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The Beginning of Model Checking:A Personal PerspectiveE.Allen Emerson1,21.Department of Computer Sciencesputer Engineering Research CenterThe University of Texas at Austin,Austin TX78712,USAAbstract.Model checking provides an automated method for verify-ing concurrent systems.Correctness speciﬁcations are given in tempo-ral logic.The method hinges on an eﬃcient andﬂexible graph-theoreticreachability algorithm.At the time of its introduction in the early1980’s,the prevailing paradigm for veriﬁcation was a manual one of proof-theoretic reasoning using formal axioms and inference rules oriented to-wards sequential programs.The need to encompass concurrent programs,the desire to avoid the diﬃculties with manual deductive proofs,and thesmall model theorem for temporal logic motivated the development ofmodel checking.Keywords:model checking,model-theoretic,synthesis,history,origins1IntroductionIt has long been known that computer software programs,computer hardware designs,and computer systems in general exhibit errors.Working programmers may devote more than half of their time on testing and debugging in order to increase reliability.A great deal of research eﬀort has been and is devoted to developing improved testing methods.Testing successfully identiﬁes many signiﬁcant errors.Yet,serious errors still aﬄict many computer systems including systems that are safety critical,mission critical,or economically vital.The US National Institute of Standards and Technology has estimated that programming errors cost the US economy$60B annually[Ni02].Given the incomplete coverage of testing,alternative approaches have been sought.The most promising approach depends on the fact that programs and more generally computer systems may be viewed as mathematical objects with behavior that is in principle well-determined.This makes it possible to specify using mathematical logic what constitutes the intended(correct)behavior.Then one can try to give a formal proof or otherwise establish that the program meets This work was supported in part by National Science Foundation grants CCR-009-8141&CCR-020-5483and funding from Fujitsu Labs of America. email:emerson@ URL:/∼emerson/its speciﬁcation.This line of study has been active for about four decades now. It is often referred to as formal methods.The veriﬁcation problem is:Given program M and speciﬁcation h determine whether or not the behavior of M meets the speciﬁcation h.Formulated in terms of Turing Machines,the veriﬁcation problem was considered by Turing[Tu36]. Given a Turing Machine M and the speciﬁcation h that it should eventually halt (say on blank input tape),one has the halting problem which is algorithmically unsolvable.In a later paper[Tu49]Turing argued for the need to give a(manual) proof of termination using ordinals,thereby presaging work by Floyd[Fl67]and others.The model checking problem is an instance of the veriﬁcation problem.Model checking provides an automated method for verifying concurrent(nominally)ﬁnite state systems that uses an eﬃcient andﬂexible graph search,to determine whether or not the ongoing behavior described by a temporal property holds of the system’s state graph.The method is algorithmic and often eﬃcient because the system isﬁnite state,despite reasoning about inﬁnite behavior.If the answer is yes then the system meets its speciﬁcation.If the answer is no then the system violates its speciﬁcation;in practice,the model checker can usually produce a counterexample for debugging purposes.At this point it should be emphasized that the veriﬁcation problem and the model checking problem are mathematical problems.The speciﬁcation is for-mulated in mathematical logic.The veriﬁcation problem is distinct from the pleasantness problem[Di89]which concerns having a speciﬁcation capturing a system that is truly needed and wanted.The pleasantness problem is inherently pre-formal.Nonetheless,it has been found that carefully writing a formal speciﬁ-cation(which may be the conjunction of many sub-speciﬁcations)is an excellent way to illuminate the murk associated with the pleasantness problem.At the time of its introduction in the early1980’s,the prevailing paradigm for veriﬁcation was a manual one of proof-theoretic reasoning using formal axioms and inference rules oriented towards sequential programs.The need to encom-pass concurrent programs,and the desire to avoid the diﬃculties with manual deductive proofs,motivated the development of model checking.In my experience,constructing proofs was suﬃciently diﬃcult that it did seem there ought to be an easier alternative.The alternative was suggested by temporal logic.Temporal logic possessed a nice combination of expressiveness and decidability.It could naturally capture a variety of correctness properties, yet was decidable on account of the“Small”Finite Model Theorem which en-sured that any satisﬁable formula was true in someﬁnite model that was small. It should be stressed that the Small Finite Model Theorem concerns the satisﬁ-ability problem of propositional temporal logic,i.e.,truth in some state graph. This ultimately lead to model checking,i.e.,truth in a given state graph.The origin and development of model checking will be described below.De-spite being hampered by state explosion,over the past25years model checking has had a substantive impact on program veriﬁcation eﬀorts.Formal veriﬁcation2has progressed from discussions of how to manually prove programs correct to the routine,algorithmic,model-theoretic veriﬁcation of many programs.The remainder of the paper is organized as follows.Historical background is discussed in section2largely related to veriﬁcation in the Floyd-Hoare paradigm; protocol veriﬁcation is also considered.Section3describes temporal logic.A very general type of temporal logic,the mu-calculus,that deﬁnes correctness in terms ofﬁxpoint expressions is described in section4.The origin of model checking is described in section5along with some relevant personal inﬂuences on me.A discussion of model checking today is given in section6.Some concluding remarks are made in section7.2Background of Model CheckingAt the time of the introduction of model checking in the early1980’s,axiomatic veriﬁcation was the prevailing veriﬁcation paradigm.The orientation of this paradigm was manual proofs of correctness for(deterministic)sequential pro-grams,that nominally started with their input and terminated with their out-put.The work of Floyd[Fl67]established basic principles for proving partial correctness,a type of safety property,as well as termination and total correct-ness,forms of liveness properties.Hoare[Ho69]proposed an axiomatic basis for veriﬁcation of partial correctness using axioms and inference rules in a formal deductive system.An important advantage of Hoare’s approach is that it was compositional so that the proof a program was obtained from the proofs of its constituent subprograms.The Floyd-Hoare framework was a tremendous success intellectually.It en-gendered great interest among researchers.Relevant notions from logic such as soundness and(relative)completeness as well as compositionality were in-vestigated.Proof systems were proposed for new programming languages and constructs.Examples of proofs of correctness were given for small programs.However,this framework turned out to be of limited use in practice.It did not scale up to“industrial strength”programs,despite its merits.Problems start with the approach being one of manual proof construction.These are formal proofs that can involve the manipulations of extremely long logical formulae. This can be inordinately tedious and error-prone work for a human.In practice, it may be wholly infeasible.Even if strict formal reasoning were used throughout, the plethora of technical detail could be overwhelming.By analogy,consider the task of a human adding100,000decimal numbers of1,000digits each.This is rudimentary in principle,but likely impossible in practice for any human to perform reliably.Similarly,the manual veriﬁcation of100,000or10,000or even 1,000line programs by hand is not feasible.Transcription errors alone would be prohibitive.Furthermore,substantial ingenuity may also be required on the part of the human to devise suitable assertions for loop invariants.One can attempt to partially automate the process of proof construction using an interactive theorem prover.This can relieve much of the clerical burden.3However,human ingenuity is still required for invariants and various lemmas. Theorem provers may also require an expert operator to be used eﬀectively.Moreover,the proof-theoretic framework is one-sided.It focuses on providing a way to(syntactically)prove correct programs that are genuinely(semantically) correct.If one falters or fails in the laborious process of constructing a proof of a program,what then?Perhaps the program is really correct but one has not been clever enough to prove it so.On the other hand,if the program is really incorrect,the proof systems do not cater for proving incorrectness.Since in practice programs contain bugs in the overwhelming majority of the cases,the inability to identify errors is a serious drawback of the proof-theoretic approach.It seemed there ought to be a better way.It would be suggested by temporal logic as discussed below.Remark.We mention that the term veriﬁcation is sometimes used in a speciﬁc sense meaning to establish correctness,while the term refutation(or falsiﬁcation) is used meaning to detect an error.More generally,veriﬁcation refers to the two-sided process of determining whether the system is correct or erroneous.Lastly,we should also mention in this section the important and useful area of protocol work protocols are commonlyﬁnite state.This makes it possible to do simple graph reachability analysis to determine if a bad state is accessible(cf.[vB78],[Su78]).What was lacking here was aﬂexible and expres-sive means to specify a richer class of properties.3Temporal LogicModal and temporal logics provided key inspiration for model checking.Origi-nally developed by philosophers,modal logic deals with diﬀerent modalities of truth,distinguishing between P being true in the present circumstances,pos-sibly P holding under some circumstances,and necessarily P holding under all circumstances.When the circumstances are points in time,we have a modal tense logic or temporal logic.Basic temporal modalities include sometimes P and always P.Several writers including Prior[Pr67]and Burstall[Bu74]suggested that temporal logic might be useful in reasoning about computer programs.For in-stance,Prior suggested that it could be used to describe the“workings of a digital computer”.But it was the seminal paper of Pnueli[Pn77]that made the crit-ical suggestion of using temporal logic for reasoning about ongoing concurrent programs which are often characterized as reactive systems.Reactive systems typically exhibit ideally nonterminating behavior so that they do not conform to the Floyd-Hoare paradigm.They are also typically non-deterministic so that their non-repeatable behavior was not amenable to testing. Their semantics can be given as inﬁnite sequences of computation states(paths) or as computation trees.Examples of reactive systems include microprocessors, operating systems,banking networks,communication protocols,on-board avion-ics systems,automotive electronics,and many modern medical devices.4Pnueli used a temporal logic with basic temporal operators F(sometimes) and G(always);augmented with X(next-time)and U(until)this is today known as LTL(Linear Time Logic).Besides the basic temporal operators applied to propositional arguments,LTL permitted formulae to be built up by forming nestings and boolean combinations of subformulae.For example,G¬(C1∧C2) expresses mutual exclusion of critical sections C1and C2;formula G(T1⇒(T1U C1)speciﬁes that if process1is in its trying region it remains there until it eventually enters its critical section.The advantages of such a logic include a high degree of expressiveness permit-ting the ready capture of a wide range of correctness properties of concurrent programs,and a great deal ofﬂexibility.Pnueli focussed on a proof-theoretic approach,giving a proof in a deductive system for temporal logic of a small example program.Pnueli does sketch a decision procedure for truth overﬁnite state graphs.However,the complexity would be nonelementary,growing faster than anyﬁxed composition of exponential functions,as it entails a reduction to S1S,the monadic Second order theory of1Successor,(or SOLLO;see be-low).In his second paper[Pn79]on temporal logic the focus is again on the proof-theoretic approach.I would claim that temporal logic has been a crucial factor in the success of model checking.We have one logical framework with a few basic temporal operators permitting the expression of limitless speciﬁcations.The connection with natural language is often signiﬁcant as well.Temporal logic made it possible, by and large,to express the correctness properties that needed to be expressed. Without that ability,there would be no reason to use model checking.Alternative temporal formalisms in some cases may be used as they can be more expressive or succinct than temporal logic.But historically it was temporal logic that was the driving force.These alternative temporal formalisms include:(ﬁnite state)automata(on inﬁnite strings)which accept inﬁnite inputs by inﬁnitely often entering a desig-nated set of automaton states[Bu62].An expressively equivalent but less succinct formalism is that ofω-regular expressions;for example,ab cωdenotes strings of the form:one a,0or more b s,and inﬁnitely many copies of c;and a property not expressible in LTL(true P)ωensuring that at every even moment P holds. FOLLO(First Order Language of Linear Order)which allows quantiﬁcation over individual times,for example,∀i≥0Q(i);and SOLLO(Second Order Language of Linear Order)which also allows quantiﬁcation over sets of times corresponding to monadic predicates such as∃Q(Q(0)∧∀i≥0(Q(i)⇒Q(i+1)).1These alterna-tives are sometimes used for reasons of familiarity,expressiveness or succinctness. LTL is expressively equivalent to FOLLO,but FOLLO can be nonelementarily more succinct.This succinctness is generally found to oﬀer no signiﬁcant practi-cal advantage.Moreover,model checking is intractably(nonelementarily)hard for FOLLO.Similarly,SOLLO is expressively equivalent toω−regular expres-sions but nonelementarily more succinct.See[Em90]for further discussion.1Technically,the latter abbreviates∃Q(Q(0)∧∀i,j≥0(i<j∧¬∃k(i<k<j))⇒(Q(i)⇒Q(j)).5Temporal logic comes in two broad styles.A linear time LTL assertion h is interpreted with respect to a single path.When interpreted over a program there is an implicit universal quantiﬁcations over all paths of the program.An assertion of a branching time logic is interpreted over computation trees.The universal A (for all futures)and existential E(for some future)path quantiﬁers are important in this context.We can distinguish between AF P(along all futures,P eventually holds and is thus inevitable))and EF P(along some future,P eventually holds and is thus possible).One widely used branching time logic is CTL(Computation Tree Logic)(cf. [CE81]).Its basic temporal modalities are A(for all futures)or E(for some fu-ture)followed by one of F(sometime),G(always),X(next-time),and U(until); compound formulae are built up from nestings and propositional combinations of CTL subformulae.CTL derives from[EC80].There we deﬁned the precursor branching time logic CTF which has path quantiﬁers∀fullpath and∃fullpath, and is very similar to CTL.In CTF we could write∀fullpath∃state P as well as ∃fullpath∃state P These would be rendered in CTL as AF P and EF P,respec-tively.The streamlined notation was derived from[BMP81].We also deﬁned a modal mu-calculus FPF,and then showed how to translate CTF into FPF. The heart of the translation was characterizing the temporal modalities such as AF P and EF P asﬁxpoints.Once we had theﬁxpoint characterizations of these temporal operators,we were close to having model checking.CTL and LTL are of incomparable expressive power.CTL can assert the existence of behaviors,e.g.,AGEF start asserts that it is always possible to re-initialize a circuit.LTL can assert certain more complex behaviors along a computation,such as GF en⇒F ex relating to fairness.(It turns out this formula is not expressible in CTL,but it is in“FairCTL”[EL87])The branching time logic CTL*[EH86]provides a uniform framework that subsumes both LTL and CTL,but at the higher cost of deciding satisﬁability.There has been an ongoing debate as to whether linear time logic or branching time logic is better for program reasoning(cf.[La80],[EH86],[Va01]).Remark.The formal semantics of temporal logic formulae are deﬁned with respect to a(Kripke)structure M=(S,S0,R,L)where S is a set of states,S0 comprises the initial states,R⊆S×S is a total binary relation,and L is a labelling of states with atomic facts(propositions)true there.An LTL formula h such as F P is deﬁned over path x=t0,t1,t2...through M by the rule M,x|= F P iﬀ∃i≥0P∈L(t i).Similarly a CTL formula f such as EGP holds of a state t0,denoted M,t0|=EGP,iﬀthere exists a path x=t0,t1,t2,...in M such that∀i≥0P∈L(t i).For LTL h,we deﬁne M|=h iﬀfor all paths x starting in S0,M,x|=h.For CTL formula f we deﬁne M|=f iﬀfor each s∈S0,M,s|=f.A structure is also known as a state graph or state transition graph or transition system.See[Em90]for details.64The Mu-calculusThe mu-calculus may be viewed as a particular but very general temporal logic. Some formulations go back to the work of de Bakker and Scott[deBS69];we deal speciﬁcally with the(propositional or)modal mu-calculus(cf.[EC80],[Ko83]). The mu-calculus provides operators for deﬁning correctness properties using re-cursive deﬁnitions plus leastﬁxpoint and greatestﬁxpoint operators.Leastﬁx-points correspond to well-founded or terminating recursion,and are used to capture liveness or progress properties asserting that something does happen. Greatestﬁxpoints permit inﬁnite recursion.They can be used to capture safety or invariance properties.The mu-calculus is very expressive and veryﬂexible.It has been referred to as a“Theory of Everything”.The formulae of the mu-calculus are built up from atomic proposition con-stants P,Q,...,atomic proposition variables Y,Z,...,propositional connectives ∨,∧,¬,and the leastﬁxpoint operator,µas well as the greatestﬁxpoint opera-tor,ν.Eachﬁxpoint formula such asµZ.τ(Z)should be syntactically monotone meaning Z occurs under an even number of negations,and similarly forν.The mu-calculus is interpreted with respect to a structure M=(S,R,L). The power set of S,2S,may be viewed as the complete lattice(2S,S,∅,⊆,∪,∩).Intuitively,each(closed)formula may be identiﬁed with the set of states of S where it is true.Thus,false which corresponds to the empty set is the bottom element,true which corresponds to S is the top element,and implication (∀s∈S[P(s)⇒Q(s)])which corresponds to simple set-theoretic containment (P⊆Q)provides the partial ordering on the lattice.An open formulaτ(Z) deﬁnes a mapping from2S→2S whose value varies as Z varies.A givenτ: 2S→2S is monotone provided that P⊆Q impliesτ(P)⊆τ(Q).Tarski-Knaster Theorem.(cf.[Ta55],[Kn28])Letτ:2S→2S be a monotone functional.Then(a)µY.τ(Y)=∩{Y:τ(Y)=Y}=∩{Y:τ(Y)⊆Y},(b)νY.τ(Y)=∪{Y:τ(Y)=Y}=∪{Y:τ(Y)⊇Y},(c)µY.τ(Y)=∪iτi(false)where i ranges over all ordinals of cardinality at mostthat of the state space S,so that when S isﬁnite i ranges over[0:|S|],and (d)νY.τ(Y)=∩iτi(true)where i ranges over all ordinals of cardinality at mostthat of the state space S,so that when S isﬁnite i ranges over[0:|S|].Consider the CTL property AF P.Note that it is aﬁxed point orﬁxpoint of the functionalτ(Z)=P∨AXZ.That is,as the value of the input Z varies,the value of the outputτ(Z)varies,and we have AF P=τ(AF P)=P∨AXAF P. It can be shown that AF P is the leastﬁxpoint ofτ(Z),meaning the set of states associated with AF P is a subset of the set of states associated with Z,for any ﬁxpoint Z=τ(Z).This might be denotedµZ.Z=τ(Z).More succinctly,we normally write justµZ.τ(Z).In this case we have AF P=µZ.P∨AXZ.We can get some intuition for the the mu-calculus by noting the following ﬁxpoint characterizations for CTL properties:7EF P=µZ.P∨EXZAGP=νZ.P∧AXZAF P=µZ.P∨AXZEGP=νZ.P∧EXZA(P U Q)=µZ.Q∨(P∧AXZ)E(P U Q)=µZ.Q∨(P∧EXZ)For all these properties,as we see,theﬁxpoint characterizations are simple and plausible.It is not too diﬃcult to give rigorous proofs of their correctness (cf.[EC80],[EL86]).We emphasize that the mu-calculus is a rich and powerful formalism;its formulae are really representations of alternatingﬁnite state au-tomata on inﬁnite trees[EJ91].Since even such basic automata as deterministic ﬁnite state automata onﬁnite strings can form quite complex“cans of worms”, we should not be so surprised that it is possible to write down highly inscrutable mu-calculus formulae for which there is no readily apparent intuition regard-ing their intended meaning.The mu-calculus has also been referred to as the “assembly language of program logics”reﬂecting both its comprehensiveness and potentially intricate syntax.On the other hand,many mu-calculus char-acterizations of correctness properties are elegant due to its simple underlying mathematical organization.In[EL86]we introduced the idea of model checking for the mu-calculus in-stead of testing satisﬁability.We catered for eﬃcient model checking in fragments of the the mu-calculus.This provides a basis for practical(symbolic)model checking algorithms.We gave an algorithm essentially of complexity n d,where d is the alternation depth reﬂecting the number of signiﬁcantly nested least and greatestﬁxpoint operators.We showed that common logics such as CTL,LTL, and CTL*were of low alternation depth d=1or d=2.We also provided succinctﬁxpoint characterizations for various natural fair scheduling criteria.A symbolic fair cycle detection method,known as the“Emerson-Lei”algorithm, is comprised of a simpleﬁxpoint characterization plus the Tarski-Knaster theo-rem.It is widely used in practice even though it has worst case quadratic cost. Empirically,it usually outperforms alternatives.5The Origin of Model CheckingThere were several inﬂuences in my personal background that facilitated the de-velopment of model checking.In1975Zohar Manna gave a talk at the University of Texas onﬁxpoints and the Tarski-Knaster Theorem.I was familiar with Di-jkstra’s book[Di76]extending the Floyd-Hoare framework with wlp the weakest liberal precondition for partial correctness and wp the weakest precondition for to-tal correctness.It turns out that wlp and wp may be viewed as modal operators, for which Dijkstra implicitly gaveﬁxpoint characterizations,although Dijkstra did not favor this viewpoint.Basu and Yeh[BY75]at Texas gaveﬁxpoint char-acterizations of weakest preconditions for while loops.Ed Clarke[Cl79]gave similarﬁxpoint characterizations for both wp and wlp for a variety of control structures.8I will now describe how model checking originated at Harvard University.In prior work[EC80]we gaveﬁxpoint characterizations for the main modalities of a logic that was essentially CTL.These would ultimately provide theﬁrst key ingredient of model checking.Incidentally,[EC80]is a paper that could very well not have appeared.Some-how the courier service delivering the hard-copies of the submission to Amster-dam for the program chair at CWI(Dutch for“Center for Mathematics and Computer Science”)sent the package in bill-the-recipient mode.Fortunately, CWI was gracious and accepted the package.All that remained to undo this small misfortune was to get an overseas bank draft to reimburse them.The next work,entitled“Design and Synthesis of Synchronization Skeletons using Branching Time Logic”,was devoted to program synthesis and model checking.I suggested to Ed Clarke that we present the paper,which would be known as[CE81],at the IBM Logics of Programs workshop,since he had an invitation to participate.Both the idea and the term model checking were introduced by Clarke and Emerson in[CE81].Intuitively,this is a method to establish that a given program meets a given speciﬁcation where:–The program deﬁnes aﬁnite state graph M.–M is searched for elaborate patterns to determine if the speciﬁcation f holds.–Pattern speciﬁcation isﬂexible.–The method is eﬃcient in the sizes of M and,ideally,f.–The method is algorithmic.–The method is practical.The conception of model checking was inspired by program synthesis.I was interested in veriﬁcation,but struck by the diﬃculties associated with manual proof-theoretic veriﬁcation as noted above.It seemed that it might be possible to avoid veriﬁcation altogether and mechanically synthesize a correct program directly from its CTL speciﬁcation.The idea was to exploit the small model property possessed by certain decidable temporal logics:any satisﬁable formula must have a“small”ﬁnite model of size that is a function of the formula size. The synthesis method would be sound:if the input speciﬁcation was satisﬁable, it built aﬁnite global state graph that was a model of the speciﬁcation,from which individual processes could be extracted The synthesis method should also be complete:If the speciﬁcation was unsatisﬁable,it should say so.Initially,it seemed to me technically problematic to develop a sound and complete synthesis method for CTL.However,it could always be ensured that an alleged synthesis method was at least sound.This was clear because given anyﬁnite model M and CTL speciﬁcation f one can algorithmically check that M is a genuine model of f by evaluating(verifying)the basic temporal modal-ities over M based on the Tarski-Knaster theorem.This was the second key ingredient of model posite temporal formulae comprised of nested subformulae and boolean combinations of subformulae could be veriﬁed by re-cursive descent.Thus,ﬁxpoint characterizations,the Tarski-Knaster theorem, and recursion yielded model checking.9Thus,we obtained the model checking framework.A model checker could be quite useful in practice,given the prevalence ofﬁnite state concurrent systems. The temporal logic CTL had theﬂexibility and expressiveness to capture many important correctness properties.In addition the CTL model checking algorithm was of reasonable eﬃciency,polynomial in the structure and speciﬁcation sizes. Incidentally,in later years we sometimes referred to temporal logic model check-ing.The crucial roles of abstraction,synchronization skeletons,andﬁnite state spaces were discussed in[CE81]:The synchronization skeleton is an abstraction where detail irrelevant to synchronization is suppressed.Most solutions to synchronization prob-lems are in fact given as synchronization skeletons.Because synchronization skeletons are in generalﬁnite state...proposi-tional temporal logic can be used to specify their properties.Theﬁnite model property ensures that any program whose synchroniza-tion properties can be expressed in propositional temporal logic can be realized by aﬁnite state machine.Conclusions of[CE81]included the following prognostications,which seem to have been on target:[Program Synthesis]may in the long run be quite practical.Much addi-tional research will be needed,however,to make it feasible in practice....We believe that practical[model checking]tools could be developed in the near future.To sum up,[CE81]made several contributions.It introduced model check-ing,giving an algorithm of quadratic complexity O(|f||M|2).It introduced the logic CTL.It gave an algorithmic method for concurrent program synthesis(that was both sound and complete).It argued that most concurrent systems can be abstracted toﬁnite state synchronization skeletons.It described a method for eﬃciently model checking basic fairness using strongly connected components. An NP-hardness result was established for checking certain assertions in a richer logic than CTL.A prototype(and non-robust)model checking tool BMoC was developed,primarily by a Harvard undergraduate,to permit veriﬁcation of syn-chronization protocols.A later paper[CES86]improved the complexity of CTL model checking to linear O(|f||M|).It showed how to eﬃciently model check relative to uncondi-tional and weak fairness.The EMC model checking tool was described,and a version of the alternating bit protocol veriﬁed.A general framework for eﬃciently model checking fairness properties was given in[EL87],along with a reduction showing that CTL*model checking could be done as eﬃciently as LTL model checking.Independently,a similar method was developed in France by Sifakis and his student[QS82].Programs were interpreted over transition systems.A branching10。

