zaichkowskyMeasuring the Involvement Construct

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剑桥商务英语BEC高级阅读真题(一)2

剑桥商务英语BEC高级阅读真题(一)2D Frederick HerzbergAlthough relatively few contemporary management students will have read his books, Herzberg s name is instantly recognisable to anyone who has studied industrial organisations. This is because the American psychologist was responsible for introducing the concept of motivation into management thinking.As a young man, Herzberg became deeply interested in mental illness and the human need for mental and emotional satisfaction. This led him to criticise the approach of many companies to job design, and to argue for the need for job enrichment to stimulate employees efforts.E Tom PetersThe American s reputation was created in the I 980s by the spectacular success of one book, In Search of Excellence, co-written with Robert Waterman. The two were working together as management consultants and no-one expected their first (and only) book to end up selling 5 million copies worldwide!Although his ideas have been criticised, Peters popularity as a speaker and writer has continued to grow. So much so that Peters has created his own business to market books, videos and consultancy based on his work.。

Theory of the Firm Managerial Behavior,Agency Costs and Ownership Structure

Theory of the Firm: Managerial Behavior,Agency Costs andOwnership StructureMichael C. Jensen Harvard Business School and William H. Meckling*University of Rochester1. Introduction1.1.Motivation of the PaperIn this paper we draw on recent progress in the theory of (1) property rights, (2) agency,and (3) finance to develop a theory of ownership structure for the firm. In addition to tying together elements of the theory of each of these three areas, our analysis casts new light on and has implications for a variety of issues in the professional and popular literature including the definition of the firm, the “separation of ownership and control,” the “social responsibility” of business, the definition of a “corporate objective function,” the determination of an optimal capital structure, the specification of the content of credit agreements, the theory of organizations, and the supply side of the completeness of markets problems.Our theory helps explain:1. why an entrepreneur or manager in a firm which has a mixed financial structure(containing both debt and outside equity claims) will choose a set of activities for the firm such that the total value of the firm is less than it would be if he were the sole owner and why this result is independent of whether the firm operates in monopolistic or competitive product or factor markets;2. why his failure to maximize the value of the firm is perfectly consistent withefficiency;3. why the sale of common stock is a viable source of capital even though managers do not literally maximize the value of the firm;4. why debt was relied upon as a source of capital before debt financing offered any tax advantage relative to equity;5. why preferred stock would be issued;6. why accounting reports would be provided voluntarily to creditors and stockholders, and why independent auditors would be engaged by management to testify to the accuracy and correctness of such reports;7. why lenders often place restrictions on the activities of firms to whom they lend, and why firms would themselves be led to suggest the imposition of such restrictions;8. why some industries are characterized by owner-operated firms whose sole outside source of capital is borrowing;9. why highly regulated industries such as public utilities or banks will have higher debt equity ratios for equivalent levels of risk than the average nonregulated firm;10. why security analysis can be socially productive even if it does not increase portfolio returns to investors.1.2 Theory of the Firm: An Empty Box?While the literature of economics is replete with references to the “theory of the firm,” the material generally subsumed under that heading is not actually a theory of the firm but rather a theory of markets in which firms are important actors. The firm is a “black box” operated so as to meet the relevant marginal conditions with respect to inputs and outputs, thereby maximizing profits, or more accurately, present value. Except for a few recent and tentative steps, however,we have no theory which explains how the conflicting objectives of the individual participants are brought into equilibrium so as to yield this result. The limitations of this black box view of the firm have been cited by Adam Smith and Alfred Marshall, among others. More recently, popular and professional debates over the “social responsibility” of corporations, the separation of ownership and control, and the rash of reviews of the literature on the “theory of the firm” have evidenced continuing concern with these issues.A number of major attempts have been made during recent years to construct a theory of the firm by substituting other models for profit or value maximization, with each attempt motivated by a conviction that the latter is inadequate to explain managerial behavior in large corporations. Some of these reformulation attempts have rejected the fundamental principle of maximizingbehavior as well as rejecting the more specific profit-maximizing model. We retain the notion of maximizing behavior on the part of all individuals in the analysis that follows.1.3 Property RightsAn independent stream of research with important implications for the theory of the firm has been stimulated by the pioneering work of Coase, and extended by Alchian, Demsetz, and others. A comprehensive survey of this literature is given by Furubotn and Pejovich (1972).While the focus of this research has been “property rights”,the subject matter encompassed is far broader than that term suggests. What is important for the problems addressed here is that specification of individual rights determines how costs and rewards will be allocated among the participants in any organization. Since the specification of rights is generally affected through contracting (implicit as well as explicit), individual behavior in organizations, including the behavior of managers, will depend upon the nature of these contracts. We focus in this paper on the behavioral implications of the property rights specified in the contracts between the owners and managers of the firm.1.4 Agency CostsMany problems associated with the inadequacy of the current theory of the firm can also be viewed as special cases of the theory of agency relationships in which there is a growing literature. This literature has developed independently of the property rights literature even though the problems with which it is concerned are similar; the approaches are in fact highly complementary to each other.We define an agency relationship as a contract under which one or more persons (the principal(s)) engage another person (the agent) to perform some service on their behalf which involves delegating some decision making authority to the agent. If both parties to the relationship are utility maximizers, there is good reason to believe that the agent will not always act in the best interests of the principal. Theprincipal can limit divergences from his interest by establishing appropriate incentives for the agent and by incurring monitoring costs designed to limit the aberrant activities of the agent. In addition in some situations it will pay the agent to expend resources (bonding costs) to guarantee that he will not take certain actions which would harm the principal or to ensure that the principal will be compensated if he does take such actions. However, it is generally impossible for the principal or the agent at zero cost to ensure that the agent will make optimal decisions from the principal’s viewpoint. In most agency relationships the principal and the agent will incur positive monitoring and bonding costs (non-pecuniary as well as pecuniary), and in addition there will be some divergence between the agent’s decisions and those decisions which would maximize the welfare of the principal. The dollar equivalent of the reduction in welfare experienced by the