TPO25-2The Decline of Venetian Shipping解析
托福TPO25综合写作阅读原文+听力原文+满分范文
¡¡¡¡ÎªÁË°ïÖú´ó¼Ò¸ßЧ±¸¿¼Íи££¬Îª´ó¼Ò´øÀ´Íи£TPO25×ÛºÏд×÷ÔĶÁÔÎÄ+ÌýÁ¦ÔÎÄ+Âú·Ö·¶ÎÄ£¬Ï£Íû¶Ô´ó¼Ò±¸¿¼ÓÐËù°ïÖú¡£¡¡¡¡Íи£TPO25×ÛºÏд×÷ÔĶÁÔÎÄÎı¾£º¡¡¡¡In 1938 an archaeologist in Iraq acquired a set of clay jars that had been excavated two years earlier by villagers constructing a railroad line. The vessel was about 2,200 years old. Each clay jay contained a copper cylinder surrounding an iron rod. The archaeologist proposed that vessel were ancient electric batteries and even demonstrated that they can produce a small electric current when filled with some liquids. However, it is not likely that the vessels were actually used as electric batteries in ancient times. First of all, if the vessels were used as batteries, they would probably have been attached to some electricity conductors such as metal wires. But there is no evidence that any metal wires were located near the vessels. All that has been excavated are the vessels themselves. Second, the copper cylinders inside the jarslook exactly like copper cylinders discovered in the ruins of Seleucia, an ancientcity located nearby. We know that the copper cylinders from Seleucia were used for holding scrolls of sacred texts, not for generating electricity. Since the cylinders found with the jars have the same shape, it is very likely they were used for holding scrolls as well. That no scrolls were found inside the jars can be explained by the fact that the scrolls simply disintegrated over the centuries. Finally, what could ancient people have done with the electricity that the vessels were supposed to have generated? They had no devices that replied on electricity. As batteries, the vessels would have been completely useless to them.¡¡¡¡Íи£TPO25×ÛºÏд×÷ÌýÁ¦ÔÎÄÎı¾£º¡¡¡¡Your reading says that these vessels were not used as batteries in ancient times, but the arguments used in the reading are not convincing. The battery explanation could very well be correct.First, about the absence of wires or other conductors. Remember, vessels were discovered by local people, not archaeologists. These people might have found other material located near the jars. But since they were not trained archaeologists, they may not have recognized the importance of that material. So materials serving as wires or conductors might have been overlooked as uninteresting or even thrown away. We'll never know.Second, it is true that the copper cylinders in the vessels are similar to the cylinders used to hold scrolls, but that does not really prove anything. It's possible that the copper cylinders were originally designed to preserve scrolls. And that some ancient inventor later discovered that if you use them together with iron rods and some liquid in a clay vessel, they will produce electricity. That's how the first ancient battery could have been born.In other words, the copper cylinders could have been originally used for one purpose, but then adapted for another purpose.Finally, there's the question of the possible uses of the battery in the ancient world. Well, the battery could produce a mild shock or tingling sensation when someone touched it. This could very well have beeninterpreted as evidence of some invisible power. You can easily see how people could convince others that they had magical powers through the use of the battery. Also, the battery could have been used for healing. Modern medicine uses mild electric current to stimulate muscles and relieve aches and pains. Ancient doctors may have used to batteries for the same purpose.¡¡¡¡Íи£TPO25×ÛºÏд×÷Âú·Ö·¶ÎÄ£º¡¡¡¡In the reading material, the author states that the vessels found in Iraq in 1938 were not actually used as electric batteries in ancient times. However in the listening material, the professor refutes that the first, according to the reading passage, the author suggests that if they were used as batteries, they would have been attached to some electricity conductors. However in the listening, the professor claims that we should remember that the discovery was made by local people along with some other materials. As they were not trained as archaeologist, they could not recognize the importance of some certain excavations. Perhaps they were overlook as something uninterested and then thrown away. Second, the author in the reading material mentions that the vessels were likely used for holding scrolls. Unfortunately the professor argues that it could not prove anything. It is possible that the vessels may be originally designed to scrolls. However ancient inventor then discovered that if the vessels were used with iron rod and some liquid, it could generate the electricity. So the copper cylinders may be originally used for one purpose but adapted for another purpose. Finally, the author of the reading passage asserts that the vessels would have been completely useless to ancient people as they had no devices that replied on electricity. In the contrary in obviously contradicts with the listening passage in which the professor contends that the battery could generate some mild shock and this also interprets evidence of some invisible power that how people convince others they had the magic power. Also it could be used for healing. In modern society doctors would use batteries to stimulate muscles and release pains. In ancient times people could also do that. In conclusion, according to the listening material, the argument that the vessels could not be used as batteries is unwarranted.¡¡¡¡ÒÔÉÏÊǸø´ó¼ÒÕûÀíµÄÍи£TPO25×ÛºÏд×÷ÔĶÁÔÎÄ+ÌýÁ¦ÔÎÄ+Âú·Ö·¶ÎÄ£¬Ï£Íû¶ÔÄãÓÐËù°ïÖú!。
tpot听力25解析
TPO25listening 问题解析注：问题中红色标记词汇为解题突破点和关键词。
Section 1TPO25-L1 Conversation 11.What is the conversation mainly about? 00:09A.The student’s eligibility to graduate next semesterB.The student’s difficulties in registering for classesC. A difficult class the student must take next semesterD.Possible elective choices in the student’s degree program答案：A解析：主旨题，问的是，what’s…mainly about,男同学说的第一句我填完了毕业相关表格，但不知道下学期能否毕业。
原文如下：I’m just filling out this approval for graduation form for the Dean’s office and …I d on’t know, I hope I’ll be able to graduate next semester.2.According to the woman, why was the program’s curriculum changed? 00:45A.To attract more international students to the programB.To reflect the growing importance of international businessC.To take advantage of the expertise of new faculty membersD.To give students a stronger background in management答案：B解析：对话继续，男生说了I got confused because the way, uh, they’ve changed the requirements, so, now I’m not sure I’ll qualify to graduate next semester.紧接着，教授对这个情况进行了解释why …change.因此前面有个关键词confused because…change..原文如下：Well, when the business department changed the curriculum to include more courses in international business to dwell, because of the increasing globalization of business,3.What does the woman imply about the new departmental requirements? 00:45A.They will not affect the student’s plans for graduationB.They will not be officially approved by the department until next yearC.They will be limited to students specializing in the international businessD.They will be similar to recent changes made in other departments at the university答案：A解析：态度题，教授解释完为什么改变要求后，紧接着用make sure….3,4年级wouldn’t be affected 来安慰那个那声，并且后面紧跟着only 特别强调说明这是为了第一，二年的新生。
TPO 25 原文翻译
TPO25 阅读翻译The surface of MarsThe surface of Mars shows a wide range of geologic features, including huge volcanoes‐the largest known in the solar system‐and extensive impact cratering. Three very large volcanoes are found on the Tharsis bulge, an enormous geologic area near Mars’s equator. Northwest of Tharsis is the largest volcano of all: Olympus Mons, with a height of 25 kilometers and measuring some 700 kilometers in diameter at its base. The three large volcanoes on the Tharsis bulge are a little smaller‐a “mere” 18 kilometers high.火星表面广布着各种地理特征，包括大的火山群——在太阳系里堪称最大——还有大量的陨石坑。
有三座巨大的火山坐落在Tharsis的凸出部分，那是广袤的有着丰富地质特征的地域，而且靠近火星的赤道。
而在Tharsis的西北部有着最大的火山‐奥林匹斯山，高达25千米，底直径为700千米。
这三座在Tharsis的凸出部分大火山要稍微小一些——仅仅只有18千米高。
None of these volcanoes was formed as a result of collisions between plates of the Martian crust‐there is no plate motion on Mars. Instead, they are shield volcanoes‐volcanoes with broad, sloping slides formed by molten rock. All four show distinctive lava channels and other flow features similar to those found on shield volcanoes on Earth. Images of the Martian surface reveal many hundreds of volcanoes. Most of the largest volcanoes are associated with the Tharsis bulge, but many smaller ones are found in the northern plains.这些火山都不是由于火星外壳的板块碰撞产生的，因为火星上没有板块运动。
tpo25 tpo26考试考点
改变He studied the traditional music of the region.But it turns out that what would later have a notable influence on European music on the whole was the way Bartok used elements he heard from what he heard, like unusual rhythms. And he liked to use glissando as his hallmark, which he probably got from listening to Croatian folk music.A 影响B A 导致BOne consequence of global warming is extinction. There is compelling evidence that global warming will be a significant driver of many plant and animal extinctions in this centuryAnd in the early 1900s, composers who worked in the Romantic style were the most popular in Austria-Hungary. But Bartok, he was part of the musical community that was trying to change this. And it led him to.. Well the first thing it did was led him to travel. He looked at the countryside for the music of the farmers and the people who lived in small towns, and their music, well, you could say he discovered the music that was popular in those areas.He became very successful there. Particularly, when Bartok ballet t he wooden Prince opened, There was great excitement for music that included musical elements from local folk songs, music that reflected the region’s musical traditions.Young animals play in. order to get really good at certain specific things they will need to do when they are adults, things like chasing, pouncing, climbing. In other words, they play in order to practice survival skills, like movements used in hunting and fighting. That hypothesis makes a lot of sense, like , maybe the most sense of all the theories we read about.As you say, play is much more than just pretend fighting or practicing other adult behavior. Apparently, it also contributes to the development of a brain that’s flexible, a brain that’s quickly able to ge t a handle on unfamiliar situations.According to the flexibility hypothesis, yes, the diversity, the variety in play can lead to a broader behavioral vocabulary.Sometimes playing results in an animal doing something it would not normally do. That can lead to the animal learning to adapt, to come up with new behaviors that can help it cope with major problems later on, like staying safe or finding food.But that message wasn’t effective. Research shows that consumers don’t want to let go of any traditional product attributes, like c onvenience, price, and quality. Even though surveys indicate that almost everybody cares about the environment.Now, the discovery of this cadmium-based enzyme is really important for a number of reasons. It’s actually the first enzyme we have discovered that uses cadmium. So it is possible that other not so typical trace metals may be used in chemical processes, that marine organisms might makeenzymes from other trace metals when the essential one is scarce.And there may be other types of diatoms that use cadmium to cycle carbon.How old is this solar system? Four and a half billion years, remember? And Halley’s is going around the Sun once every 75 years and losing stuff each time. So the comet should be long gone by now right? I mean how come Halley’s is still there? After four and a half billion years. How could it be? Well, the answer is that this comet hasn’t always been in such a short periodic orbit, since once a comet gets into an orbit that keeps it coming in close the Sun quite frequently.A B 交替Over the past two million years, colder glacial periods have alternated with warmer interglacial periods.In response to these gradual climatic swings, some species have shifted their rang hundreds of kilometers.Housing developments, highways and cities have replaced or sliced through forests and prairies.Many species are interdependent, intimately connected to one another. Like animals that eat a certain plant and that plant relies on a certain fungus to help it get nutrients from soil and on a certain insect for pollination. We probably have to translocate entire networks of species and it’s hard to know where to draw the line.But new study suggests that cadmium can actually substitute for zinc, that organisms can use it instead of zinc when there isn’t enough zinc in their environment.隐形关系But Zinc is scarce in certain environments.And it’s particularly scarce in waters near the surface of rivers and lakes and shallower parts of oceans,which might make us wonder how pants could live there at all. In fact, there are a lot of marine plants that survive, that grow and reproduce in surface waters. In particular, there are a lot of diatoms.