学术英语社科类unit原文及翻译

Cultural Globalizationof the early development of different languages, customs, and other diverse aspects world cultures resulted from the isolation of groups of people from one another. It is not surprising , then, that a degree of cultural amalgamation has occurred as improved transportation and communication have brought people of various societies into ever more frequent contact . Analyzing the blurring of cultural differences inevitably includes a great deal about fast food, basketball, rock music, and other such aspects of pop culture, but such analysis does not trivialize the subject,. Instead , a long standing bottom up line of political theory argues that the world`s people can build on commonplace interactions and increasing cultural commonalities that engender familiarity with and confidence in one another to create a global civil society that might evolve into a global nation. By the same process, if transnational civil societies develop, then regional and even global schemes of governance could conceivably form and supplement or supplant the territorial state. Scholars who examine the bottom-up process of transnational integration look for evidence in such factors as the flow of communications and commerce between countries and the spread across borders of what people wear, eat, and do for recreation.1、不同语言、风俗习惯以及其他不同的文化背景下,世界文化的早期发展,是从彼此分离的人群中产生的;这并不奇怪,那么,文化融合的程度已经发生,因为交通运输和沟通带来了不同社会的人们更频繁的接触;模糊的分析文化差异必然包括快餐、篮球、摇滚乐以及一些其他的流行文化,但是,这种分析并并不切题;相反,一个长期的自下而上的政治理论认为,世界上的人可以在司空见惯的相互作用和增加文化共性产生的熟悉和对彼此的信心创造一个全球公民社会,可能会发展成一个全球性的民族;通过同样的过程,如果跨国公民社会得到发展,那么治理区域甚至全球方案的可能形式和补充或取代国家的领土的形式;学者们研究了自底向上的跨国整合的过程,在通信和贸易的流动和国家之间的蔓延,人们穿着,吃,并做娱乐的传播这些因素之间的中寻找证据;it is premature to talk of a world culture , and indeed that may never come, there is significant evidence of cultural amalgamation in the world. The leaders of China once wore ‘Chinese tunic suits”; now they wear Western-style business suits. When dressing informally, people in Shanghai,Lagos, and Mexico City are more apt to wear jeans, T-shirts , and sneakers than their country`s traditional dress. Young people everywhere listen to the same music ,with ,for example “Disturbia” by Rihanna on the Top-10 charts in many countries in addition to the United States in 2008. And whatever it means to our gastronomic future, Big Macs, fries, and milk shakes are consumed around the world.虽然谈一谈世界文化还为时过早,但事实上,这一世界文化的融合在世界上却有显着的证据;中国领导人曾穿“中山装”；现在他们穿西方风格的西装;在上海、拉各斯、墨西哥等城市的非正式场合,人们更倾向于穿牛仔裤、T恤衫和运动鞋,而不是他们的传统服饰;世界各地的年轻人听同样的音乐,,例如“女王”蕾哈娜出现在2008除了美国在许多国家十大排行榜;无论它将怎样影响我们未来的美食,巨无霸,薯条和奶昔,已经在全世界畅销;looking further at the evidence of cultural amalgamation,one caution is in order. You will see that a great deal of what is becoming world culture is Western, especially American, in its origins. That does not imply that Western Europe and the United States .Nor does the preponderance of Western culture in the integration process mean that the flow is one way. American culture , for example , is influenced by many foreign imports, ranging from fajitas and sushi, through soccer, to acupuncture.在进一步寻找文化融合的证据之前,有一点需要注意;你会看到西方许多东西正在成为世界文化,尤其是美国,在世界文化的起源,但这并不意味着西欧和美国;也并不是说在文化整合过程中,西方文化的优势意味着流动是单向的;美国的文化,例如,深受外来文化影响,从铁板烧和寿司,以及从足球到针灸;of the most important aspects of converging culture is English, which is becoming the common language of business, diplomacy, communications, and even culture. President Hamid Karzai of Afghanistan and many other leaders of countries of international organizations converse in English. Indeed , a number o f them, including UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon of South Korea, learned or improved their English while enrolled at . universities. A bit more slowly, English is spreading among common citizens around the world . This is evident in differences among various age groups. Among Europeans, for instance, 89% of all school-children now have English instruction.融合文化最重要的方面之一是英语,它已成为商务、外交、传播和文化的共同语言;阿富汗总统卡尔扎伊哈米德和许多国际组织的国家的其他领导人在英语交谈;事实上,包括联合国秘书长潘基文在内的一些国家领导人,在美国大学学习或提高他们的英语水平;更慢的一点,英语正在世界各地的普通市民中普及;这在不同年龄组都是一样的;例如,在欧洲人中,有89%的孩子现在都有英语教学;communications are one factor driving the spread of English. There have been notable advances, such as the ability to search in nearly 100 languages through Google. In making the Web more accessible to non-English speakers; but the vast majority of what is available on the Internet has been and remains in English. As the webmaster at one site in Russia comments, “It is far easier for a Russian…to download the works of Dostoyevsky translated in English to read than it is for him to get it in his own language.” Business needs also promote the global growth of English. The . status as the world`s economic powerhouse makes it far more common for foreign businesspeople to learn the language of Americans than it is for Americans to learn other languages. A report issued by the Japanese government declared that “achieving world-class excellence demands that all Japanese acquire a working knowledge of English.” The use of English will probably continue to expand throughout the world because a majority of people in every region in the world believe their children are more likely to prosper if they learn English.现代传播是推动英语传播的一个因素;这有显着的进步,如谷歌可以通过近100种语言进行搜索;对以非英语为母语的人使用网络更容易,但在互联网上的绝大多数仍然只适合使用英语;俄罗斯的一个站长在评论一个网站时说,“对于一个俄罗斯人,陀思妥耶夫斯基的作品被翻译成英语比俄语更容易理解;”业务的需求也促进了英语在全球的增长;美国是世界经济强国,这使得外国商人学习美国人的语言比美国人学习其他语言更普遍一些;日本政府发表的一份报告宣称,“达到世界级的卓越要求,要求所有日本人都能掌握英语的工作知识”,英语的使用可能会继续在世界范围内扩展,因为世界上每个地区的大多数人都认为他们的孩子在学习英语的情况下更容易获得成功;Consumer productsinterchange of popular consumer goods is another major factor in narrowing cultural gaps. American movies are popular throughout much of the world. In 2007, for example, the top drawing film globally was Pirate of the Caribbean :At world`s End. Moreover, foreign distribution is vital to the . film industry, which earns 61% of its revenue overseas. In contrast, foreign films account for just 3% of the . market. American television programming is also widespread, but unlike movies, it is a declining part of most foreign television markets. However, jeans, logo-bearing T-shirts and other American-style dress trends are nearly ubiquitous globally, and burgers, fried chicken, and other types of fast food further spread common culture.大众消费品的互换是缩小文化差距的又一重要因素;美国电影在世界上很受欢迎;例如,在2007,全球最顶尖的绘图影片是加勒比海盗：在世界的尽头;此外,海外发行对美国电影业至关重要,这一行业在海外的收入中有61%的收入;相比之下,外国电影只占美国市场的3%;美国的电视节目也很普遍,但不像电影,它仅是大部分外国电视市场的一部分;然而,牛仔裤,标志的T恤和其他美国式的服装趋势几乎是无处不在的全球,和汉堡,炸鸡,和其他类型的快餐,进一步传播共同文化;reemphasize the main point, there is a distinct and important intermingling and amalgamation of cultures under way. For good or ill, Western, particularly American, culture is at the forefront of this trend. The observation of the Director General of UNESCO, that ‘America’s main role in the new world order is not as a military superpower, but as a multicultural superpower”, is an overstatement, but it captures some of what is occurring. What is most important is not the specific source of common culture. Rather, it is the important potential consequences of cultural amalgamation. As noted, some analysts welcome it as a positive force that will bring people and, eventually, political units together. Others see transnational culture as a danger to desirable diversity.再次强调重点,有一个明显而重要的交织和文化进行融合;对于好的或不好的,西方,尤其是美国,文化是这一趋势的最前沿;教科文组织总干事的观察,“美国’在世界新秩序中的主要作用不仅是作为一个军事大国,更作为一个多元文化的超级大国”,是言过其实,但它捕捉到一些正在发生的;最重要的不是共同文化的具体来源;相反,它是文化融合的重要潜在后果;正如所说的,一些分析家认为它是一种积极的力量,它将使人们和最终的政治团体一起;其他人认为跨国文化是一种危险的理想的多样性;。

aufbau principle英语解释

aufbau principle英语解释The Aufbau principle is a fundamental rule in chemistry that dictates the order in which electrons fill energy levels and sublevels in an atom. This principle helps us understand the electronic structure of atoms and predict their chemical behavior. In this document, we will explore the Aufbau principle in depth, discussing its origins, applications, and implications for chemical bonding.Origins of the Aufbau PrincipleThe Aufbau principle, which translates to "building up" in German, was first proposed by the German physicist Arnold Sommerfeld in the early 20th century. Sommerfeld's research on atomic structure and spectral lines led him to develop a theoretical framework for understanding the arrangement of electrons in atoms. The Aufbau principle was later refined and popularized by the Danish physicist Niels Bohr and the Austrian physicist Wolfgang Pauli.Basic Principles of the Aufbau PrincipleThe Aufbau principle is based on two important principles of quantum mechanics: the Pauli exclusion principle and Hund's rule. The Pauli exclusion principle states that no two electrons inan atom can have the same set of quantum numbers, which means that each electron must occupy a unique orbital within a sublevel. Hund's rule dictates that electrons fill orbitals of equal energy singly before pairing up, in order to minimize repulsion and stabilize the atom.The Aufbau principle can be summarized in three main points:1. Electrons fill the lowest energy levels and sublevels first before filling higher energy levels.2. Each sublevel has a maximum number of electrons it can hold, according to the formula 2n^2 (where n is the principal quantum number).3. Electrons fill orbitals within a sublevel according to Hund's rule, filling them singly before pairing up.Applications of the Aufbau PrincipleThe Aufbau principle has numerous applications in chemistry, particularly in predicting the electronic configuration of atoms and ions. By following the Aufbau principle, we can determine the distribution of electrons in an atom's energy levels and sublevels, which in turn influences the atom's chemical properties and reactivity.One key application of the Aufbau principle is the construction of electron configurations for the elements in the periodic table. By arranging electrons in the order of increasing energy levels and sublevels, we can predict the properties of elements and their chemical behavior. This information is crucial for understanding trends in the periodic table and explaining the similarities and differences between elements.Implications for Chemical BondingThe Aufbau principle also plays a significant role in understanding chemical bonding and molecular structure. The distribution of electrons in an atom's orbitals affects its ability to form bonds with other atoms and participate in chemical reactions.For example, the electron configuration of an atom determines its valence electrons, which are the electrons involved in bonding. Elements with similar electron configurations tend to exhibit similar chemical behavior and form similar types of bonds. This is why elements in the same group of the periodic table have similar properties and tend to form similar compounds.In summary, the Aufbau principle is a fundamental concept in chemistry that governs the arrangement of electrons in atomsand influences their chemical properties. By understanding the principles of electron filling order, we can predict the behavior of atoms and molecules and make informed decisions about chemical reactions and bonding. The Aufbau principle continues to be a cornerstone of modern chemistry and a key tool for scientists in their study of the microscopic world.。

CCAA《审计学》测试题及解答英文版

CCAA《审计学》测试题及解答英文版CCAA "Auditing" Test Questions and Answers1. What is the purpose of an audit?The purpose of an audit is to provide an independent assessment of an organization's financial statements to ensure they are free from material misstatement.2. What are the main types of audit evidence?The main types of audit evidence include physical examination, confirmation, documentation, observation, analytical procedures, and inquiries.3. What are the key components of the audit process?The key components of the audit process include planning, risk assessment, testing of controls, substantive procedures, and reporting.4. Explain the concept of materiality in auditing.Materiality in auditing refers to the significance of an item or an error in the financial statements that could influence the decisions of users. Auditors consider materiality when planning and performing an audit.5. What is the role of internal controls in an audit?Internal controls are processes implemented by management to provide reasonable assurance regarding the reliability of financial reporting and the effectiveness and efficiency of operations. Auditors assess the effectiveness of internal controls to determine the nature, timing, and extent of audit procedures.6. Describe the difference between a compliance audit and a financial statement audit.A compliance audit focuses on verifying whether an organization is following specific laws, regulations, or policies, while a financial statement audit examines the accuracy and completeness of an organization's financial statements.7. How do auditors assess audit risk?Auditors assess audit risk by considering inherent risk, control risk, and detection risk. The combination of these risks determines the overall risk of material misstatement in the financial statements.8. Explain the concept of independence in auditing.Independence in auditing refers to the auditor's ability to perform an audit without being influenced by relationships or conflicts of interest. It is essential for auditors to maintain independence to ensure the integrity and credibility of the audit process.9. What are the different types of audit reports?The different types of audit reports include unmodified (clean), qualified, adverse, and disclaimer of opinion. The type of report issued by auditors depends on their findings during the audit.10. How do auditors communicate audit findings to stakeholders?Auditors communicate audit findings through the audit report, which includes the auditor's opinion on the financial statements, key audit matters, and any significant issues identified during the audit.Stakeholders use this information to make informed decisions about the organization.These are some of the key concepts and topics related to auditing that are often covered in the CCAA "Auditing" test. Understanding these concepts can help prepare you for the exam and enhance your knowledge of auditing principles and practices.。

功能性便秘-罗马IV新看点

长期效应
微生物通路可用于预防因双歧杆菌菌群减少而引起的气体产生及肠道运行缓慢
药理学说明：
• 乳果糖原型到达结肠，在结肠中被细菌降解为短链脂肪酸；
• 结肠PH值降低，同时渗透压和充盈量增加；
• 由于PH值降低的直接刺激和粪便体积增加的间接刺激，最终导致肠道蠕动增快和预期结肠通过时间缩短，加速排便。
罗马Ⅳ：功能性便秘的诊断步骤
FC的诊断需要进行以下5个循序渐进的步骤：
临床病史体格检查尽量少的实验室检查结肠镜或其他检查* 特殊的检查用以评估便秘的病理生理机制**
*有条件时可在特定病例中进行；**有必要且有条件时进行。
Douglas A. Drossman, 等. 罗马IV: 功能性胃肠病[M]. 科学出版社, 2016: 645.
Data on file
乳果糖加速升结肠排空快于聚乙二醇
肠道排空运行方向
横结肠
升结肠逆重排空
降结肠
乙状结肠
一项随机、双盲、交叉研究，纳入10名健康志愿者，接受乳果糖10g bid po或聚乙二醇10g bid po，治疗第4天予111铟标记的阳离子交换树脂颗粒胶囊，在第5天，给予99锝标记的试验餐以观察胃、小肠、结肠传输时间。结果显示：与PEG（聚乙二醇）相比，常规剂量的乳果糖显著加快升结肠排空。
关键点：
评估便秘症状时，最理想的是停用缓泻剂以及其他可引起便秘的药物和补充制剂
1. 必须包括下列2项或2项以上** a. ¼（25%）以上的排便感到费力 b. ¼（25%）以上的排便为干粪球或硬粪（Bristol粪便性状量表 1~2型） c. ¼（25%）以后的排便有不尽感 d. ¼（25%）以上的排便有肛门直肠梗阻/堵塞感 e. ¼（25%）以上的排便需要手法辅助（如用手指协助排便、盆底支持） f. 每周自发排便（SBM）少于3次

美国公司法证券法历年经典论文列表

美国是世界上公司法、证券法研究最为发达的国家之一，在美国法学期刊（Law Review & Journals）上每年发表400多篇以公司法和证券法为主题的论文。

自1994年开始，美国的公司法学者每年会投票从中遴选出10篇左右重要的论文，重印于Corporate Practice Commentator，至2008年，已经评选了15年，计177篇论文入选。