principal as a result of this divergence is also a cost of the agency relationship, and we refer to this latter cost as the “residual loss.” We define agency costs as the sum of:1. the monitoring expenditures by the principal,2. the bonding expenditures by the agent,3. the residual loss.Note also that agency costs arise in any situation involving cooperative effort (such as the coauthoring of this paper) by two or more people even though there is no clear-cut principal-agent relationship. Viewed in this light it is clear that our definition of agency costs and their importance to the theory of the firm bears a close relationship to the problem of shirking and monitoring of team production which Alchian and Demsetz (1972) raise in their paper on the theory of the firm.Since the relationship between the stockholders and the managers of a corporation fits the definition of a pure agency relationship, it should come as no surprise to discover that the issues associated with the “separation of ownership and control” in the modern diffuse ownership corporation are intimately associated with the general problem of agency. We show below that an explanation of why and how the agency costs generated by the corporate form are born leads to a theory of the ownership (or capital) structure of the firm.Before moving on, however, it is worthwhile to point out the generality of the agency problem. The problem of inducing an “agent” to behave as if he were maximizing the “principal’s” welfare is quite general. It exists in all organizations and in all cooperative efforts—at every level of management in firms, in universities, in mutual companies, in cooperatives, in governmental authorities and bureaus, in unions, and in relationships normally classified as agency relationships such as those common in the performing arts and the market for real estate. The development of theories to explain the form which agency costs take in each of these situations (where the contractual relations differ significantly), and how and why they are born will lead to a rich theory of organizations which is now lacking in economics and the social sciences generally.We confine our attention in this paper to only a small part of this general problem—the analysis of agency costs generated by the contractual arrangements between the owners and top management of the corporation.Our approach to the agency problem here differs fundamentally from most of theexisting literature. That literature focuses almost exclusively on the normative aspects of the agency relationship; that is, how to structure the contractual relation (including compensation incentives) between the principal and agent to provide appropriate incentives for the agent to make choices which will maximize the principal’s welfare, given that uncertainty and imperfect monitoring exist.We focus almost entirely on the positive aspects of the theory. That is, we assume individuals solve these normative problems, and given that only stocks and bonds can be issued as claims, we investigate the incentives faced by each of the parties and the elements entering into the determination of the equilibrium contractual form characterizing the relationship between the manager (i.e., agent) of the firm and the outside equity and debt holders (i.e., principals).1.5 General Comments on the Definition of the firmRonald Coase in his seminal paper entitled “The Nature of the Firm” (1937) pointed out that economics had no positive theory to determine the bounds of the firm. He characterized the bounds of the firm as that range of exchanges over which the market system was suppressed and where resource allocation was accomplished instead by authority and direction. He focused on the cost of using markets to effect contracts and exchanges and argued that activities would be included within the firm whenever the costs of using markets were greater than the costs of using direct authority. Alchian and Demsetz (1972) object to the notion that activities within the firm are governed by authority, and correctly emphasize the role of contracts as a vehicle for voluntary exchange. They emphasize the role of monitoring in situations in which there is joint input or team production.We are sympathetic to with the importance they attach to monitoring, but we believe the emphasis that Alchian and Demsetz place on joint input production is too narrow and therefore misleading. Contractual relations are the essence of the firm, not only with employees but with suppliers, customers, creditors, and so on. The problem of agency costs and monitoring exists for all of these contracts, independent of whether there is joint production in their sense; i.e., joint production can explain only a small fraction of the behavior of individuals associated with a firm.It is important to recognize that most organizations are simply legal fictions which serve as a nexus for a set of contracting relationships among individuals. This includes firms, non-profit institutions such as universities, hospitals, and foundations, mutual organizations such as mutual savings banks and insurance companies and co-operatives, some private clubs, and even governmental bodies such as cities, states, and the federal government, government enterprises such as TV A, the Post Office, transit systems, and so forth.The private corporation or firm is simply one form of legal fiction which serves as a nexus for contracting relationships and which is also characterized by the existence of divisible residual claims on the assets and cash flows of the organization which can generally be sold without permission of the other contracting individuals. Although this definition of the firm has little substantive content, emphasizing the essential contractual nature of firms and other organizations focuses attention on a crucial set of questions—why particular sets of contractual relations arise for varioustypes of organizations, what the consequences of these contractual relations are, and how they are affected by changes exogenous to the organization. Viewed this way, it makes little or no sense to try to distinguish those things that are “inside” the firm (or any other organization) from those things that are “outside” of it. There is in a very real sense only a multitude of complex relationships (i.e.,contracts) between the legal fiction (the firm) and the owners of labor, material and capital inputs and the consumers of output.Viewing the firm as the nexus of a set of contracting relationships among individuals also serves to make it clear that the personalization of the firm implied by asking questions such as “what should be the objective function of the firm?” or “does the firm have a social responsibility?” is seriously misleading. The firm is not an individual. It is a legal fiction which serves as a focus for a complex process in which the conflicting objectives of individuals (some of whom may “represent” other organizations) are brought into equilibrium within a framework of contractual relations. In this sense the “behavior” of the firm is like the behavior of a market, that is, the outcome of a complex equilibrium process. We seldom fall into the trap of characterizing the wheat or stock market as an individual, but we often make this error by thinking about organizations as if they were persons with motivations and intentions.1.6 Overview of the PaperWe develop our theory in stages. Sections 2 and 4 provide analyses of the agency costs of equity and debt respectively. These form the major foundation of the theory. In Section 3, we pose some questions regarding the existence of the corporate form of organization and examines the role of limited liability. Section 5 provides a synthesis of the basic concepts derived in sections 2-4 into a theory of the corporate ownership structure which takes account of the trade-offs available to the entrepreneur-manager between inside and outside equity and debt. Some qualifications and extensions of the analysis are discussed in section 6, and section 7 contains a brief summary and conclusions.企业理论：管理行为，代理成本和所有权结构迈克尔詹森哈佛商学院和威廉H.麦克林罗切斯特大学1．简介1.1.研究背景在本文中，我们借鉴在产权，机构，以及金融方面的最新成果，希望可以发展一种所有制结构的企业理论。