下定义Assisted migration means picking up members of a species, or members of a group of interdependent species , or members of a group of interdependent species and physically moving or translocating them. Translocating threatened species to a cooler place, to higher latitudes or higher elevations, for example.Assisted migration could become a viable part of our rescue strategy, but there are a number of uncertainties and risks. Without more research, we can’t predict if assisted migration will work for any given species.The Rosetta Stone is arguably the most famous archaeological artifact ever discovered. It contains the same exact text written in three different alphabets: Greek, demotic, hieroglyphSelf-handicapping. Like during a fake fight, a play fight, if one of the animals is winning, the winning animal might just stop and give up its advantage.Something else, the company that makes the eco-light, researchers would consider it an ‘extreme green company’, not only becaus e its products are energy-efficient, but because the company tries to reduce its environmental impact in other ways too. Like in addition to selling Earth-friendly products, its offices and factories are designed to conserve energy and use all sorts of recycled materials. A company that only recycles office paper, researchers would classify as a ‘lean green company’. And there are other degrees of greenness in between.Let’s continue our discussion now by talking about orbits, especially those of the so-called periodic-orbit comets. These are the comets that circle around the Sun pretty regularly. They return again and again, predictably, after a certain period of time. That’s why we say their orbits are periodic. Probably the most famous and brightest of these is Halley’s comet.ExplainActually, that’s something the f lexibility hypothesis explains very well.Since play fighting includes variations in speed and intensity, and quick role reversals involved with self-handicapping. An animal that’s play fighting is constantly responding to changes. So it is learning to be flexible.Green marketing refers to companies promoting the product as environmentally friendly. Companies often turn to advertising experts to help them do this.But lots of comets aren’t like that. They come in, pass behind the Sun, and then travel back out. But with an orbit so large, and its farthest place so far away from the Sun that we just don’t know how far out it goes. We just can’t determine that very accurately from the close-in part of the orbit that we do see. So these are often called parabolic-orbit comets. Parabolic means the orbit is open at the far end.重要性和用处The demotic script found on the Rosetta Stone, well, demotic was not as elaborate as hieroglyphic writing. It was used for more mundane matters, oh , like administrative documents. These ancient Egyptian scripts were replaced by Coptic scripts.But eventually, the Arabic language replaced Coptic and this cut off the linguistic link between ancient and modern Egypt.He was eventually able to confirm that it was. So, he had figured it out.Just before the end of the last class, we started talking about trace metals, metals found in living organisms in very small quantities that serve an important biological, important nutritive function in those organisms. And one trace metal that serves a nutritive function is zinc.Different enzymes assist in different chemical reactions. Now, the one that speeds up theconversion of carbon dioxide has zinc in it. So this Zinc enzyme is critical for getting CO2 out of our bodies through lungs. And it is also extremely important for plants.Plants also convert carbon dioxide into different forms of carbon-containing molecules and the conversion process used relies on the very same enzyme that work in humans. So zinc is also important for plants.There are a number of different types of diatoms, and well, diatoms play a very important role i n the carbon cycling process, because they help make carbon available to other organisms in deeper parts of the ocean.But how did diatoms survive if zinc is so scarce? Well, recently researchers discovered that a specific type of diatom makes a different enzyme that serves the same purpose.否定和态度So this conservation group wants to translocate seedlings, Florida Torreya seedlings, 500 kilometers North in order to expand the species’ range. The group believed its effort is justified, but I and many other biologists will be watching very closely how this maverick group makes out, because like I said, t here could be unintended consequences.He was not a fan of the Romantic style of music that was popular in his homeland during his youth.So, this self-handicapping, it is important to take into account before just deciding to go with that first explanation. And in fact, there really isn’t much in the way of solid experimental evidence to support the play-as-preparation hypothesis.But as some green marketers learned the hard way, green marketing must still involve all the same principles of a traditional marketing campaign.So let me tell you about one green marketing campaign that failed at first a nd explain why.However, let’s say you are fined for violating the Clean Water Act while manufacturing products from recycled materials. The public would eventually find out. You can’t just make the claim that a product is environmentally friendly and not follow through on.Young did actually proved that these hieroglyphs represented sounds rather than whole words. Strangely though, he gave into the dominant thesis of the day that hieroglyphs were pictographs. He actually dismissed his own findings as an anomaly because the Ptolemaic dynasty was Greek, not Eyptian. In other words, he figured it was an exception to the rule.This notion, the flexibility hypothesis, well, many of my colleagues find it quite persuasive.Now,if all these diatoms are taking carbon dioxide from the surface, converting it and transporting it to the bottom of the ocean, well, maybe there is more to that whole process, thatcycle, something that we’ve overlooked. So further research might tell us more about these warming cycles too.。
Tpo25 阅读-2 翻译
威尼斯航运地位的下降在十三世纪末期，北部的意大利城市如Genoa、Florence和威尼斯开始了一次经济复苏，使它们成为了当时欧洲最重要的经济中心。
然而到了十七世纪，其他的一些欧洲势力开始崛起，并掌握了主动，而这些意大利城市则逐渐失去了经济上的强势。
这一经济地位的下降可以在威尼斯的贸易与船运方面体现出来。
首先，威尼斯在亚得里亚海（在这里它曾经主宰了其它团体的船运）中中间人的地位在直接的交易当中已经丧失了。
在十五世纪，为低舷大帆船（用桨驱动的大船）招募船员并没有大问题：商会被要求提供水手，而自由民也通过一种抽签的方式来义务地应招。
到了十六世纪早期，船员的问题也不严重：向远圆船（拥有圆形船身并具有更多载货空间的船）的转变使问题得到了缓解，这种船需要的船员较少。
但是船员的短缺的确是一个越来越严重的问题，尽管威尼斯的伟大航海业一直以来都有着强大的吸引力。
虽然在意大利北部水手的工资在1550年到1590年期间翻了一番，这还是没能引起水手供应的增加。
船运方面的问题延伸到了威尼斯的造船重镇——Arsenale。
原木在逐渐减少，原材料不得不被从越来越遥远的地方运送过来。
在古罗马时代，意大利半岛拥有大量的适用于战船的冷杉树林，但早在十四世纪初期，短缺现象就开始出现了。
Arsenale的官员起初从阿尔卑斯山脚下运来木材，然后是北方的的里亚斯特。
私人造船者被要求到国外进口木材。
在造船开销增加的同时，威尼斯拘泥于过时的造船标准，而与此同时荷兰已经开始了向更轻更易驾驶的船只的改革。
由从国外进口木材到从国外进口船只这一转变一直被认为是极其迅速的，尤其是在十六世纪后期时，对于Arsenale的造船质量的质疑不绝于耳的情况下。
工作变得十分懒散而且质量不尽人意。
老工人们被允许在收工前半个小时离开，而到了1601年，年轻的工人也开始在同样的时间停止工作了。
商人们则抱怨那些起初只针对于威尼斯造并属于威尼斯的船只享有的特权首先是向购买了进口船只的威尼斯人放宽，而之后才向外国造且属于外国的船只敞开。
托福阅读TPO25-2 The Decline of Venetian Shipping
The Decline of Venetian ShippingIn the late thirteenth century, northern Italian cities such as Genoa, Florence, and Venice began an economic resurgence that made them into the most important economiccenters of Europe. By the seventeenth century, however, other European powers had taken over, as the Italian cities lost much of their economic might.This decline can be seen clearly in the changes that affected Venetian shipping and trade. First, Venice’s intermediary functions in the Adriatic Sea, where it had dominated the business of shipping for other parties, were lost to direct trading. In the fifteenth century there was little problem recruiting sailors to row the galleys (large ships propelled by oars): guilds (business associations) were required to provide rowers, and through a draft system free citizens served compulsorily when called for. In the early sixteenth century the shortage of rowers was not serious because the demand for galleys was limited by a move to round ships (round-hulled ships with more cargo space), with required fewer rowers. But the shortage of crews proved to be a greater and greater problem, despite continuous appeal to Venic’s tradition of maritime greatness. Even though sailors’ wages doubled among the northern Italian cities from 1550 to 1590, this did not elicit an increased supply.The problem in shipping extended to the Arsenale, Venice’s huge and powerful shipyard. Timber ran short, and it was necessary to procure it from farther and farther away. In ancient Roman times, the Italian peninsula had great forest of fir preferred for warships, but scarcity was apparent as early as the early fourteenth century. Arsenale officers first brought timber from the foothills of the Alps, then from north toward Trieste, and finally from across the Adriatic. Private shipbuilders were required to buy their oak abroad. As the costs of shipbuilding rose, Venice clung to its outdated standard while the Dutch were innovation in the lighter and more easily handled ships.The step from buying foreign timber to buying foreign ships was regarded as a short one, especially when complaints were heard in the latter sixteenth century that the standards and traditions of the Arsenale were running down. Work was stretched out and done poorly. Older workers had been allowed to stop work a half hour before the regular time, and in 1601 younger works left with them. Merchants complained that the privileges reserved for Venetian-built and owned ships were first extended to those Venetians who bought ships from abroad and then to foreign-built and owned vessels. Historian Frederic Lane observes that after the loss of ships in battle in the late sixteenth century, the shipbuilding industry no longer had the capacity to recover that it had displayed at the start of the century.The conventional explanation for the loss of Venetian dominance in trade is establishment of the Portuguese direct sea route to the East, replacing the overland Silk Road from the Black sea and the highly profitable Indian Ocean-caravan-eastern Mediterranean route to Venice. The Portuguese Vasco da Gama’s Voyage around southern Africa to India took place at the end of the fifteenth century, and by 1502 the trans- Abrabian caravan route had been cut off by political unrest.The Venetian Council finally allowed round ships to enter the trade that was previously reserved formerchant galleys, thus reducing transport cost by one third. Prices of spices delivered by ship from theeastern Mediterranean came to equal those of spices transported by Paortuguese vessels, but the increasein quantity with both routes in operation drove the price far down. Gradually, Venice’s role as a storage anddistribution center for spices and silk, dyes cotton, and gold decayed, and by the early seventeenth centuryVenice had lost its monopoly in markets such as France and southern Germany.Venetian shipping had started to decline from about 1530-before the entry into the Mediterranean oflarge volumes of Dutch and British shipping-and was clearly outclassed by the end of the century. Acontemporary of Shakespeare (1564-1616) observed that the productivity of Italian shipping had declined,compared with that of the British, because of conservatism and loss of expertise. Moreover, Italian sailorswere deserting and emigrating, and captains, no longer recruited from the ranks of nobles, were weak onnavigations.that made them into the most important economiccenters of Europe. By the seventeenth century, however, other European powers had taken over, as the Italian cities lost much of their economic might.○ transformation○ comeback○ program○ expansionParagraph 2 This decline can be seen clearly in the changes that affected Venetian shipping and trade. First, Venic’s intermediary functions in the Adriatic Sea, where it had dominated the business of shipping for other parties, were lost to direct trading. In the fifteenth century there was little problem recruiting sailors to row the galleys (large ships propelled by oars): guildsfor. In the early sixteenth century the shortage of rowers was not serious because the demand for galleys was limited by a move to round ships (round-hulled ships with more cargo space), with required fewer rowers. But the shortage of crews proved to be a greater and greater problem, despite continuous appeal to Venic’s tradition of maritime greatness. Even though sailors’wages doubled among the northern Italian cities from 1550 to 1590, this did not elicit an increased supply.passage is closest in meaning to○for free○ for a time○ by requirement○ by design3. According to paragraph 2, which of the following contributed to the decline of Venetian shipping?○ The loss of trade in Adriatic Sea○ The move from galleys to round ships○ The decreased demand for galleys○ The doubling of sailor’s wages4. All of the following are mentioned in paragraph 2 as ways that Venice provided rowers for its galley EXCEPT○ Requiring business associations to provide sailo rs○ Recruiting sailors from other cities in northern Italy○ Drafting Venetian citizens into services as rowers○ Appealing to the traditions of Venice as asea power.Paragraph 3:The problem in shipping extended to the Arsenale, Venice’s huge and powerf ul shipyard. Timber ran short, and it was necessary to procure it from farther and farther away. In ancient Roman times, the Italian peninsula had great forest of fir preferred for warships, but scarcity was apparent as early as the early fourteenth century. Arsenale officers first brought timber from the foothills of the Alps, then from north toward Trieste, and finally from across the Adriatic.Private shipbuilders were required to buy their oakabroad. As the costs of shipbuilding rose, Venice clung to standard while the Dutch were innovation in the lighter and more easily handled ships.○ strict○ enforced○ improved○old-fashioned6. According to paragraphs 3, why did the building of ships in Venetian shipyards become increasingly expensive?○ The wages of officers and workers in the Arsenale kept rising○ Roman shipyards were using all the available fir trees for the warships○ The timber used in the shipbuilding had to be brought from farther and farther away○ Venetian standards required that shipbuilders use top-quality materials.Paragraph 3:The problem in shipping extended to the Arsenale, Venice’s huge and powerful shipyard. Timber ran short, and it was necessary to procure it from father and father away. In ancient Roman times, the Italian peninsula had great forest of fir preferred for warships, but scarcity was apparent as early as the early fourteenth century. Arsenale officers first brought timber from the foothills of the Alps, then from north toward Trieste, and finally from across the Adriatic.Private shipbuilders were required to buy their oakabroad. As the costs of shipbuilding rose, Venice clung to standard while the Dutch were innovation in the lighter and more easily handled ships.Paragraph 4:The step from buying foreign timber to buying foreign ships was regarded as a short one, especially when complaints were heard in the latter sixteenth century that the standards and traditions of the Arsenale were running down. Work was stretched out and done poorly. Older workers had been allowed to stop work a half hour before the regular time, and in 1601 younger works left with them. Merchants complained that the privileges reserved for Venetian-built and owned ships were first extended to those7. All of the following are mentioned in paragraph 3 and 4 as contributing to the problems of the Venetian shipbuilding industry at the end of the sixteenth century EXCEPT○ The quality of work performed in the A rsenale had declined○ Venetian–built ships were heavy and generally inefficient○ Arsenale shipbuilders worked more slowly○ Only a few merchants controlled the buying and selling of most of the Venetian-built ships8. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage?Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.○ The loss of ships in battle at the end of the sixteenth century showed that Veneti an shipbuilders lacked the skills they had possessed at the beginning of the century.○ Venetian shipbuilding failed to quickly replace the ships lost in battle at the end of the sixteenth century as it would have done earlier in the century.○ Frederic La ne noted that Venice lost ships in battle at the end of the sixteenth century, showing that Venetian shipbuilding was not longer known for its reliability.○ Venetian shipbuilding had been known for its high quality of work at the beginning of the sixteent h century, but toward the end of the century Venetian ships were poorer in quality.highly profitable Indian Ocean-caravan-eastern Mediterranean route to Venice. Thethe trans- Abrabian caravan route had been cut off by political unrest.○ informal○ logical○ correct○ usualpassage?○ to indicate how the Portuguese came to challenge Venetian dominance of trade with the East○ to explain why political troubles resulted in the closing of the usual routes to India○ to prove that Venetians could not sail round ships as efficiently as sailors from other countries did ○ to show that Venetian reliance on round ships rather than galleys proved to be weaknessParagraph 6:The Venetian Council finally allowed round ships to enter the trade that was previously reserved for merchant galleys, thus reducing transport cost by one third. Prices of spices delivered by ship from the eastern Mediterranean came to equal those of spices transported by Paortuguese vessels, but the increase in quantity with both routes in operation drove the price far down. Gradually, Venice’s role as a storage and distribution center for spices and silk, dyes cotton, and gold decayed, and by the early seventeenth century Venice had lost its monopoly in markets such as France and southern Germany.11. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 6 about the Venetian Council’s decision concerning the use of round ships?○ It resulted in a return to profit able in luxury goods for Venetian merchants.○ Ultimately it did not restore the superiority in the spice trade that Venice had enjoyed earlier.○ It eventually enabled Venetian merchants to increase the quantity and price of the spices they sold in Europe.○. It means a long-awaited improvement in the fortunes of the shipbuilding industry in Venice.12. According to paragraphs 6, in the sixteenth century the price of spices declined because○ France and Germany established monopolies and dictated price s○ Venetian merchant galleys competed with Venetian round ships for the spice trade○ More spices were available because both the Venetians and the Portuguese were importing them ○ Increased demand for silk, dyes, cotton and gold meant that people had les s money to spend on spices.Paragraph2:This decline can be seen clearly in the changes that affected Venetian shipping and trade. First, Venic’s intermediary functions in the Adriatic Sea, where it had dominated the business of shipping for other parties, were lost to direct trading. In the fifteenth century there was little problem recruiting sailors to row the galleys (large ships propelled by oars): guilds (business associations) were required to provide rowers, and through a draft system free citizens served compulsorily when called for. █In the early sixteenth century the shortage of rowers was not serious because the demand for galleys was limited by a move to round ships (round-hulled ships with more cargo space), with required fewer rowers. █But the shortage of crews proved to be a greater and greater problem, despite continuous appeal to Venic’s tradition of maritime greatness. █Even though sailors’ wages doubled among the northern Italian cities from 1550 to 1590, this did not elicit an increased supply.█13. Look at the four squares[■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.The increase in reward still did not attract young people to this hard life, and convicted criminals and slaves were pressed into services.Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square to add the sentence to the passage.14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.The loss of power and prestige of Italian cities by the sixteenth century is clearly seen in the decline of Venetian shipping.Answer choices●●●○ Venetian ships were famous for carrying large cargoes of spices and luxury goods around the world in fast, oar-driven galleys.○ A shortage of timber for building the traditional galleys and a lack of sailors to row them meant a loss of Venetian shipping business.○The Venetian Council made sure that Venetian-built and –owned ships kept special privileges in transporting luxury goods in and out of Venice.○Venetian round ships bringing spices and silk from the East helped drive prices down so that ordinary people could afford to buy them○Venice failed to keep up with improvement in ship design, and the cost of shipbuilding rose a qua lity and efficiency declined.○ The Portuguese direct sea route to the East adversely affected Venetian trade, and Venice fell behind the Dutch and the British in the quality of their ships and sailing skills.参考答案：1. 22. 33. 14. 25. 46. 37. 48. 29. 410. 111. 212. 313. 414. A shortage of…Venice failed to…The Portuguese direct sea…。
托福TPO25综合写作(阅读文本)
小编为托福考生们准备了托福综合写作TPO25,希望各位考生们在TPO写作真题里能够得到锻炼，祝广大托福考生能够取得理想成绩。
TPO 25ReadingIn 1938 an archaeologist in Iraq acquired a set of clay jars that had beenexcavated two years earlier by villagers constructing a railroad line. Thevessel was about 2,200 years old. Each clay jay contained a copper cylindersurrounding an iron rod. The archaeologist proposed that vessel were ancientelectric batteries and even demonstrated that they can produce a small electriccurrent when filled with some liquids. However, it is not likely that thevessels were actually used as electric batteries in ancient times.First of all, if the vessels were used as batteries, they would probablyhave been attached to some electricity conductors such as metal wires. But thereis no evidence that any metal wires were located near the vessels. All that hasbeen excavated are the vessels themselves.Second, the copper cylinders inside the jars look exactly like coppercylinders discovered in the ruins of Seleucia, an ancient city located nearby.We know that the copper cylinders from Seleucia were used for holding scrolls ofsacred texts, not for generating electricity. Since the cylinders found with thejars have the same shape, it is very likely they were used for holding scrollsas well. That no scrolls were found inside the jars can be explained by the factthat the scrolls simply disintegrated over the centuries.Finally, what could ancient people have done with the electricity that thevessels were supposed to have generated? They had no devices that replied onelectricity. As batteries, the vessels would have been completely useless to them.独立写作部分：点击查看：托福TPO25独立写作?。
托福阅读真题第25套
第25套Effects of the Commercial RevolutionParagraph1In the third and the second millennia B.C.long-distance trade supposedly had the character of an expedition.By the start of the last millennium B.C.,however,a new approach to engaging in such trade emerged.Based on the principle of colonization,it was pioneered by the Phoenicians and Greeks,who established colonies along the Mediterranean Sea.The new approach to long-distance trade,known as the commercial revolution,led to changes in a number of political and economic patterns.1.The word“pioneered”in the passage is closet in meaning toadopteddescribeddemonstratedintroducedParagraph2For the first time,the planting of colonies in distant lands became possible.The Phoenician settlements in the central and western Mediterranean,such as Carthage, and the slightly later establishment of Greek colonies are early examples,while the settlement of south Arabians in Eritrea around the middle of the last millennium marks the subsequent spread of this sort of commercial consequence to the Horn of Africa.In the third or second millennia B.C.,a state such as Egypt might colonize areas outside its heartland,such as Nubia.But this colonization comprised military outposts and ethnic settlements that were planted to hold the contiguous territories ofa land empire,not distant localities far separated from the home country.2.All of the following groups are mentioned in paragraph2as establishing distanttrading outposts in the last millennium B.C.EXCEPTthe Greeksthe Egyptiansthe Phoeniciansthe south Arabians3.The word“subsequent”in the passage is closet in meaning toinitialanticipatedlaterincreasing4.In paragraph2,why does the author mention the colonization of Nubia by theEgyptians?To prove that colonization was first carried out by the militaryTo indicate that Egypt was a major military power in the third and second millennia B.C.To illustrate how large the geographic area of colonization had become over several millenniaTo show that the purpose of colonization during the third and second millennia B.C.differed from that of the last millennium B.C.5.The word“comprised”in the passage is closet in meaning toresulted infocused onwas inspired byconsisted ofParagraph3The commercial revolution constructed the economic basis as well for a new kind of town or city,an urban center that above all serviced trade and was home to the crafts and occupational specializations that went along with commercial development.The urban locations of earlier times commonly drew trade simply because their populations had included a privileged elite of potential consumers.Such towns had arisen in the first place as political and religious centers of the society,they attracted population because power and influence resides there and access to position and wealth could be gained through service to the royal or priestly leadership.6.According to paragraph3,before the emergence of the commercial revolution,tradeenabled craftspeople and occupational specialists to gain power and influence in societycentered on the ruling elite and those groups closely associated with themwas primarily conducted by people serving the royal and religious leadershipwas a major reason why urban centers were establishedParagraph4Wherever the effects of the commercial revolution penetrated over the last millennium B.C.,kings and emperors increasingly lost their ability to treat trade as a royalty sponsored activity,intended to preserve the commodities of trade as the privileges of immemorial power and position.Instead,their policies shifted toward controlling geographical accessibility to the products of commerce and to ensuring security and other conditions that attracted and enhanced the movement of goods.No longer could kings rely on agriculturally supported and religiously based claims to an ability to protect their lands and people;now they also had to overtly support the material prosperity of their people compared to other societies.And rather than exerting amonopoly over prestige commodities,as had Egyptian kings of the third and second millennia,and redistributing such commodities in ways designed to reinforce the allegiance of their subjects and enhance the awesomeness of their position,rulers turned to the taxation of trade and to the creation and control of currency,more and more relying on duties and other revenues to support the apparatus of the state.It was no historical accident that the first metal coinage in the world began to be made in eighth-century Anatolia(modern Turkey)and that the use of coins rapidly spread with the expanding commercial revolution.The material bases and the legitimizations of state authority as we know them today had begun to take shape.7.The word“enhanced”in the passage is closet in meaning toimprovedinfluencedprotectednecessitated8.The word“reinforce”in the passage is closet in meaning todemandstrengthenearnrepay9.According to paragraph4,as the commercial revolution expanded,rulers focusedontaxation and the development and control of moneymonopolizing prestige commoditiesdistributing prestige commodities to ensure the allegiance of their subjectsprotecting their land to legitimize their authority10.What can be inferred from paragraph4about Anatolia?Its merchants specialized in the trading of prestige commodities.It was the first place to use currency for the taxation of trade.It contained enormous supplies of metal compared with other states in the region. Trade remained a royally sponsored activity there long after the emergence of the commercial revolution.Paragraph5The commercial revolution tended also to spread a particular pattern of exchange.The early commercial centers of the Mediterranean most characteristically offered manufactured goods—purple dye,metal goods,wine,olive oil,and so forth—for the raw materials or the partially processed natural products of other regions.As the commercial revolution spread,this kind of exchange tended to spread with it,with the recently added areas of commerce providing new kinds of raw materials or newsources for familiar products of the natural world,and the longer established commercial centers—which might themselves have lain at the margins of this transformation—producing,or acting as the intermediaries in the transmission of, manufactured commodities.India,for instance,had developed by the turn of the era into a major exporter of its own cotton textiles,as well as naturally occurring materials,such as gems of various kinds,and at the same time its merchants were the intermediaries of the silk trade.11.