以下是每年入选的论文列表：2008年（以第一作者姓名音序为序）：1.Anabtawi, Iman and Lynn Stout. Fiduciary duties for activist shareholders. 60 Stan. L. Rev. 1255-1308 (2008).2.Brummer, Chris. Corporate law preemption in an age of global capital markets. 81 S. Cal. L. Rev. 1067-1114 (2008).3.Choi, Stephen and Marcel Kahan. The market penalty for mutual fund scandals. 87 B.U. L. Rev. 1021-1057 (2007).4.Choi, Stephen J. and Jill E. Fisch. On beyond CalPERS: Survey evidence on the developing role of public pension funds in corporate governance. 61 V and. L. Rev. 315-354 (2008).5.Cox, James D., Randall S. Thoma s and Lynn Bai. There are plaintiffs and…there are plaintiffs: An empirical analysis of securities class action settlements. 61 V and. L. Rev. 355-386 (2008).6.Henderson, M. Todd. Paying CEOs in bankruptcy: Executive compensation when agency costs are low. 101 Nw. U. L. Rev. 1543-1618 (2007).7.Hu, Henry T.C. and Bernard Black. Equity and debt decoupling and empty voting II: Importance and extensions. 156 U. Pa. L. Rev. 625-739 (2008).8.Kahan, Marcel and Edward Rock. The hanging chads of corporate voting. 96 Geo. L.J. 1227-1281 (2008).9.Strine, Leo E., Jr. Toward common sense and common ground? Reflections on the shared interests of managers and labor in a more rational system of corporate governance. 33 J. Corp. L. 1-20 (2007).10.Subramanian, Guhan. Go-shops vs. no-shops in private equity deals: Evidence and implications.63 Bus. Law. 729-760 (2008).2007年：1.Baker, Tom and Sean J. Griffith. The Missing Monitor in Corporate Governance: The Directors’ & Officers’ Liability Insurer. 95 Geo. L.J. 1795-1842 (2007).2.Bebchuk, Lucian A. The Myth of the Shareholder Franchise. 93 V a. L. Rev. 675-732 (2007).3.Choi, Stephen J. and Robert B. Thompson. Securities Litigation and Its Lawyers: Changes During the First Decade After the PSLRA. 106 Colum. L. Rev. 1489-1533 (2006).4.Coffee, John C., Jr. Reforming the Securities Class Action: An Essay on Deterrence and Its Implementation. 106 Colum. L. Rev. 1534-1586 (2006).5.Cox, James D. and Randall S. Thomas. Does the Plaintiff Matter? An Empirical Analysis of Lead Plaintiffs in Securities Class Actions. 106 Colum. L. Rev. 1587-1640 (2006).6.Eisenberg, Theodore and Geoffrey Miller. Ex Ante Choice of Law and Forum: An Empirical Analysis of Corporate Merger Agreements. 59 V and. L. Rev. 1975-2013 (2006).7.Gordon, Jeffrey N. The Rise of Independent Directors in the United States, 1950-2005: Of Shareholder V alue and Stock Market Prices. 59 Stan. L. Rev. 1465-1568 (2007).8.Kahan, Marcel and Edward B. Rock. Hedge Funds in Corporate Governance and Corporate Control. 155 U. Pa. L. Rev. 1021-1093 (2007).ngevoort, Donald C. The Social Construction of Sarbanes-Oxley. 105 Mich. L. Rev. 1817-1855 (2007).10.Roe, Mark J. Legal Origins, Politics, and Modern Stock Markets. 120 Harv. L. Rev. 460-527 (2006).11.Subramanian, Guhan. Post-Siliconix Freeze-outs: Theory and Evidence. 36 J. Legal Stud. 1-26 (2007). (NOTE: This is an earlier working draft. The published article is not freely available, and at SLW we generally respect the intellectual property rights of others.)2006年：1.Bainbridge, Stephen M. Director Primacy and Shareholder Disempowerment. 119 Harv. L. Rev. 1735-1758 (2006).2.Bebchuk, Lucian A. Letting Shareholders Set the Rules. 119 Harv. L. Rev. 1784-1813 (2006).3.Black, Bernard, Brian Cheffins and Michael Klausner. Outside Director Liability. 58 Stan. L. Rev. 1055-1159 (2006).4.Choi, Stephen J., Jill E. Fisch and A.C. Pritchard. Do Institutions Matter? The Impact of the Lead Plaintiff Provision of the Private Securities Litigation Reform Act. 835.Cox, James D. and Randall S. Thomas. Letting Billions Slip Through Y our Fingers: Empirical Evidence and Legal Implications of the Failure of Financial Institutions to Participate in Securities Class Action Settlements. 58 Stan. L. Rev. 411-454 (2005).6.Gilson, Ronald J. Controlling Shareholders and Corporate Governance: Complicating the Comparative Taxonomy. 119 Harv. L. Rev. 1641-1679 (2006).7.Goshen , Zohar and Gideon Parchomovsky. The Essential Role of Securities Regulation. 55 Duke L.J. 711-782 (2006).8.Hansmann, Henry, Reinier Kraakman and Richard Squire. Law and the Rise of the Firm. 119 Harv. L. Rev. 1333-1403 (2006).9.Hu, Henry T. C. and Bernard Black. Empty V oting and Hidden (Morphable) Ownership: Taxonomy, Implications, and Reforms. 61 Bus. Law. 1011-1070 (2006).10.Kahan, Marcel. The Demand for Corporate Law: Statutory Flexibility, Judicial Quality, or Takeover Protection? 22 J. L. Econ. & Org. 340-365 (2006).11.Kahan, Marcel and Edward Rock. Symbiotic Federalism and the Structure of Corporate Law.58 V and. L. Rev. 1573-1622 (2005).12.Smith, D. Gordon. The Exit Structure of V enture Capital. 53 UCLA L. Rev. 315-356 (2005).2005年：1.Bebchuk, Lucian Arye. The case for increasing shareholder power. 118 Harv. L. Rev. 833-914 (2005).2.Bratton, William W. The new dividend puzzle. 93 Geo. L.J. 845-895 (2005).3.Elhauge, Einer. Sacrificing corporate profits in the public interest. 80 N.Y.U. L. Rev. 733-869 (2005).4.Johnson, . Corporate officers and the business judgment rule. 60 Bus. Law. 439-469 (2005).haupt, Curtis J. In the shadow of Delaware? The rise of hostile takeovers in Japan. 105 Colum. L. Rev. 2171-2216 (2005).6.Ribstein, Larry E. Are partners fiduciaries? 2005 U. Ill. L. Rev. 209-251.7.Roe, Mark J. Delaware?s politics. 118 Harv. L. Rev. 2491-2543 (2005).8.Romano, Roberta. The Sarbanes-Oxley Act and the making of quack corporate governance. 114 Y ale L.J. 1521-1611 (2005).9.Subramanian, Guhan. Fixing freezeouts. 115 Y ale L.J. 2-70 (2005).10.Thompson, Robert B. and Randall S. Thomas. The public and private faces of derivative lawsuits. 57 V and. L. Rev. 1747-1793 (2004).11.Weiss, Elliott J. and J. White. File early, then free ride: How Delaware law (mis)shapes shareholder class actions. 57 V and. L. Rev. 1797-1881 (2004).2004年：1Arlen, Jennifer and Eric Talley. Unregulable defenses and the perils of shareholder choice. 152 U. Pa. L. Rev. 577-666 (2003).2.Bainbridge, Stephen M. The business judgment rule as abstention doctrine. 57 V and. L. Rev. 83-130 (2004).3.Bebchuk, Lucian Arye and Alma Cohen. Firms' decisions where to incorporate. 46 J.L. & Econ. 383-425 (2003).4.Blair, Margaret M. Locking in capital: what corporate law achieved for business organizers in the nineteenth century. 51 UCLA L. Rev. 387-455 (2003).5.Gilson, Ronald J. and Jeffrey N. Gordon. Controlling shareholders. 152 U. Pa. L. Rev. 785-843 (2003).6.Roe, Mark J. Delaware 's competition. 117 Harv. L. Rev. 588-646 (2003).7.Sale, Hillary A. Delaware 's good faith. 89 Cornell L. Rev. 456-495 (2004).8.Stout, Lynn A. The mechanisms of market inefficiency: an introduction to the new finance. 28 J. Corp. L. 635-669 (2003).9.Subramanian, Guhan. Bargaining in the shadow of takeover defenses. 113 Y ale L.J. 621-686 (2003).10.Subramanian, Guhan. The disappearing Delaware effect. 20 J.L. Econ. & Org. 32-59 (2004)11.Thompson, Robert B. and Randall S. Thomas. The new look of shareholder litigation: acquisition-oriented class actions. 57 V and. L. Rev. 133-209 (2004).2003年：1.A yres, Ian and Stephen Choi. Internalizing outsider trading. 101 Mich. L. Rev. 313-408 (2002).2.Bainbridge, Stephen M. Director primacy: The means and ends of corporate governance. 97 Nw. U. L. Rev. 547-606 (2003).3.Bebchuk, Lucian, Alma Cohen and Allen Ferrell. Does the evidence favor state competition in corporate law? 90 Cal. L. Rev. 1775-1821 (2002).4.Bebchuk, Lucian Arye, John C. Coates IV and Guhan Subramanian. The Powerful Antitakeover Force of Staggered Boards: Further findings and a reply to symposium participants. 55 Stan. L. Rev. 885-917 (2002).5.Choi, Stephen J. and Jill E. Fisch. How to fix Wall Street: A voucher financing proposal for securities intermediaries. 113 Y ale L.J. 269-346 (2003).6.Daines, Robert. The incorporation choices of IPO firms. 77 N.Y.U. L. Rev.1559-1611 (2002).7.Gilson, Ronald J. and David M. Schizer. Understanding venture capital structure: A taxexplanation for convertible preferred stock. 116 Harv. L. Rev. 874-916 (2003).8.Kahan, Marcel and Ehud Kamar. The myth of state competition in corporate law. 55 Stan. L. Rev. 679-749 (2002).ngevoort, Donald C. Taming the animal spirits of the stock markets: A behavioral approach to securities regulation. 97 Nw. U. L. Rev. 135-188 (2002).10.Pritchard, A.C. Justice Lewis F. Powell, Jr., and the counterrevolution in the federal securities laws. 52 Duke L.J. 841-949 (2003).11.Thompson, Robert B. and Hillary A. Sale. Securities fraud as corporate governance: Reflections upon federalism. 56 V and. L. Rev. 859-910 (2003).2002年：1.Allen, William T., Jack B. Jacobs and Leo E. Strine, Jr. Function over Form: A Reassessment of Standards of Review in Delaware Corporation Law. 26 Del. J. Corp. L. 859-895 (2001) and 56 Bus. Law. 1287 (2001).2.A yres, Ian and Joe Bankman. Substitutes for Insider Trading. 54 Stan. L. Rev. 235-254 (2001).3.Bebchuk, Lucian Arye, Jesse M. Fried and David I. Walker. Managerial Power and Rent Extraction in the Design of Executive Compensation. 69 U. Chi. L. Rev. 751-846 (2002).4.Bebchuk, Lucian Arye, John C. Coates IV and Guhan Subramanian. The Powerful Antitakeover Force of Staggered Boards: Theory, Evidence, and Policy. 54 Stan. L. Rev. 887-951 (2002).5.Black, Bernard and Reinier Kraakman. Delaware’s Takeover Law: The Uncertain Search for Hidden V alue. 96 Nw. U. L. Rev. 521-566 (2002).6.Bratton, William M. Enron and the Dark Side of Shareholder V alue. 76 Tul. L. Rev. 1275-1361 (2002).7.Coates, John C. IV. Explaining V ariation in Takeover Defenses: Blame the Lawyers. 89 Cal. L. Rev. 1301-1421 (2001).8.Kahan, Marcel and Edward B. Rock. How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Pill: Adaptive Responses to Takeover Law. 69 U. Chi. L. Rev. 871-915 (2002).9.Kahan, Marcel. Rethinking Corporate Bonds: The Trade-off Between Individual and Collective Rights. 77 N.Y.U. L. Rev. 1040-1089 (2002).10.Roe, Mark J. Corporate Law’s Limits. 31 J. Legal Stud. 233-271 (2002).11.Thompson, Robert B. and D. Gordon Smith. Toward a New Theory of the Shareholder Role: "Sacred Space" in Corporate Takeovers. 80 Tex. L. Rev. 261-326 (2001).2001年：1.Black, Bernard S. The legal and institutional preconditions for strong securities markets. 48 UCLA L. Rev. 781-855 (2001).2.Coates, John C. IV. Takeover defenses in the shadow of the pill: a critique of the scientific evidence. 79 Tex. L. Rev. 271-382 (2000).3.Coates, John C. IV and Guhan Subramanian. A buy-side model of M&A lockups: theory and evidence. 53 Stan. L. Rev. 307-396 (2000).4.Coffee, John C., Jr. The rise of dispersed ownership: the roles of law and the state in the separation of ownership and control. 111 Y ale L.J. 1-82 (2001).5.Choi, Stephen J. The unfounded fear of Regulation S: empirical evidence on offshore securities offerings. 50 Duke L.J. 663-751 (2000).6.Daines, Robert and Michael Klausner. Do IPO charters maximize firm value? Antitakeover protection in IPOs. 17 J.L. Econ. & Org. 83-120 (2001).7.Hansmann, Henry and Reinier Kraakman. The essential role of organizational law. 110 Y ale L.J. 387-440 (2000).ngevoort, Donald C. The human nature of corporate boards: law, norms, and the unintended consequences of independence and accountability. 89 Geo. L.J. 797-832 (2001).9.Mahoney, Paul G. The political economy of the Securities Act of 1933. 30 J. Legal Stud. 1-31 (2001).10.Roe, Mark J. Political preconditions to separating ownership from corporate control. 53 Stan. L. Rev. 539-606 (2000).11.Romano, Roberta. Less is more: making institutional investor activism a valuable mechanism of corporate governance. 18 Y ale J. on Reg. 174-251 (2001).2000年：1.Bratton, William W. and Joseph A. McCahery. Comparative Corporate Governance and the Theory of the Firm: The Case Against Global Cross Reference. 38 Colum. J. Transnat’l L. 213-297 (1999).2.Coates, John C. IV. Empirical Evidence on Structural Takeover Defenses: Where Do We Stand?54 U. Miami L. Rev. 783-797 (2000).3.Coffee, John C., Jr. Privatization and Corporate Governance: The Lessons from Securities Market Failure. 25 J. Corp. L. 1-39 (1999).4.Fisch, Jill E. The Peculiar Role of the Delaware Courts in the Competition for Corporate Charters. 68 U. Cin. L. Rev. 1061-1100 (2000).5.Fox, Merritt B. Retained Mandatory Securities Disclosure: Why Issuer Choice Is Not Investor Empowerment. 85 V a. L. Rev. 1335-1419 (1999).6.Fried, Jesse M. Insider Signaling and Insider Trading with Repurchase Tender Offers. 67 U. Chi. L. Rev. 421-477 (2000).7.Gulati, G. Mitu, William A. Klein and Eric M. Zolt. Connected Contracts. 47 UCLA L. Rev. 887-948 (2000).8.Hu, Henry T.C. Faith and Magic: Investor Beliefs and Government Neutrality. 78 Tex. L. Rev. 777-884 (2000).9.Moll, Douglas K. Shareholder Oppression in Close Corporations: The Unanswered Question of Perspective. 53 V and. L. Rev. 749-827 (2000).10.Schizer, David M. Executives and Hedging: The Fragile Legal Foundation of Incentive Compatibility. 100 Colum. L. Rev. 440-504 (2000).11.Smith, Thomas A. The Efficient Norm for Corporate Law: A Neotraditional Interpretation of Fiduciary Duty. 98 Mich. L. Rev. 214-268 (1999).12.Thomas, Randall S. and Kenneth J. Martin. The Determinants of Shareholder V oting on Stock Option Plans. 35 Wake Forest L. Rev. 31-81 (2000).13.Thompson, Robert B. Preemption and Federalism in Corporate Governance: Protecting Shareholder Rights to V ote, Sell, and Sue. 62 Law & Contemp. Probs. 215-242 (1999).1999年（以第一作者姓名音序为序）：1.Bankman, Joseph and Ronald J. Gilson. Why Start-ups? 51 Stan. L. Rev. 289-308 (1999).2.Bhagat, Sanjai and Bernard Black. The Uncertain Relationship Between Board Composition and Firm Performance. 54 Bus. Law. 921-963 (1999).3.Blair, Margaret M. and Lynn A. Stout. A Team Production Theory of Corporate Law. 85 V a. L. Rev. 247-328 (1999).4.Coates, John C., IV. “Fair V alue” As an A voidable Rule of Corporate Law: Minority Discounts in Conflict Transactions. 147 U. Pa. L. Rev. 1251-1359 (1999).5.Coffee, John C., Jr. The Future as History: The Prospects for Global Convergence in Corporate Governance and Its Implications. 93 Nw. U. L. Rev. 641-707 (1999).6.Eisenberg, Melvin A. Corporate Law and Social Norms. 99 Colum. L. Rev. 1253-1292 (1999).7.Hamermesh, Lawrence A. Corporate Democracy and Stockholder-Adopted By-laws: Taking Back the Street? 73 Tul. L. Rev. 409-495 (1998).8.Krawiec, Kimberly D. Derivatives, Corporate Hedging, and Shareholder Wealth: Modigliani-Miller Forty Y ears Later. 1998 U. Ill. L. Rev. 1039-1104.ngevoort, Donald C. Rereading Cady, Roberts: The Ideology and Practice of Insider Trading Regulation. 99 Colum. L. Rev. 1319-1343 (1999).ngevoort, Donald C. Half-Truths: Protecting Mistaken Inferences By Investors and Others.52 Stan. L. Rev. 87-125 (1999).11.Talley, Eric. Turning Servile Opportunities to Gold: A Strategic Analysis of the Corporate Opportunities Doctrine. 108 Y ale L.J. 277-375 (1998).12.Williams, Cynthia A. The Securities and Exchange Commission and Corporate Social Transparency. 112 Harv. L. Rev. 1197-1311 (1999).1998年：1.Carney, William J., The Production of Corporate Law, 71 S. Cal. L. Rev. 715-780 (1998).2.Choi, Stephen, Market Lessons for Gatekeepers, 92 Nw. U. L. Rev. 916-966 (1998).3.Coffee, John C., Jr., Brave New World?: The Impact(s) of the Internet on Modern Securities Regulation. 52 Bus. Law. 1195-1233 (1997).ngevoort, Donald C., Organized Illusions: A Behavioral Theory of Why Corporations Mislead Stock Market Investors (and Cause Other Social Harms). 146 U. Pa. L. Rev. 101-172 (1997).ngevoort, Donald C., The Epistemology of Corporate-Securities Lawyering: Beliefs, Biases and Organizational Behavior. 63 Brook. L. Rev. 629-676 (1997).6.Mann, Ronald J. The Role of Secured Credit in Small-Business Lending. 86 Geo. L.J. 1-44 (1997).haupt, Curtis J., Property Rights in Firms. 84 V a. L. Rev. 1145-1194 (1998).8.Rock, Edward B., Saints and Sinners: How Does Delaware Corporate Law Work? 44 UCLA L. Rev. 1009-1107 (1997).9.Romano, Roberta, Empowering Investors: A Market Approach to Securities Regulation. 107 Y ale L.J. 2359-2430 (1998).10.Schwab, Stewart J. and Randall S. Thomas, Realigning Corporate Governance: Shareholder Activism by Labor Unions. 96 Mich. L. Rev. 1018-1094 (1998).11.Skeel, David A., Jr., An Evolutionary Theory of Corporate Law and Corporate Bankruptcy. 51 V and. L. Rev. 1325-1398 (1998).12.Thomas, Randall S. and Martin, Kenneth J., Should Labor Be Allowed to Make Shareholder Proposals? 73 Wash. L. Rev. 41-80 (1998).1997年：1.Alexander, Janet Cooper, Rethinking Damages in Securities Class Actions, 48 Stan. L. Rev. 1487-1537 (1996).2.Arlen, Jennifer and Kraakman, Reinier, Controlling Corporate Misconduct: An Analysis of Corporate Liability Regimes, 72 N.Y.U. L. Rev. 687-779 (1997).3.Brudney, Victor, Contract and Fiduciary Duty in Corporate Law, 38 B.C. L. Rev. 595-665 (1997).4.Carney, William J., The Political Economy of Competition for Corporate Charters, 26 J. Legal Stud. 303-329 (1997).5.Choi, Stephen J., Company Registration: Toward a Status-Based Antifraud Regime, 64 U. Chi. L. Rev. 567-651 (1997).6.Fox, Merritt B., Securities Disclosure in a Globalizing Market: Who Should Regulate Whom. 95 Mich. L. Rev. 2498-2632 (1997).7.Kahan, Marcel and Klausner, Michael, Lockups and the Market for Corporate Control, 48 Stan. L. Rev. 1539-1571 (1996).8.Mahoney, Paul G., The Exchange as Regulator, 83 V a. L. Rev. 1453-1500 (1997).haupt, Curtis J., The Market for Innovation in the United States and Japan: V enture Capital and the Comparative Corporate Governance Debate, 91 Nw. U.L. Rev. 865-898 (1997).10.Skeel, David A., Jr., The Unanimity Norm in Delaware Corporate Law, 83 V a. L. Rev. 127-175 (1997).1996年：1.Black, Bernard and Reinier Kraakman A Self-Enforcing Model of Corporate Law, 109 Harv. L. Rev. 1911 (1996)2.Gilson, Ronald J. Corporate Governance and Economic Efficiency: When Do Institutions Matter?, 74 Wash. U. L.Q. 327 (1996)3. Hu, Henry T.C. Hedging Expectations: "Derivative Reality" and the Law and Finance of the Corporate Objective, 21 J. Corp. L. 3 (1995)4.Kahan, Marcel & Michael Klausner Path Dependence in Corporate Contracting: Increasing Returns, Herd Behavior and Cognitive Biases, 74 Wash. U. L.Q. 347 (1996)5.Kitch, Edmund W. The Theory and Practice of Securities Disclosure, 61 Brooklyn L. Rev. 763 (1995)ngevoort, Donald C. Selling Hope, Selling Risk: Some Lessons for Law From Behavioral Economics About Stockbrokers and Sophisticated Customers, 84 Cal. L. Rev. 627 (1996)7.Lin, Laura The Effectiveness of Outside Directors as a Corporate Governance Mechanism: Theories and Evidence, 90 Nw. U.L. Rev. 898 (1996)lstein, Ira M. The Professional Board, 50 Bus. Law 1427 (1995)9.Thompson, Robert B. Exit, Liquidity, and Majority Rule: Appraisal's Role in Corporate Law, 84 Geo. L.J. 1 (1995)10.Triantis, George G. and Daniels, Ronald J. The Role of Debt in Interactive Corporate Governance. 83 Cal. L. Rev. 1073 (1995)1995年：公司法：1.Arlen, Jennifer and Deborah M. Weiss A Political Theory of Corporate Taxation,. 105 Y ale L.J. 325-391 (1995).2.Elson, Charles M. The Duty of Care, Compensation, and Stock Ownership, 63 U. Cin. L. Rev. 649 (1995).3.Hu, Henry T.C. Heeding Expectations: "Derivative Reality" and the Law and Finance of the Corporate Objective, 73 Tex. L. Rev. 985-1040 (1995).4.Kahan, Marcel The Qualified Case Against Mandatory Terms in Bonds, 89 Nw. U.L. Rev. 565-622 (1995).5.Klausner, Michael Corporations, Corporate Law, and Networks of Contracts, 81 V a. L. Rev. 757-852 (1995).6.Mitchell, Lawrence E. Cooperation and Constraint in the Modern Corporation: An Inquiry Into the Causes of Corporate Immorality, 73 Tex. L. Rev. 477-537 (1995).7.Siegel, Mary Back to the Future: Appraisal Rights in the Twenty-First Century, 32 Harv. J. on Legis. 79-143 (1995).证券法：1.Grundfest, Joseph A. Why Disimply? 108 Harv. L. Rev. 727-747 (1995).2.Lev, Baruch and Meiring de V illiers Stock Price Crashes and 10b-5 Damages: A Legal Economic, and Policy Analysis, 47 Stan. L. Rev. 7-37 (1994).3.Mahoney, Paul G. Mandatory Disclosure as a Solution to Agency Problems, 62 U. Chi. L. Rev. 1047-1112 (1995).4.Seligman, Joel The Merits Do Matter, 108 Harv. L. Rev. 438 (1994).5.Seligman, Joel The Obsolescence of Wall Street: A Contextual Approach to the Evolving Structure of Federal Securities Regulation, 93 Mich. L. Rev. 649-702 (1995).6.Stout, Lynn A. Are Stock Markets Costly Casinos? Disagreement, Mark Failure, and Securities Regulation, 81 V a. L. Rev. 611 (1995).7.Weiss, Elliott J. and John S. Beckerman Let the Money Do the Monitoring: How Institutional Investors Can Reduce Agency Costs in Securities Class Actions, 104 Y ale L.J. 2053-2127 (1995).1994年：公司法：1.Fraidin, Stephen and Hanson, Jon D. Toward Unlocking Lockups, 103 Y ale L.J. 1739-1834 (1994)2.Gordon, Jeffrey N. Institutions as Relational Investors: A New Look at Cumulative V oting, 94 Colum. L. Rev. 124-192 (1994)3.Karpoff, Jonathan M., and Lott, John R., Jr. The Reputational Penalty Firms Bear From Committing Criminal Fraud, 36 J.L. & Econ. 757-802 (1993)4.Kraakman, Reiner, Park, Hyun, and Shavell, Steven When Are Shareholder Suits in Shareholder Interests?, 82 Geo. L.J. 1733-1775 (1994)5.Mitchell, Lawrence E. Fairness and Trust in Corporate Law, 43 Duke L.J. 425- 491 (1993)6.Oesterle, Dale A. and Palmiter, Alan R. Judicial Schizophrenia in Shareholder V oting Cases, 79 Iowa L. Rev. 485-583 (1994)7. Pound, John The Rise of the Political Model of Corporate Governance and Corporate Control, 68 N.Y.U. L. Rev. 1003-1071 (1993)8.Skeel, David A., Jr. Rethinking the Line Between Corporate Law and Corporate Bankruptcy, 72 Tex. L. Rev. 471-557 (1994)9.Thompson, Robert B. Unpacking Limited Liability: Direct and V icarious Liability of Corporate Participants for Torts of the Enterprise, 47 V and. L. Rev. 1-41 (1994)证券法：1.Alexander, Janet Cooper The V alue of Bad News in Securities Class Actions, 41 UCLA L.Rev. 1421-1469 (1994)2.Bainbridge, Stephen M. Insider Trading Under the Restatement of the Law Governing Lawyers, 19 J. Corp. L. 1-40 (1993)3.Black, Bernard S. and Coffee, John C. Jr. Hail Britannia?: Institutional Investor Behavior Under Limited Regulation, 92 Mich. L. Rev. 1997-2087 (1994)4.Booth, Richard A. The Efficient Market, portfolio Theory, and the Downward Sloping Demand Hypothesis, 68 N.Y.U. L. Rev. 1187-1212 (1993)5.Coffee, John C., Jr. The SEC and the Institutional Investor: A Half-Time Report, 15 Cardozo L. Rev 837-907 (1994)6.Fox, Merritt B. Insider Trading Deterrence V ersus Managerial Incentives: A Unified Theory of Section 16(b), 92 Mich. L. Rev. 2088-2203 (1994)7.Grundfest, Joseph A. Disimplying Private Rights of Action Under the Federal Securities Laws: The Commission's Authority, 107 Harv. L. Rev. 961-1024 (1994)8.Macey, Jonathan R. Administrative Agency Obsolescence and Interest Group Formation: A Case Study of the SEC at Sixty, 15 Cardozo L. Rev. 909-949 (1994)9.Rock, Edward B. Controlling the Dark Side of Relational Investing, 15 Cardozo L. Rev. 987-1031 (1994)。

