect, voice, etc. 3. (华南理工大学2004年考题)constituent考点分析：考查成分的定义Answer: Constituent refers to a component element of a sentence.4. (中山大学2003年考题)immediate constituent analysis考点分析：考查直接成分分析法.Answer: Immediate constituent analysis is the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents –word groups (or phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.5. (南开大学2003年考题)endocentric construction考点分析：向心结构的定义Answer: Endocentric construction one construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. It is also known as a headed construction.6. (南开大学2001年考题) exocentric construction考点分析：离心结构的定义Answer: “Exocentric construction”, the opposite of endocentric construction, refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the whole to the whole group; that is to say, there is no definable center or head inside the group.7.（武汉大学2003年考题）transformational roles考点分析：转换规则的定义Answer: In Noam Chomsky’s Transformational Grammar, transformational rules are those rules which change the deep structures generated by the phrase structure component into surface structures. A transformational rule consists of a sequence of symbols which is rewritten as another sequence according to certain convention.II 填空题1. (中山大学2003年考题）The category of ____ is prominent in the grammar of Latin, with sixdistinctions of nominative, vocative, accusative, genitive, dative and ablative考点分析：考查格范畴在拉丁语中的特点Answer: case2. (中山大学2003年考题)____ construction usually includes basic sentence, prepositional phrase,predicate (verb + object) construction, and connective (be + complement) construction.考点分析：考查哪些短语属于离心结构Answer: Exocentric3. (电子科技大学2002年考题)In the construction of the phrase “the girl”, the immed iateconstituents of it are _____.考点分析：直接成分及成分名称Answer: the determiner plus the noun phrase4. (苏州大学1997 年考题)Transformational rules are those which relate or transform ____ of a sentence into ____考点分析：转换规则的作用Answer: deep structure; surface structureIII 选择题1.（北京第二外国语学院2004 年考题）____refers to the relations holding between elementsreplaceable with each other at particular place in structure, or between one element present and the others absent.a. Syntagmatic relationb. Paradigmatic relationc. Co-occurrence relation考点分析：考查对横，纵组合关系定义的掌握Answer: b2. (东南大学2002年考题)According to Standard Theory of Chomsky, ____contain all theinformation necessary for the semantic interpretation of sentences.a. deep structureb. surface structurec. transformational rulesd. PS-rules考点分析：乔姆斯基标准理论中的观点Answer: aIV 问答题1.（北京第二外国语学院2004年考题）Distinguish the two pos sible meanings of “more beautiful flowers” by means of IC analysis.考点分析：用直接成分分析法分析有歧义词组的结构Answer:more beautiful flowers more beautiful flowersAdj. Adj. N Adv. Adj. NNP2. (北京第二外国语大学200年考题) Tell is each of the following is endocentric or exocentric construction.1. take a break2. an extremely difficult book3. ladies and gentlemen4. at present5. swimming in the lake考点分析：分析短语属于离心结构还是向心结构Answer: 1. exocentric 2. endocentric 3. endocentric 4. exocentric 5. endocentric 3.（东南大学2001年考题）Explain and exemplify the following PS rules:NP → (D) N (S)AUX →t (M) (have-en) (being)考点分析：考查对某一短语结构的描述Answer:1) The first rule means that a noun phrase can be written as a determiner plus a noun, and may then be followed by a sentence. For example, a) the man who came to see me last night and b) Michael, who had never been there before.2) The second rule means that an auxiliary can be represented by a number of ways. An auxiliary should contain tense element (t) and a modal verb (M), or a past perfect tense (have-en), or be plus an ing of a verb. E.g.Aux --- t (M): May I read your paper?Aux --- t (have-en): Have you finished your paper?Aux --- t (being): Are you reading your paper?4.(大连外国语学院2001，2002年考题)Produce surface structures from the following deep structures without going through the process of transformations.1) Neg she past work last week2) Tag you past meet him3) policemen past be + en beat John4) Q the professor pres be angry SOME REASON5) Q he past do SOMETHING6) Imp you pres will wash you7) [Neg Mary past go to the bookstore] [Neg Lisa past go to the bookstore]8) the girl [the girl pres be beautiful] pres be from China考点分析：讲深层结构转换为表层结构Answer:1) She didn’t work last week2) Y ou me t him, didn’t you?3) The policemen were beaten by John4) Why is the professor angry?5) What did he do?6) Wash yourself7) Mary didn’t go to the bookstore. Lisa didn’t go to the bookstore either8) The girl who is beautiful is from China5.