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in thehighlighted sentence in the passage?Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.During the commercial revolution,newer centers of trade acted as intermediaries in the exchange of different types of manufactured goods.Longer-established trading centers were familiar with the unprocessed products of the natural world,but depended on other areas as sources for manufactured commodities.Eventually,the commercial revolution led to a trading system whereby newly established commercial centers provided the resources needed for the production of goods while older trading centers produced the goods or assisted in their distribution.The commercial revolution depended on a system of trade where consumers valued novelty in the manufactured goods they acquired,but,at the same time, they wanted to be familiar with the natural products they received.12.Paragraph5supports which of the following statements about Indian merchants atthe time of the commercial revolution?They imported cotton,silk,and other high-quality fabrics intended for the Indian market.They obtained various kinds of gems from intermediaries in the silk trade.They were simultaneously exporters of manufactured and natural products and intermediaries for goods produced elsewhere.They created a highly sophisticated textile industry at the same time that they were engaged in the processing of natural products.13.Look at the four squares[■]that indicate where the following sentence can beadded to the passage.It was significantly different from the typical centers that existed before the commercial revolution.Where would the sentence best fit?Click on a square[■]to add the sentence to the passage.Paragraph3■The commercial revolution constructed the economic basis as well for a new kind of town or city,an urban center that above all serviced trade and was home to the crafts and occupational specializations that went along with commercial development.■The urban locations of earlier times commonly drew trade simply because their populations had included a privileged elite of potential consumers.■Such towns had arisen in the first place as political and religious centers of the society,they attracted population because power and influence resides there and access to position and wealth could be gained through service to the royal or priestly leadership.■14.Directions:An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided plete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage.Some answer choices do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage.This question is worth2points.Drag your choices to the spaces where they belong.To review the passage,click onView Text.Answer ChoicesA.New kinds of urban centers emerged that focused on commerce and encouraged craft and occupational specializations.B.Rulers in the last millennium began to promote the material prosperity of their people through support and improvement of commerce.C.More established commercial centers supplied final products to newer regions in exchange for raw materials.D.During the first millennium B.C.,new political and religious centers arose that based their power on their ability to protect their lands and people.E.The focus on raw materials switched the balance of power from the manufacturing centers to the control of the exporters of the natural products.itary occupation of neighboring lands became a major means of expanding trade into new territories.European Context of the Scientific RevolutionParagraph1The Scientific Revolution represents a turning point in world history.By1700 European scientists had overthrown the science and worldviews of the ancient philosophers:Aristotle and Ptolemy.Europeans in1700lived in a vastly different intellectual world than that experienced by their predecessors in,say,1500.The role and power of science,as a way of knowing about the world and as an agency with the potential of changing the world,likewise underwent profound restricting as part of the Scientific Revolution.1.The word“profound”in the passage is closet in meaning tofrequentintensechallengingcareful2.According to paragraph1,what was new about the intellectual world of1700?Scientists were aware that they were participating in a turning point in world history.Beliefs about nature developed by ancient philosophers were no longer accepted. People believed that science had changed the world.The impact of the Scientific Revolution was being felt in all aspects of European life.Paragraph2The social context for science in Europe in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries had changed in several dramatic ways from the Middle Ages(roughly,500C.E.to the 1400s C.E.).Advances in military technology,the European voyages of exploration, and contact with the New World altered the context in which the Scientific Revolution unfolded.The geographical discovery of the Americas generally undermined the closed Eurocentric cosmos of the later Middle Ages,and the science of geography provided a stimulus of its own to the Scientific Revolution.With an emphasis on observational reports and practical experience,new geographical discoveries challenged accepted knowledge.Cartography(mapmaking)thus provided exemplary new ways of learning about the world in general,ways self-evidently superior to mastering established doctrines from dusty books.Many of the scientists of the Scientific Revolution seem to have been involved in one fashion or another with geography or cartography.3.According to paragraph2,all of the following influenced European scientific thought during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries EXCEPTprogress in military technologyexplorative journeys made by Europeansviews expressed in the scholarship of the Middle Agesthe development of cartography4.According to paragraph2,how did the study of geography influence the Scientific Revolution?It supported established doctrines in the European-centered world.It created new ways of learning through recording observations and practical experiences.It contributed to advances in military technology.It allowed scientists from different regions to exchange information. Paragraph3In the late1430s,Johannes Gutenberg,apparently independently of the development of woodblock printing in Asia,invented printing with movable type,and the spread of this powerful new technology after1450likewise altered the cultural landscape of early modern Europe.The new medium created a revolution in communications that increased the amount and accuracy of information available and made copying of books by scribes obsolete.Producing some13,000works by1500,printing presses spread rapidly throughout Europe and helped to break down the monopoly of learning in universities and to create a new group of nonreligious intellectuals.Indeed,the first printshops became something of intellectual centers themselves,with authors, publishers,and workers collaborating in unprecedented ways in the production of new knowledge.Renaissance humanism,that renowned philosophical and literary movement emphasizing human values and the direct study of classical Greek and Latin texts,is hardly conceivable without the technology of printing that sustained the efforts of learned humanists.Regarding science,the advent of printing and humanist scholarship brought another wave in the recovery of ancient texts.Whereas Europeans first learned of ancient Greek science largely through translations from the Arabic in the twelfth century,in the later fifteenth century scholars brought forth new editions from Greek originals and uncovered influential new sources,notably the Greek mathematician Archimedes.Similarly,printing disseminated previously obscure handbooks of technical and magical secrets that proved influential in the developing Scientific Revolution.5.The word“obsolete”in the passage is closet in meaning tocostlyless frequentunappealingout of date6.The word“obscure”in the passage is closet in meaning tolittle knownexpensiveforbiddencelebrated7.Paragraph3suggests that before1500the transmission of knowledge in Europe wasstimulated by printing developments in Asiadependent on collaborations between scribes and publisherslimited to religious intellectuals in academic settingsinfluenced by philosophical rather than literary sources8.The author discusses“Renaissance humanism”in order todemonstrate that printing presses facilitated the spread of humanistic thoughtdiscuss why print shops declined as intellectual centerscompare the beliefs of classical humanists to the Renaissance humanistsemphasize the importance of the direct study of Greek and Latin texts9.According to paragraph3,what effect did the invention of printing have on science in Europe?Scientists were able to publish books for humanists and other non-scientific intellectuals.Europeans gained access to new editions of texts as well as new sources of knowledge.Translations of Arabic texts documenting scientific discoveries became widely available.Humanistic study declined as a result of the advance of scientific study. Paragraph4Particularly in Italy,the revival of cultural life and the arts in the late fourteenth and fifteenth centuries commonly known as the Renaissance must also be considered as an urban and comparatively secular phenomenon,aligned with courts and courtly patronage but not with the universities,which were religiously base.One associates the great flourish of artistic activity of the Renaissance with such talents as Donatello, Leonardo da Vinci,Raphael,and Michelangelo.In comparison with medieval art,the use of perspective—a projection system that realistically renders the three dimensions of space onto the two dimensions of a canvas—represents a new feature typical of Renaissance painting,and through the work of Leon Battista Alberti,Albrecht Durer, and others,artists learned to practice mathematical rules governing perspective.So noteworthy was this development that historians have been inclined to place Renaissance artists at the forefront of those uncovering new knowledge about nature in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.【Whatever one may make of that claim,early modern artists needed accurate knowledge of human muscular anatomy for lifelikerenditions,and an explosion of anatomical research in the Renaissance may be attributed to this need in the artistic community.】10.The word“associates”in the passage is closet in meaning tocomparesappreciatesconnectspresents11.According to paragraph4,Renaissance artistic contributed to the Scientific Revolution byreviving medieval mathematical and scientific sources for studyestablishing institutions for the study of mathematics and scientific principles in artcreating paintings that contributed to the wealth of the courts and courtly patronage of scienceusing mathematical information to realistically represent space in art12.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage?Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.Early modern artists claim to have uncovered new knowledge about nature and human muscular anatomy before the explosion of anatomical research.Artists’need for accurate knowledge in order to realistically represent the human body may have caused the sudden increase in anatomical studies in the Renaissance.Whatever other claims are made about early modern art,it is accurate to state that Renaissance artists were concerned with creating lifelike representations.The need for early modern artists to create lifelike renditions developed after the explosion of anatomical research made human anatomy clear.13.Look at the four squares[■]that indicate where the following sentence can be added to the passage.Given the advantages these new approaches offered,it is hardly surprising that sciences associated with exploration attracted great intellectual interest.Where would the sentence best fit?Click on a square[■]to add the sentence to the passage.Paragraph2■The social context for science in Europe in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries had changed in several dramatic ways from the Middle Ages(roughly,500C.E.to the1400s C.E.).■Advances in military technology,the European voyages of exploration, and contact with the New World altered the context in which the Scientific Revolution unfolded.The geographical discovery of the Americas generally undermined the closed Eurocentric cosmos of the later Middle Ages,and the science of geography provided a stimulus of its own to the Scientific Revolution.■With an emphasis on observational reports and practical experience,new geographical discoveries challenged accepted knowledge.Cartography(mapmaking)thus provided exemplary new ways of learning about the world in general,ways self-evidently superior to mastering established doctrines from dusty books.