【双语阅读】物质财富与人类幸福

物质财富与人类幸福Economic growth is the religion of the modern world, the elixir that eases the p ain of conflicts, the pro mise of indefinite p rogress. It is the solution to our perennial worries about not getting what we don ' t have. And yet, at least in the West, the growth model is now as fleeting as Proust ' s AlbertineSimonet: Coming and going, with busts following booms and booms following busts, while an ideal world of steady, inclusive, long-lasting growth fades away.长是当代世界的最高信条，缓解冲突之痛的灵丹妙药，是对无限进步的美好承诺。

我们总是担心无法得偿所愿，而它就是解决这种担心的答案。

不过，至少在西方，增长模式如今就像普鲁斯特笔下的阿尔贝蒂娜•西莫內(Albertine Simonet)那样捉摸不定：来了又去，萧条过后是繁荣，繁荣过后又是萧条，而那种稳定、包容而持久增长的理想世界却渐行渐远。

In the United States, 80 p ercent of the popu lation has seen no growth in pu rchasing po wer over the last 30 years. In France, annual per cap ita growth has dropped steadily from 3 p ercent in the 1970s to less than zero in 2013.In the interim, the p olitical class has been flummoxed by stagnation, a hesitation that has op ened the doors to pop ulists of various stri pes. But in its des perate searchfor sca pegoats, the West skirts the key question: What would happen if our quest for never-ending economic growth has become a mirage? Would we find a suitable repl acement for the system, or sink into des pair and violence?在美国，80%的人口在过去30年里没有享受到购买力的提高。

国际组织与国际组织法的概念

Bilingual Teaching of International Law
8
Section 1 Concept and Legal Status of International Organizations
二、国际组织的法律地位（legal status）（一）国际组织的法律人格(legal personality) 1. 国际组织的法律人格是成员国通过组织约章明示赋予的，与国家的法律人格是固有的、与生俱来的不同。 2.客观的国际人格意味着国际组织人格的确立不依赖于有关非成员国的事先承认（prior recognition），它源自国际组织本身的性质和职能。

Bilingual Teaching of International Law
12
Section 2 General Legal Systems of International Organizations

三、国际组织的表决制度(voting system)和决议(resolutions or acts) （一）国际组织的表决制度(voting system) 1. 全体一致同意（unanimity） 2.多数同意制（required majority） 3.加权表决制（weighted voting system） 4.协商一致（consensus）

Bilingual Teaching of International Law
16
Section 2 General Legal Systems of International Organizations
2. 国际组织不法行为的2个构成要件 (1)行为归于国际组织（attribution of conduct to an international organization） (2)违背国际义务（breach of an international obligation）

Alptekin_02ELT_Towards ICC in ELT

Towards interculturalcommunicative competencein ELTCem AlptekinThis article questions the validity of the pedagogic model based on the nativespeaker-based notion of communicative competence. With its standardizednative speaker norms, the model is found to be utopian, unrealistic, andconstraining in relation to English as an International Language (EIL). It isutopian not only because native speakership is a linguistic myth, but alsobecause it portrays a monolithic perception of the native speaker’s languageand culture, by referring chieﬂy to mainstream ways of thinking and behaving.It is unrealistic because it fails to reﬂect the lingua franca status of English. It isconstraining in that it circumscribes both teacher and learner autonomy byassociating the concept of authenticity with the social milieu of the nativespeaker.A new notion of communicative competence is needed, one which recognizesEnglish as a world language. This would encompass local and internationalcontexts as settings of language use, involve native–nonnative andnonnative–nonnative discourse participants, and take as pedagogic modelssuccessful bilinguals with intercultural insights and knowledge. As such, itwould aim at the realization of intercultural communicative competencein ELT.Introduction Although there have been reformulations of the di¤erent components ofknowledge that underlie Canale and Swain’s inﬂuential model ofcommunicative competence, the model—in its slightly modiﬁed form byCanale (1983)—still forms the conventional framework for curriculumdesign and classroom practice associated with communicative languageteaching in many an educational context.The notion of communicative competence described in the model entailsfour competencies, which are commonly referred to as grammaticalcompetence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence, andstrategic competence. The ﬁrst and foremost is grammatical or formalcompetence, which refers to the Chomskyan concept of linguisticcompetence; it is the native speaker’s knowledge of the syntactic, lexical,morphological, and phonological features of the language, as well as thecapacity to manipulate these features to produce well-formed words andsentences. It provides the linguistic basis for the rules of usage whichnormally result in accuracy in performance.ELT Journal Volume 56/1 January 2002 ©Oxford University Press 57The second, sociolinguistic competence, deals with the social rules oflanguage use, which involve an understanding of the social context inwhich language is used. Such factors as the role of the participants in agiven interaction, their social status, the information they share, and thefunction of the interaction are given importance. Social context hererefers to the culture-speciﬁc context embedding the norms, values,beliefs, and behaviour patterns of a culture. Appropriate use of thelanguage requires attention to such constructs.Next comes discourse competence, which is the ability to deal with theextended use of language in context. This is ordinarily achieved throughthe connection of a series of sentences or utterances to form ameaningful whole. These connections are often quite implicit: ideas arelinked to each other based on general knowledge of the world as well asfamiliarity with a particular context. Where these conceptual andexperiential bonds are weak or inadequate, the meanings inferred fromthem are likely to be erroneous. Studies in contrastive rhetoric provideample evidence for culture-speciﬁc thought patterns and organizationaldi¤erences that lead to serious misunderstandings. In such cases, formalcohesive devices normally used to establish overall coherence amongpropositions fall short of achieving adequate interpretation.The last component in the model is strategic competence, which isdeﬁned as the ability to cope in an authentic communicative situationand to keep the communicative channel open. This requires theknowledge of communication strategies that one can use to compensatefor imperfect knowledge of rules, or for factors such as fatigue,inattention, and distraction which limit the application of such rules.What, for example, do you do when you cannot think of a word? What doyou do when you realize that your message is misunderstood?Foreign language The communicative approach considers target language-based learning as communicative competence to be essential in order for foreign language enculturation learners to participate fully in the target language culture. As such, thetarget language culture and its inhabitants, the native speakers, areelements crucial to the success of the teaching model. Learners are notonly expected to acquire accurate forms of the target language, but also tolearn how to use these forms in given social situations in the targetlanguage setting to convey appropriate, coherent, and strategically-e¤ective meanings for the native speaker. Thus, learning a foreignlanguage becomes a kind of enculturation, where one acquires newcultural frames of reference and a new world view, reﬂecting those of thetarget language culture and its speakers. Proponents of this view perceiveforeign language teachers as ‘gatekeepers’ who equip their learners withthe four competencies of communication with a view towards enablingthem to gain access to educational or economic opportunities within thetarget language setting.As various communicative features underlying the sociolinguistic,discourse, and strategic competencies in the target language culture aredi¤erent from those in the learner’s own culture, it is suggested thatteachers develop target language communicative competence in58Cem Alptekinlearners by integrating language and culture. This is found to beboth ‘pedagogically and educationally sensible’, as it is said to o¤er‘a multidimensional perspective or experience’ for the learners(Porto 1996). Integrating language and culture is seen by some asthe fundamental purpose of language learning, for (so the belief goes)it gives learners experience of another language, and a di¤erent wayof coping with reality. It also enables them to use the language as it isused by its native speakers. In the case of English, for instance,EFL teachers are asked not only to familiarize their students withthe cultural characteristics of Britain but also to increase theirawareness of the cultural diversity of the country, while at the sametime teaching a standard variety of English so as not to o¤end thenative speakers, and to be understood by them (Bex 1994). This, infact, leads many an ELT educator to train their students to improvetheir sociolinguistic competence in English or, worse, to ‘act’ inEnglish, as they are believed to ‘need to become English-speakingpeople, di¤erent from the people who speak their native language,assuming the body language, intonation, and life view of Englishspeakers’ (Latulippe 1999).Having thus reviewed the basic tenets of the communicative orthodoxy,this paper questions the validity of the pedagogic model whose focus ison native speaker competence in the target language setting. This isdiscussed in reference to ELT under three di¤erent headings, byexamining the utopian, unrealistic, and constraining essence of thenotion of communicative competence from the viewpoint of English asan International Language (EIL).Utopian view of Communicative competence, with its standardized native speaker norms, is as communicative utopian as the notion of the idealized native speaker-listener:It was the competence concern with meaning which gave rise to attempts to take issue withChomsky’s construct of linguistic competence. The ideal native speaker-listener was considered to be a nonexistent abstraction, and emphasiswas placed instead on the real native speaker-listener in relation tolanguage use or language performance. Hence, it became necessary tointegrate the linguistic code with a small ‘c’ concept of culture, referringto daily customs and ways of life, and mainstream ways of thinking andbehaving. Members of a given culture, according to this view, are said tobehave and to interpret the behaviour of others in reference to thecommunicative systems they have available to them. It is this monolithicperception of language and culture that has made the current nativespeaker-based model of communicative competence utopian incharacter. Languages, English included, often have several dialects. Onecannot claim that there is one correct and appropriate way to use English,in the sense that one set of language patterns is somehow inherentlysuperior to all the others. If certain language patterns are preferred overothers, this is certainly done according to social values and not accordingto linguistic norms. If preferred language patterns, commonly associatedwith accuracy and appropriacy, are the outcome of judgements of socialacceptability within the English-speaking culture—along the lines ofKachru’s (1986) ‘Inner Circle’ contexts (e.g. England), it follows that itTowards intercultural communicative competence59will be linguistically invalid to impose such patterns on Kachru’s ‘OuterCircle’ countries (e.g. India), where English is used as a second languageby millions of English-speaking bilinguals, let alone their transfer to‘Expanding Circle’ countries (e.g. Turkey), where English is not even asecond language.Who then is the ‘real’ native speaker-listener typifying accurate andproper language use, if not another abstraction, or an idealization?Paikeday (1985), in his book entitled The Native Speaker is Dead!,shows native speakership as a linguistic myth, and argues that its truemeaning is no more nor less than a proﬁcient user of a language.Rajagopalan (1999), noting the growing critique of the native speakerconcept in ELT circles, calls the construct ‘at best a convenient myth thelinguists have got used to working with, and at worst the visible tip of aninsidious ideological iceberg’ (p. 203). In the same vein, Kramschquestions the notion of native speakership by birth or education ormembership in a native speaker community, and posits a conceptualframework where the competence of the bilingual nonnative speakerwho operates at the border between the two languages is taken as apedagogic model. This involves ‘adaptability to choose which forms ofaccuracy and which forms of appropriateness are called for in whichsocial context of use’ (1995: 10). Yet many stereotypes are still beingperpetuated in the ELT materials of Britain and the United States due tocommunicatively-oriented considerations of use taking precedence overthose of usage. Only by producing instructional materials thatemphasize diversity both within and across cultures can one perhapsavoid presenting English meanings in fragmented and trivialized ways,where communicative functions are conceived as simple speech actsrealized through speciﬁc structures, and where situational contentgenerally portrays an idealized image of the English-speaking culture. Itis perhaps time to rid the ELTﬁeld of its educational vision and practicesbased on a utopian notion of communicative competence involvingidealized native speaker norms in both language and culture.Nevertheless, this will be diªcult to achieve, as ‘[g]enerations of appliedlinguistic mythmaking in the indubitable superiority and theimpregnable infallibility of the “native speaker” has created stereotypesthat die hard’ (Nayar 1994: 4).Unrealistic view of Communicative competence, with its standardized native speaker norms, fails communicative to reﬂect the lingua franca status of English: Social and economic competence globalization has necessitated the use of an international means ofcommunication in the world. English has become the language ofinternational communication. It was estimated as early as 1985 that thenumber of people who used English worldwide either as their native ornonnative language was one and a half billion. English is likely toremain the basic international medium of communication well into thetwenty-ﬁrst century, and within a short period of time the number ofpeople who speak English as a nonnative language may well exceedthe number of its native speakers. Even now English is the world’sprimary vehicle for storing and transmitting information. An estimated75% of the world’s mail is in English, 80% of computer data is in60Cem AlptekinEnglish, and 85% of all information stored or abstracted is in English(Thomas 1996).Given the lingua franca status of English, it is clear that much of theworld needs and uses English for instrumental reasons such asprofessional contacts, academic studies, and commercial pursuits. Inthis context, much communication in English involves (and willincreasingly involve) nonnative speaker–nonnative speaker interactions.How relevant, then, are the conventions of British politeness orAmerican informality to the Japanese and Turks, say, when doingbusiness in English? How relevant are such culturally-laden discoursesamples as British railway timetables or American newspaperadvertisements to industrial engineers from Romania and Egyptconducting technical research in English? How relevant is theimportance of Anglo-American eye contact, or the socially acceptabledistance for conversation as properties of meaningful communication toFinnish and Italian academicians exchanging ideas in a professionalmeeting? Such samples point to the need for a radical rethink in terms ofa modiﬁed and expanded deﬁnition of the traditional notion ofcommunicative competence.Constraining view of Communicative competence, with its standardized native speaker norms, communicative circumscribes learner and teacher autonomy:The idea that the language competence presented in the classroom should be as authentic as possible, so as torepresent the reality of native speaker language use, has been one ofthe tenets of the communicative approach. Real communicativebehaviour in this context is deﬁned strictly in terms of the parochialmilieu and the fuzzy notion of the native speaker. As such, themultiplicity of uses of English around the world involving encountersbetween not only native speakers and nonnative speakers, but alsononnative speakers and nonnative speakers, is not even recognized.In the same vein, corpus descriptions of English contain databasesof native speaker usage, inﬂuencing model situations inELT coursebooks which involve interactions of native speakers withnative speakers.Clearly, with authenticity being dependent on the authority of the nativespeaker, the notion of learner autonomy su¤ers dramatically, as itfocuses on the activation of learners’ own experience in the use oflanguage as part of their learning. As Widdowson (1998) observes, thelanguage which is real for native speakers is not likely to be real fornonnative speakers. For language to be authentic in its routine pragmaticfunctioning, it needs to be localized within a particular discoursecommunity. It follows that the more the language is localized for thelearners, the more they can engage with it as discourse.It is becoming increasingly apparent that real communicative behaviourought to be redeﬁned in relation to the reality of English as anInternational Language, entailing not only the uses of English that are realfor its native speakers in English-speaking countries, but also the uses ofEnglish that are real for its nonnative speakers in communities served bylanguages other than English. Only then can we speak of autonomousTowards intercultural communicative competence61language learning, taking into account the meaningful backgroundprovided by the indigenous language and culture of the learner.Native speaker-based authenticity further restricts the nonnative speakerteachers’ autonomy on two accounts. First, with English embedded inthe native speaker culture, its teaching remains inseparable fromteaching native speaker culture. As such, learners’ own culture isperipheralized, if not completely ignored. Yet this is the area wherenonnative speaker teachers are at their best, due to the linguisticbackground and life experience they share with their students. Instead ofdeveloping new systemic data in relation to the learners’ alreadyestablished familiar schematic knowledge, as is the case with nativelanguage learning processes, they feel intimidated by native speakernorms of use and usage, and also ﬁnd themselves in the potentiallyawkward position of equipping their students with aspects of the nativespeaker’s sociolinguistic and strategic competencies.Secondly, as multicompetent language users, in whom the co-existenceand interaction of two languages is a fact of life, nonnative speaker teachersare hindered from raising multicompetent minds due to the educationalsystem’s obsession with the often monolingual native speaker. Rarely aregoals set, or situations and roles devised that are appropriate for foreignlanguage learners; seldom are language corpora used that entailinteractions between nonnative speakers; virtually no teaching method isutilized taking into consideration the learner’s native language.As a reaction to restrictions on learner and teacher autonomy based onthe adherence to the notion of native speaker-based authenticity, severalattempts have been made to deculturize or nativize English in variousdegrees. One common approach has been to design instructionalmaterials where cultural content chieﬂy comes from the familiar andindigenous features of the local setting so as to motivate the students andenhance their language learning experience. This has been done, albeiton a small scale, in a number of countries. In addition to educators’e¤orts to incorporate the local cultural background into the languagelearning process, language learners themselves have developed varietiesof English, such as Dutch English or German English, bearing a measureof each country’s particular cultural and linguistic background andunique experience with English as well as manifesting certain distinctivefeatures in the areas of pronunciation, lexis, syntax, and pragmatics(Berns 1988).Although attempts to deculturize or nativize English have a number ofeducational merits, they are not too di¤erent from communicativeorientations to teaching English through the generally unrealistic, oftenidealized, and at times monolithic norms of the native speakers and theirculture(s). As such, they fall short of recognizing the international statusof English, and fail to provide an alternative to the conventional view thata language cannot be taught separately from its culture. This view iscertainly sensible in the case of foreign language instruction, yet it failsmiserably when it comes to teaching an international language, whoseculture becomes the world itself.62Cem AlptekinConclusion The conventional model of communicative competence, with its strictadherence to native speaker norms within the target language culture,would appear to be invalid in accounting for learning and using aninternational language in cross-cultural settings. A new pedagogic model is urgently needed to accommodate the case of English as a means of international and intercultural communication. This model should take into account the following criteria:1Successful bilinguals with intercultural insights and knowledge should serve as pedagogic models in English as an International Language (EIL ) rather than the monolingual native speaker.2Intercultural communicative competence should be developed among EIL learners by equipping them with linguistic and cultural behaviour which will enable them to communicative e¤ectively with others, and also by equipping them with an awareness of di¤erence, and with strategies for coping with such di¤erence (Hyde 1998).3The EIL pedagogy should be one of global appropriacy and localappropriation, in that it should prepare learners ‘to be both global and local speakers of English and to feel at home in both international and national cultures’ (Kramsch and Sullivan 1996: 211).4Instructional materials and activities should involve local and international contexts that are familiar and relevant to language learners’ lives.5Instructional materials and activities should have suitable discourse samples pertaining to native and nonnative speaker interactions, as well as nonnative and nonnative speaker interactions. Discoursedisplaying exclusive native speaker use should be kept to a minimum,as it is chieﬂy irrelevant for many learners in terms of potential use in authentic settings (Widdowson 1998).It is time for ELT to consider the implications of the international status of English in terms of appropriate pedagogies and instructional materials that will help learners become successful bilingual and intercultural individuals who are able to function well in both local and international settings.Towards intercultural communicative competence63Latulippe, L.1999. ‘Lessons learned from being a student again’. TESOL Matters9/2: 13.Nayar, P. B.1994. ‘Whose English is it?’ TESL/EJ [On-line serial], 1/1, F1. URL/~cwp/TESL-EJ.html. Paikeday, T. M.1985. The Native Speaker is Dead! Toronto and New York: PPI.Porto, M.1996. ‘Integrating the teaching of language and culture’. IATEFL Newsletter 132:14–15.Rajagopalan, K.1999. ‘Of EFL teachers, conscience, and cowardice’. ELT Journal53/3:200–6.Thomas, L.1996. ‘Language as power: A linguistic critique of US English’. The Modern Language Journal80/2: 129–40.Widdowson, H. G.1998. ‘Context, community, and authentic language’. TESOL Quarterly 32/4: 705–16.The authorCem Alptekin is Professor of Foreign Language Education and Dean of the Faculty of Education at Bog˘aziçi University in Istanbul, Turkey. He publishes internationally on various aspects of L2 learning, and on the role of culture in language learning and teaching. He has taught English in the United States, Turkey, and North Cyprus. Email: alptekic@.tr64Cem Alptekin。