labor market segmentation theory and evidence

SEGMENTED LABOUR MARKETS: THEORYAND EVIDENCEMarianthi Rannia LeontaridiUniversity of AberdeenAbstract.This paper examines the possibility of accepting the labour marketsegmentation approach as a valid alternative to the classical and neo-classicalanalysis of labour markets. It consists of three main parts. The ﬁrst part contains ahistorical analysis of both the distant and recent origins of the labour marketsegmentation hypothesis. Part two outlines the central ideas of bothsegmentationalists and radical theorists who attempted to explain the fragmentednature of labour markets and the importance of institutional and social inﬂuencesupon pay, employment and mobility of individual workers between differentlabour market sectors. The third part examines the case for labour marketsegmentation using four alternative techniques and discusses the issue of mobilityamong different labour market segments. It is thereby concluded that the lack ofagreement among the segmented labour market theorists on both theoretical andmethodological issues has prevented them from developing a consistent andconvincing argument based on veriﬁable empirical evidence to validate theirthesis.Keywords.Segmentation; Internal and external markets; Mobility.1.IntroductionThe theory of Segmented Labour Markets (SLM) has been identiﬁed with a group of economists who challenged the classical explanation of the workings of the labour market and argued that both the neo-classical and classical treatment leave unexplained many major labour market policy issues such as the dispersion of wages, and as a result income distribution, unemployment and discrimination. It is this fundamental accusation against the classical theory which lies at the heart of the segmentationalist approach. Insisting upon the fragmented nature of labour markets and the importance of institutional and social inﬂuences upon pay and employment, the segmentationalist approach shifts the emphasis away from the supply side of the labour market and places the focus on the demand side.The thrust of classical economics is the study of maximising behaviour by individuals and ﬁrms. Rational economic agents constantly strive to maximise their economic well-being. In this approach, the maximisation of utility by individuals according to their own assessment of their well-being is ethically desirable and the working of unfettered markets is seen to co-ordinate attempts by individuals to maximise their economic well-being given the objective opportunities open to them.0950–0804/98/01 0063–39JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC SURVEYS Vol. 12, No. 1© Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 1998, 108 Cowley Rd., Oxford OX4 1JF, UK and 350 Main St., Malden,64MARIANTHI LEONTARIDIIn particular, neo-classical labour economics consists of the marginal productivity theory of demand based on proﬁt maximising behaviour of employers and a supply theory based on utility maximisation by workers. The labour-supply theory, in turn, emphasises issues related to: individual productivity, such as decisions on investment in human capital which determines one’s skill or occupation, and leisure choices, which determine the amount of one’s labour supply. The wage structure is then taken as given, differentiated by worker attributes. Moreover, endogenous changes in tastes of individuals and details of the institutional framework of markets are largely ignored.Segmentation theory on the other hand questions the existence of a direct linkage between the productive capacities of an individual and her wage as well as the allocation of that individual across jobs, implicit in the neo-classical and human capital version of labour market theory. In the SLM approach, labour market problems are considered against a dynamic framework in which maximising behaviour, to the extent that it does exist, is relatively unimportant compared to the neo-classical approach. Industrial organisation, product market and technological conditions, managerial control strategies and systems of labour market regulation are all recognised as having an inﬂuence on the structure of jobs and in contrast to the orthodox theory of the labour market, the distinction between ‘good’ and ‘bad’ jobs is not based on individual differences in productivity.1 Instead, as ﬁrms become the main agents structuring the system of employment, emphasis is placed on the development of institutional constraints in relation to pay formation, and the endogeneity of individual tastes.Neo-classical theory assumes that individual workers can freely make a choice among a wide range of job options in the labour market, based upon their personal tastes, preferences, abilities and skills and thereby receive rewards on the basis of their human capital endowments. Segmentation theory on the other hand, argues that the labour market is not a single competitive market, but is composed of a variety of non-competing segments between which rewards to human capital differ because institutional barriers prohibit all parts of the population from beneﬁting equally from education and training. It is argued further that vulnerable groups of workers may become trapped in the lower segment of the labour market thereby limiting severely the mobility of employees between the lower and the upper segment so that excess demand pressures cannot compete away the wage differential. While the secondary sector earnings are inﬂuenced by supply and demand forces, primary sector jobs are insulated from such pressures. Thus the supply side explanations of human capital theory regarding the workings of the labour market are rejected and replaced by a more demand oriented theory.2Hence, what emerges as the crux of the SLM approach is the idea that the labour market segmentation that exists does not correspond to skill differentials in the labour market, but rather institutional rules are substituted for market processes. As a result, competitive pressures to equalise wage differentials are absent.SEGMENTED LABOUR MARKETS65 2.Theoretical development: a historical perspectiveThe segmentationalist approach has both a recent and a distant history. Its recent origins, which shall be examined later, go back to the 1960s when the persistence of poverty appeared to be the most important social problem motivating the SLM economists (Piore, 1970). Empirical ﬁndings of urban labour, poverty and unemployment in the USA in the 1960s were focused on the persistence of income inequality (Thurow, 1975) despite signiﬁcant increases in governmental social welfare expenditures and a variety of anti-poverty and training programmes (Gordon, 1972). Focusing on the ghetto labour markets Gordon stated:… the government became increasingly concerned with those central city areas in which unemployment rates remained especially high in the midst of general prosperity… For many workers in the ghetto…problems like low wages, job instability, menial work, low skills, poor worker motivation, discrimination, poor job information and inadequate job access seemed equally to demand attention. If you had one problem, you were likely to suffer from some of the others as well… (Gordon, 1972)However, in a longer perspective, the segmentationalist approach may be seen as a continuation of older debates. More especially, it may be traced back to Cairnes, John Stuart Mill and Pigou who, dissatisﬁed with Adam Smith’s competitive conception of the labour market, argued in favour of institutional realities which defy the workings of the competitive labour market. The American Institutionalist school of thought in the early 1900s was built upon this tradition and developed the so called ‘structuralist’ and ‘balkanised’ models of the labour market. (Dunlop, 1957; Kerr, 1954)2.1.Adam Smith: Of the wages of labourAdam Smith focused on the discussion of ‘equilibrium wage differences’, by which he meant the wage premiums occasioned by certain conditions of employment, while Cantillon was the ﬁrst writer to broach the subject in a systematic way. Cantillon maintained that workers similarly trained and similarly endowed in every other respect will