■Many of the scientists of the Scientific Revolution seem to have been involved in one fashion or another with geography or cartography.14.Directions:An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided plete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage.Some answer choices do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage.This question is worth2points.Drag your choices to the spaces where they belong.To review the passage,click on View Text.Answer ChoicesA.The discovery of the Americas stimulated the science of geography and cartography which in turn emphasized observation and practical experience.B.The invention of movable type increased the accuracy and availability of information,and a new group of nonreligious scholars emerged.C.The growth of both artistic and scientific activity in Renaissance Italy was encouraged by the financial support of universities and wealthy merchants.D.Johannes Gutenberg’s invention of printing in the late1430s appears to have been unrelated to earlier developments in print technology in Asia.E.European intellectuals first discovered the existence of ancient Greek science and mathematic texts in the late fifteenth century,when translations from the Arabic finally became available.F.The revival of culture and art in fourteenth-century Italy encouraged the development of perspective and the adherence to mathematical rules in painting.Earth’s Energy CycleParagraph1To understand most of the processes at work on Earth,it is useful to envisage interactions within the Earth system as a series of interrelated cycles.One of these is the energy cycle,which encompasses the great“engines”—the external and internal energy sources—that drive the Earth system and all its cycles.We can think of Earth’s energy cycle as a“budget”energy may be added to or subtracted from the budget and may be transferred from one storage place to another,but overall the additions and subtractions and transfers must balance each other.If a balance did not exist,Earth would either heat up or cool down until a balance was reached.1.The word“encompasses”in the passage is closet in meaning toexplainsincludescombinescreates2.The author mentions the“budget”energy in paragraph1in order to?indicate how different cycles interact with each otherillustrate how Earth’s energy cycle must maintain in balanceshow that Earth gains energy from both external and internal sourcesexplain how energy is transferred from one storage place to another Paragraph2The total amount of energy flowing into Earth’s energy budget is more than174,000 terawatts(or174,000×10¹²watts).This quantity completely dwarfs the10terawatts of energy that humans use per year.There are three main sources from which energy flows into the Earth system.3.Why does the author mention the energy that humans use per year?To call into question a large amount of energy available in Earth’s energyTo provide a comparison that establishes how enormous amount of energy flowing into Earth’s energy budget isTo explain why there must be more than one source of energy for the Earth systemTo argue that the use of energy by humans amounts to such a small part of Earth’s energy budget that it cannot have significant effectsParagraph3Incoming short-wavelength solar radiation overwhelmingly dominates the flow of energy in Earth’s energy budget,according for about99,986percent of the total.An estimated174,000terawatts of solar radiation is intercepted by Earth.Some of this vast influx powers the winds,rainfall,ocean currents,waves,and other processes in the hydrologic(or water)cycle.Some is used for photosynthesis and is temporarily stored in the biosphere in the form of plant and animal life.When plants die and areburied,some of the solar energy is stored in rocks,when we burn coal,oil,or natural gas,we release stored solar energy.4.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage?Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.Almost all of the short-wavelength energy in Earth’s energy budget comes from solar radiation.Short-wavelength radiation is by far the largest part of the total energy that the Sun radiates to Earth.The amount of short-wavelength radiation received from the Sun is huge by comparison to Earth’s own energy production.Almost the entire amount of energy that flows into Earth’s energy budget is short-wavelength radiation from the Sun.5.According to paragraph3,all of the following are powered by solar radiation EXCEPTphotosynthesis in plantswindsformation of rocksprocesses in the hydrologic cycleParagraph4The second most powerful source of energy,at23terawatts or0.013percent of the total,is geothermal energy,Earth’s internal heat energy.Geothermal energy eventually finds its way to Earth’s surface,primarily via volcanic pathways.It drives the rock cycle and is therefore the source of the energy that uplifts mountains,causes earthquakes and volcanic eruptions,and generally shapes the face of the Earth.6.According to paragraph4,all of the following can be attributable to geothermal energy EXCEPT?It is the main source of heat for the Earth to formIt is responsible for earthquakes.It causes the eruptions of volcanoes.It causes mountains to rise high above the rest of Earth’s surface.Paragraph5The smallest source of energy for Earth is the kinetic(motion)energy of Earth’s rotation.The Moon’s gravitational pull lifts a tidal bulge in the ocean;as Earth spins on its axis,this bulge remains essentially stationary.As Earth rotates,the tidal bulge runs into the coastlines of continents and islands,causing high tides.The force of the tidal bulge“piling up”against land masses acts as a very slow brake,actually causing Earth’s rate of rotation to decrease slightly.The transfer of tidal energy accounts forapproximately3terawatts,or0.002percent of the total energy budget.7.The word“stationary”in the passage is closet in meaning toisolatedvisibleraisedunmoving8.Paragraph5supports which of the following about the Moon’s gravitational pull?It causes high tides that reshape the continents and islands.It causes Earth to rotate on its axis at a somewhat faster speed than it would otherwise.It pulls ocean water into a bulge that runs into land masses as Earth rotates on its axis.It reduces the force with which the tidal bulge would otherwise pile up against continents.Paragraph6Earth loses energy from the cycle in two main ways:reflection,and degradation and re-radiation.About40percent of incoming solar radiation is simply reflected, unchanged,back into space by the clouds,the sea,and other surfaces.For any planetary body,the percentage of incoming radiation that is reflected is called the “albedo.”Each different material has a characteristic reflectivity.For example,ice is more reflectant than rocks or pavement;water is more highly reflectant than vegetation,and forested land reflects light differently than agricultural land.Thus,if large expanses of land are converted from forest to plowed land,or from forest to city, the actual reflectivity of Earth’s surface,and hence its albedo,may be altered.Any change in albedo will,of course,have an effect on Earth’s energy budget.9.The word“hence”in the passage is closet in meaning tothereforeperhapssometimesobviously10.What can be inferred from paragraph6if cloud cover increased the area of glaciers on the continent?Different materials would become more similar in their reflectivity.It would become a greater necessity to convert forests into plowed land and cities.A larger percentage of incoming solar radiation would be reflected back intospace.The reflectivity of ice and water would change and become greater over time.。
TPO25阅读之二(托福阅读真题)
The surface of MarsThe surface of Mars shows a wide range of geologic features, including huge volcanoes-the largest known in the solar system-and extensive impact cratering. Three very large volcanoes are found on the Tharsis bulge, an enormous geologic area near Mars’s equator. Northwest of Tharsis is the largest volcano of all: Olympus Mons, with a height of 25 kilometers and measuring some 700 kilometers in diameter at its base. The three large volcanoes on the Tharsis bulge are a little smaller-a “mere” 18 kilometers high.None of these volcanoes was formed as a result of collisions between plates of the Martian crust-there is no plate motion on Mars. Instead, they are shield volcanoes-volcanoes with broad, sloping slides formed by molten rock. All four show distinctive lava channels and other flow features similar to those found on shield volcanoes on Earth. Images of the Martian surface reveal many hundreds of volcanoes. Most of the largest volcanoes are associated with the Tharsis bulge, but many smaller ones are found in the northern plains.The great height of Martian volcanoes is a direct consequence of the planet’s low surface gravity. As lava flows and spreads to form a shield volcano, the volcano’s eventual height depends on the new mountain’s a bility to support its own weight. The lower the gravity, the lesser the weight and the greater the height of the mountain. It is no accident that Maxwell Mons on Venus and the Hawaiian shield volcanoes on Earth rise to about the same height (about 10 kilometers)Another prominent feature of Mars’s surface is cratering. The Mariner spacecraft found that the surface of Mars, as well as that of its two moons, is pitted with impact craters formed by meteoroids falling in from space. As on our Moon, the smaller craters are often filled with surface matter-mostly dust-confirming that Mars is a dry desert world. However, Martian craters get filled in considerably faster than their lunar counterparts. On the Moon, ancient craters less than 100 meters across (corresponding to depths of about 20 meters) have been obliterated, primarily by meteoritic erosion. On Mars, there are relatively few craters less than 5 kilometers in diameter. The Martian atmosphere is an efficient erosive agent, with Martian winds transporting dust from place to place and erasing surface features much faster than meteoritic impacts alone can obliterate them.As on the Moon, the extent of large impact cratering (i.e. craters too big to have been filled in by erosion since they were formed) serves as an age indicator for the Martian surface. Age estimates ranging from four billion years for Mars’s southern highlands to a few hundred million years in the youngest volcanic areas were obtained in this way.The detailed appearance of Martian impact craters provides an important piece of information about conditions just below the planet’s surface. Martian craters are surrounded by ejecta (debris formed as a result of an impact) that look s quite different from its lunar counterparts. A comparison of the Copernicus crater on the Moon with the (fairly typical) crater Yuty on Mars demonstrates the differences. The ejecta surrounding the lunar crater is just what one would expect from an explosion ejecting a large volume of dust, soil, and boulders. ■However, the ejecta on Mars gives the distinct impression of a liquid that has splashed or flowed out of crater. ■Geologists think that this fluidized ejecta crater indicates that a laye r of permafrost, or water ice, lies just a few meters under the surfa ce. ■Explosive impacts heated and liquefied the ice, resulting in the fluid appearance of the ejecta. ■Q1 The word “enormous” in the passage is closest in meaning toA. ImportantB. Extremely largeC. Highly unusualD. ActiveQ2 According to paragraph 1, Olympus Mons differs from volcanoes on the Tharsis bulge in that Olympus MonsA. Has more complex geologic featuresB. Shows less impact crateringC. Is tallerD. Was formed at a later timeParagraph 1Q3 The word “distinctive” in the passage is closes t in meaning toA. DeepB. ComplexC. CharacteristicD. AncientQ4 According to paragraphs 1 and 2, which of the following is NOT true of the shield volcanoes on the Tharsis bulge?A. They have broad, sloping sides.B. They are smaller than the largest volcano on Mars.C. They have channels that resemble the lava channels of volcanoes on Earth.D. They are over 25 kilometers tall.Paragraph 1 and 2Q5 The word “roughly” in the passage is closest in meaning toA. TypicallyB. FrequentlyC. ActuallyD. ApproximatelyQ6 In paragraph 3, why does the author compare Maxwell Mons on Venus to the Hawaiian shield volcanoes on Earth?A. To help explain the relationship between surface gravity and volcano heightB. To explain why Mars’s surface gravity is only 40 percent of Earth’sC. To point out differences between the surface gravity of Earth and the surface gravity of VenusD. To argue that there are more similarities than differences between volcanoes on different planetsParagraph 3Q7 Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.A. Although direct evidence of recent eruptions is lacking, scientists believe that these volcanoes were active as recently as 100 million years ago.B. Scientists estimate that volcanoes active more recently than 100 years ago will still have extensive impact cratering on their slopes.C. If, as some evidence suggests, these volcanoes erupted as recently as 100 million years ago, they may continue to be intermittently active.D. Although these volcanoes were active as recently as 100 million years ago, there is no direct evidence of recent or ongoing eruptions.Q8 The word “considerably” in the passage is closest in meaning toA. FrequentlyB. SignificantlyC. ClearlyD. SurprisinglyQ9 According to paragraph 4, what is demonstrated by the fact that craters fill in much faster on Mars than on the Moon?A. Erosion from meteoritic impacts takes place more quickly on Mars than on the Moon.B. There is more dust on Mars than on the Moon.C. The surface of Mars is a dry desert.D. Wind is a powerful eroding force on Mars.Paragraph 4Q10 In paragraph 4, why does the author point out that Mars has few ancient craters that are less than 5 kilometers in diameter?A. To explain why scientists believe that the surface matter filling Martian craters is mostly dustB. To explain why scientists believe that the impact craters on Mars were created by meteoroidsC. To support the claim that the Martian atmosphere is an efficient erosive agentD. To argue that Mars experienced fewer ancient impacts than the Moon didParagraph 4Q11 According to paragraph 5, what have scientists been able to determine from studies of large impact cratering on Mars?A. Some Martian volcanoes are much older than was once thought.B. The age of Mars’s surface can vary from area to area.C. Large impact craters are not reliable indicators of age in areas with high volcanic activity.D. Some areas of the Martian surface appear to be older than they actually are.Paragraph 5Q12 According to paragraph 6, the ejecta of Mars’s crater Yuty differs from the ejecta of the Moon’s Copernicus crater in that the ejecta of the Yuty craterA. Has now become part of a permafrost layerB. Contains a large volume of dust, soil and bouldersC. Suggests that liquid once came out of the surface at the crater siteD. Was thrown a comparatively long distance from the center of the craterParagraph 6 is marked with an arrow>Q13 Look at the four squares【■】that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.This surface feature has led to speculation about what may lie under Mars’s surface.Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square to add the sentence to the passage.Q14 Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.Drag your answer choices to the spaces where they belong. To remove an answer choice, click on it. To review the passage, click VIEW NEXT. Volcanoes and impact craters are major features of Martian geology.A. Plate motion on Mars, once considered t o have played no role in shaping the planet’s surface, is now seen as being directly associated with the planet’s earliest volcanoes.B. Mars has shield volcanoes, some of which are extremely tall because of the planet’s low surface gravity.C. Although the erosive power of the Martian atmosphere ensures that Mars has fewer craters than the Moon does, impact craters are prominent on Mars’ s surface.D. Scientists cannot yet reliably estimate the age of the Martian surface because there has been too much erosion of it.E. Scientists have been surprised to discover that conditions just below the surface of Mars are very similar to conditions just below the surface of the MoonF. Studies of crater ejecta have revealed the possibility of a layer of permafrost below the surface of Mars.。