Locus of Control（控制焦点）：个体对生活事件主要原因的感知说明书

What is Locus of Control?What is Locus of Control?Within psychology, Locus of Control is considered to be an important aspect of personality. The concept was developed originally Julian Rotter in the 1950s (Rotter, 1966).Locus of Control refers to an individual's perception about the underlying main causes of events in his/her life. Or, more simply:Do you believe that your destiny is controlled by yourself or by external forces (such as fate, god, or powerful others)?The full name Rotter gave the construct was Locus of Control of Reinforcement. In giving it this name, Rotter was bridging behavioural and cognitive psychology. Rotter's view was that behaviour was largely guided by "reinforcements" (rewards and punishments) and that through contingencies such as rewards and punishments, individuals come to hold beliefs about what causes their actions. These beliefs, in turn, guide what kinds of attitudes and behaviours people adopt. This understanding of Locus of Control is consistent, for example, with Philip Zimbardo (a famous psychologist):A locus of control orientation is a belief about whether the outcomes of our actions are contingent on what we do (internal control orientation) or on events outside our personal control (external control orientation)." (Zimbardo, 1985, p. 275)Thus, locus of control is conceptualised as referring to a unidimensional continuum, ranging from external to internal:Is an internal locus of control desirable?In general, it seems to be psychologically healthy to perceive that one has control over those things which one is capable of influencing.In simplistic terms, a more internal locus of control is generally seen as desirable. Having an Internal locus of control can also be referred to as "self-agency", "personal control", "self-determination", etc. Research has found the following trends:Males tend to be more internal than femalesAs people get older they tend to become more internalPeople higher up in organisational structures tend to be more internal (Mamlin, Harris, & Case, 2001)However, its important to warn people against lapsing in the overly simplistic view notion that internal is good and external is bad (two legs good, four legs bad?). There are important subtleties and complexities tobe considered. For example:Internals can be psychologically unhealthy and unstable. An internalorientation usually needs to be matched by competence, self-efficacyand opportunity so that the person is able to successfully experiencethe sense of personal control and responsibility. Overly internal people who lack competence, efficacy and opportunity can become neurotic,anxious and depressed. In other words, internals need to have arealistic sense of their circle of influence in order to experience'success'.Externals can lead easy-going, relaxed, happy lives.Despite these cautions, psychological research has found that people with a more internal locus of control seem to be better off, e.g., they tend to be more achievement oriented and to get better paid jobs. However, thought regarding causality is needed here too. Do environmental circumstances (such as privilege and disadvantage) cause LOC beliefs or do the beliefs cause the situation?Sometimes Locus of Control is seen as a stable, underlying personality construct, but this may be misleading, since the theory and research indicates that that locus of control is largely learned. There is evidence that, at least to some extent, LOC is a response to circumstances. Some psychological and educational interventions have been found to produce shifts towards internal locus of control (e.g., outdoor education programs; Hans, 2000; Hattie, Marsh, Neill & Richards, 1997).。

大学思辨英语精读Unit4OrganizationandInstitution参考答案解析

Unit 4 Organization and InstitutionText APreparatory Work(1)a. Institutionalization: refers to the process of embedding some conception (for example a belief, norm, social role, particular value or mode of behavior) within an organization, social system, or society as a whole. The term may also be used to refer to committing a particular individual or group to an institution, such as a mental or welfare institution.b. Solitary confinement: is a form of imprisonment in which an inmate is isolated from any human contact, often with the exception of members of prison staff. It is mostly employed as a form of punishment beyond incarceration for a prisoner, usually for violations of prison regulations. However, it is also used as an additional measure of protection for vulnerable inmates. In the case prisoners at high risk of suicide, it can be used to prevent access to items that could allow the prisoner to self-harm.c. Parole: is the provisional release of a prisoner who agrees to certain conditions prior to the completion of the maximum sentence period. A specific type of parole is medical parole or compassionate release which is the release of prisoners on medical or humanitarian grounds. Conditionsof parole often include things such as obeying the law, refraining from drug and alcohol use, av oiding contact with the parolee’s victims, obtaining employment, and maintaining required contacts with a parole officer.d. Rehabilitation: is the re-integration into society of a convicted person and the main objective of modern penal policy, to counter habitual offending, also known as criminal recidivism. Alternatives to imprisonment also exist, such as community service, probation orders, and others entailing guidance and aftercare towards the offender.(2)Main publications: Influencing Attitudes and Changing Behavior(2nd ed.). Reading, MA: Addison Wesley., 1977, Psychology (3rd Edition), Reading, MA: Addison Wesley Publishing Co., 1999, Psychology And Life, 17/e, Allyn & Bacon Publishing, 2005, The Lucifer Effect: Understanding How Good People Turn Evil, Random House, New York, 2007Main research interests: social psychology, particularly prison study, social intensity syndrome study (related to discharged soldiers). (3)Critical ReadingI. Understanding the text 1.2.(1)Zimbardo uses the specific example of a prisoner’s situation to plea dfor prison reform and to justify the experiment he conducted about the bad effect of prison.(2)They conduct an experiment about the effects of prison on both guardsand prisoners.(3)They want to understand what it means psychologically to be a prisoneror a prison guard.(4)The 24 participants are selected randomly from volunteer students inPalo Alto city and they were randomly assigned roles of guards and prisoners in a simulated prison.(5)At Stanford University in 1971.(6)The experiment has to be ended earlier than planned.(7)Because the effects of prison (abusing and being abused) on those beingexperimented are frightening.(8)The results show that people underestimate the power and pervasivenessof situational controls over behavior.(9)Individual behavior is largely under the control of social forces andenvironmental contingencies rather than personality traits, character, willpower, etc. Many people, perhaps the majority, can be made to do almost anything when put into psychologically compelling situations –regardless of their morals, ethics, values, attitudes, beliefs, or personal convictions.II. Evaluation and exploration(1)Hypothesis: the change of environment (including changed roles) affects one’s behavior (students are put into a mock prison and assigned opposite roles which are all different from their normal environment and role of being a student or citizen)Cause: prison and assigned new roles (changed environment)Effect:rational people with humanity were turned to abusers and victims Independent variable: the participants as human beings (the same human beings)(Stimulus: change of environment/roles)Dependent variable: behaviorThe experiment on the power and influence of roles assigned to ordinary individualsis basically valid and convincing, and similar experiments also prove that most people’s behavior are influenced by the social environment, particularly the new roles they are assigned. Unfortunately, the experiment cannot be confirmed due to the ethical concern (the harm caused by the experiment on the participants). And also, since the participants of a social experiment are humans, the result might not be exactly the same (unlike the natural science experiment which can be repeated with precision and same result).(2)Similarities: the two experiments are all about the effect of assigned roles and social expectations on the behavior of the human being s. Differences: Zimbardo’s experiment focuses on the gradual change of behavior on those who are assigned new roles (prison effect) while Stanley’s experiment focuses on authority’s influen ce on individuals in normal circumstances (authority effect).(3)Power and its execution are closely related with the role assigned to thepower-holder. The more important role he/she is given, the more likely he/she abuses it if there are no checks and balances from other institutions. It is very important to fight against corruption (in campaigns or through legal means), but it’s more important to set up mechanism to balance the role given to power-holders.(4)Zimbardo’s statement or conclusion is based on his only experiment about humans and their environment and cannot be repeated due to ethical reasons. It is reasonable to argue that most people are influenced by the (change of) environment and adapt to it quickly, which means personal “freedom” is conditioned. However, there are exceptions, and this statement cannot explain the behavior of those heroes who stick to their principles under any circumstances and would rather die than surrender to enemy or power.(5)These exceptional examples are mostly heroes in extreme circumstances such as war or condition of life and death (Wen Tianxiang, Liu Hulan, John Brown etc.). They have to choose between life and death very quickly and sometimes they act from instinct. There are other factors that result in these exceptional cases –they all have very strong characters which have been fostered in hardship; they also have a very strong faith and are ready to die for the cause they pursue.(6)Besides the reason Zimbardo mentions (psychological factor of self-image for the donors), there are at least two more reasons. One is religious reason – most people in the West are Christians who believe in the teachings of Jesus Christ and feel a duty to help the poor (in the form of material, money, or time). The other is related to the affluence of the West where the majority of people become well-off enough to give away a fraction of their wealth or money to maintain social stability. (There’re also other reasons such as tax deduction in some countries to encourage donation.)(7)Simply put, the merit of “group think”is that it can mobilize a uniformed collective force to realize some goal that individuals alone cannot hope to accomplish (through teamwork and national solidarity). The demerit of “group think” is that the group leader’s view might be one-sided and flawed, and the wrong decision or policy based on it could easily lead to mistakes or even disaster. Other demerits: this situation may easily result in the circumstance of strong leader/dictator vs. obedient/populist followers; and in many case s the “truth” is not necessary in the hands of the majority. (8)Clinical trials are experiments done in clinical research. Such prospective biomedical or behavioral research studies on human participants are designed to answer specific questions about biomedicalor behavioral interventions, including new treatments and known interventions that warrant further study and comparison. Clinical trials generate data on safety and efficacy. They are conducted only after they have received health authority/ethics committee approval in the country where approval of the therapy is sought. These authorities are responsible for vetting the risk/benefit ratio of the trial - their approval does not mean that the therapy is 'safe' or effective, only that the trial may be conducted. Depending on product type and development stage, investigators initially enroll volunteers and/or patients into small pilot studies, and subsequently conduct progressively larger scale comparative studies. The key point here is: All participants are volunteers who choose clinical trial when other means fail.Worldwide it is estimated that the number of vertebrate animals ranges from the tens of millions to more than 100 million used in animal experiment annually. In the EU, these species represent 93% of animals used in research. If the same was true in the US then the total number of animals used in research is estimated to be between 12 and 25 million. Most animals are euthanized after being used in an experiment. Supporters of the use of animals in experiments, such as the British Royal Society, argue that virtually every medical achievement in the 20th century relied on the use of animals in some way. The Institute for Laboratory Animal Research of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences has argued that animalresearch cannot be replaced by even sophisticated computer models, which are unable to deal with the extremely complex interactions between molecules, cells, tissues, organs, organisms, and the environment. Animal rights, and some animal welfare, organizations question the need for and legitimacy of animal testing, arguing that it is cruel and poorly regulated, that medical progress is actually held back by misleading animal models that cannot reliably predict effects in humans, that some of the tests are outdated, that the costs outweigh the benefits, or that animals have the intrinsic right not to be used or harmed in experimentation.Language EnhancementI. Words and phrases1.(1)C&F (2)B&C (3)E&F (4)E&F (5)A&D(6)C&E (7)A&F (8)B&F (9)D&E (10)B&C2.（1）拼图、勾画（2）构建（名词）（3）建造（动词）（4）建筑物（5）档案（6）（一列）纵队（7）（用锉刀）锉（9）提出、提交（10）呼吁、要求（11）上诉（12）情绪感染、情感诉求（13）吸引力（14）从…悬吊下来（15）停职（16）暂停（17）悬浮（18）吸引（19）雇佣（20）交战、接触（21）忙于（22）面对、触及3.(1) die away (2) need (3) call for (4) overwhelmed (5) assessed(6) result in (7) function (8) filed (9) prayed (10) predicting4.(1)served as (2)end up with (3)differentiate between (4)dissolved into(5) prevent…from(6) trade… for(7) attribute to (8) inflicted… on(9) derived from (10) pass outII. Sentences and discourse1.(1)This powerful appeal for prison reform was sent to me in a secret letterfrom a prisoner. He cannot reveal his name because of still being rehabilitated.(2)The guards were informed of the potential seriousness and danger ofthe situation as well as their own weaknesses (during the experiment).(3)In less than a week, the experience of imprisonment dissolved all goodthings that they’ve learned in a lifetime, including human values and self-concepts while the ugliest and most basic sick side of human nature came into the surface.(4)Individual behavior is largely influenced and dominated by socialforces and environmental factors instead of by personality traits,character, willpower, or other components that cannot be proved by empirical evidences.(5)Thus we created a false belief in (personal) freedom by emphasizingindividuals’ internal control (of themselves and of the environment) that actually does not exists.(6)However, since most participants in these studies do act in irrationalor unreasonable ways, it can be concluded that the majority of observers would also yield to the social psychological pressure in the same situation.2.(1)A good leader does not impose his personal will on his subordinates.(2)When rumors of bribing were out, the company immediately denied it.(3)The official was convicted of life imprisonment because of stealingand selling state secrets; he decided not to appeal to the higher court.(4)The purpose of setting up the fund is to rehabilitate the landminevictims.(5)This university is one of the few local higher learning institutionsthat can confer doctorate degrees.(6)If you want to know more about the characteristics of the British, youhave to further study the dimensions of their history and culture.(7)This company has launched a new round of publicity campaign across thecountry, to attract those potential customers.(8) No country should interfere in any other country’s domestic affairsin the excuse of human rights.(9)In real life, only very few people can remain independent, notsuccumbing to power and authority.(10)Some people believe that in modern society we should adopt anattitude of understanding and tolerance towards deviant views and behaviors.3.个人行为在很大程度上受到社会力量和环境变化的控制，而非取决于个人特质、性格、意志力或其他未经实验证实的因素。