nevertheless earn more or less according to the degree of time and expense in acquiring skills, the degree of risk in employment and the extent of trust required of employees.In the Wealth of Nations (Book I, Chapter 10, Part I) Smith provided the arguments for wage differentials based on ‘compensating differentials’. According to him wages vary:1)in inverse proportion to the agreeableness of the employment2)in direct proportion to the cost of learning the business3)in inverse proportion to the constancy of employment4)in direct proportion to the trust that must be placed in the employee and5)in inverse proportion to the probability of success.66MARIANTHI LEONTARIDIHowever, what is frequently overlooked is the fact that despite his adherence to arguments supporting the competitive workings of the labour market to equalise wage differentials, Adam Smith recognised that certain institutional constraints exist which might foster pay inequalities among individuals who are initially endowed with the same skills. In particular, he argued that apart from the inequalities arising from the nature of the employments themselves, as outlined brieﬂy above, other inequalities may arise. Smith explained that the laws and regulations concerning the apprenticeship system and the practices of what he called an ‘incorporated trade’ were a serious impediment to labour mobility either within the same establishment or from one establishment to another similar one. As a result, competitive pressures to equalise wage differentials may prove to be absent.The statute of apprenticeship obstructs the free circulation of labour from one employment to another, even in the same place. The exclusive privileges of corporations obstruct it from on place to another, even in the same employment. It frequently happens that while high wages are given to the workmen in one manufacture those in another are obliged to content themselves with bare subsistence. (Smith, 1910, p. 122)2.2.The theory of non-competing groups in the labour market: John Stuart Mill’s and John Cairnes’ criticisms of Adam Smith’s conception of the labour market. Arguments regarding the functioning of the labour market have been long-standing. The main disagreement is in respect to wage determination with Smith, as the forerunner of the neo-classical school, emphasising the competitive nature of the labour market and Mill and Cairnes arguing in favour of institutional rules substituting for market processes. Both of the above emphasised the existence of non-competing industrial groups as a feature of the labour market. Cairnes wrote: What we ﬁnd, in effect, is not a whole population competing indiscriminately for all occupations, but a series of industrial layers, superposed on one another, within each of which the various candidates for employment possessa real and effective power of selection, while those occupying the severalstrata are, for all purposes of effective competition, practically isolated from each other. … [T]he average workman, from whatever rank he be taken,ﬁnds his power of competition limited for practical purposes to a certain range of occupations, so that, however high the rates of remuneration in those which lie beyond may rise, he is excluded from sharing them. We are thus compelled to recognise the existence of non-competing industrial groups as a feature of our social economy. (Cairnes, 1874, pp. 66 & 68)A new class of considerations was then opened which was hardly taken into account before by Adam Smith and other political economists. Mill analysed the effects of education and social class as being the determinants of ‘pre-market segmentation’ resulting from characteristics or attributes acquired by workersSEGMENTED LABOUR MARKETS67 prior to entering the workforce. With reference to Adam Smith’s ‘compensating differentials’ Mill argued:…it is altogether a false view of the state of facts to present this as a relation which generally exists between agreeable and disagreeable employments…the more revolting the occupation, the more certain it is to receive the minimum of remuneration, because it devolves on the most helpless and degraded, on those who from squalid poverty, or from want of skill and education, are rejected from all employments… the inequalities of wages are generally in an opposite direction to the equitable principle of compensation erroneously represented by Adam Smith as the general law of remuneration of labour. (Mill, p. 388)In other words, the existence of non-competing groups means that competition will not bring into equality the rates of return on different forms of human capital investment as Smith and the neo-classicals suggest. Moreover, Mill’s reference to the entrapment of the disadvantaged workers in undesirable occupations reﬂects a concern with factors that might cause ‘in-market segmentation’, i.e. inequality generated as a result of market processes. The existence of certain labour market institutions, such as the restrictive practices of the guild system, has severe consequences in that it may establish and renew immobility between the different sectors of the work force.So complete, indeed, has hitherto been the separation, so strongly marked the line of demarcation between the different grades of labourers, as to be almost equivalent to a hereditary distinction of caste; each employment being chieﬂy recruited from the children of those already employed in it, or in employments of the same rank with it in social estimation, or from the children of persons who, if originally of a lower rank, have succeeded in raising themselves by their exertions. (Mill, p. 393)2.3.Pigou: a classical view on segmentationWriting in 1944, Pigou, one of the most eminent classical economists, concluded that often labour markets failed to clear, as the classical competitive model indicated, implying thereby, that workers might not always be engaged in ‘thorough-going competition’ for jobs. The reasons Pigou outlined to support his ideas were primarily of an institutional nature and although he presented factors such as trade unionism and the availability of unemployment compensation, as some of the main obstacles to the classical functioning of the labour market, here we shall concentrate upon his views on labour market segmentation.Pigou realised that labour markets are segmented, not only due to mere skill differentials, experience and competence, as these deﬁne purely the heterogeneous nature of labour as a factor of production, but also due to the restricted movement of labour between and within industries. He argued that many ‘centres of production’ exist within the labour market and the observed immobility of labour68MARIANTHI LEONTARIDIbetween those centres was the result of ties that the workers developed with respect to the locality of the centre, its specialisation or the jobs available within it. ‘…labour is not perfectly mobile among centres of production, but speciﬁed numbers of work-people are tied to the several centres as the result, maybe, of historical accident.’ (Pigou, 1945, p. 19)Nevertheless, even in such a segmented labour market, the presence of thorough-going competition within each centre, the segment, would clear the market, although it would not be able to compete away wage differentials between the different segments for otherwise identical workers. ‘…thorough-going competition among wage-earners would secure that full employment was established everywhere except in centres where, in order to establish it, wage rates would need to be nil or negative. … there will be full employment, but divergent wage rates.’ (Pigou, 1945, p. 19)It is obvious therefore, that Pigou clearly understood the importance of institutional factors responsible for obstructing the competitive workings of the classical labour market.2.4.The American Institutionalist School of the 1940’s and 1950’sThe American Institutionalist school of thought could be regarded as the interim stage between the recent and distant origins of the SLM approach. Their argument was that labour markets did not function in line with the equilibrium analysis of the day, but their operation was inﬂuenced by the complexity of the modern economy and determined by the contemporary institutional establishments, such as large bureaucratic corporations and unions.Dunlop (1957) talked in terms of ‘the institutional study of the decision making process, internal to a management organisation or a union…’. He introduced the concepts of ‘job clusters’ within ﬁrms and ‘wage contours’ across the labour market, as being the mechanisms seeking to relate an internal wage structure corresponding to the internal labour market (ILM), produced by the large ﬁrm or the union and an external wage structure corresponding to the external labour market.Kerr (1954) wrote in terms of ‘institutional markets’ whose ‘dimensions are set not by the whims of workers and employers but by rules, both formal and informal’. In contrast to Fisher’s (1953) ‘structureless market’, Kerr identiﬁed ﬁve distinct sources producing barriers, which divide the labour market into distinct compartments:(1)the preferences of individual workers(2)the preferences of individual employers(3)the actions of the community of workers(4)the actions of the community of employers and(5)the actions of government. (Kerr, 1954, p. 96)The result is a ‘Balkanised’ labour market where institutional rules set well-deﬁned boundaries between its ‘internal’ and ‘external’ components. The ILM isSEGMENTED LABOUR MARKETS69 an administrative unit, the pricing and allocation of labour being determined by a set of administrative rules and procedures. In the external market, pricing and allocation are determined by supply and demand. (Kerr, 1954, p. 102)The above neoinstitutionalist theories supporting the existence of an ILM were used by the segmentationalists of the 1970s, 1980s and l990s as a building block for constructing the recent SLM approach. However, different writers saw labour market segmentation under a different perspective and delineated segments in the labour market by using different rules. It would thus be useful to examine next all these proposed sources of segmentation and identify the proponents of these theories.3.Sources and descriptions of segmentationThe contemporary segmentationalist literature is highly varied. Analyses differ with respect to the delineation of segments and also the associated sources of segmentation. However, straddling these differences is the emphasis placed on the existence of the within-ﬁrm labour market as the central decision making body for issues such as hiring contracts, pay, job rewards and on-the-job training, which is relatively shielded from the external spot market. Hence the main empirical hypothesis of the SLM approach is that observed wage differentials are not a result of underlying skill differentials, but rather a direct consequence of the ‘dual’nature of the labour market.The neo-classical theory of labour markets yields predictions about wages and employment by concentrating on supply side variables and making a minimal number of assumptions. Emphasis is placed on public investments in general training as well as on private investments in speciﬁc training (Becker, 1964). As a result, human capital explanations of wage inequality have focused on the heterogeneous nature of workers, which most commonly tends to include differential investments in human capital, as the primary cause of wage differentials (Mincer, 1974). In other words, one worker may earn more than another in the labour market because he is more highly educated or skilled, while workers with certain skills will be paid higher wages than others with minimum or no skills within the same ﬁrm simply because their skills are translated into higher marginal productivity. Moreover, higher wages are paid to workers found in jobs with unattractive job attributes, such as monotony or high probability of accident occurrence in order to offset those attributes.In contrast, in the SLM literature duality in the labour market implies that all jobs belong to either the ‘primary sector’ or the ‘secondary sector’ of the labour market. The primary sector contains all the ‘good’ jobs, normally to be found within ﬁrms with internal labour market structures, where institutional rules are substituted for market purposes. Those jobs are characterised by high negotiated wages, economic security and rapid turnover leading to career advancement. The secondary sector on the other hand, contains the ‘bad’ jobs which are typically unskilled, offer no regular career ladders and wage rates are low and determined competitively.70MARIANTHI LEONTARIDIThis section will therefore propose to outline the central ideas of several new theories attempting to explain the fragmented nature of labour markets and the importance of institutional and social inﬂuences upon pay and employment.3.1.Piore, Doeringer and Piore and the dual theoryBuilding upon the work of Kerr and Dunlop, on the concepts of internal and external labour markets, Doeringer and Piore developed the ILM theory into a useful analytical instrument in order to outline the basic ideas of labour market duality and deal with the variety of policy concerns of the 1960s, such as structural unemployment, technological change, racial discrimination and the employment and training of the ‘disadvantaged’ workers. The ILM therefore represents the integration of a wide range of ideas on labour market structure, labour mobility and wage determination and was thereby deﬁned as:… an administrative unit, …, within which the pricing and allocation of labour is governed by a set of administrative rules and procedures. The internal labour market governed by administrative rules, is to be distinguished from the external labour market of conventional economic theory where pricing, allocating and training decisions are controlled directly by economic variables. These two markets are interconnected however and movement between them occurs at certain job classiﬁcations which constitute ports of entry and exit to and from the internal market. (Doeringer and Piore, 1971, p. 2)Piore (1975) and later Rebitzer and Taylor (1991), argued that labour market segmentation is a response to ﬂux and uncertainty in a market containing an idiosyncratic factor of production. In particular, the primary sector is organised so as to shelter workers and ﬁrms from that uncertainty. Doeringer and Piore outlined two important factors responsible for the emergence of an ILM structure. The ﬁrst is based on the notion of skill speciﬁcity. This entails the increased training, recruitment and screening costs incurred by the employer in order to ﬁll those vacancies with a high skill content with the appropriate candidates. In other words, as skills become more speciﬁc, employee training becomes more specialised and demanding, thus encouraging the employer to invest in expensive recruitment and screening methods in order to minimise turnover and thereby reduce costs.The second factor is custom or customary law within which notions of ‘equity’and ‘fairness’ are expressed through an unwritten set of rules based largely upon past practice or precedent. The device of such notions is deemed necessary if a cordial industrial relations climate is to prevail and stability of employment, a central feature in the ILM structure, is to be encouraged.For Doeringer and Piore (1971, p. 40) stability of employment is the most prominent feature of the ILM. The introduction of career ladders3 and mobility chains, on-the-job training, pension schemes, rewards and discipline systems and the exercise of strict managerial control over the workforce are designed to build aSEGMENTED LABOUR MARKETS71 stable and loyal core personnel. Stability brings along rigidity and irreversibility in the administrative rules, which in turn creates solid and cohesive ILM structures, which are favoured by employers because they reduce the costs of turnover among workers who have been provided with enterprise-speciﬁc skills.4Having developed a more detailed ILM theory than their predecessors, Doeringer and Piore, attempted to link it to the ‘Dual Labour Market’ theory, which had emerged through the writings of a group of economists, such as Harrison (1972), Averitt (1968) and Bluestone (1970), to explain the persistence of urban poverty