tpo25综合写作范文
TOEFL TPO25 综合作文求修改 200分满分谢谢以下仅就语法问题修正如下：The writer starts with his first assumption that thesevessels cannot be used for power generation because there is no evidence showingthe existence of conductors and metal wires. The lecturer, however, objects himby pointing out that those vessels were dug out by local people and just threwthem away because they thought them of no use. Therefore, it is unconvincing asnobody knows the truth.Then the writer mentions an exploratory report about theuse of another city nearby the city in discussion and further mentions that scientistsfound no evidence showing copper cylinders were used for assembly like holdingsacred. But the lecturer opposes to it, saying it does not prove anything [becauseone thing can do a similar thing and can surely adapt any other one这句不知所云].Finally, the writer thinks that ancient people do notneed electricity because they do not have any electrical appliance. But thelecturer thinks electricity is very useful for ancient people especially fordoctors as they may need it to heal pains from muscles and bones, and it isalso beneficial to those who want to show magic power to others in order to provetheir power. It is therefore pretty useful.In summary, the lecturer and the writer are contradictorywith each other on this topic.托福写作25分要达到什么样的水平我也初三！你也是高申吧哈哈哈好激动啊哈哈哈第一次考的时候20分，然后第二次就25分了。
新托福TPO25阅读原文及译文(二)
新托福TPO25阅读原文(二)：The Decline of Venetian ShippingTPO25-2：The Decline of Venetian ShippingIn the late thirteenth century, northern Italian cities such as Genoa, Florence, and Venice began an economic resurgence that made them into the most important economic centers of Europe. By the seventeenth century, however, other European powers had taken over, as the Italian cities lost much of their economic might.This decline can be seen clearly in the changes that affected Venetian shipping and trade. First, Venice’s intermediary functions in the Adriatic Sea, where it had dominated the business of shipping for other parties, were lost to direct trading. In the fifteenth century there was little problem recruiting sailors to row the galleys (large ships propelled by oars): guilds (business associations) were required to provide rowers, and through a draft system free citizens served compulsorily when called for. In the early sixteenth century the shortage of rowers was not serious because the demand for galleys was limited by a move to round ships (round-hulled ships with more cargo space), with required fewer rowers. But the shortage of crews proved to be a greater and greater problem, desp ite continuous appeal to Venic’s tradition of maritime greatness. Even though sailors’wages doubled among the northern Italian cities from 1550 to 1590, this did not elicit an increased supply.The problem in shipping extended to the Arsenale, Venice’s h uge and powerful shipyard. Timber ran short, and it was necessary to procure it from farther and farther away. In ancient Roman times, the Italian peninsula had great forest of fir preferred for warships, but scarcity was apparent as early as the early fourteenth century. Arsenale officers first brought timber from the foothills of the Alps, then from north toward Trieste, and finally from across the Adriatic. Private shipbuilders were required to buy their oak abroad. As the costs of shipbuilding rose, Venice clung to its outdated standard while the Dutch were innovation in the lighter and more easily handled ships.The step from buying foreign timber to buying foreign ships was regarded as a short one, especially when complaints were heard in the latter sixteenth century thatthe standards and traditions of the Arsenale were running down. Work was stretched out and done poorly. Older workers had been allowed to stop work a half hour before the regular time, and in 1601 younger works left with them. Merchants complained that the privileges reserved for Venetian-built and owned ships were first extended to those Venetians who bought ships from abroad and then to foreign-built and owned vessels. Historian Frederic Lane observes that after the loss of ships in battle in the late sixteenth century, the shipbuilding industry no longer had the capacity to recover that it had displayed at the start of the century.The conventional explanation for the loss of Venetian dominance in trade is establishment of the Portuguese direct sea route to the East, replacing the overland Silk Road from the Black sea and the highly profitable Indian Ocean-caravan-eastern Mediterranean route to Venice. The Portuguese Vasco da Gama’s Voyage around southern Africa to India took place at the end of the fifteenth century, and by 1502 the trans- Abrabian caravan route had been cut off by political unrest.The Venetian Council finally allowed round ships to enter the trade that was previously reserved for merchant galleys, thus reducing transport cost by one third. Prices of spices delivered by ship from the eastern Mediterranean came to equal those of spices transported by Paortuguese vessels, but the increase in quantity with both routes in operation drove the price far down. Gradually, Venice’s role as a storage and distribution center for spices and silk, dyes cotton, and gold decayed, and by the early seventeenth century Venice had lost its monopoly in markets such as France and southern Germany.Venetian shipping had started to decline from about 1530-before the entry into the Mediterranean of large volumes of Dutch and British shipping-and was clearly outclassed by the end of the century. A contemporary of Shakespeare (1564-1616) observed that the productivity of Italian shipping had declined, compared with that of the British, because of conservatism and loss of expertise. Moreover, Italian sailors were deserting and emigrating, and captains, no longer recruited from the ranks of nobles, were weak on navigations.TPO25-2译文：威尼斯航运的衰落在13世纪后期，意大利北部城市，如热那亚、佛罗伦萨和威尼斯逐渐出现了经济复苏，这使得它们成为欧洲最重要的经济中心。
TPO25-Passage 2
1. The word “resurgence” in the passage is closest in meaning to A. transformation B. comeback C. program D. expansion
Paragraph 2 This decline can be seen clearly in the changes that affected Venetian shipping and trade. First, Venic’s intermediary functions in the Adriatic Sea, where it had dominated the business of shipping for other parties, were lost to direct trading. In the fifteenth century there was little problem recruiting sailors to row the galleys (large ships propelled by oars): guilds (business associations) were required to provide rowers, and through a draft system free citizens served compulsorily when called for. █In the early sixteenth century the shortage of rowers was not serious because the demand for galleys was limited by a move to round ships (round-hulled ships with more cargo space), with required fewer rowers. █But the shortage of crews proved to be a greater and greater problem, despite continuous appeal to Venice's tradition of maritime greatness. █ Even though sailors’ wages doubled among the northern Italian cities from 1550 to 1590, this did not elicit an increased supply.█
TPO25阅读答案详解(全)
THE SURFACE OF MARS1.enormous巨大的，所以正确答案是B，extremely large。
如果不认识，将答案代入原文，原文说在T这个地方有三座非常大的火山，定语从句修饰说T是个什么样的地区，能容下三座大火山的当然是很大的地方。
A重要C不寻常和D活跃都不靠谱2.注意问的是Olympus M，以这个词做关键词定位至第三句，讲O是最大的，所以正确答案只能是C，比较高，如果不确定可以往下看到最后一句，说三个大的跟O比起来要小点儿，也说明O比较大，其他答案都没说3.distinctive有特点的，不同的，所以正确答案是characteristic，dis作为前缀，有分或者否定之意，所以猜出distinctive有不同的意思，这道词汇题代入原文不靠谱，因为几个错误答案带进去也说得通，大家还是抓紧背单词吧4.以A的broad, sloping sides做关键词定位至第二段第二句的破折号后，正确，不选；B选项的smaller定位至第一段尾句，正确，不选；C的channel定位至第二段第三句，正确，不选；D的数字定位至第一段倒数第二句，但25说的是O，而不是shield volcano，所以D错，是答案5.roughly大概，所以正确答案是D的approximately，代入原文，说火星的gravity只有地球的40%，因此火星上山的高度应该大致是地球的2.5倍，其他代入都说不通6.以Maxwell为关键词定位至第三段第四句，这句只是在比较，于是往前看，说gravity越低，高度越高，所以作者进行这个比较无外乎想证明这个结论，所以正确答案A。
C 稍有迷惑性，但C的问题在于没有提及高度，只是单纯说不同planet之间gravity的关系，错7.提出主干，没有证据，但是如果blabla，有些火山至少intermittently活跃，完全重复这个意思的只有C，A后半句的比较错，那句话事实上是条件；B同样因为比较排除；D 强调的点与原文反8.considerably相当地，显著地，程度大地，所以正确答案是significantly，consider做考虑讲大家都知道，也就是说这个词至少应该被译为值得考虑的，所以可以得出B，frequently说不通；clearly只表示清楚，没法表示程度；surprisingly带有主观色彩，同样不沾边9.以craters fill in much faster on Mars than on the Moon定位至最后一句，说Martianatmosphere是erosive的，风搬运尘土并擦掉撞击留下的痕迹，所以正确答案是D风，A的比较对象错，原文是火星的erase比撞击快，不是A说的火星的撞击比月亮的撞击快；B原文没讲谁dust多；C的dry没说10.跟9题是同一题，定位至倒数第二句后，发现整个句子是个例子，然后看前句，发现同样是个例子，然后看后一句，就是第9题的那句话就可以找到答案C11.细节题，studies of large impact cratering on Mars定位至首句，说是age indicator，但遗憾的是，凭这句只能排除C，所以这道题只能读完这段，还好不长，答案在第二句，说南部和火山地区的不一样，也就是B说的不同地方age不同12.以Yuty做关键词定位至三五两句，第五句说火星的是液体，所以正确答案是C，第四句说月亮的ejecta是dust，soil and boulders，但问题问的是火星，所以答案不是B，别混了。
新托福TPO25阅读原文及译文(三)
新托福TPO25阅读原文(三)：The Evolutionary Origin of PlantsTPO25-3：The Evolutionary Origin of PlantsThe evolutionary history of plants has been marked by a series of adaptations. The ancestors of plants were photosynthetic single-celled organisms that gave rise to plants presumably lacked true roots, stems, leaves, and complex reproductive structures such as flowers. All of these features appeared later in the evolutionary history of plants. Of to day’s different groups of algae, green algae are probably the most similar to ancestral plants. This supposition stems from the close phylogenetic (natural evolutionary) relationship between the two groups. DNA comparisons have shown that green algae are p lants’closest living relatives. In addition, other lines of evidence support the hypothesis that land plants evolved from ancestral green algae used the same type of chlorophyll and accessory pigments in photosynthesis as do land plants. This would not be true of red and brown algae. Green algae store food as starch, as do land plants and have cell walls made of cellulose, similar in composition to those of land plants. Again, the good storage and cell wall molecules of red and brown algae are different.Today green algae live mainly in freshwater, suggesting that their early evolutionary history may have occurred in freshwater habitats. If so, the green algae would have been subjected to environmental pressures that resulted in adaptations that enhanced their potential to give rise to land-dwelling or organisms.The environmental conditions of freshwater habitats, unlike those of ocean habitats, are highly variable. Water temperature can fluctuate seasonally or even daily and changing level of rainfall can lead to fluctuations in the concentration of chemical in the water or even to period in which the aquatic habitat dries up. Ancient fresh water green algae must have evolved features that enable them to withstand extremes of temperature and periods of dryness. These adaptations served their descendant well asthey invaded land.The terrestrial world is green now, but it did not start out that way. When plants first made the transition ashore more than 400 million years ago, the land was barrenand desol ate, inhospitable to life. From a plant’s evolutionary view point, however, it was also a land of opportunity, free of competitors and predators and full of carbon dioxide and sunlight (the raw materials for photosynthesis, which are present in far higher concentrations in air than in water).So once natural selection had shaped the adaptations that helped plants overcome the obstacles to terrestrial living, plants prospered and diversified.When plants pioneered the land, they faced a range of challenges posed by terrestrial environments. On land, the supportive buoyancy of water is missing, the plant is no longer bathed in a nutrient solution, and air tends to dry things out. These conditions favored the evolution of the structures that support the body, vessels that transport water and nutrients to all parts of plant, and structures that conserve water. The resulting adaptations to dry land include some structural features that arose early in plant evolution; now these features are common to virtually all land plant. They include roots or root like structures, a waxy cuticle that covers the surfaces of leaves and stems and limits the evaporation of water, and pores called stomata in leaves and stems that allow gas exchange but close when water is scarce, thus reducing water loss. Other adaptations occurred later in the transition to terrestrial life and now wide spread but not universal among plants. These include conducting vessels that transport water and minerals upward from the roots and that move the photosynthetic products from the leavesto the rest of the plant body and the stiffening substance lignin, which support the plant body, helping it expose maximum surface area to sunlight.These adaptations allowed an increasing diversity of plant forms to exploit dry land. Life on land, however, also required new methods of transporting sperm to eggs. Unlike aquatic and marine forms, land plants cannot always rely on water currents to carry their sex cells and disperse their fertilized eggs. So the most successful groups of land plants are those that evolved methods of fertilized sex cell dispersal that are independent of water and structures that protest developing embryos from drying out. Protected embryos and waterless dispersal of sex cells were achieved with the origin of seed plants and the key evolutionary innovations that they introduced: pollen, seeds, and later, flowers and fruits.TPO25-3译文：植物的进化起源植物的进化史是以一系列对周遭环境的适应为标记的。
托福阅读真题第254篇Popul...