(广东外语外贸大学2004年考题)On the basis of the following data, write out the phrase structure rules for adverb phrases and verb phrases.1) John walked slowly2) Tom talked with Jack very quickly3) Alice discussed the matter with her best friend quite early考点分析：实例分析，归纳副词短语和动词短语的结构规则Answer: Adverbs may be preceded by a very tiny class of adverbs, as shown by the above sentences. The class of adverbs in these sentences leads to the following new Phrase Structure rules:AdvP → (Deg) Adv (Deg stands for degree words)VP → V (NP) (VP) (AdvP)6. (苏州大学1997年考题)Draw a tree diagram according to PS rules to show the deep structure of the sentence:考点分析：用树形图分析句子的深层结构Answer:S∣∣∣NP VP∣∣-∣∣∣∣∣Det NP V NP adv∣∣∣∣∣The student wrote yesterday∣∣Det N∣∣a letter。
英语专八语言学知识复习资料汇编
英语专八语言学知识复习资料汇编语言学知识在英语专业八级考试中占有重要地位，是单选题目的重要组成部分，掌握好语言学知识可有效提高专业八级考试成绩。
语言学知识共包括以下六个部分：语言学本质、语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学六个部分，这六部分从学习程度上分别以单词、句子、句群、段落知识依次递进，考生逐一理解掌握，才能打牢语言学基础知识，下面我们开始吧！第一节语言的本质一、语言的普遍特征（Design Features）任意性Arbitratriness双层结构Duality多产性productive移位性Displacemennt文化传播性Cultural Transmission二、语言的功能（Functions of Language）传达信息功能Informative：最主要功能The main functio n人际功能Interpersonal：establish and maintain their identity行事功能performative：现实应用——判刑、咒语、为船命名等Judge，naming，and curses表情功能Emotive：表达强烈情感的语言，如感叹词/句exclamatory expressions寒暄功能Phatic：应酬话phatic language，比如“吃了没？”“天儿真好啊！” 等等元语言功能Metalingual：用语言来谈论、改变语言本身，如book可以指现实中的书也可以用“book这个词来表达作为语言单位的“书”三、语言学的分支1. 核心语言学Core linguistic语音学Phonetics音位学Phonology形态学Morphology句法学Syntax.语义学Semantics语用学Pragmatics2. 边缘语言学Peripheral:·心理语言学psycho-linguistics·社会语言学socio-linguistics·人类语言学anthropo-linguistics·计算机语言学computer-linguistics四、语言学中几对基本概念1. 规定性研究Prescriptive与描述性研究DescriptivePrescriptive：着重于语言中“标准Standards”认为语言中存在着一种地位最高的语言形态，如标准语法/语音等，为规定人们如何说话、写作Descriptive：着重于语言中“事实Facts”，目的是描述人们一般是怎样说话、写作的2. 共时研究Synchronic和历时研究Diachronic3．语言Langue和言语Parole（由Ferdinand de Saussure索绪尔提出）Langue：指语言系统的整体the whole linguistic system，所有语言使用个体头脑中存储的word-image的总和，这个整体相对比较稳定。
语言学概论第四章笔记句法学
语言学概论第四章笔记句法学Chapter 4 Syntax 句法学1．W hat is Syntax?Syntax studies the sentence structure of language. The term syntax came originally from Greek. It literally meant arrangement. It means that sentences are structured according to a particular arrangement of words. Well-arranged sentences are considered grammatical sentences. Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.句法学研究语言的句子结构。
该术语来自希腊语，字意是排列。
句子是根据一种特定的排列词的方式构成的。
排列正确的句子被认为是合乎语法的句子。
合乎语法的句子是根据一套句法规则构成的。
句法是一个规则系统。
2. Syntax as a system of rules 句法是规则系统Syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences. A sentence is considered grammatical when it is in agreement with the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers. Universally found in the grammars f all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.句法是一个由一套数量有限的抽象规则组成的系统，句子由单词组合而成。
英语语言学笔记第四章
句法（syntax）这个单词，来自希腊语，由两个语素构成：﹛syn﹜和﹛tax﹜。
﹛syn﹜的意思是"一起、共同"，﹛tax﹜的意思是"安排、排列"，因此syntax本来是"排列在一起"或"组合"的意思。
在语言学上，它是指研究语言中词组合成句子的支配规则，或者简单地说，是研究句子的构造。
因为通常认为句子是语言中最大的语法单位，所以句法长期以来是语法研究的核心。
不同的语言学理论首先体现在对句子结构的不同处理上。
这一章我们将介绍一些有代表性的句法学派。
4.1 传统学派传统认为句子是词的序列。
因此句子构造的研究涉及了对词的大量研究，例如，词类是对词进行的分类，主语、谓语是对词功能的描写，等等。
这些词类和功能有时叫做范畴。
但是"范畴"这个术语，更专门用于表示像名词、动词这些单位的特性。
例如：常说名词有数、性、格的范畴，动词有时、体、态的范畴。
在这里，我们将简要地讨论以上一些范畴。
名词、动词、形容词等形式在有关范畴中的相互关系将在"一致关系和支配关系"中讨论。
4.1.1 数、性、格4.1.2 时和体4.1.3 一致关系和支配关系4.1.1 数、性、格数（number），主要是名词和代词的范畴，如：a book（一本书）；some books（一些书）；I（我），we（我们）；he（他），they（他们）。
英语动词也反映了数的范畴，如：He speaks English.（他说英语）；They speak English.（他们说英语）。
在法语等语言中，形容词和冠词也有数的变化，如：le cheval royal，les chevaux royaux。
数一般有两种：单数和复数。
但是在古希腊语、阿拉伯语等语言中，还有第三种数：双数，类似于英语中的both（双方，两者）。
斐济群岛语还有第四种数：三数。
英语专八人文知识 语言学必背第5讲-句法学