and unemployment in the USA despite the introduction of training programmes to increase the human capital of the disadvantaged workers as proposed by orthodox economists. The theory postulates a dichotomisation of the labour market over time, into two separate sectors, ‘primary’ and ‘secondary’. The primary sector is seen as being composed of a series of well-developed ILMs (Doeringer and Piore, 1971, p. 167). The internal labour market in the primary sector does not function primarily along proﬁt-maximising lines. Rather institutional rules are substituted for market processes. The employment relations of a representative ﬁrm in the high-wage sector are structured and governed by formal rules, set mostly by trade unions, and informal rules which together cover the content and wage rate attached to each job, hiring requirements, promotion opportunities as well as the organisational structure that ties jobs together. As a result the ILM is protected against external wage pressures and most importantly for the SLM theory, mobility between the two markets is limited to the extent that excess demand pressures cannot compete away the wage differentials. Hence jobs in the primary sector appear to exhibit characteristics such as high negotiated wages, great promotion possibilities, good working conditions, equity and employment stability. Jobs in the secondary sector of the labour market, on the other hand, are those outside ILMs, those in poorly developed ILMs, which possess formal internal structure but also many entry ports, short mobility clusters and low-pay work, and those in well developed ILMs which however are not attached to formal promotion lines. (Creedy & Whitﬁeld, 1988, p. 259). Thus, on the whole, secondary jobs tend to have low pay, little possibility for advancement, poor working conditions, high labour turnover and often harsh or arbitrary discipline.Moreover, in terms of distinctions made between workers in the two sectors, their approach implies that those are parallel to the ones made between jobs. In particular, workers in the secondary sector relative to those in the primary sector:‘… exhibit greater turnover, higher rates of lateness and absenteeism, more insubordination, and engage more freely in petty theft and pilferage. Disadvantaged workers are conﬁned to the secondary market by residence, inadequate skills, poor work histories and discrimination.’ (Doeringer and Piore, 1971, pp. 165–166)Dualism in Piore’s opinion seems to be primarily manifested in the industrial structure of the economy and emphasis is hence placed on the demand side as opposed to the supply-side focus of neo-classical economics on worker attributes. Firms facing stable product demand tend to create primary conditions for72MARIANTHI LEONTARIDIemployment. The reason for this is to be found in the skill speciﬁc nature of labour which becomes a ‘quasi-ﬁxed factor of production’ due to the huge ‘sunk’costs invested in the specialised training of the ﬁrm’s employees. It is only those ﬁrms faced with stable product demand that can afford large investments in modern capital intensive up-to-date technologies, which in turn create the need for high skill speciﬁcity on the part of employees, generating thereby, ILM structures. In contrast, those ﬁrms experiencing variable demand for their products, will tend to engage in labour intensive production techniques, avoiding the sunk costs of capital investment and labour training. Thus the dichotomy develops for the same reason that gives rise to ILM structures: that is cost minimisation.However, later on Piore suggested redeﬁning the primary sector as being composed of two segments, or tiers as he called them, the upper and the lower. The upper tier of the primary sector consists of professional and managerial jobs which involve high pay and status, great opportunities for advancement, but also high mobility and turnover patterns, which normally tend to describe those in the secondary sector. On the other hand, workers in the lower tier tend to have, in comparison to those in the upper tier, lower average pay, less opportunities for promotion and more rigid administrative rules and procedures for wage setting and labour allocation. Piore then uses this new redeﬁned theory of labour market segmentation in an attempt to link labour market structures to socio-economic subclasses in the society. Therefore in order to prove that socio-economic movement in our society is not random but occurs through set regular channels, Piore uses the concept of ‘mobility chains’ to describe those channels.The points along a mobility chain may be termed stations: they generally include not only jobs but also other points of social and economic signiﬁcance.Thus people in a given job will tend to be drawn from a limited range of schools, neighbourhoods, and types of family backgrounds; and conversely, people leaving the same school or neighbourhood will tend to move into one ofa limited set of employment situations. (Piore, 1975, p. 128)Class based segmentation may then offer not only an explanation for the labour market segmentation but also for the relative immobility between segments suggested by the dualists. Disadvantaged workers become conﬁned to the secondary sector, not because of any difference in ability or skills but because of the negative feedback they get from interacting with people of their own class only and hence suffering from the impact of institutional forces on them, such as discrimination.The dual labour market theory is most applicable to blacks in urban slums, these workers seem to be trapped in a world where all of the segments of their life reward a single set of behavioural traits and offer a single set of behavioural models. To attempt to change one component of that setting by opening primary jobs may not be enough, since other aspects of their lives continually pull them back to secondary behavioural traits. (Doeringer and Piore, 1971, p. 180)。

上半年《英语知识与教学能力》(高中)试题(附答案) (2)

上半年《英语知识与教学能力》（高中）试题(附答案).第 1 题 (单项选择题)(每题 2.00 分) > 未分类 >Which of the following is the feature shared by the Englishphonemes/m/and/p/?{A}. Voiced.{B}. Voiceless.{C}. Bilabial.{D}. Dental.正确答案：C,第 2 题 (单项选择题)(每题 2.00 分) > 未分类 >Which of the following is true of English sound system?{A}. Aspiration is a distinctive feature.{B}. Voicing is a distinctive phonetic feature.{C}. Nasalization of vowels gives rise to another vowel.{D}. Length of vowels differentiates one vowel from the other. 正确答案：B,第 3 题 (单项选择题)(每题 2.00 分) > 未分类 >Though the government encourages foreign investment,__________ investors arereluctant to commit fimds in the current climate situation in the country.{A}. potential{B}. affluent{C}. optimistic{D}. solid正确答案：A,第 4 题 (单项选择题)(每题 2.00 分) > 未分类 >The man __________ the dark glasses fled away from the spot veryrapidly.{A}. in{B}. at{C}. of{D}. by正确答案：A,第 5 题 (单项选择题)(每题 2.00 分) > 未分类 >The morpheme \"-ceive\" in the word \"conceive\" isa__________.{A}. stem{B}. root{C}. allomorph{D}. suffix正确答案：B,第 6 题 (单项选择题)(每题 2.00 分) > 未分类 >There is no need__________ to teach children how to behave. {A}. however{B}. whatsoever{C}. forever{D}. whenever正确答案：B,第 7 题 (单项选择题)(每题 2.00 分) > 未分类 >__________advance seems to be following advance on almost a monthly basis.{A}. So rapid is the rate of progress that{B}. Rapid as the rate of progress is that{C}. So rapid is the rate of progress as{D}. Rapid as the rate of progress as正确答案：A,第 8 题 (单项选择题)(每题 2.00 分) > 未分类 >Tom, see that your sister gets safely back, __________?{A}. can you{B}. won't we{C}. won' t you{D}. should we正确答案：C,第 9 题 (单项选择题)(每题 2.00 分) > 未分类 >What rhetoric device is used in the sentence \"This is a successfulfailure\"?{A}. Simile{B}. Metonymy{C}. Metaphor{D}. Oxymoron正确答案：D,第 10 题 (单项选择题)(每题 2.00 分) > 未分类 >The expression\"As far as I know ...\" suggests that peopleusually observe the Maxim of __________ in their daily conversations.{A}. Quantity{B}. Quality{C}. Relevance{D}. Manner正确答案：B,第 11 题 (单项选择题)(每题 2.00 分) > 未分类 >When the teacher attempts to elicit more information from the students bysaying \"And...?\",\"Good. Anything else?\", etc, he/she isplaying the role of a __________.