托福阅读真题第254篇Popul...Population Growth in Nineteenth-entury Europeecause of industrialization, but also because of a vast increase in agricultural output without which industrialization would have been impossible, Western Europeans by the latter half of the nineteenth century enjoyed higher standards of living and longer, healthier lives than most of the world’s peoples. In Europe as a whole, the population rose from 188 million in 1800 to 400 million in 1900. y 1900, virtually every area of Europe had contributed to the tremendous surge of population, but each major region was at a different stage of demographic change.Improvements in the food supply continued trends that had started in the late seventeenth century. New lands were put under cultivation, while the use of crops of merican origin, particularly the potato, continued to expand. Setbacks did occur. Regional agricultural failures were the most common cause of economic recessions until 1850, and they could lead to localized famine as well. major potato blight (disease) in 1846-1847 led to the deaths of at least one million persons in Ireland and the emigration of another million, and Ireland never recovered the population levels the potato had sustained to that point. ad grain harvests at the same time led to increased hardship throughout much of Europe.fter 1850, however, the expansion of foods more regularly kept pace with population growth, though the poorer classes remained malnourished. Two developments were crucial. First, the application of science and new technology to agriculture increased. Led by German universities, increasing research was devoted to improving seeds, developing chemical fertilizers, andadvancing livestock. fter 1861, with the development of land-grant universities in the United States that had huge agricultural programs, merican crop-production research added to this mix. Mechanization included the use of horse-drawn harvesters and seed drills, many developed initially in the United States. It also included mechanical cream separators and other food-processing devices that improved supply.The second development involved industrially based transportation. With trains and steam shipping, it became possible to move foods to needy regions within Western Europe quickly. Famine (as opposed to malnutrition) became a thing of the past. Many Western European countries, headed by ritain, began also to import increasing amounts of food, not only from Eastern Europe, a traditional source, but also from the mericas, ustralia, and New Zealand. Steam shipping, which improved speed and capacity, as well as new procedures for canning and refrigerating foods (particularly after 1870), was fundamental to these developments.Europe’s population growth included on additional innovation by the nineteenth century: it combined with rapid urbanization. More and more Western Europeans moved from countryside to city, and big cities grew most rapidly of all. y 1850, over half of all the people in England lived in cities, a first in human history. In one sense, this pattern seems inevitable. Growing numbers of people pressed available resources on the land, even when farmwork was combined with a bit of manufacturing, so people crowded into cities seeking work or other resources. Traditionally, however, death rates in cities surpassed those in the countryside by a large margin, cities had maintained population only through steady in-migration. Thusrapid urbanization should have reduced overall population growth, but by the middle of the nineteenth century this was no longer the case. Urban death rates remained high, particularly in the lower-class slums, but they began to decline rapidly.The greater reliability of food supplies was a factor in the decline of urban death rates. Even more important were the gains in urban sanitation, as well as measures such as inspection of housing. Reformers, including enlightened doctors, began to study the causes of high death rates and to urge remediation. Even before the discovery of germs, beliefs that disease spread by “miasmas” (noxious forms of bad air) prompted attention to sewers and open garbage. Edwin hadwick led an exemplary urban crusade for underground sewers in England in the 1830s. Gradually, public health provisions began to cut into customary urban mortality rates. y 1900, in some parts of Western Europe life expectancy in the cities began to surpass that of the rural areas. Industrial societies had figured out ways to combine large and growing cities with population growth, a development that would soon spread to other parts of the world.1►ecause of industrialization, but also because of a vast increase in agricultural output without which industrialization would have been impossible, Western Europeans by the latter half of the nineteenth century enjoyed higher standards of living and longer, healthier lives than most of the world’s peoples. In Europe as a whole, the population rose from 188 million in 1800 to 400 million in 1900. y 1900, virtually every area of Europe had contributed to the tremendous surge of population, but each major region was at a different stage of demographic change.2►Improvements in the food supply continued trends that had started in the late seventeenth century. New lands were put under cultivation, while the use of crops of merican origin, particularly the potato, continued to expand. Setbacks did occur. Regional agricultural failures were the most common cause of economic recessions until 1850, and they could lead to localized famine as well. major potato blight (disease) in 1846-1847 led to the deaths of at least one million persons in Ireland and the emigration of another million, and Ireland never recovered the population levels the potato had sustained to that point. ad grain harvests at the same time led to increased hardship throughout much of Europe.3►Improvements in the food supply continued trends that had started in the late seventeenth century. New lands were put under cultivation, while the use of crops of merican origin, particularly the potato, continued to expand. Setbacks did occur. Regional agricultural failures were the most common cause of economic recessions until 1850, and they could lead to localized famine as well. major potato blight (disease) in 1846-1847 led to the deaths of at least one million persons in Ireland and the emigration of another million, and Ireland never recovered the population levels the potato had sustained to that point. ad grain harvests at the same time led to increased hardship throughout much of Europe.4►fter 1850, however, the expansion of foods more regularly kept pace with population growth, though the poorer classes remained malnourished. Two developments were crucial. First, the application of science and new technology to agricultureincreased. Led by German universities, increasing research was devoted to improving seeds, developing chemical fertilizers, and advancing livestock. fter 1861, with the development of land-grant universities in the United States that had huge agricultural programs, merican crop-production research added to this mix. Mechanization included the use of horse-drawn harvesters and seed drills, many developed initially in the United States. It also included mechanical cream separators and other food-processing devices that improved supply.5►The second development involved industrially based transportation. With trains and steam shipping, it became possible to move foods to needy regions within Western Europe quickly. Famine (as opposed to malnutrition) became a thing of the past. Many Western European countries, headed by ritain, began also to import increasing amounts of food, not only from Eastern Europe, a traditional source, but also from the mericas, ustralia, and New Zealand. Steam shipping, which improved speed and capacity, as well as new procedures for canning and refrigerating foods (particularly after 1870), was fundamental to these developments.6►Europe’s population growth included on additional innovation by the nineteenth century: it combined with rapid urbanization. More and more Western Europeans moved from countryside to city, and big cities grew most rapidly of all. y 1850, over half of all the people in England lived in cities, a first in human history. In one sense, this pattern seems inevitable. Growing numbers of people pressed available resources on the land, even when farmwork was combined with a bit ofmanufacturing, so people crowded into cities seeking work or other resources. Traditionally, however, death rates in cities surpassed those in the countryside by a large margin, cities had maintained population only through steady in-migration. Thus rapid urbanization should have reduced overall population growth, but by the middle of the nineteenth century this was no longer the case. Urban death rates remained high, particularly in the lower-class slums, but they began to decline rapidly.7►The greater reliability of food supplies was a factor in the decline of urban death rates. Even more important were the gains in urban sanitation, as well as measures such as inspection of housing. Reformers, including enlightened doctors, began to study the causes of high death rates and to urge remediation. Even before the discovery of germs, beliefs that disease spread by “miasmas” (noxious forms of bad air) prompted attention to sewers and open garbage. Edwin hadwick led an exemplary urban crusade for underground sewers in England in the 1830s. Gradually, public health provisions began to cut into customary urban mortality rates. y 1900, in some parts of Western Europe life expectancy in the cities began to surpass that of the rural areas. Industrial societies had figured out ways to combine large and growing cities with population growth, a development that would soon spread to other parts of the world.8►The greater reliability of food supplies was a factor in the decline of urban death rates. Even more important were the gains in urban sanitation, as well as measures such as inspection of housing. Reformers, including enlightened doctors, began to study the causes of high death rates and to urge remediation.Even before the discovery of germs, beliefs that disease spread by “miasmas” (noxious for ms of bad air) prompted attention to sewers and open garbage. Edwin hadwick led an exemplary urban crusade for underground sewers in England in the 1830s. Gradually, public health provisions began to cut into customary urban mortality rates. y 1900, in some parts of Western Europe life expectancy in the cities began to surpass that of the rural areas. Industrial societies had figured out ways to combine large and growing cities with population growth, a development that would soon spread to other parts of the world.9The greater reliability of food supplies was a factor in the decline of urban death rates. ⬛Even more important were the gains in urban sanitation, as well as measures such as inspection of housing.⬛Reformers, including enlightened doctors, began to study the causes of high death rates and to urge remediation. Even before the discovery of germs, beliefs that disease spread by “miasmas” (noxious forms of bad air) prompted attention to sewers and open garbage. Edwin hadwick led an exemplary urban crusade for underground sewers in England in the 1830s.⬛Gradually, public health provisions began to cut into customary urban mortality rates.⬛y 1900, in some parts of Western Europe life expectancy in the cities began to surpass that of the rural areas. Industrial societies had figured out ways to combine large and growing cities with population growth, a development that would soon spread to other parts of the world.10。
{最新文档}TPO25听力问题托福真题