重要哲学术语英汉对照

重要哲学术语英汉对照——转载自?当代英美哲学概论?a priori瞐posteriori distinction 先验-后验区分abstract ideas 抽象理念abstract objects 抽象客体ad hominem argument 谬误论证alienation/estrangement 异化，疏离altruism 利他主义analysis 分析analytic瞫ynthetic distinction 分析-综合区分aporia 困惑argument from design 来自设计论证artificial intelligence (AI) 人工智能association of ideas 理念联想autonomy 自律axioms 公理Categorical Imperative 绝对命令categories 范畴Category mistake 范畴错误causal theory of reference 指称因果论causation 因果关系certainty 确定性chaos theory 混沌理论class 总纲、类clearness and distinctness 清楚与明晰cogito ergo sum 我思故我在concept 概念consciousness 意识consent 同意consequentialism 效果论conservative 保守consistency 一致性，相容性constructivism 建构主义contents of consciousness 意识内容contingent瞡ecessary distinction 偶然-必然区分continuum 连续体continuum hypothesis 连续性假说contradiction 矛盾〔律〕conventionalism 约定论counterfactual conditional 反事实条件句criterion 准那么，标准critique 批判，批评Dasein 此在，定在deconstruction 解构主义defeasible 可以废除definite description 限定摹状词deontology 义务论dialectic 辩证法didactic 说教dualism 二元论egoism 自我主义、利己主义eliminative materialism 消除性唯物主义empiricism 经历主义Enlightenment 启蒙运动〔思想〕entailment 蕴含essence 本质ethical intuition 伦理直观ethical naturalism 伦理自然主义eudaimonia 幸福主义event 事件、事变evolutionary epistemology 进化认识论expert system 专门体系explanation 解释fallibilism 谬误论family resemblance 家族相似fictional entities 虚构实体first philosophy 第一哲学form of life 生活形式formal 形式foundationalism 根底主义free will and determinism 自由意志与决定论function 函项〔功能〕function explanation 功能解释good 善happiness 幸福hedonism 享乐主义hermeneutics 解释学〔诠释学，释义学〕historicism 历史论〔历史主义〕holism 整体论iconographic 绘画idealism 理念论ideas 理念identity 同一性illocutionary act 以言行事行为imagination 想象力immaterical substance 非物质实体immutable 不变、永恒individualism 个人主义〔个体主义〕induction 归纳inference 推断infinite regress 无限回归intensionality 内涵性intentionality 意向性irreducible 不可复原Leibniz餾Law 莱布尼茨法那么logical atomism 逻辑原子主义logical positivism 逻辑实证主义logomachy 玩弄词藻争论material biconditional 物质双向制约materialism 唯物论〔唯物主义〕maxim 箴言，格言method 方法methodologica 方法论model 样式modern 现代modus ponens and modus tollens 肯定前件与否认后件natural selection 自然选择necessary 必然neutral monism 中立一无论nominalism 唯名论non睧uclidean geometry 非欧几里德几何non瞞onotonic logics 非单一逻辑Ockham餜azor 奥卡姆剃刀omnipotence and omniscience 全能与全知ontology 本体论〔存有学〕operator 算符(或算子)paradox 悖论perception 知觉phenomenology 现象学picture theory of meaning 意义图像说pluralism 多元论polis 城邦possible world 可能世界postmodernism 后现代主义prescriptive statement 规定性陈述presupposition 预设primary and secondary qualities 第一性质与第二性质principle of non瞔ontradiction 不矛盾律proposition 命题quantifier 量词quantum mechanics 量子力学rational numbers 有理数real number 实数realism 实在论reason 理性，理智recursive function 循环函数reflective equilibrium 反思均衡relativity (theory of) 相对〔论〕rights 权利rigid designator严格指称词Rorschach test 相对性〔相对论〕rule 规那么rule utilitarianism 功利主义规那么Russell餾paradox 罗素悖论sanctions 制发scope 范围，限界semantics 语义学sense data 感觉材料，感觉资料set 集solipsism 唯我论social contract 社会契约subjective瞣bjective distinction 主客区分sublation 扬弃substance 实体，本体sui generis 特殊，独特性supervenience 偶然性syllogism 三段论things瞚n瞭hemselves 物自体thought 思想thought experiment 思想实验three瞯alued logic 三值逻辑transcendental 先验truth 真理truth function 真值函项understanding 理解universals 共相，一般，普遍verfication principle 证实原那么versimilitude 逼真性vicious regress 恶性回归Vienna Circle 维也纳学派virtue 美德注释计量经济学中英对照词汇(continuous)2007年8月23日，22:02:47 | mindreader计量经济学中英对照词汇(continuous) PLS〔偏最小二乘法〕Point estimation, 点估计Poisson distribution, 泊松分布Polishing, 平滑Polled standard deviation, 合并标准差Polled variance, 合并方差Polygon, 多边图Polynomial, 多项式Polynomial curve, 多项式曲线Population, 总体Population attributable risk, 人群归因危险度Positive correlation, 正相关Positively skewed, 正偏Posterior distribution, 后验分布Power of a test, 检验效能Precision, 精细度Predicted value, 预测值Preliminary analysis, 预备性分析Principal axis factoring,主轴因子法Principal component analysis, 主成分分析Prior distribution, 先验分布Prior probability, 先验概率Probabilistic model, 概率模型probability, 概率Probability density, 概率密度Product moment, 乘积矩/协方差Profile trace, 截面迹图Proportion, 比/构成比Proportion allocation in stratified random sampling, 按比例分层随机抽样Proportionate, 成比例Proportionate sub-class numbers, 成比例次级组含量Prospective study, 前瞻性调查Proximities, 亲近性Pseudo F test, 近似F检验Pseudo model, 近似模型Pseudosigma, 伪标准差Purposive sampling, 有目抽样QR decomposition, QR分解Quadratic approximation, 二次近似Qualitative classification, 属性分类Qualitative method, 定性方法Quantile-quantile plot, 分位数-分位数图/Q-Q图Quantitative analysis, 定量分析Quartile, 四分位数Quick Cluster, 快速聚类Radix sort, 基数排序Random allocation, 随机化分组Random blocks design, 随机区组设计Random event, 随机事件Randomization, 随机化Range, 极差/全距Rank correlation, 等级相关Rank sum test, 秩与检验Rank test, 秩检验Ranked data, 等级资料Rate, 比率Ratio, 比例Raw data, 原始资料Raw residual, 原始残差Rayleigh's test, 雷氏检验Rayleigh's Z, 雷氏Z值Reciprocal, 倒数Reciprocal transformation, 倒数变换Recording, 记录Redescending estimators, 回降估计量Reducing dimensions, 降维Re-expression, 重新表达Reference set, 标准组Region of acceptance, 承受域Regression coefficient, 回归系数Regression sum of square, 回归平方与Rejection point, 拒绝点Relative dispersion, 相对离散度Relative number, 相对数Reliability, 可靠性Reparametrization, 重新设置参数Replication, 重复Report Summaries, 报告摘要Residual sum of square, 剩余平方与residual variance (剩余方差) Resistance, 耐抗性Resistant line, 耐抗线Resistant technique, 耐抗技术R-estimator of location, 位置R估计量R-estimator of scale, 尺度R估计量Retrospective study, 回忆性调查Ridge trace, 岭迹Ridit analysis, Ridit分析Rotation, 旋转Rounding, 舍入Row, 行Row effects, 行效应Row factor, 行因素RXC table, RXC表Sample, 样本Sample regression coefficient, 样本回归系数Sample size, 样本量Sample standard deviation, 样本标准差Sampling error, 抽样误差SAS(Statistical analysis system , SAS统计软件包Scale, 尺度/量表Scatter diagram, 散点图Schematic plot, 示意图/简图Score test, 计分检验Screening, 筛检SEASON, 季节分析Second derivative, 二阶导数Second principal component, 第二主成分SEM (Structural equation modeling), 构造化方程模型Semi-logarithmic graph, 半对数图Semi-logarithmic paper, 半对数格纸Sensitivity curve, 敏感度曲线Sequential analysis, 贯序分析Sequence, 普通序列图Sequential data set, 顺序数据集Sequential design, 贯序设计Sequential method, 贯序法Sequential test, 贯序检验法Serial tests, 系列试验Short-cut method, 简捷法Sigmoid curve, S形曲线Sign function, 正负号函数Sign test, 符号检验Signed rank, 符号秩Significant Level, 显著水平Significance test, 显著性检验Significant figure, 有效数字Simple cluster sampling, 简单整群抽样Simple correlation, 简单相关Simple random sampling, 简单随机抽样Simple regression, 简单回归simple table, 简单表Sine estimator, 正弦估计量Single-valued estimate, 单值估计Singular matrix, 奇异矩阵Skewed distribution, 偏斜分布Skewness, 偏度Slash distribution, 斜线分布Slope, 斜率Smirnov test, 斯米尔诺夫检验Source of variation, 变异来源Spearman rank correlation, 斯皮尔曼等级相关Specific factor, 特殊因子Specific factor variance, 特殊因子方差Spectra , 频谱Spherical distribution, 球型正态分布Spread, 展布SPSS(Statistical package for the social science), SPSS统计软件包Spurious correlation, 假性相关Square root transformation, 平方根变换Stabilizing variance, 稳定方差Standard deviation, 标准差Standard error, 标准误Standard error of difference, 差异标准误Standard error of estimate, 标准估计误差Standard error of rate, 率标准误Standard normal distribution, 标准正态分布Standardization, 标准化Starting value, 起始值Statistic, 统计量Statistical control, 统计控制Statistical graph, 统计图Statistical inference, 统计推断Statistical table, 统计表Steepest descent, 最速下降法Stem and leaf display, 茎叶图Step factor, 步长因子Stepwise regression, 逐步回归Storage, 存Strata, 层〔复数〕Stratified sampling, 分层抽样Stratified sampling, 分层抽样Strength, 强度Stringency, 严密性Structural relationship, 构造关系Studentized residual, 学生化残差/t化残差Sub-class numbers, 次级组含量Subdividing, 分割Sufficient statistic, 充分统计量Sum of products, 积与Sum of squares, 离差平方与Sum of squares about regression, 回归平方与Sum of squares between groups, 组间平方与Sum of squares of partial regression, 偏回归平方与Sure event, 必然事件Survey, 调查Survival, 生存分析Survival rate, 生存率Suspended root gram, 悬吊根图Symmetry, 对称Systematic error, 系统误差Systematic sampling, 系统抽样Tags, 标签Tail area, 尾部面积Tail length, 尾长Tail weight, 尾重Tangent line, 切线Target distribution, 目标分布Taylor series, 泰勒级数Test(检验)Test of linearity, 线性检验Tendency of dispersion, 离散趋势Testing of hypotheses, 假设检验Theoretical frequency, 理论频数Time series, 时间序列Tolerance interval, 容忍区间Tolerance lower limit, 容忍下限Tolerance upper limit, 容忍上限Torsion, 扰率Total sum of square, 总平方与Total variation, 总变异Transformation, 转换Treatment, 处理Trend, 趋势Trend of percentage, 百分比趋势Trial, 试验Trial and error method, 试错法Tuning constant, 细调常数Two sided test, 双向检验Two-stage least squares, 二阶最小平方Two-stage sampling, 二阶段抽样Two-tailed test, 双侧检验Two-way analysis of variance, 双因素方差分析Two-way table, 双向表Type I error, 一类错误/α错误Type II error, 二类错误/β错误UMVU, 方差一致最小无偏估计简称Unbiased estimate, 无偏估计Unconstrained nonlinear regression , 无约束非线性回归Unequal subclass number, 不等次级组含量Ungrouped data, 不分组资料Uniform coordinate, 均匀坐标Uniform distribution, 均匀分布Uniformly minimum variance unbiased estimate, 方差一致最小无偏估计Unit, 单元Unordered categories, 无序分类Unweighted least squares, 未加权最小平方法Upper limit, 上限Upward rank, 升秩Vague concept, 模糊概念Validity, 有效性VARCOMP (Variance component estimation), 方差元素估计Variability, 变异性Variable, 变量Variance, 方差Variation, 变异Varimax orthogonal rotation, 方差最大正交旋转Volume of distribution, 容积W test, W检验Weibull distribution, 威布尔分布Weight, 权数Weighted Chi-square test, 加权卡方检验/Cochran检验Weighted linear regression method, 加权直线回归Weighted mean, 加权平均数Weighted mean square, 加权平均方差Weighted sum of square, 加权平方与Weighting coefficient, 权重系数Weighting method, 加权法W-estimation, W估计量W-estimation of location, 位置W估计量Width, 宽度Wilcoxon paired test, 威斯康星配对法/配对符号秩与检验Wild point, 野点/狂点Wild value, 野值/狂值Winsorized mean, 缩尾均值Withdraw, 失访Youden's index, 尤登指数Z test, Z检验Zero correlation, 零相关Z-transformation, Z变换注释。

Escuela de Computaci'on, Facultad de Ciencias

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CLEI Electronic Journal 1 (2), 1998
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The manager can solve this problem fairly simply by writing down the initial set of people's names in a list and iterating through the list from beginning to end, inserting new persons at the end where they become part of the iteration. To avoid duplicating names on the list, she should append a person's name to the list if and only if the name is not already present. In the computerized version of this problem, with a large list, an ine cient linear search is required, rather than the binary search that would be possible if the set of names could be kept in, say, alphabetic order. In that case, however, new names should be inserted in their proper place to maintain the order. But this in turn makes it di cult to tell when the iteration should stop, since names might have been inserted before the current iteration point. The kind of iteration required to gracefully solve this problem is called a complete traversal ; we give a formal de nition in Section 2. Problems requiring complete traversals are fairly common (we give another example in Section 2), and while there are various ad hoc ways of solving them, programmers should ideally have at their command an e cient packaged solution. In this paper we describe two such approaches to complete traversals, both of which t into the framework de ned by the Standard Template Library, STL (part of the ANSI/ISO standard for C++ 1]). STL (see also 16, 11, 15]) provides a set of easily con gurable software components of six major kinds: generic algorithms, containers, iterators, function objects, adaptors, and allocators. In each of these component categories, STL provides a relatively small set of fundamental components; it is through uniformity of interfaces and orthogonality of component structure that STL provides functionality far beyond the actual number of components included. But STL is not intended as a closed system; its structure is designed with extension in mind. The complete traversal components described in this paper may be of interest not only for the functionality they provide, but also as examples of, and measures of, how well the existing STL components support extensions. In Section 3, we give two distinct ways of solving the complete traversal problem: a generic algorithms approach and a container adaptor approach. In both approaches, the complete traversal components are designed to work with the category of STL components called associative containers , which support fast retrieval of objects based on keys. The generic algorithms are restricted to sorted associative containers, in which keys are maintained according to a given ordering function, but the container adaptor we provide can also be used with hashed associative containers, which give up order properties in favor of faster retrieval. Hashed associative containers are not part of the C++ standard but are now provided as an STL extension by at least one compiler vendor 15]. Another classi cation of associative containers is unique , in which objects in a container cannot have equivalent keys, versus multiple , in which they can. Still another classi cation is simple containers, in which only the keys are stored, versus pair containers, in which pairs of keys and associated values are kept. The sorted associative containers provided in STL are shown in the following table: Component Classi cation set<Key, Compare, Allocator> unique, simple multiset<Key, Compare, Allocator> multiple, simple map<Key, T, Compare, Allocator> unique, pair multimap<Key, T, Compare, Allocator> multiple, pair All of the associative containers have essentially the same interface; e.g., each provides insert and erase member functions for inserting and deleting objects, several kinds of search member

西方哲学家的经典名言英语

西方哲学家的经典名言英语English:"In the realm of Western philosophy, numerous classic quotations have left indelible marks on the intellectual landscape. Socrates, the ancient Greek philosopher, famously declared, 'The only true wisdom is in knowing you know nothing,' emphasizing the importance of humility and intellectual curiosity. René Descartes, a pivotal figure in modern philosophy, famously articulated, 'Cogito, ergo sum' ('I think, therefore I am'), encapsulating the essence of his methodological skepticism and the foundational role of self-awareness in philosophical inquiry. Friedrich Nietzsche, known for his profound insights into human nature, provocatively proclaimed, 'God is dead,' challenging conventional religious beliefs and advocating for individual freedom and responsibility. Immanuel Kant, one of the central figures in the Enlightenment movement, articulated the imperative of moral autonomy with his statement, 'Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.' This encapsulates his categorical imperative, highlighting the universality of moral principles. Finally, Albert Camus, a prominent existentialist philosopher, pondered thehuman condition with his assertion, 'In the depth of winter, I finally learned that within me there lay an invincible summer,' symbolizing the resilience of the human spirit amidst adversity."中文翻译:"在西方哲学领域，许多经典的名言留下了深刻的印记。