{A}. prompter{B}. participant{C}. manager{D}. consultant正确答案：A,第 12 题 (单项选择题)(每题 2.00 分) > 未分类 >For more advanced learners, group work may be more appropriate thanpair work for tasks that are__________.{A}. linguistically simple{B}. structurally controlled{C}. cognitively challenging{D}. thematically non-demanding正确答案：C,第 13 题 (单项选择题)(每题 2.00 分) > 未分类 >When you focus on \"utterance function\" and \"expectedresponse\" by using examples like\"Here you are\",\"Thanks\", you are probably teaching language at the __________.{A}. lexical level{B}. sentence level{C}. grammatical level{D}. discourse level正确答案：D,第 14 题 (单项选择题)(每题 2.00 分) > 未分类 >Which of the following tasks fails to encourage active language use?{A}. Reciting a text.{B}. Bargaining in a shop.{C}. Writing an application letter.{D}. Reading to get a message.正确答案：A,第 15 题 (单项选择题)(每题 2.00 分) > 未分类 >A teacher may encourage students to__________ when they come acrossnew words in fast reading.{A}. take notes{B}. ask for help{C}. guess meaning from context{D}. look up the words in a dictionary正确答案：C,第 16 题 (单项选择题)(每题 2.00 分) > 未分类 >Which of the following statements about task design is incorrect?{A}. Activities must have clear and attainable objectives.{B}. Activities should be confined to the classroom context.{C}. Activities must be relevant to students' life experiences.{D}. Activities should help develop students' language ability. 正确答案：B,第 17 题 (单项选择题)(每题 2.00 分) > 未分类 >If someone says \"I know the word\", he should not only understandits meaning but also be able to pronounce, spell, and __________ it.{A}. explain{B}. recognize{C}. memorize{D}. use正确答案：D,第 18 题 (单项选择题)(每题 2.00 分) > 未分类 >Teachers could encourage students to use__________ to gather and organizetheir ideas for writing.{A}. eliciting{B}. mind mapping{C}. explaining{D}. brainstorming正确答案：B,第 19 题 (单项选择题)(每题 2.00 分) > 未分类 >When students are asked to go to the local museum, libraries, etc. tofind out information about endangered animals and work out a plan for anexhibition, they are doing a(n) __________.{A}. survey{B}. experiment{C}. project{D}. presentation正确答案：C,第 20 题 (单项选择题)(每题 2.00 分) > 未分类 >Which of the following tasks fails to develop students′ skill ofrecognizing discourse patterns?{A}. Analyzing the structure of difficult sentences.{B}. Checking the logic of the author's arguments.{C}. Getting the scrambled sentences into a paragraph.{D}. Marking out common openers to stories and jokes.正确答案：A,第 21 题 (单项选择题)(每题 2.00 分) > 未分类 >请阅读Passage l，完成小题。

1996年10月语法题译文

1996年10月语法题译文1. Charlie Parker, _____ was one of the creators of the music style called “bop.”(A) a great jazz improviser who(B) to improvise great jazz(C) a great jazz improviser(D) improvised great jazz.2. The wo rld’s deepest cave, Pierre St. Martin in the Pyrenees Mountains, is almost three times as deep _____.(A) as the Empire State Building is high.(B) That the Empire State Building is higher.(C) Is higher than the Empire State Building(D) And the Empire St ate Building’s height.3. When Columbus reached the New World, corn was the _____ in the Americas.(A) widely most grown plant.(B) Most widely grown plant(C) Most grown widely plant(D) Plant widely grown most.4. Because kaolin shrinks in firing at a different rate than ordinary clay, _____ when creating pottery using both types of clay.(A) special handling is required(B) special handling required(C) a requirement of special handling(D) the required special handling5. The ceremonial Chilcat blanket of the Northwest Tlingit Indians was generally _____ from cedar bark, wool, and goats’ hair.(A) wove(B) to weave(C) weaving(D) woven6. _____ composed traditionally has been a subject of debate among scholars.(A) Were ballads how(B) Ballads were how they(C) How ballads that were(D) How ballads were7. Jupiter, the closest of the giant planets to Earth, has _____ solid surface and is surroundedby zones of intense radiation.(A) not(B) nor(C) no(D) neither.8. The black-billed cuckoo has been known to steal eggs _____ to other birds.(A) belong(B) which belonging(C) which they belong(D) that belong9. The purpose of phonetics is _____ an inventory and a description of the sounds found in speech.(A) to provide(B) provided(C) which provided(D) providing that10.Earthquakes can damage a tree _____ violently, and it can take several years for the tree to heal.(A) to cause shaking(B) when shaking it causes(C) by causing it to shake(D) to cause to shake it11._____ bacteria in foods are killed, as they are during baking or stewing, decay is slowed down.(A) What(B) The(C) If(D) So12.The colors and patterns of the wings of butterflies and moths help _____ the organism against predators.(A) protect(B) being protected(C) protecting(D) protection of13.In 1993 the Library of Congress appointed author Rita Dove _____ of the United States.(A) as was poet laureate(B) was poet laureate(C) poet laureate(D) and poet laureate14.At the South Pole _____, the coldest and most desolate region on Earth.(A) Antarctica lies where(B) Where Antarctica lies(C) Antarctica lies and(D) Lies Antarctica15.Tornados, powerful, destructive wind storms, occur most often in the spring when hot winds _____ over flat land encounter heavy cold air.(A) which to rise.(B) that rising(C) are rising(D) rising16.Many exercises such as calisthenics, running, or to swim involve producing muscle tension through a range of movements that are called isotonics.17.Intelligence, education, and experience all helps shape management style.18. The basic elements of public-opinion research are interviewers, questionnaires, tabulating equipment, and to sample population.19. Conservation organizations help for to preserve the ecology of an area by keeping track of endangered species.20. Gwendolyn Brooks, which won a Pulitzer Prize for Poetry in 1950, had 75 poems published by the time she was twenty.21. O Halifax is largest city and chief port of Nova Scotia and is the eastern terminus of Canada’s two great railway systems.22.T. S. Eliot received wide recognition after publishes The Waste Land, which fused poetic traditions with elements of modern music and language.23. Numerous types of cells, such as skin cells and white blood cells, have the power reproduce asexually.24. The knee is more likely to be damage than most other joints because it is subject to tremendous forces during vigorous activity.25.Although ferns lack flowers, they do have leaves, stems, and root.26. Crazy Horse is generally recognized for his courageous and skill, and he was revered by the Sioux as their greatest leader.27. In medicine, certain plastics have important uses because they do not affected by chemicals in the body, and they do not harm the body.28. Since a hospital is organized to protect and treat people who are ill, its goals, structures, and functions depend on the currently state of medical science.29. A change in direction of the monsoon winds result from the differences between the heating or cooling of landmasses and that of oceans.30. Small distinctions among stamps, unimportant to the person average, would mean a great deal to the stamp collector.31. Members of a nation’s foreign service represent that country’s interests abroad and report on the conditions, trends, and policies of the country which they are stationed.32. Abraham Lincoln’s boyhood home resembled those of many others mid-western pioneers, with its dirt floor, sleeping loft, and crude fireplace.33. Dwelling primarily in the ice northern polar seas, beluga whales are characteristically small, white, agile, and elusive.34.There is evidence that the caribou originated into North America and crossed over al land bridge into Asia and evolved into the Old World’s reindeer.35.The bold way in which Margaret Mead defined the terms “family” - based as much on choice as on biological relationship - is possibly the most enduring of her legacies.36. The planet Mars is a freezing, barren deserts with huge, dry canyons and towering volcanoes.37. Of the many machines invented in the late nineteenth century, none had a great impact on the United States economy than the automobile.38. A number of the Pacific Islands are volcanoes that have pushed up from the ocean floor, others are the tops sunken mountain ranges.39. It has been reported that during any twenty-four hour period, a minimal of three hundred North American women start their own businesses.40. Archeological studies have provided evidence that the use of plants for decoration as well as for food developed early in the history.。