英语专八人文知识语言学必背第5讲:句法学第五节句法学Syntax一、基本概念研究句子结构以及词、词组和短语构成的句子的规则the internal structure of sentences and the rules etc.二、几个重要概念1．横组合关系Syntagmatic relations/线形关系Linear relations：即词序word order，指句子中单词的链状顺序关系纵聚合关系Paradigmatic relations：把句子各个位置当成插槽Slot，则同义或相近词都可填入此槽，这就是词间纵聚合关系注：词的横组合及纵聚合关系是其句法理论的重要组成部分Syntagmatic and Paradigmatic relations is important part of 索绪尔Saussure’s syntactic theory.2．直接成分分析法Immediate Constituent Analysis简作IC Analysis：通过多次的二元切割将句子分割为词组、单词的一种句子分析手段3．语法范畴Grammatical Categories：指代名词、动词等此类的标志性特征definding properties名词：性Gender，数Number，格Case【数：单数Singular和双数Dual；性：阴性Feminine和阳性Masculine以及中性Neuter；格：代词主格Nominative，宾格Accusative，名词一般格General和所有格Genitive】动词：时态Tense，体Aspect，语态V oice三、关于句子：the maximum free form最大的语法分析单位1．句子关系：一致关系Agreement：两个或更多单词在某个特定环境下必须保持其某个范畴的一致，主要表现在主谓、修饰语和被修饰语之间。
如this man/these men支配关系Government：一个或几个单词因受到其他相邻词语的支配而必须与或者保持某个范畴的一致，如代词在动词后必须成宾格状态beat him等2. 句子的扩展Extension of sentence三种方法：结合Conjoining，嵌入Embedding和递归Recursiveness3. 句子结构向心结构Endocentric construction：具有核心的结构体。
什么是句法学
什么是句法学句法学Syntax研究语言的句子结构，该语言学术语来自希腊语，字意是排列。
那么你对句法学了解多少呢?以下是由店铺整理关于什么是句法学的内容，希望大家喜欢!句法学的简介任何一种语言的句法规则都包含了说话者的头脑中的语言知识系统(被称为语言能力)。
任何语言的句法规则的数量是有限的，但说话者可以理解和表达的句子的数量是无限的。
句法学的提出《俄语生成句法学》讲述了：俄罗斯的句法学研究有着悠久的历史和自成体系的传统。
19世纪的沃斯托科夫(А. Х. Востоков)、福尔图纳托夫(Ф. Ф. Фортунатов)和沙赫马托夫(А. А. Шахматов)等俄罗斯语言学家就已经把句法学看作是一个独立的语言学分支学科，认为其主要任务是研究词语的组合关系。
但是，他们的句法研究以词组中的语法支配关系为中心，对于句子层面上的句法结构和语义结构并未给予充分重视。
句法学的奠定20世纪中叶，维诺格拉多夫院士奠定了现代俄语句法学的基础。
他明确指出，句法研究的对象是作为独立交际单位的句子。
句子有三个基本特征：交际语调、述谓性和情态性。
述谓性是指话语内容与现实的关系。
情态性是指话语行为中包含的说话人的态度(确认、愿望、请求、意志等)。
这三个基本特征使句子成为区别于词和词组的交际单位。
维诺格拉多夫还指出：句子是形式和意义的统一体，句法学的主要任务是描写句法结构和语义结构，以及它们之间的对应关系。
句法学的课程简介课程描述《句法学》是一门以英语专业语言学方向的硕士研究生为主要对象的学期必修课，含2个学分。
课程系统介绍自然语言的句法通则和变异参数。
课程以形式语言学为研究框架，着重讲解和讨论生成语法学的管约理论和最简理论。
课程要求学生掌握句法理论的基本原理和解析方法，以达到自觉运用句法通则和变异参数来描述、分析和解释英语、汉语或其他自然语言和方言的语料。
课程内容本课程讲解自然语言的本质、语言学的研究对象、句法的研究方法、句法规则的递归性、句法结构的自治性、句法的心理现实性、句法的逻辑表达式、普遍语法原则与参数、普遍语法的最简方案，以及自然语言的哲学研究。
英语语言学复习资料
语言学Linguistic各章重点，学习资料整理1.1What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.2Design features of language①Arbitrariness任意性: The property of language by which there is in general no natural (i.e. logical) relation between the form of a single lexical unit and its meaning.②Duality二重性Language consists of two levels of structures. The lower (secondary) level is a definite set of meaningless sounds, which combine to form meaningful units which constitute a higher (primary) level.③Creativity创造性Language is creative in the sense that its users can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before.④Displacement移位性By displacement is meant that language can be used to refer to things that are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.1.3Functions of language①Informative信息功能Language serves an informative function when it is used to express the speaker’s opinion, to state a fact, or to reason things out.②Interpersonal function人际功能Language serves to establish and maintain social relations between people.③Performative行事功能Language can be used to do things, to perform action.e.g. “I surrender.” “I’ll do it tonight.” “I declare the meeting open.” “ I sentence you to three years in prison.”④Emotive function感情功能The use of language to reveal the feelings and attitudes of the speaker.e.g. “Ouch!”, “I’m terribly sorry about… ” (alternatively called expressive function)⑤Phatic communion寒暄交谈The use of language to establish or maintain a comfortable social contact between people without involving any factual content.E.g. greetings, farewells, and talking about the weather.⑥Recreational function娱乐功能The use of language for the sheer joy of usingit. E.g. singing, poetry writing.⑦Metalingual function元语言功能The use of language to make statementsabout language itself. The language about which they are made is called the object language.1.4What is linguistics?The scientific study of language.1.5Microlinguistics①Phonetics语音学The study of the nature, production, and perception ofsounds of speech, in abstraction from the phonology of any specific language. Variously divided into acoustic phonetics, articulatory phonetics, and auditory phonetics.②Phonology音系学The study of the sound systems of individual languages andof the nature of such systems generally.