内部审计外文资料

Ethical Aspects of Internal AuditingAsher FriedbergABSTRACTThis article is intended to emphasize several ethical issues relating to the activities of the internal auditor. The points of view expressed relate mainly to the public sector of Israel. Beyond the discussion of the specific issues against its unique Israeli background (Internal Audit Law), the discussion throws light on general problems that have not yet been solved.Internal audit began in the United States in the early Forties. The initial period was characterized by rapid and multifaceted growth in both the public and the private sectors, accompanied by failures, difficulties, and problems in many areas of management, particularly supervision and control. The situation required internal frameworks for examination and evaluation to aid management to accomplish its aims efficiently, improve administrative procedures, and safeguard organizational assets. A new function rapidly developed that the twenty-five “fathers” of the profession, who fir st convened in the United States in 1941, called “internal audit” (Brink and Witt, 1982).Asher Friedberg is Senior Lecturer in Auditing at Haifa University and Head of its graduate program in Public and Internal Audit. He holds an MSc. Soc. and Ph.D. and CIA certification. He serves on the Editorial Board of the Internal Auditor and is the Editor of the Israel Internal Auditor. He is a member of the research team of the Israel State Comptroller’s Office which edited the State Audit and Accountability (1991) and Studies in State Audit (1995). His articles have appeared in the International Journal of Government Auditing, Asian Journal of Government Audit, International Journal of Public Administration and Public Budgeting and Finance.The main impetus for the field of internal audit came from the United States. The American Institute of Internal Auditors defines the nature of internal auditing as an independent appraisal activity established within an organization as a service tothe organization. It is a control which functions by examining and evaluating the adequacy and effectiveness of other controls (Statement of Responsibilities of Internal Auditing, 1981). That definition is more or less accepted today by all those working in the field.In order to identify the role and characteristics of internal audit in the management framework and to distinguish between different types of audit (e.g., public audit), experts have suggested a number of criteria such as: source of authority; degree of independence; lines of command; practical application; and the compass of the audited organization. Students of the field have also suggested a number of models for examining some of these criteria, e.g., the degree of independence (Friedberg, 1987). It is clear that we are dealing with a rapidly developing function which is becoming increasingly professionalized in many countries, both in the public and private sectors. Parallel to this development has been the recognition, at various echelons of judicial and governmental agencies, of the need to establish this function. It should be emphasized that Israel marked a milestone in the institutionalization of this function when it passed the Internal Audit Law of 1992. This law is unique and without parallel in other countries.In terms of institutionalization, the profession of internal audit is still young and its rate of development has not been uniform. Topics relating to the source of authority, independence, lines of command, and boundaries, present significant difficulties for anyone who wants to sketch the characteristics of internal audit, both on the international scene and on the Israeli scene. One of the main difficulties relates to the ethical underpinnings of internal audit.Surprisingly, professional literature dealing with internal audit has little to say on this aspect (Dittenhoffer and Klemm, 1983, p. 11). The pace of establishing clear, uniform, and institutionalized codes of professional ethics, both at the international level and in particular countries is a factor of the ongoing processes of development in this nascent profession. It has even been said that, given the great differences in responsibility granted internal audit in various organizations, there is no possibility of establishing a single code of ethics for the profession (Sawyer, 1988, pp. 58–59). Of 20 monographs published by the Research Foundation of the American Institute of Internal Auditors between 1983 and 1992, only one deals directly with the ethics of the internal auditor. The monograph evaluated the attitude of internal auditors to twenty different ethical issues (Dittenhoffer and Klemm, 1983, pp. 11–24). The findings of the monograph were reexamined ten years later (Dittenhoffer and Sennetti, 1994, p. vii). The scholars have found that there have been changes in attitudes of internal auditors towards ethical aspects of the profession, most of them positive. Another publication dealt with the development of a code of behavior for the internal auditor (Moore and Dittenhoffer, 1992).On December 13, 1968, the American Institute of Internal Auditors adopted a general code of ethics for all its members. It was updated in 1988. The code demands honesty, objectivity and industry in the performance of duties and the fulfillment of responsibilities; loyalty to the employer (however, members of the Institute may not knowingly participate in any illegal or improper behavior); abstention from any conflict of interest with the employer or from impairment of their objectivity; no acceptance of gifts from workers, customers, or clients; caution in the use of information and refraining from utilizing it for personal benefit; reliance on facts when carrying out audit and adopting positions or making evaluations; constant striving for professionalism and work effectiveness; upholding the regulations of the institute, its purposes and guidelines.The ethical code and writ of authority of the internal auditor are discussed in the professional literature (such as: Brink and Witt, 1982; Sawyer, 1988; Ratliff et al., 1992). The American Institute of Internal Auditors published an ethical codein 1981 when they first granted the title “CIA” (Certified Internal Auditor) to those who successfully passed the examinations to hold that title (Sawyer, 1988, p. 57). Th e role of the code of ethics for CIA‟s was examined by scholars at thebeginning and in the mid 90‟s (O‟Shaughnessy et al., 1993; Siegel et al., 1995). It should be emphasized that we are dealing with a relatively small selected group within the internal a uditors‟ population. Although a few other references could be mentioned concerning examination of ethical issues of the internal auditing profession (Ethics and Internal Auditors, 1989; Internal Auditor, 1993), it would not be a mistake to evaluate that only few significant articles and other publications have been addressed directly to these issues until now. In this context, it is fitting to indicate one of the most detailed comparative surveys on internal auditing, conducted in 1994her duties. Continuous nonperformance of his/her duties –as a result of professional or other conflicts –may be injurious to the objectivity and independence of the internal auditor. Objectivity and independence are the cornerstones of internal audit.The legal framework of internal audit –ethical aspectsThe most important factor in advancing the internal audit profession in Israel was the passing of the Internal Audit Law by the Knesset (the Israeli Parliament) in 1992 (Internal Audit Law, 57521992). According to the law, every public organization (namely, ministries, government enterprises, organizations supported by the government, public companies, banks, insurance companies, and other companies whose shares are traded in the Israeli stock exchange) have to appoint internal auditors and conduct internal audits. A person shall not be appointed as an internal auditor in a public body unless he/she is an individual; a resident of Israel; has not been convicted of an offence involving moral turpitude; has an academic degree; acquired two years auditing experience or has participated in further professional study approved by a special committee for further study in internal auditing. The duties of the internal auditor are to examine, inter alia – if the activities of the public body which he/her reporting procedures; to the exclusiveness of his/her access to all documents and information necessary for the discharge of his/her tenure (in order to protect his/her relationship to certain outside bodies. For example, “moral rectitude” is one of the standards that should be used by internal auditors. It is mentioned in all laws, regulations, and guidelines pertaining to internal audit, regardless of whether the organization concerned is subject to the Internal Audit Law or not. The internal auditor serves in his/her organization and him/her independence and objectivity, are vital to the examination of cases and presentation of audit findings. The internal auditor‟s findings are likely to have far-reaching implications, both inside and outside the organization, and that knowledge may affect the auditor‟s conclusions.The internal auditor must be aware of this possibility since otherwise it may lead to ethical blemishes in the audit function (such as turning a blind eye, under pressure, to dishonesty). Despite the problems surrounding this issue, the Internal Audit Law immeasurably improved the situation in organizations regulated by the law. Previously, the internal auditor either put up with impossible situations or violated his/her employer by passing on information to outside organizations, such as the Police or the Prosecutor‟s Office. An ethical issue, arising from the internal auditor‟s legally mandated duties, is connected to his/she has grounds to believe that a criminal offense has been committed. If the internal auditor has reason to believe that his/she must directly report the matter to an outsider – the State Comptroller. It must be emphasized that we are dealing with “public bodies”; this duty does not extend to the internal auditors of businesses (public corporations, banks, etc.). The activities of the internal auditor in these cases draw him/she serves as an internal auditor, except the task of handling complaints – and even that on condition that it does not detract from his/her job as internal auditor. It should be emphasized that the abovementioned situation is not a unique Israeli situation. The 1995 survey of Arthur Andersen and IFACI on Internal Auditing around the World shows clearly that . . . “more than one third of the auditors surveyed also carry out tasks in the company which are not related to internal audit assignments (loan of personnel within the company, replacements, etc.)”Access to internal audit documents –an ethical dilemmaThe issue of access may be one of the most difficult and complex issues in internal audit. How it is regarded depends on the answers to questions such as: Who is the auditor? Who is being audited? Who is likely to have access to these sensitive documents? To which documents is access required, and what procedures are involved? Who is entitled to receive these documents? To what use can they be put? These and other questions raise many ethical problems.At the beginning of the Nineties, the American Institute of Internal Auditors (for our purposes, the authority on internal auditing) set up a special subcommittee to discuss the issue of access to internal auditing work products (documents, reports, opinions, working papers, etc.). The Report of the Subcommittee on Access to Internal Auditing Work Products was issued in 1992. The issue touches the very heart of internal audit –the relationship between dependence and objectivity; theright of the public to know versus the right of the individual and the organization to privacy; whether the public interest is best served by openness or by confidentiality and where should the balance be struck; what is the role of the internal auditor as a servant of management, in the private sector, and as a public servant, in the public sector?The development of internal audit as a separate profession, both in the world at large and in Israel, has been rapid. Its status has been changing as a result of the growing recognition of its necessity and its contribution. Its professional level has also changed. The emphasis of internal audit has been moving from the traditional fields of legality and consistency to more advanced fields –economy, efficiency, effectiveness, evaluation of whether goals have been achieved, examination of decision making processes, examination of moral rectitude, etc. The personal and professional level of internal auditors has also risen noticeably. Audit has thus become a more significant factor in the organization and must be taken into account. For that reason, the auditor‟s doc uments and work products have taken on importance within the organization, and sometimes even more outside the organization. The abovementioned subcommittee commented: “Unlimited access to internal auditing work products by outside parties will have a chilling effect both on the scope of activities reviewed and the frankness with which results are communicated” (ibid., pp. 1–2).The ethical implications of internal audit’s multi-facetednessInternal audit covers a great many spheres. It examines, analyzes, and evaluates a range of activities, processes, events, and various complex situations. In order to carry out his/her duties, the internal auditor often needs specific knowhow and expertise beyond the accepted standard professional fields of internal auditors. A new field of internal audit is developing: “investigative auditing”. On the one hand, the ethical problems facing internal auditors differ substantially from the problems faced by professional investigators. On the other hand, internal audit deals among other things with the exposure of fraud and embezzlement. The thin and easily crossed line between internal audit‟s suspicion that the law has been violated and its continued investigation can give rise to complex and conflict-laden ethical situations.Experts Nich and Miller (1984) unambiguously state that: Recognizing auditors‟fascination with white-collar crime – which has the excitement of criminal investigation without the blood and gore of violent crime – we believe that the role of the internal auditor is dramatically overstated and this overstatement is harmful. (p.24).In their opinion:Internal auditors should temper their involvement in white-collar crime investigations. The role, strategy and approach described here . . . [of white collar crimes] . . . goes beyond the IIA‟s standards. (p. 27).Unchecked and unprofessional involvement in sensitive issues which do not fall within the internal auditor‟s sphere of authority may cause damage, both to the organization and to any criminal investigation necessitated by audit findings, aside from the professional and ethical damage caused by doing something for which the internal auditor has no professional qualifications or training.The multifaceted nature of internal audit also poses fundamental questions about the limits of audit. The professional level of the internal auditor and his staff are crucial in establishing the limits of their work. Dealing with matters beyond their professional expertise is liable to have ethical repercussions. For this reason, the Israeli Internal Audit Law (Clause 13(A)) and similar writs of authority in various organizations, permit the internal auditor to call on experts and consultants in the examination of specific professional areas. Such consultation has its own ethical aspects. Avoiding the use of consultants and experts may impair the work of the audit by leaving wide areas within the organization audit free. This diminishes the professionalism, efficiency and effectiveness of internal audit (see, for example: professional standards 200, 210, 220, 240, and 250 of the Institute of Internal Auditors).The internal auditor as an organizational role model – ethical aspectsThe Israeli Institute of Internal Auditors accepted the IIA‟s Code of Ethics in 1981 and the changes followed thereupon. It seems to be that the mere acceptance of an international professional code of ethics is not enough to assure its implementation. Cohen et al. (1992) indicated that cultural and socioeconomic factors could impede the acceptance and especially the implementation of a professions code of ethics. Thus, for example, we can identify collectivist approaches in segments and sectors of the public administration system in Israel (Friedberg,1989; Geist and Friedberg, 1995), which had, have and could have significant ethical implications on an internal auditor‟s activities. The internal auditor–the individual –will have to adhere sometimes to collectivist norms and to become an “organizational ornament”. Otherw ise, he could lose his organizational support or worse, lose his job (Friedberg, 1995). The State Comptroller of Israel acting in his capacity as Israel‟s public ombudsman (a unique combination, not known in other countries), dealt in the 80‟s and 90‟s wit h cases where internal auditors and other public employees in the public service system in Israel lost their jobs because they uncovered some of their organization‟s activities. It is in the State Comptroller‟s jurisdiction as ombudsman to intervene and pr event dismissal of public employees and internal auditors in such cases, after carrying out an investigation. The State Comptroller intervened in a few cases and prevented dismissal of internal auditors and other public employees who blew the whistle (Kalacheim, 1994).It should be emphasized that adopting a general international code of ethics could be ineffective in specific countries and especially in conflictive situations with which the internal audit profession is “blessed”. According to Cohen et al. (1992, p. 699) . . . “providing specific guidelines to be applicable worldwide is not likely to be useful. The range of ethical dilemmas that professionals in any given discipline could face is simply too great. Instead we suggest that the …Detailed Guidance‟ section of an international guideline be country specific and written by national committees to reflect more closely their own needs and circumstances”. The question arises of course, what did the Israeli Institute of Internal Auditors do until now to adjust the adopted IIA‟s code of ethics to the Israeli circumstances, and to make them implementable in the Israeli arena? The answer is very little.Paragraph VIII of the ethical code of the Institute of Internal Auditors states that “Members shall a bide by the bylaws and uphold the objectives of the Institute of Internal Auditors, Inc. In the practice of their profession, they shall be ever mindful of their obligation to maintain the high standard of competence, morality and dignity which The Institu te of Internal Auditors, Inc., and its members have established”.The internal auditor‟s duties, rights, and responsibilities in an organization, require him/her to uphold the highest standards of behavior in order to serve as a role model for other employees. There have even been suggestions that the internal auditor be appointed Ethics Officer, in view of his special traits. Thus, slips in behavior and ethical violations by internal auditors may have long term repercussions on their authority and their ability to demand and enforce ethical standards.We can identify cases where internal auditors adopted negative norms of behavior rooted in their organizational culture, or consciously disregarded norms of behavior which they should have reported according to the Internal Audit Law.There are very few primary sources on the matter. For that reason, we must make do with secondary sources and in particular reports of public audit organizations, which examine among other things, the operation of internal audit in audited bodies.The Israel State Comptroller has more than once found ethical improprieties in the activities of internal auditors. For example, the State Comptroller described how the internal auditor of “Karta – Central Jerusalem Development Corpor ation” carried out his duties. The State Comptroller wrote: “Over the years, Karta paid the internal auditor according to monthly invoices, without receiving internal audit services as reflected in written audit reports. Karta did not provide the State Com ptroller‟s Office with a reasonable explanation for this situation. The State Comptroller views with gravity the violations of the principles of sound administration, which in part border on moral turpitude”.The State Comptroller also found that the part-time (80%) internal auditor of the City of Herzliya was not only paid according to the State Comptroller pay scale, but received in addition a 10.4% pay increment for “split shift” work and a 15% pay increment for managerial duties, neither of which he was entitled to .One more example: the State Comptroller discovered that some municipalities pay senior officials salary increments for additional tasks. The City of Lod paid five senior officials, including the city‟s internal auditor, a set monthly incre ment for “dealing with unions”.Until the Eighties, the findings of the Israel State Comptroller‟s Office concerning internal audit in government ministries and in government corporations, indicated many questionable situations from an ethical point of view. Thus, for example, the State Comptroller pointed to many government offices where internal auditors were granted executive responsibilities.The picture drawn by the State Comptroller‟s report on internal audit in government corporations is even worse. The State Comptroller quotes a February 1987 report by the Government Corporations Authority on the implementation of internal audit in this sector. “Most of the activities carried out by those appointed Internal Auditors in the corporations which were examined do not, in the opinion of the Government Corporations Authority, fit the definition of internal audit and do not deal with the central activities of the corporations.” The State Comptroller adds his own observation: “Based on the findings of the State Comptroller‟s Office and the Government Corporation Authority, it appears that internal audit suffers from marked neglect. In many government corporations, internal audit exists only on paper”.A survey conducted by the Australian State Comptroller on internal audit in the Australian public sector revealed that in many audited bodies, internal auditorsengage in duties beyond internal audit; preparing annual financial statements; investigation; development and planning. Those tasks are liable to conflict with internal audit, and therefore with the code of ethics. Data from Canada also point to a combination of internal audit activities with other executive tasks. The combination weakens internal audit and may cause conflicts of interest.ConclusionsThe article focuses on several factors which affect ethical issues within the internal audit profession in Israel and abroad, namely: the role and status of internal audit in the organization; its legal framework, especially the unique Israeli framework; access to internal audit documents; implications of the internal audit multi-faceted-ness; and the internal auditor as an organizational role model. The findings point to the paucity of professional research into the important area of internal audit ethics on one hand, and to the lack of significant activities to implement the existing code of ethics in Israel and probably in many other countries, on the other hand. Scholars Dittenhofer and Klemm give a number of possible reasons for the lack of research: lack of interest; the difficulty of being objective about ethics; the lack of practical application; the sensitivity of the subject; the ethical behavior, on the whole, of auditors; the fact that if there have been complaints about ethical problems, nothing w as done about them; if something was done about them, they weren‟t publicized. The lack of research in this field, both on the international scene and in Israel, makes it difficult to determine the attitudes of internal auditors and of the management of the organizations in which they operate. Internal auditors are markedly reluctant to participate in such research. Dittenhofer and Klemm point out in their monograph on ethics and the internal auditor, that of 1,211 questionnaires that they sent to internal auditors in the United States, Britain and Australia, only 343 (28.3%) were filled out and returned. Dittenhofer and Sennetti point out in their follow up monograph “Ethics and the Internal Auditor: Ten Years Later”, that of 1200 IIA members drawn at random for this survey, only 25.4% responded. Although the Israeli Internal Audit Law helped resolve a number of ethical problems, many questions raised in the abovementioned research by Dittenhofer and Klemm remain unanswered both in Israel and in many other countries: Do internal auditors relate to the ethical code of their profession? Are the dos and don‟ts of the ethical code clear and comprehensible? Are they similarly interpreted at different audit levels, in different organizations, in different regions, in different countries? What is the level of awareness of “ethical situations” by internal auditors and managements?Do internal auditors see the ethical code as a practical guide? What has been done to apply the ethical code of the Institute of Internal Auditors? Does the ethical code improve the ethical and professional level of internal auditors? In the words of the abovementioned scholars, “With so little literature available, there is a large vacuum surrounding the subject”. It seems to be that this conclusion, written in 1983, is still valid and the large vacuum still exists, in spite of the few works published and the few improvements observed since. It is not surprising therefore, that Dittenhofer and Sennetti concluded ten years later that . . . “little in-depth research has been performed in this area, and few publications, if any, are available on the topic of ethics as it relates to internal auditing.”第11 页。