Conversation11.What is the conversation mainly about?A. The student?s eligibility to graduate next semesterB. The student?s difficulties in registering for classesC. A difficult class the student must take next semesterD. Possible elective choices in thestudent?s degree program2.According to the woman, why was the program?s curriculum changed?A. To attract more international students to the programB. To reflect the growing importance of international businessC. To take advantage of the expertise of new facultymembersD. To give students a stronger background in management3. What does the woman imply about the new departmental requirements?A. They will not affect the student?s plans for graduationB. They will not be officially approved by the department until next yearC. They will be limited to students specializing in the international businessD. They will be similar to recent changes made in other departments at the university4. Why does the woman mention writing a letter?A. To point out the best way for the student to contact the dean?s officeB. To confirm that a personal letter is a graduation requirementC. To indicate that she is willing to provide the student with further assistanceD. To emphasize that the student will need special permission to graduate5. Why does the woman saythis重听题A. To suggest that the student has not fulfilled all of his requirementsB. To indicate one of the new graduation requirementsC. To find out the student?s opinion about a particular classD. To be sure that the student has taken a required classLecture 16. What is the main purpose of the lecture?A. To explain the government?s role in the regulating assisted migrationB. To discuss ways in which plants and animals adapt to climate changeC. To discuss a controversial approach to conserving plant and animal speciesD. To describe a recently discovered consequence of global warming7. According to the professor, what problem is assisted migration intended to overcome?A. To diminishing amount of undeveloped land that species can migrate throughB. The relative lack of nutrients available in cooler latitudes and higher elevationsC. The increase in alternations between cool and warm periodsD. Competition from other species in certain native habitats8. What point does the professor make when she discusses the cane toad?A. Translocated species sometimes die out from lack of foodB. Translocated species may spread too quickly in their new environmentC. Several techniques are available to achieve assisted migrationD. Animal species are often easier to translocate than plant species are9. What does the professor imply when she mentions translocating networkingof species?A. There are aspects of interdependency that are unknownB. Some species evolve in ways that help them survive in new habitatsC. It is difficult to know how far to move a network of species from its native habitatD. Many assisted-migration plans should involve the translocation of just one species10.What does the professor imply about the government?s role in regulating assisted migration in the United States?A. The government should continue to encourage assisted migrationB. The government has created policies that have proved unhelpfulC. The government should follow the example set by other countriesD. The government needs to increase its involvement in the issue11.What is the professor?s attitude toward the effort to save the Florida torreya?A. She is glad that some conservationists are willing to take a chance on assisted migrationB. She is concerned because it may have unintended consequencesC. She is surprised because other species are more endangered than Florida torreya isD. She expects the effort will have to be repeated several times before it succeedsLecture-212. What is the lecture mainly about?A. The influence of the Romantic style of music on eastern European composersB. The relationship between nationalism and popular music in the early 1900sC. The popularity of folk music in Austria-Hungary during the early 1900sD. The influence of folk music on the compositions of one Hungarian composer13. What does the professor imply about romantic music in Austria-Hungary in the early 1900s?A. It was not as popular there as it was in other European countriesB. It motivated Bart?k to listen to other typesof musicC. It was listened to in the countryside more than it was in the citiesD. Its popularity was due to the workof Bart?k and other ethnomusicologists14. Why does the professor mention local celebrations in the countryside?A. To show how folk music influenced composers throughout Eastern EuropeB. To give an example of when performances of Bart?k music took placeC. To give an example of occa s ions when Bart?k had an opportunity to hear folk musicD. To talk about why romantic music was popular in the countryside15.What was Bart?k original goal when he started to travel through eastern Europe?A. To promote his ballet, the wooden princeB. To document the local popular musicC. To discover which musical elements were popular in all countriesD. To find unusual musical elements he could use in his own compositions16.According to the professor, why was Bart?k music popular in Austria-Hungary?A. Bart?k music was considered more sophisticated than other concert-hall musicB. Bart?k compositions incorporated music from the local cultureC. People were familiar with the Romantic elements Bart?k included in his musicD. Bart?k took advantage of the p opularity of ballet there and wrote many new ballets17. What does the professor mean when he says this:重听题A. He wants to change the topic of discussionB. He wants to acknowledge that the students may not be familiar with Bart?k?s musicC. He believes th e students should already be familiar with the term ,glissando?D. He will use an example of glissando to help define the termConversation-218. Why does the man go to see the professor?A. To find out how to distinguish between different types of whale songsB. To request permission to change the topic of his paperC. To discuss the difference between using the internet and using books to find sourcesD. To get help locating some information for his paper19.What is the topic of the man?s paper?A. How whales hold their breathB. Whale migration patternsC. Characteristic of whale habitatsD. The differences between the circulatory system of whales and that of other mammals20.What is the professor?s attitude toward the man?s question about how whales hold their breath?A. She thinks he does not need to spend a lot of time looking for the answerB. She is surprised because she has already addressed this question in classC. She dismissed it as unimportantD. She is pleased that has a plan to obtain the answer himself21. Why does the professor mention the limited time students have to complete their papers?A. To suggest that looking at research on the internet is a good way to save timeB. To point out that the library has reduced the amount of time it is open each dayC. To indicate her expectations for the amount of research to be done for the paperD. To emphasizethe important of starting to write the paper a couple of weeks before it is due22. According to the professor, how does a whale conserve oxygen while underwater? Click on 2 answersA. Its heart rate decreasesB. Its lung capacity temporarily increasesC. It slows the pace of its swimmingD. Blood flow to certain organs is decreasedLecture-323. What is the lecture mainly about?A. The history of language in ancient EgyptB. The process that was used to create hieroglyphic writingC. The competition between two scholars to solve an archaeological puzzleD. The circumstances that led to the solution of an archaeological puzzle24. What was demotic script used for in ancient Egypt?A. Decorations on temples and monumentsB. Administrative documentsC. Illustration for storiesD. Representations of objects25. Why was ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic writing difficult for scholars to interpret?A. The language that it was based on was no longer usedB. The same words were often represented by several different symbolsC. It consisted of a mixture of three different languagesD. Only fragments of it were found26.What is the professor?s opinion about ThomasYoung?s word with hieroglyphs?A. She feels that Young has not received the credit he deservesB. She is amazed that Young?s conclusion about hieroglyphs was correctC. She is surprised that Youngdid not recognize his own accomplishmentsD. She thinks tha t Young?s work was not careful enough to be taken seriously27. According to the professor, what led to the decoding of the Rosetta Stone?A. A hieroglyph that represented the name of a personB. A written and oral description of a historical eventC. The realization that each hieroglyph represented a different object or conceptD. The discovery that the word for “Sun”is written the same way in Greek, demotic, and hieroglyphics28.How did Young?s and Champollion?s studies of hieroglyphs differ from earlier studies ofhieroglyphic writing?A. Young and Champollion had access to largecollections of hieroglyphic writingB. Young and Champollion both guessed that hieroglyphs were symbols forsoundsC. Young and Champollion both spoke Greek and CopticD. Young and Champollion shared their research with one anotherLecture-429. What is the discussion mainly about?A. The professor?s recent research on play and brain developmentB. Differing explanations of the reasons for playC. Examples of two distinct types of play fightingD. Differences in the play behaviors of various animal specials30. One of the students brings up the example of play fighting among wolf pups.What does this example lead him tobelieve?A. That wolves are especially violent animalsB. That the play-as-preparation hypothesis is probably correctC. That wolves seldom engage in self-handicappingD. That the results of a recent study are probably not reliable31.Which statement best expresses the professor?s opinion of the play-as-preparation hypothesis?A. It is well supported by available evidenceB. It may apply only to certain species of animalsC. It does not explain some important aspects of playD. It is particularly useful explaining human behavior32. What does the professor imply about self-handicapping?Click on 2 answersA. It commonly occurs in play but not in other activitiesB. It applies only to animal species that do not hunt for foodC. It has been observed only in laboratory settingsD. It contradicts the play-as-preparation hypothesis33. The professor discusses a study on the relationship between brain growth and play. What does that study conclude?A. Patterns of brain growth are similar in animals that play and animals that do not playB. Excessive brain growth can sometimes limit an animal?s behavioral vocabularyC. Animals that do not play have less-developed brains than animals that playD. Animals without well-developed brains are seldom observed playing34. What does the student mean when she says this:A. She is not familiar with the play behavior of wolf pupsB. She doubts that wolf pups fight as much as the other students impliesC. She is not sure that she correctly understood the reading assignmentD. She disagrees with the other student?s opinion about play behavior。
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参考译文威尼斯航运的衰落
在13世纪后期，意大利北部城市，如热那亚、佛罗伦萨和威尼斯逐渐出现了经济复苏，这使得它们成为欧洲最重要的经济中心。
然而，到了17世纪，其他欧洲势力崛起，同时这些意大利城市失去了它们曾经的经济影响力。
这一衰退很明显地体现在影响威尼斯的航运以及贸易的变化上。
首先，威尼斯在亚得里亚海上的中介功能——它曾控制着亚得里亚海上其他团体的航运产业——败给了直接贸易。
在15世纪时期，为单层甲板大帆船（一种靠划桨驱动的大船）征募水手不算一个问题：行会（商业协会）负责提供桨手，当有需要的时候，会通过征用系统强制征召一些没有工作的公民。
在16世纪早期，桨手的短缺问题还不算严重，由于圆船（一种使用圆形船体以提供更多货舱空间的船只）的出现，限制了单层甲板大帆船的需求，而圆船只需要很少的桨手。
然而，尽管一再强调威尼斯那海事之伟大的传统，但是船员的短缺被证明是一个日益严重的问题。
甚至当意大利北部城市水手的工资在1550年到1590年间翻倍时，水手的数量依然没有增长。
航运的问题延伸到了威尼斯军械库，威尼斯那庞大且颇具实力的造船厂。
木材短缺，必须从很远的地方运来。
在古罗马时期，意大利半岛上有茂密的冷杉林，冷杉是建造军舰的好材料，但是不足的现象早在14世纪早期就出现了。
军械库的长官最早从阿尔卑斯山脚下购买木材，而后则从北部到的里雅斯特地区（购买木材），最后则需跨过亚得里亚海（才能购得木材）。
私人造船厂则不得不从国外购置橡木。
当造船的成本增加时，威尼斯依旧固守着它那过时了的标准，而与此同时，荷兰则转向更轻更易操作的新型船只方面的创新。
从国外购买木材进而购买船只这一步很快就完成了，特别是在16世纪后期传出对威尼斯军械库不良的标准和传统的抱怨时。
工人消极怠工，成品质量低下。
老员工被允许在正常工时结束前半个小时就收工，到了1601年，年轻的员工也如此效仿。
商人们抱怨那些建造和拥有船只的威尼斯人所拥有的特权先是扩展到那些从国外购得船只的威尼斯人身上，而后又进一步扩展到建造并拥有船只的外国人身上。
历史学家弗雷德里克•莱恩观察到，自从16世纪后期在战场上损失了船只之后，造船业再也没有能力恢复到16世纪初那样了。
对威尼斯人失去贸易主导权的传统解释是，葡萄牙人建立的直接通往东方的海上航线替代了起自黑海的陆上丝绸之路以及通往威尼斯的高利润的印度洋—东地中海陆上商路。
在15世纪末期，葡萄牙的瓦斯科•达•伽马实现了环绕南非到达印度的航行；而在1502年，通往阿拉伯国家的商路因政治动荡被切断。
威尼斯委员会最终允许在贸易中使用圆船，之前只允许使用单层甲板大帆船，因此运输的成本下降了1/3。
从地中海东部船运过来的香料价格与葡萄牙航线船运的香料价格相当，但是两条运营的商线使得香料的总供应量增加，从而导致香料的价格大幅度下降。
逐渐地，威尼斯作为香料、丝绸、染料棉和黄金的储存与配销中心的作用衰退了，到17世纪早期，威尼斯彻底失去了它在诸如法国和德国南部市场上的垄断地位。
威尼斯航运业的衰退是从大约1530年开始的——在大量荷兰和英国船只进入地中海之前——并且在16世纪末期明显被超越了。
在莎士比亚时代（1564～1616），相比较英国，意大利航运业生产力已经在下降了，这是因为意大利的航运业过于守旧并且缺乏专业技术所致。
此外，意大利船员逐渐逃离并移居到他乡，而船长不再是从贵族阶级中征召而来，在航海方面也暴露出各种不足。