③Morphology形态学Morphology is concerned with the internal organizationof words. It studies the minimal units of meaning – morphemes andword-formation processes.④Syntax句法学The branch of linguistics which studies the rules governing thecombination of words into sentences.⑤Semantics语义学The study of meaning.⑥Pragmatics语用学The study of the meanings that sentences have inparticular contexts.1.6Language and cultureLanguage is an indispensable carrier of culture. Culture finds a better representation through language use.1.7Maximal Onset Principle (MOP)最大节前辅音原则Which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the code.1.8Important distinctions in linguistics①Descriptive vs. prescriptive描写vs.规定A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyzes linguistic facts observed; it is prescriptive if it lays down rules for grammatical correctness.②Synchronic vs. diachronic共时vs.历时The study of language as its exists at a particular point in time is synchronic.③Langue vs. parole语言vs.言语A distinction made by the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure(索绪尔1857-1913). Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and p arole refers to the actualized language, or realization of langue.④Competence vs. performance语言能力vs.语言运用Competence is the speaker-listener’s knowledge of his language andperformance is the actual use of language in concrete situations.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1.IPA：International Phonetic Association(国际语音学协会).2.The theory of cardinal vowelsCardinal vowels: A set of vowels established by Daniel Jones as fixed and unchanging reference points for the description of vowels in any language. By convention, the eight primary cardinal vowels are numbered from one to eight: 8个基本元音：记住：p34, p35, p36三个表格。
英语语言学复习资料
语言学Linguistic各章重点,学习资料整理1.1What is language？Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.2Design features of language①Arbitrariness任意性：The property of language by which there is in general no natural (i。
e。
logical）relation between the form of a single lexical unit and its meaning。
②Duality二重性Language consists of two levels of structures. The lower (secondary）level is a definite set of meaningless sounds, which combine to form meaningful units which constitute a higher (primary) level。
③Creativity创造性Language is creative in the sense that its users can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before。
④Displacement移位性By displacement is meant that language can be used to refer to things that are not present (in time and space）at the moment of communication。
1.3Functions of language①Informative信息功能Language serves an informative function when it is used to express the speaker’s opinion, to state a fact，or to reason things out。
英语语言学--句法学
Chapter Six Syntax
2013-7-31
1
--- The internal structures of sentences --- different treatments of sentence structure by different linguistic schools ---IC analysis, deep structure, surface structure, tree diagram
11
2013-7-31
The hierarchical order can be best illustrated with a tree diagram of constituent structure, so called because such a diagram looks like an inverted tree. S
2013-7-31
2
1. Definition
--- the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, that is, the study of the formation of sentences.
或词组之间没有连词)(如:"I came, I saw, I conquered.")
Embedding嵌入法 is a process of construction whereby one clause is a constituent of another or is subordinated to another. 8
《语言学教程》第 4 章 句法学
A quarter of a century after the introduction of television into American society, a period that has seen the medium become so deeply ingrained in American life that in at least one state the television set has attained the rank of a legal necessity, safe from repossession in case of debt along with clothes, cooking utensils, and the like, television has become an inevitable and ordinary part of daily life.
4.1 小结
How can I know what I think till I see what I say?
本章各节
4.1 句法关系
语法结构的形成过程
4.2
4.2
语法结构
成分
语法结构形成之后的结果
语法结构内的组成部分
4.3 4.4
英汉语句内的语序的总体对比
主 语
汉语 句子
谓 语
[包括系动词]
宾 语
[包括表语]
状语
定语
较灵活 固定
固定 较灵活
固定 较灵活
英语 句子
1. 平常女孩子所喜好的事，她却一点都不 爱。 She didn’t share the same likes with ordinary girls.