bank profitability, leverage and financial instability

Bank proﬁtability,leverage andﬁnancial instabilitySoon Ryoo∗AbstractThis paper develops a stock-ﬂow consistent macroeconomic model where bank proﬁtability and bank leverage play a crucial role in the de-termination ofﬁrms’liability structure.The model assumes that banks’credit supply depends on bank proﬁtability as well asﬁrm proﬁt-interestratio.Our analysis suggests that a strong expansionary eﬀect of bankproﬁtability on credit supply tends to destabilize the economy,leadingto the cycles driven by the interactions betweenﬁrm and bankﬁnan-cial behavior.The formal framework is used to discuss Hyman Minsky’sproposal in his Stabilizing an Unstable Economy for the control over thepermissible leverage ratios and pay-out ratios of banks.keyword bank leverage,rate of return on bank capital,ﬁnancial insta-bility,stock-ﬂow consistencyJEL classiﬁcation E12,E32,E441IntroductionThe recent globalﬁnancial crisis evidences that the behavior ofﬁnancial insti-tutions is critical for the stability of a macroeconomic system.The crisis came after a long period ofﬁnancial deregulation and the development of a range of newﬁnancial instruments and markets.Hyman Minsky’sﬁnancial instability hypothesis has received a renewed interest.According to the hypothesis,an ini-tially robustﬁnancial system is endogenously transformed into a fragile system as a prolonged period of tranquil years induces economic agents to take riskier ﬁnancial practices,which eventually turn out to be unsustainable(Minsky,1982, 1986).Banks are key actors in Minsky’s story.Minsky asserts that banks are active proﬁt-seeking enterprises and lays stress on the signiﬁcance of the leverage ratios of banks.He suggests that increases in the leverage ratios of banks contribute to the mechanism of upward instability.∗Assistant Professor of Economics,Adelphi University,1South Avenue,Garden City,NY 11530,U.S.A.email:sryoo@.I wish to thank Peter Skott for his comments on an early draft of this paper.Any errors are mine.1The higher leverage ratio of banks was part of the process that movedthe economy towardﬁnancial fragility because it facilitated an in-crease in short-term borrowing(and in leverage)by bank customers:the leverage ratio of banks and the import of speculative and Ponziﬁnancing in the economy are two sides of a coin.(Minsky,1986,238)A key link in this mechanism is the eﬀect of the leverage ratio on bank prof-itability:a rise in the leverage ratio of banks tends to raise the rate of return on bank capital,which can increase the supply ofﬁnance to the real sector. (Minsky,1986,236)Minsky’sﬁnancial instability hypothesis has generated a series of eﬀorts to formalize the dynamic interaction between real andﬁnancial sectors.Taylor and O’Connell(1985),Foley(1986),Jarsulic(1989),Delli Gatti and Gallegati (1990),Skott(1994),Dutt(1995),Keen(1995)and Flaschel et al.(1998,Ch.12) are early contributions.Recent studies include Setterﬁeld(2004),Lima and Meirelles(2007),Fazzari et al.(2008),and Charles(2009).Our study contributes to this literature by incorporating the active role of proﬁt-seeking banks into a pared to the previous literature,our approach has two distinct features.First,the existing studies pay little attention to the role of the proﬁtability and leverage structure of banks in producing instability and cycles.In contrast, we explicitly introduce the eﬀect of bank proﬁtability as well asﬁrm proﬁtability on credit supply andﬁrms’liability structure in a stock-ﬂow consistent model.1 Second,existing Minskyan models do not distinguish long waves from short cycles.Our model produces long waves through the interaction betweenﬁrms’and banks’ﬁnancial practices.Thus we interpret Minsky’sﬁnancial instabil-ity hypothesis primarily as a basis of long waves rather than a theory of short run business cycles.2Some of Minsky’s own writings support our interpreta-tion.For instance,Minsky argues that“The more severe depressions of history occur after a period of good economic performance,with only minor cycles dis-turbing a generally expanding economy”(Minsky,1995,85);the“mechanism which has generated the long swings centers around the cumulative changes in ﬁnancial variables that take place over the long-swing expansions and contrac-tions”(Minsky,1964).Issues regarding the leverage ratios ofﬁnancial institutions have been widely discussed among policy makers and policy-oriented economists since the out-break of the crisis.3Minsky had long been aware of the destabilizing potential ofﬁnancial institutions’leveraging behavior and stressed a necessity of regu-1See Skott(1981),Godley and Cripps(1983)and Taylor(1985)for early introductions of explicit stock-ﬂow relations in a post-Keynesian/structuralist context.2It is surprising that Minsky’s theory of long waves has received little attention not only by mainstream but also by heterodox economists.Palley(2009)recently called for understanding Minsky’s theory through the lens of long term swings.3For instance,see a report by Joint FSF-CGFS Working Group in Financial Stability Board,entitled“The role of valuation and leverage in procyclicality”(2009).http://www. /publications/r_0904h.pdf2lating it.Our framework turns out to be useful to examine some of Minsky’s agendas for banking reform,in particular,his proposal for the control over the leverage and retention ratios of banks.Our analysis in this paper is an important extension of a study on Minskyan long waves by Ryoo(2010).Unlike Ryoo(2010),in this paper,net worth of the banking sector is not zero and therefore bank leverage is well deﬁned.Both papers complement previous studies onﬁnancialization andﬁnance-led growth in Skott and Ryoo(2008)and Ryoo and Skott(2008)where the emphasis is on the eﬀects of changes inﬁnancial behavior on long-run steady growth path with little attention to questions of stability andﬂuctuations.The rest of the paper is organized as follows.Section2presents our general framework.Section3shows our main analytic results.Section4discusses Minsky’s policy proposal for the control over the leverage ratios of banks and the growth of bank capital.Section5oﬀers some concluding remarks.2Structure of the model2.1Some long-run assumptionsOur model studies the dynamic interaction betweenﬁnancial practices of banks andﬁrms over a long period.To focus on the issues of cycles and instability driven by changes inﬁnancial practices over a long period,we abstract from short-run business cycles.In doing so,we use long-run average rates of utiliza-tion and accumulation rather than actual rates.We denote the actual rates of utilization and accumulation as u and g respectively.4The corresponding long-run average values of the two variables will be denoted as˜u and˜g.To simplify, we take˜u and˜g as constant for a moment and return to this issue in section 3.2.Our long-run approximations allow us to abstract from short-run business ﬂuctuations and to focus on the long-run eﬀects ofﬁrms’and banks’ﬁnancial practices.The long-run average values of u and g will enter the deﬁnition of the trend rate ofﬁrm proﬁtability which provides banks andﬁrms with a basis of theirﬁnancial decisions.2.2Banking sectorBanks accept deposits from households and make loans toﬁrms.The amount of loans is M and the nominal interest rate on loans is i.Deposits are denoted as D and the interest rate on them i d.We assume there is no other cost involved in banking.Banks’budget equation can be written as˙M+idD+Div B=iM+˙D(1)4The actual utilization(u)is deﬁned as u≡YY F where Y is actual output and Y F the levelof output if capital is fully utilized.3where Div B is dividend income distributed to banks’owners.5We assume that banks distribute a constant fraction of proﬁts to their owners.Div B=(1−s b)(rM−r d D)(2) where s b is banks’retention rate out of proﬁts.r and r d are the real rates of interest on loans and deposits,respectively.We assume that both r and r d are exogenous:r d is indirectly controlled by the monetary authority6and r is ﬁxed by banks’mark-up over the deposit rate.7Thus the loan rate exceeds the deposit rate,r>r d,and banks make positive proﬁts.For later purposes,it is convenient to normalize variables by the value of ﬁrms’physical capital stock(pK)where p is the price of capital goods as well as the general price level and K is the quantity of productive capital.Substituting (2)into(1)and dividing it by pK,we get:˙m−˙d=−˜g(m−d)+s b[(r−r d)m+r d(m−d)](3) In(3),m representsﬁrms’debt-capital ratio,d is the amount of deposits nor-malized by capital stock.By deﬁning the diﬀerence between the amount of loans and deposits as bank capital(or bank owners’equity),(3)can be written as:˙ =s b[(r−r d)m+r d ]−˜g (4) where is bank capital normalized by capital stock,i.e. =m−d.Thus(4) shows how bank capital evolves over time.To allow the existence of a steady state with positive values of m, and d,we need a restriction on parameter values.To see this,consider a condition required to maintain a constant level of ,i.e.˙ =0.From(4),we have:∗=s b(r−r d)˜g−s b r dm∗(5)The numerator in(5)is positive by assumption and s b r d should be smaller than ˜g in order to make positive given a positive value of m.The condition that s b r d<˜g,however,is not suﬃcient for the positive level of deposits(d).To ensure this,the required condition s b r d<˜g should be strengthened tos b r<˜g(6)5We assume that banks are not listed on stock markets so as to avoid complications that arise from the eﬀect of changes in the price of shares of banks.6During an expansion,the monetary authority may have a concern about inﬂation and tends to raise the policy rate but this tendency may be oﬀset by the development of its own euphoric expectations.7Banks may have a tendency to raise loan interest rates as increases in the volume of loans raise the probability of default risks.Financial innovations,however,may oﬀset this tendency by making the supply ofﬁnance more elastic.“During periods of tranquil expansion, proﬁt-seekingﬁnancial institutions invent and reinvent“new”forms of money,substitutes for money in portfolios,andﬁnancial techniques for various types of activity:ﬁnancial innovation is a characteristic of our economy in good times.”(Minsky,1986,178)This eﬀect ofﬁnancial innovation is likely more important in the long run than in the short run.4The interaction between banks andﬁrms determines howﬁrms’liability structure,the debt-capital ratio(m),changes endogenously over time.Minsky suggests that economic units tend to take riskierﬁnancial practices during good years.Following Minsky’s idea,we assume thatﬁrms’debt-capital ratio changes according to:˙m=τ(θ,ρb)whereτθ>0,τρb>0(7) In(7),θrepresents the ratio ofﬁrms’proﬁt to interest payment obligation. Strong proﬁtability compared to the payment commitment on debt induces ﬁrms and banks to accept a higher debt-capital ratio.According to Minsky,“[B]orrowing and lending take place on the basis of margins of safety”and the proﬁt-interest ratio is“the fundamental margin of safety”(Minsky,1982,74). The positive eﬀect ofθon˙m,τθ>0,captures Minsky’s key assumption on ﬁrms/banks’ﬁnancial behavior.8If recent experience is that outstanding debts are easily serviced,then there will be a tendency to stretch debt ratios;if recent expe-rience includes episodes in which debt-servicing has been a burdenand representative units have not fulﬁlled debt contracts,then ac-ceptable debt ratios will decrease(Minsky,1986,187).Banks’own proﬁtability is also important for their decisions on loan-making as well.We measure banks’proﬁtability by the rate of return on bank capital:ρb≡rm−r d d=(r−r d)m+r d.(8)(7)assumes thatρb aﬀects˙m positively.Note that bank proﬁtability is uniquely determined by the leverage ratio of banks(m/ ),denoted asλ:λ≡mThus the higher bank leverage,the higher bank proﬁtability and the greater banks’credit supply.This is in line with Minsky’s behavioral hypothesis:A bank that increases leverage without adversely aﬀecting proﬁtsper dollar of assets increases its proﬁtability.The combination ofretained earnings and the proﬁtability of increased leverage can makethe supply ofﬁnancing from banks grow so fast(Minsky,1986,236).Firm proﬁt-interest ratio,the fundamental margin of safety,remains to bedetermined.We deﬁne:θ≡ρfrm(9)whereρf isﬁrms’gross proﬁt rate,the amount of gross proﬁt divided by the value of capital stock.The proﬁt rate is determined in the real sector of the economy(see section2.3).8Skott(1994)is an early study that formalizes the eﬀect of the ratio of proﬁtability to payment commitment onﬁnancial fragility in a Kaldorian business cycle model.In the same spirit,Ryoo(2010)assumes a simpler version of(7):˙m=τ(θ)withτθ>0.52.3Firms’ﬁnancial decisionsFirms have three sources of funds:retained proﬁts,equity issues and debtﬁing these funds,ﬁrms make investments in real capital,pay out divi-dends and make interest payments.Algebraically,pI+Div F+iM=Π+v˙N+˙M(10) where I,Π,Div F,and N are real gross investment,gross proﬁts,ﬁrms’divi-dends,and the number of shares,respectively.All shares are assumed to have the same price v.Firms pay to their shareholders a constant fraction of proﬁts net of depreci-ation and real interest payments.The dividend payout rate is denoted as1−s f and s f representsﬁrms’retention rate.Div F=(1−s f)(Π−δpK−rM)(11) whereδis the constant depreciation rate of real capital.9New equity issue can be represented by the growth of the number of shares (ˆN)(e.g.Skott1989and Foley and Taylor2004).Substituting(11)into(10), we getpI−δpK=s f(Π−δpK−rM)+vNˆN+M(ˆM−ˆp)(12) Dividing(12)by the value of capital stock(pK),we have:˜g=s f(πu∗σ−δ−rm)+αdˆN+˙m+nm(13)whereπ,and m are proﬁt share(π≡ΠpY )and debt-capital ratio(m≡MpK).αand d are stock-deposit ratio(α≡vND )and deposits normalized by productivecapital(d≡DpK),respectively.We assume aﬁxed-coeﬃcient Leontief technology withσbeing the full capacity output-capital ratio.10Equation(13)tells us that ﬁrms’investment(˜g)isﬁnanced by retained earnings,new equity issue,and bank loans.by s f,ˆN and m.Most theories take the rates ofﬁrms’retention and equity issue as param-eters and debtﬁnance as an accommodating variable(Skott1989,Lavoie and Godley2001-2002and Dos Santos and Zezza2007).This paper assumes that the retention rate(s f)is a parameter but both the rate of equity issue(ˆN)and the leverage ratio m are endogenous.Debtﬁnance evolves according to(7). Equityﬁnance(ˆN)ﬁll the gap between the funds needed for the investment plans and the funds available from retained earnings and bank loans.11Using 9The real interest rate,rather than,the nominal rate,enters in the speciﬁcation of dividend payments,(11).This speciﬁcation helps our analysis avoid possible complications due to the eﬀect of inﬂation.(11),along with the assumption of exogenous real interest rate,makes dividend payments unaﬀected by a change in the inﬂation rate.This kind of inﬂation neutrality ceases to hold if the real interest rate is replaced by the nominal rate.10σ≡Y FK where Y F is full capacity output for a given K.11Our assumption of treating equityﬁnance as a fast variable is supported by empirical data.In the U.S.,the share ofﬁxed investmentﬁnanced by equity issues has substantially6(13),the required rate of equity issues is determined:ˆN =˜g −s f (πu ∗σ−δ−rm )−˙m −˜m α(m − )(14)2.4Real sectorHouseholds make consumption and portfolio decisions.Household income is the sum of wage income (W ),dividends from ﬁrms and banks (Div F and Div B ,respectively)and interest income on deposits (r d D ).Thus household real income is given by Y H ≡(W +Div F +Div B +r d D )/p .Substituting (2),(11)and the deﬁnitions of relevant variables into Y H and dividing it by K ,we obtain:Y HK =u ∗σ−δ−s f (πu ∗σ−δ−rm )−s b [(r −r d )m +r d ](15)s f (πu ∗σ−δ−rm )and s b [(r −r d )m +r d ]represent ﬁrms’and banks’retained proﬁts,respectively.(15)tells us that some part of gross income net of depreci-ation are retained by ﬁrm and banking sectors and the rest of it is distributed to the household sector.According to (15),household income decreases as bank capital ( )rises because the rise in bank capital,for a given m ,raises retained bank proﬁts and a smaller share of total income is distributed to the household sector.A rise in ﬁrm debt-capital ratio (m )reduces ﬁrms’retained earnings but raises banks’retained earnings,leading to an ambiguous eﬀect on household income.Under plausible conditions,however,the overall eﬀect of the rise in ﬁrm debt-capital ratio on household income is positive.12Household real wealth (NW H )consists of stocks and deposits:NW H =(vN +D )/p .From the deﬁnition of d and α,NW HK =(1+α)(m − )(16)An increase in ﬁrms’debt-capital ratio (m ),a decrease in bank capital ( ),and a shift in household preference in favor of stock holdings (α)tend to raise household wealth measured in the value of capital stock.We adopt a conventional speciﬁcation of consumption as a function of income changed over time.The movement in the ratio appears to be very ﬂexible.This was even more prominent when there were signiﬁcant stock buybacks,i.e.the rate of net issue of equity was negative.For instance,the share of ﬁxed investment ﬁnanced by equity issues was nearly zero in 1982but reached -42%in 1985.It then bounced back to a positive rate,4.3%in 1991,and hit the historical low,-71.5%in 2007.Firms have extensively used stock buybacks as a distributional mechanism since the 1980s,which,in our opinion,tends to increase the ﬂexibility of movements in the equity ﬁnance variable.See Ryoo (2010)for more discussion.12In other words,∂(Y H /K )∂m =(s f −s b )r +s b r d >0.If s b =s f ,this condition is satisﬁed.If s b is not too large compared to s f ,this condition will always hold.7and wealth(e.g.Ando and Modigliani,1963).13C K =c1Y HK+c2NW HK(17)Consumption normalized by capital stock is increasing in m andα,while it is decreasing in .Households make portfolio decisions.Those decisions are represented by the ratio of stock holdings to deposits,α.α=vND(18)Changes in household portfolio behavior have the great potential toward insta-bility as household portfolio decisions are inﬂuenced by movements of capital gains from stock holdings.This paper,however,assumes thatαis constant in order to focus on bank-ﬁrm interactions.14Regardingﬁrms’investment demand,we focus on the long-run trend of accumulation path:IK=˜g+δ(19)The equilibrium condition for the product market is CK +IK=YK.Substi-tuting equations(15)-(19)into this condition,we get:c1[u∗σ−δ−s f(πu∗σ−δ−rm)−s b((r−r d)m+r d )]+c2(1+α)(m− )+˜g+δ=u∗σTaking the proﬁt share(π)as an endogenous variable,15the equilibrium value ofπcan be found:π∗(m, )=π0+c1[s f rm−s b((r−r d)m+r d )]+c2(1+α)(m− )c1s f u∗σ(20)whereπ0≡˜g−(1−c1)(u∗σ−δ)+c1s fδ.The interpretation of(20)is simple: changes in any variable that raise aggregate demand result in a rise in the proﬁt share.An increase in the debt ratio(m)positively aﬀects aggregate demand and proﬁt share:an increase in m raises both household income and wealth,thereby stimulating demand andﬁrm proﬁtability.Increases in bank capital measured in productive capital( )have a negative eﬀect on demand and proﬁt share: for a given m,a rise in bank capital reduces the amount of household deposits 13The linear speciﬁcation is taken for simplicity only but can be relaxed to any nonlinear function homogeneous of degree one in both income and wealth without aﬀecting main results. 14Instability and cycles driven by the interaction betweenﬁrm debt and household portfolio dynamics are explored in depth by Ryoo(2010),which,however,assumes the net worth of the banking sector is zero.15Our approach,taking the distributive share as an adjustment variable of the goods market equilibrium,follows Keynes(1930)and Kaldor(1956).The same mechanism is used in a Kaldorian model of business cycles by Skott(1989,2010a,2010b)and Skott and Zipperer (2010b).8and raises bank retained earnings,leading to a fall in household wealth and household income.The increase in bank capital,therefore,tends to depress demand andﬁrm proﬁtability.The proﬁt share determines the proﬁt rate and the proﬁt-interest ratio:ρf(m, )=π∗(m, )u∗σ(21)θ≡ρfrm=π∗(m, )u∗σrm(22)The negative eﬀect of bank capital on the proﬁt share carries over to that on the proﬁt-interest ratio,θ.An ambiguity arises regarding the eﬀect ofﬁrmdebt ratio on the proﬁt-interest ratio(∂θ∂m )because both the numerator andthe denominator of the proﬁt-interest ratio increases as m increases.Minsky assumes,throughout his works,that a rising debt ratio causes the proﬁt-interest ratio to deteriorate.This assumption is satisﬁed if the numerator rises slowly relative to the denominator as m increases.16We will make this assumption in order to keep track of its dynamic implications.17Figure1plots the behavior of the proﬁt-interest ratio againstﬁrm debt ratio.It shows thatθresponses to changes in m sensitively at low values of m(i.e.|θm|is large)but mildly at high values of m(i.e.|θm|is small).3Bank behavior andﬁnancial instability3.1The properties of steady state pathThe model is summarized into a two-dimensional dynamical system with two state variables,m and .˙m=τ(θ,ρb)(24)˙ =s b[(r−r d)m+r d ]−˜g (25) whereθ=ρf(m, )ρb=(r−r d)m+r d16This condition requires∂ρT∂m <ρTm:the level of proﬁts generated by a marginal increasein debt,due to the expansionary eﬀect on aggregate demand of debt,falls short of the current proﬁt-debt ratio.In our linear speciﬁcation of consumption function,this condition will hold if the‘autonomous’component of proﬁts-the part of proﬁts which is independent of variations in m-is positive.The condition can be written as:θm≡∂θ∂m=−π0−[c1s b r d+c2(1+α)]c1s f rm2<0(23)17Note that condition(23)also ensures that the eﬀect of r onθis negative:θr≡∂θ∂r=−π0+[c1s b r d+c2(1+α)](m− )c1s f r2m<0ifθm<09Θ m,ΕmΘFigure1:Fundamental margin of safety:ﬁrm proﬁt-interest ratioThe unique stationary point,(m∗, ∗),exists,which is given by(see Ap-pendix):m∗=˜g−(1−c1)(u∗σ−δ)+c1s fδc1rs f(θ∗−1)−c2(1+α)+[c1˜g+c2(1+α)]1λ∗(26)∗=m∗λ∗(27)whereλ∗=˜g−s b r ds b(r−r d),τ(θ∗,ρ∗b)=0andρb∗=˜gs bThe Jacobian of the dynamical system(24)and(25)evaluated at the sta-tionary point is given by:J(m∗, ∗)=τθθm+τρbr−r d∗τθθ −τρbr−r d∗2m∗s b(r−r d)−(˜g−s b r d)(28)J11≡∂˙m∂m=τθθm+τρbr−r d∗≶0J12≡∂˙m∂=τθθ −τρbr−r d∗2m∗<0J21≡∂˙∂m=s b(r−r d)>0J22≡∂˙∂=−(˜g−s b r d)<0All elements but J11are unambiguously signed.For a givenﬁrm debt ratio,an increase in bank capital measured in productive capital( )depresses bothﬁrm10and bank proﬁtability (ρf and ρb ),which tempers an increase in ﬁrm leverage (J 12<0).An increase in bank capital,on the other hand,means a lower level of deposits,leading to an increase in bank proﬁt and retained earnings.This contributes to a further increase in bank capital.The growth of bank capital,however,is slower than the growth of productive capital due to our assumption,s b r d <˜g .Therefore,the ratio of bank capital to productive capital, ,tends to fall (J 22<0).A rise in ﬁrm debt ratio leads to an increase in bank proﬁt and retained earnings,raising bank capital (J 21>0).The sign and magnitude of J 11is critical for the behavior of the system.It represents two countervailing forces.A rise in ﬁrm debt ratio causes ﬁrms’ability to repay their payment obligations to deteriorate whereas it tends to raise the rate of return on bank capital.The former has a negative eﬀect and the latter has a positive eﬀect on ˙m .The trace and determinant of the Jacobian matrix is given byT r (J )= τθθm +τρb r −r d−(˜g −s b r d ) 0(29)Det (J )=−(˜g −s b r d )τθθm −s b (r −r d )τθθ >0(30)The determinant is always positive.The sign of the trace is ambiguous.The steady state path is unstable if the trace is positive.The main destabilizing force is the expansionary eﬀect of changes in the rate of return on bank capital on credit supply:a rise in ﬁrms’debt-capital ratio,other things equal,increases bank leverage,which in turn increases the rate of return on bank capital,lead-ing to further increases in credit supply and ﬁrms’debt-capital ratio.If this eﬀect is strong enough to outweigh the negative eﬀect of declining margin of safety on credit supply and the self-correcting dynamic force of bank capital,i.e.τρb r −r d >τθ|θm |+(˜g −s b r d ),then T r (J )>0:the steady state path is unstable.The case of stable steady growth may not be excluded if the eﬀect of bank proﬁtability on credit supply is not strong enough.Stability of this kind,how-ever,is contingent on our assumption of a constant portfolio composition main-tained by households.Minsky’s fundamental behavioral hypothesis –economic agents tend to take riskier ﬁnancial practices for a prolonged period of good years –suggests that households increase the share of riskier assets in their portfolio during expansions.Ryoo (2010)shows how seemingly stable subsystems,ﬁrm debt dynamics and household portfolio dynamics,can be combined to produce instability and cycles in the full dynamic system.Thus our argument for insta-bility is strengthened as we introduce the aspect of portfolio adjustments and asset price movements.Assuming J 11>0at the stationary point,Figure 2shows the phase diagram of the system.18The -nullcline,which traces all combinations of m and that makes bank capital measured in productive capital constant (˙ =0),is always an upward-sloping ray from the origin.The slope of the -isoline represents18IfJ 11<0,the m -nullcline cuts the -nullcline at its lower (downward-sloping)portion.The stationary point will be always stable.11equilibrium bank leverageλ∗.As increases,a higher value of m is required to maintain a constant ratio of bank leverage.Bank capital tends to rise in the area above this demarcation line since m is relatively high and bank proﬁt andretained earningsit(˙ >0).Ε tFigure2:Phase diagramThe m-nullcline,which traces all combinations of m and that is consistent with a constantﬁrm debt-capital ratio(˙m=0),is non-linear due to the conﬂict-ing eﬀects of changes in m onﬁrm proﬁt-interest ratio and bank proﬁtability. If the expansionary eﬀect of a rise in m on credit supply via its eﬀect on bank proﬁtability(ρb)overweighs the negative eﬀect of declining fundamental margin of safety(θ),ﬁrms’debt ratio would increase.In order to check the tendency of m to rise,a higher is required to oﬀset the net expansionary eﬀect of m on ˙m,making the m-nullcline positively sloped.This is more likely to be the case when m is relatively high because at high values of m the eﬀect of changes in m onθis relatively small(see Figure1).If m is relatively low,the negative eﬀect of diminishing fundamental margin of safety caused by an rise in m on further changes in bank loans is strong enough to dominate the the positive eﬀect of increasing bank proﬁtability on credit supply.In this case,a higher m is associated with a low value of ,leading to a negatively sloped portion of the m-nullcline in Figure2.In the area of I and IV,ﬁrms’debt-capital ratio increases because the positive eﬀect of bank proﬁtability on credit dominates. In II and IV,ﬁrms’debt-capital ratio falls as the eﬀect of bank proﬁtability on credit is dominated by that of changing fundamental margin of safety.The phase diagram analysis in Figure2suggests that the system has the po-tential to exhibit clockwise cyclical movements.An interesting case is obtained when the instability of the stationary point leads to persistent cycles.19Figure 3illustrates the case of limit cycles.19Our simulation results show that as long as the steady state is unstable,there exists a wide12。

Huemer.2000.Direct Realism and the Brain-in-a-Vat Argument

International Phenomenological SocietyDirect Realism and the Brain-in-a-Vat ArgumentAuthor(s): Michael HuemerSource: Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, Vol. 61, No. 2 (Sep., 2000), pp. 397-413 Published by: International Phenomenological SocietyStable URL: /stable/2653657Accessed: 12/09/2009 09:01Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use.Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=ips.Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed page of such transmission.JSTOR is a not-for-profit organization founded in 1995 to build trusted digital archives for scholarship. We work with the scholarly community to preserve their work and the materials they rely upon, and to build a common research platform that promotes the discovery and use of these resources. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@.International Phenomenological Society is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access toPhilosophy and Phenomenological Research.。

Food

That’s all , thank you !
Flavor Diversity
China is vast in territory and rich in Lu Hui cuisine resources, from different parts of which people have their unique food habits, resulting in the diversity of food flavors. The Chinese food is generally characterized by sour in the East China, hot in the West China, sweet in the South China and Chuan salt in the North China. Yue
China food culture is an integral part of the traditional Chinese culture, which features as followings:
· Flavor Diversity · Differences in Four Seasons · Emphasizing on Aesthetic Sense · Laying Stress on Temperament and Interest · Combination of Food and Medicine
Xiang
Min
Su
The Chinese people adjust their food habit according to seasons, which results in food differences from spring to summer to autumn and then to winter, featuring hot and thick during autumn and winter, light and dressed with sauces in spring and summer.

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