语言学第四章要点英语整理
语言学第四章要点(2011-10-11 21:15:48)说明：本章要点参考了多本教材，其中的X-bar theory, Universal Grammar, merger and move等部分仅供考研的同学参考。
其他同学不做要求。
第四章Syntax句法学1.Syntax定义is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language. Sentences are structured according to particular arrangement of words.2、Syntax as a system of rules. as a major component of grammar, syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences3、Sentence structureSubject all language have ways of referring to some entity, such as a person , a place, a thing, an idea, or an event, this referring expression is grammatically called subject. A subject may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.2.Type of sentence英语的句子中的三种基本类型是什么？Traditionally, three major types of sentences are distinguished. They are simple sentence, coordinate or compound sentence and complex sentence.A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence. For example, ① John reads extensively. the sentences contains a single clause and can stand structurally independent.A coordinate sentence并列句 contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinat ing conjunction, such as “and”, “but”, “or”. The two clauses in a coordinate sentence are structurally equal parts of the sentence; neither is subordinate to the other. For example, ③ John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for her history exam.A complex sentence contains two or more clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence have unequal status, one subordinating the other. The incorporated, or subordinate, clause is normally called an embedded clause子句, and the clause into which it is embedded is called a matrix sentence主句. For example, ⑤ Mary told Jane [that John liked linguistics]. In the above examples, the clauses in the square brackets are embedded clauses. Theyare subordinate to the clauses outside the brackets which are called matrix clauses.A complex sentence的特征：Some conclusions can be drawn from the complex sentence.1、an embedded clause functions as a grammatical unit in its matrix clause.2.most embedded clauses require an introductory word called a subordinator, such as “that”,” if ”.3.an embedded clause may not function as a grammatically well-formed sentence if it stands independently as a simple sentence unless it form changes.3、linearly- and hierarchically-structured.(线形结构和层次结构Language is a highly structured system of communication. Sentences are not formed by randomly(随意)combining lexical items, but by following a set of syntactic rules that arrange linguistic elements in a particular order to make a string of words not only meaningful but also linearly- and hierarchically-structured.(线形结构和层次结构)Hierarchical structure: the sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic categories of each structural constituent, such as NP and VP.5、Syntactic categories:句法类型1.lexical categories词类 (four major lexical categories and six minor lexical categories)2. Phrasal categories 短语类(lexical items have certain combinational properties that allow them to combine with words of different categories to form phrase. NP VP PP AP)6、Grammatical relations(语法关系) The structural and logical relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. It concerns the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. (who does what do whom). Structural vs. logical subject, object. (**)7、Combinational rules组合规则1、Phrase structural rules The combinational pattern in a linear formula may be called a phrase structural rule, or rewrite rule. It allows us to better understand how words and phrases form sentences, and so on.2、Syntactic movement and movement rules Syntactic movement occurs whena constituent in a sentence moves out of its original place to a new position, the sentence involving which cannot be described by phrase structure rules. It was governed by transformational rules, the operationof which may change the syntactic representation of a sentence (句法的表达方式).3、什么是X-标杆理论?X-bar theory is a general and highly abstract schema that collapses all phrasal structure rules into a single format: X″→ (Spec) X (Compl). In this format, Spec stands for specifier while Compl stands for complement. This theory is capable of reducing the redundancies of individual phrasal structure rules and may well capture certain basic properties shared by all phrasal categories, i.e. NP, VP, AP, PP, across the languages of the world.4、Syntactic movement and movement rulesSyntactic movement occurs when a constituent in a sentence moves out of its original place to a new position, the sentence involving which cannot be described by phrase structure rules. It was governed by transformational rules, the operation of which may change the syntactic representation of a sentence (句法的表达方式).1 NP-movement and WH-movementNP-movement occurs when, for example, a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice (postpose, prepose).WH-movement is obligatory in English. It changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.2 Other types of movementAUX-movement (auxiliary)3 D-structure and S-structureThe syntactic component of the grammar:Phrase Structure Rules + the Lexicon (词汇)（generate）―――D-structure (deep structure) ―――Movement Rules （ transform）―――― S-structure (Surface structure) A sentence may not look different when it is at different syntactic levels. Since syntactic movement does not occur to all sentences, the D-structure and S-structure of some sentences look exactly the same at different levels of representation.4 Moreα-a general movement ruleThere is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement, called Moveα(or Move Alpha), which means “move any constituent to any place”. The problem is Moveαis too powerful and the grammar should include some conditions which will restrain this power and stimulate tha t only “certain constituents” move to “certain positions”.7、Toward a theory of universal grammarSince early 1980s, Noam Chomsky and other generative linguists proposed and developed a theory of universal grammar (UG) known as the principles and parameters theory. According to Chomsky, UG is a system of linguistic knowledge and a human species-specific gift, which exists in the mind or brain of a normal human being. According to principles-and-parameters framework, UG consists of a set of general conditions, or general principles, that generate phrases and at the same time restrain the power of Moveα, thus preventing this rule from applying in certain cases. UG also contains a set of parameters that allow general principles to operate in certain ways, according to which particular grammar of natural languages vary。
第五章句法学(掌握).
第五章句法学（掌握）基本知识点：句法分析They elected him president。
会以S（主语）+V （谓语）+O（宾语）+OC（宾语补语，objective complement）的方式作分析说明。
后来他从事翻译工作，发现遇到难句时，这样的分析相当费事，有时反而混淆不清。
于是他再看O。
他在耶斯柏森（Otto Jespersen，一八六○－一九四三年，丹麦语言学家，研究英语语法专家）的著作，看到耶斯柏森对They elected him president的分析，指出句中的him president是以nexus作为宾语，成为elected的 object。
这个nexus是耶斯柏森的造语，我们称之为“叙述关系”，又称“主（语）谓（语）关系”，或“二元语校”。
Nexus源于拉丁语nectere，是to bind之意，因此作连结、关系、中心、核心解（如 the cash nexus 是“现金交易关系”。
耶斯柏森在一九三七年出版的“分析性句法”（Analytic Syntax）中，对“主谓关系”（又作宾谓结构）解说相当全面。
句法关系1.句法关系syntatic relationship2.并列coordinate3.从属subordination4.修饰modification5.前置修饰pre-modification6.后置修饰post-modification7.限制restriction8.双重限制double-restriction9.非限制non-restriction成分分析法句子成分（Members of the Sentence）为什么又要分词类，又要分句子成分呢？两者既然关系密切，为什么不合并起来谈呢？合并起来，容易造成混乱，因为两者是不同的概念。
同一个词类可以在句中充当不同的成分，同一个句子成分也可以由不同的词类来担任。
那么什么叫句子成分呢？句子成分是句子中起一定功用的一个组成部分。
句法学复习要点及习题
句法学复习要点及习题句法学复习要点及习题1.In linguistics, the word SYNTAX refers to the study of the rules governing the way words arecombined to form sentences in a Language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.2.Since sentence is usually regarded as the largest grammatical unit of a Language, syntaxhas long been the center of grammatical study.3.In some languages, grammatical gender had little to do with the biological sex.4.In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively.5.The forms of words can be restricted by grammatical categories through concord or agreement and through government.5.concord(grammar) agreement between words in gender, number, etc, (e.g. between averb and a plural noun as its subject)6.The idea of government is necessary in languages like Latin and German to account for theway in which certain prepositions and verbs determine the case of nouns.7.Descriptive---- describe/analyze linguistic facts observed or language people actually use(modern linguistic)8.Prescriptive----lay down rules for “correct”linguistic behavior in using language(traditional grammar)9.The STRUCTURAL approach to the analysis of Language was started by the Swiss linguistFerdinand de Saussure in the beginning of the 20th century.10.Saussure believes that, language is a system of signs, each of which consists of two parts:signified(concept) and signifier (sound image).11.Saussure identified two principal types of relations: Syntagmatic relations andparadigmatic relations.12.The Syntagmatic relation(结构关系, 组合关系)is the relation between one item and othersin a sequence, or between elements which are all present.13.The STRUCTURAL approach to the analysis of Language was started by the Swiss linguistFerdinand de Saussure in the beginning of the 20th century.There are syntactic conditions and semantic conditions the words must meet.4-2-a The boy kicked the ball.4-2-b *Boy the ball kicked the.4-2-c *The ball kicked the boy.Words in and 4-2-b violate syntactic rules and in 4-2-c violate semantic conditions.14.The Syntagmatic relation(结构关系, 组合关系)is the relation between one item andothers in a sequence, or between elements which are all present.15.The paradigmatic relation(聚合体关系)Saussure originally called ASSOCIATIVE, is a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in structure, or between one element present and theothers absent.The sequence which a sign forms with those in a syntagmatic relation is sometimes called a STRUCTURE.To use the word in a more restricted sense, and the class of signs which are in a paradigmatic relation are sometimes called a SYSTEM.The syntagmatic relation is nowadays also refereed to as HORIZONAL RELATION or chain relation.And the paradigmatic relation is also known as the VERTICAL relation or CHOICE relation. 16.immediate constituent analysis This notion( immediate constituent)was proposed by the American linguist Leonard Bloomfield(Language, 1933.) This construction may be a sentence, may be a word group, may also be a word. The last level of constituents is morphemes, known as ultimate constituents.17.In 1957, the American linguist Chomsky proposed the transformational-generative grammar(TG)(转换生成语法), thus providing a model for the description of human languages.The goal of TG is to find out a system of rules to account for the linguistic competence of native speakers of a language to form grammatical sentences.In his aspects of the theory of syntax, Chomsky says that a generative grammar should consist of three components: syntactic, phonological, and semantic.the love of God, is a only surface structure. There are in fact two deep structures:God loves somebodySomebody loves God/doc/2d15858804.html,petence Vsperformance19.Surface Structure Vs Deep Structurea. The professor’s appointment was shocking.b. Mary and Bill or John sent the gift.c. The horse is ready to ride.d. Old men and women are hard to live with.20.There may also be a functional analysis in terms of THEME and RHEME.Vilem Mathesius:In his terminology, the first term refers to ―that which is known or at least obvious in the given situation and from which the speaker pro ceeds‖, and the second ―what the speaker states out, or in regard to, the starting point of the utterance‖ (Danes 1974).21.The theme is the starting point for the message; it is the ground from which the clause istaking off. (Halliday1994:38)22.Marked theme vs. Unmarked themea.My son’s bicycle was stolen.b.Helen will also go with you.23.It is characteristic of Halliday’s theory that more attention is paid to paradigmatic relationsthan to Syntagmatic relations, which is the main concern of Chyomsky.24.Halliday argues that there are three general functions of language:ideational(which issubdivided into experiential and logical), interpersonal and textual.Ⅲ. Explain the following terms, using examples.1. Syntax2. IC analysisⅣ. Answer the following questions.1. Distinguish the two possible meanings of ―more beautiful flowers‖ by means of IC analysis.答案1. Syntax: Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentencesin a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.2. IC analysis: Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis for short, refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents –word groups (phrases), which are in turnanalyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate sake of convenience. Ⅳ.(1) more | beautiful flowers (2) more beautiful | flowers语义学复习要点及习题1.The naming theory（命名说）is one of the oldest notions concerning meaning. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for.1.The conceptualist view（概念论）is one concerning meaning. According to this view, thereis no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to.2.Behaviorism: According to this view, the meaning of a lang uage form is the ―situation inwhich the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer‖. (Bloomfield 1933: 139)3.Contextualism（语境论）：is a view concerning meaning which holds that meaning should bestudied in terms of situation, use, context.4.Same reference but different sense:e.g. VenusThe evening star west. (sunset)The morning star east. (sunrise)Same object (same reference) but different sense (different aspect); different ways of referring to the same thing.5.Conceptual meaning is also called ―denotative‖（外延义）or “cognitive”meaning. Thisrefers to the definition given in the dictionary.6.Connotative meaning may vary according to culture, historical period and the experience ofthe individual, and thus are indeterminate and open-ended.7.Affective meaning indicates the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing in question.8.Homonymy refers to cases where lexemes with the same phonological or morphologicalshape have different meanings.9.According to the semantic relationship, antonyms can be loosely divided into three categories:1) Complementary antonyms互补性反义Complementary antonyms are also callednon-gradable antonyms. They are lexemes or expressions whose crucial semantic features are mutually exclusive. The positive of one suggests the negative of the other.male---female; married---single; alive---dead;2) Gradable antonyms (可分等级的反义词) There are often intermediate form between thetwo members of a pair of antonyms . So it is a matter of degree. “old”and “young”3) Relational antonyms（关系反义词）They are pairs of lexemes or expressions whosecrucial semantic features display a reciprocal (相互的) relationship.husband --- wifeMy only love sprung from my only hate!Too early seen unknown, and known too late.Antonyms can also be used as a rhetorical device to make the expressions more contrastive and impressive.To achieve emphasis by putting contrasting ideas together, to express economically the opposite of a particular thought.10.Meronymy is a term used to describe a part-whole relationship between lexical items.11.Hyponymy is used to refer to a specific-general semantic relationship between lexical items.12.Relations between sentencesA. Entailment (蕴涵）B. Presupposition （前提，预设）C. Inconsistency （矛盾）D. Synonymy （同义）练习题：What are the three kinds of antonymy?According to the semantic relationship, antonyms can be loosely divided into three categories: 1) Complementary antonyms互补性反义Complementary antonyms are also called non-gradable antonyms. They are lexemes or expressions whose crucial semantic features are mutually exclusive. The positive of one suggests the negative of the other. male---female2) Gradable antonyms (可分等级的反义词)There are often intermediate form between the two members of a pair. So it is a matter of degree. For example, “old‖ and ―young‖ are immediately recognized as antonyms, but they stand for two extremes, between which there exist intermediate forms representing different degrees of being old or young, such as ―middle-aged‖, ―mature”, “elderly3) Relational antonyms（关系反义词）(成对的；相对相辅关系的；关系对立的反义词)（在意义上是相对称的，它们处于相互关系的对立面，又叫换位反义词。
浅议句法学在英语语言中的应用
浅议句法学在英语语言中的应用
句法学是语言学研究中的一个分支，主要研究句子的结构、规则和功能等。
在英语语言中，句法学应用广泛，尤其对于语法教育和语言翻译等方面具有非常重要的作用。
首先，句法学可以帮助语法教育。
通过句法学的研究，我们可以了解英语句子的结构和规则，从而更好地理解和运用英语语法。
例如，句子分析可以帮助学生准确理解主语、谓语、宾语等语法成分的用法，并培养学生对英语句法结构的敏感度，更好地运用英语语言。
其次，句法学在语言翻译中也具有重要的应用。
句法结构是语言理解和翻译的基础，对于不同语言的翻译，对句子结构的理解和分析显得尤为重要。
通过句法学的理论和方法，翻译者可以准确理解源语言句子的结构和含义，然后将其翻译成目标语言的相应结构和含义，使翻译质量得到提高。
此外，在自然语言处理领域，句法学也起着重要的作用。
自然语言处理是指计算机处理自然语言的一种技术，是人工智能领域中的一个研究热点。
通过句法分析，可以将自然语言文本转化为计算机可处理的形式，为自然语言处理提供必要的基础。
综上所述，句法学在英语语言中的应用非常广泛，对于语法教育、语言翻译和自然语言处理等方面都具有重要的作用。
对于学习和掌握英语语言的人来说，了解和运用句法学的理论和方法会对提高英语能力和应用水平有很大帮助。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
Chapter 4：SyntaxI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Syntax is a subfied of linguistics that studies the sentence structureof language, including the combination of morphemes into words.2.Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.3. Sentences are composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linearorder, with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic.4.Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntacticrules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge ofa language speaker are known as linguistic competence.5. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but thereis no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that languageare able to produce and comprehend.6. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, onesubordinating the other.7. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss ofgrammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.8. Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are notfixed and new members are allowed for.9. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonlyrecognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitivephrase, and auxiliary phrase.10. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct objectusually follows the verb.11.What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a completelist of words and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.12. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.13. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of thelexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.14. WH-movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence fromaffirmative to interrogative.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:15. A s________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains asubject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.16. A s______ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprisesa number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.17. A s______ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usuallyprecedes the predicate.18. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phraseand which says something about the subject is grammatically calledp_________.19. A c_________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of whichis incorporated into the other.20. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause isnormally called an e_______ clause.21. Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sense that newwords are constantly added.22. A _____ Condition on case assignment states that a case assignor anda case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.23. P_______ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages.24. The theory of C_____condition explains the fact that noun phrasesappear only in subject and object positions.III. There are four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:25. A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to thegrammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical26. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory wordthat introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC. prepositionD.subordinator27. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.27. A. recursive B. grammaticalC. socialD. functional28. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand _____________.A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. All of the above.29. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called ________.A. transformational rulesB. generative rulesC. phrase structure rulesD. x-bar theory30. The theory of case condition accounts for the fact that __________.A. noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.B. noun phrases can be used to modify another noun phraseC. noun phrase can be used in adverbial positionsD. noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary.31. The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. Only hierarchicalC. complexD. both linear and hierarchical32. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite33. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases toform grammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational34._______ rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.A. GenerativeB. TransformationalC. X-barD. Phrase structureIV. Define the following terms:35. syntax 36. Sentence 37. coordinate sentence 38. syntactic categories39. grammatical relations 40. linguistic competence 41. transformational rules42. D-structureV. Answer the following questions:43. What are the basic components of a sentence?44. What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them withexamples.45. Are the elements in a sentence linearly structured? Why?46. What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis ofsentence structures?47. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples.I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:l.F 2.T 3.F 4.T 5.T 6.T 7.T 8.F 9.F 10.T 11.F 12.T 13.T 14.TII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:15. simple, 16. sentence 17. subject 18. predicate 19. complex20.embedded 21. open 22.adjacency 23.Parameters 24.CaseIII. There are four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:25. D 26. D 27. A 28. D 29. A 30. A31. D 32. C 33. D 34. BIV. Define the following terms:35. syntax: Syntax is a subfield of linguistics. It studies thesentence structure of language. It consists of a set of abstractrules that allow words to be combined with other words to formgrammatical sentences.36. Sentence: A sentence is a structurally independent unit thatusually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement,question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least asubject and a predicate which contains a finite verb or a verbphrase.37. coordinate sentence: A coordinate sentence contains two clausesjoined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as"and", "but", "or".38. syntactic categories: Apart from sentences and clauses, asyntactic category usually refers to a word (called a lexicalcategory) or a phrase ( called a phrasal category) that performsa particular grammatical function.39. grammatical relations: The structural and logical functionalrelations of constituents are called grammatical relations. Thegrammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrasein the sentence relates to the verb. In many cases, grammaticalrelations in fact refer to who does what to whom .40. linguistic competence: Universally found in the grammars of allhuman languages, syntactic rules comprise the system ofinternalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.41. Transformational rules: Transformational rules are the rules thattransform one sentence type into another type.42. D-structure: D- structure is the level of syntactic representationthat exists before movement takes place. Phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.V. Answer the following questions:43. What are the basic components of a sentence?Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.44. What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them withexamples.Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences. They are simple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence.A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence, for example: John reads extensively.A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example:John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparingfor her history exam.A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do not have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For example: Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in lin-guistics.45. Are the elements in a sentence linearly structured? Why?No. Language is both linearly and hierarchically structured. When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence. A closer examination of a sentence shows that a sentence is not composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic. In fact, sentences are also hierarchically structured. They are organized by grouping together words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase (NP) or verb phrase (VP), as can be seen from the following tree diagram:SNP VPDet N Vt NPDet NThe boy likes the music.46. What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures?The tree diagram can not only reveal a linear order, but also a hierarchical structure that groups words into structural constituents.It can, in addition, show the syntactic category of each structural constituent, thus it is believed to most truthfully illustrate the constituent relationship among linguistic elements.47. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples.NP movement involves the movement of a noun phrase. NP-movement occurs when, for example, a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice:(A) The man beat the child.(B). The child was beaten by the man.B is the result of the movement of the noun phrases "the man" and "the child" from their original positions in (A) to new positions. That is, "the man" is postposed to the right and "the child" is preposed to the left.Not all instances of NP-movement, however, are related to changing a sentence from the active voice to the passive voice. For example:(C) It seems they are quite fit for the job.(D) They seem quite fit for the job.These sentences are identical in meaning, but different in their superfi-cial syntactic representations. It is believed that they have the same underlying structure, but (27b) is the result of an NP movement.。