英语语言学导论知到章节答案智慧树2023年西安外国语大学

英语语言学导论知到章节测试答案智慧树2023年最新西安外国语大学第一章测试1.Which feature incorporates the capacity to talk messages that are unrelatedto here and now. （）参考答案:Displacement;ually grammar is divided into the components of（）.参考答案:phonetics and phonology;;morphology and syntax;;semantics.3.Although languages are different in many respects, such as sound patterns,vocabulary, word order, there are important grammatical principles andfeatures that hold commonly in all human languages. ( )参考答案:对4.What enables us to identify well-formed sentences from non-sentences is ourgood linguistic performance in that language other than linguisticcompetence. ( )参考答案:错5.The fact that a parrot can be taught to reproduce some human speech soundsproves that human language is not unique to us. ( )参考答案:错第二章测试1.How many morphemes are there in the word “frightening”? ( )参考答案:three2.Which of the following two-term sets shows the feature of complementarity?( )参考答案:single/married3.The word “man” is an alyzed as comprising the semantic features of[+human,+adult,+male]. ( )参考答案:对4.“-tain” in words like “maintain”, “sustain”, “retain” is a ( ).参考答案:bound root5.Tree diagrams are used to represent the linear structure of words. ( )参考答案:错第三章测试1.Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand _____________. ( )参考答案:All of the above.2.The sentence structure is ________. ( )参考答案:both linear and hierarchical3.The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number. ( )参考答案:finite4.In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonlyrecognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitivephrase, and auxiliary phrase. ( )参考答案:错5.What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete listof words and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge. ( )参考答案:错第四章测试1.Reflected meaning arises in cases of multiple conceptual meanings, when onesense is associated with another sense. ( )参考答案:对2.The lexical relationship between “bear” and “bare” is hyponymy. ( )参考答案:错3.The sentence It is hot is a one-place predication. ( )参考答案:错4.Pragmatics is the study of language meaning. ( )参考答案:错5.According to John Searle’s classification of speech acts, “he promises to cometomorrow” is ( ).参考答案:representative第五章测试1.Which one is different from the others according to place of articulation? ( )参考答案:[n]2.Which of the following is NOT a front vowel? ( )参考答案:[u:]3.[z] is a voiceless, alveolar fricative consonant while [j] is a palatalapproximant. ( )参考答案:错4.[p] is a voiced bilabial stop. ( )参考答案:错5.Perceptual phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds. ( )参考答案:对第六章测试1.Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or morephonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called ( ).参考答案:suprasegmental features2.How many morphemes are there in the word “discharged”? ( )参考答案:33.Which of the following statements about allophone is NOT correct? ( )参考答案:Allophones distinguish meaning.4. A phoneme in a language is a distinctive sound which is capable ofdistinguishing one word or one shape of a word from another. ( )参考答案:对5.Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into differentcategories. ( )参考答案:错第七章测试pared with langue, parole is chaotic and therefore impossible to study. ( )参考答案:错2.The common types of language variation are variation. ( )参考答案:all of above3.William Labov’s New York Department Store study is basically about regionalvariation of language. ( )参考答案:错nguage contact could lead to the death of a language. ( )参考答案:对5.When speakers from different languages interact with each other, one of thenative languages of the speakers could be used as a lingua franca. （）参考答案:错第八章测试1.There are five major stages in the history of English language change. ( )参考答案:对2.Who is the editor of Dictionary of the English language? ( )参考答案:Samuel Johnson3.The lexical change includes: ( )参考答案:borrowing or Loan Words;the addition of new words;change in lexical category;loss of words4.The word change from “bathe” to “bath” is syntactic change ( )参考答案:错5.Changes in a language are changes in the grammars. （）参考答案:错第九章测试1.Traditional behaviourists view language as a kind of behaviour and believethat language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation. ( ) 参考答案:对2.Chomsky proposed that human beings are born with an innate ability knownas _______. ( )参考答案:Language Acquisition Device, or LAD3.Unlike L1 acquisition, which is uniformly successful across children andlanguages, adults vary considerably in their ability to acquire an L2completely. ( )参考答案:对4.What are the three interacting factors in determining language transfer insecond language learning? ( )参考答案:A learner’s perception of native-target language distance.;A learner’s actual knowledge of the target language.;A learner’s psychology, how a learner organizes his or her nativelanguage.5.The native language influences not only occur as direct linguistic reflexes atphonological, lexical, semantic, syntactical or discoursal levels but alsodirectly reflect underlying organizational principles of languages at thecognitive level. ( )参考答案:对第十章测试1.Which area of linguistics studies the cognitive processes of how we use ourlinguistic competence in speech production and comprehension? ( )参考答案:Psycholinguistics2.In psycholinguistic experiments which of the following is frequently used asan important measurement of how quick a person responds to linguisticsignals. ( )参考答案:Response time (RT)3. A central problem of speech perception is to explain how listeners carve upthe continuous speech signal into meaningful unit. This is referred to as the segmentation problem. ( )参考答案:对4.In Top-down processing listeners move step-by-step from the incomingsignal, to phonemes, morphemes, words and phrases and ultimately tosemantic interpretation. ( )参考答案:错5. A listener will respond faster at making lexical decision on related wordssuch as doctor and nurse than if he just heard unrelated word such as doctor and flower. This is possibly because words in the first pair are semantically related. ( )参考答案:对第十一章测试1.Many people use the search features of the Internet to find information.Typically, one enters a keyword, or perhaps several, and magically thecomputer returns the location of Web sites that contain information relatingto that key-word. This process is an example of ( ).参考答案:information retrieval2.Many crimes involve anonymous recorded messages in which it is importantto identify the speaker. ______ is the use of computers to assist in such a task,as opposed to ear witnessing, which relies on the judgment of humanlisteners. ( ).参考答案:Speaker identification3.The field of computational lexicography is concerned not only with themaking of standard dictionaries but also with the building of electronicdictionaries specifically designed for computational linguists. ( )参考答案:对4.Speech synthesis is a two-step process in which a text-to-speech programfirst converts text to phones or other basic units such as words or syllables. ( ) 参考答案:对5.The computational linguistics of speech understanding and speechgeneration has the subfields of computational phonetics and phonology,computational morphology, computational syntax, computational semantics, and computational pragmatics. ( )参考答案:对第十二章测试1.The history of writing includes____. ( )参考答案:Cuneiform Writing;pictograms and ideograms;from hieroglyphics to the Alphabet writing;the Rebus principle2.ʘrepresents the sound “___” ( )参考答案:sun3.The current English is a kind of picture system. ( )参考答案:错4.The Phoenician living in the area from hieroglyphics to the Alphabet writing.( )参考答案:对5.“cat cats cat’s cats’”have four morphemes. ( )参考答案:错第十三章测试1.The Prague School is a school of linguistic thought and analysis established inPrague in the 1920s by Mathesius. （）参考答案:对2.The major linguistic schools include ( )参考答案:The Formalism;The Functionalism;The Structuralism;The cognitivism3.The major scholars mentioned in American Structuralism are ( )参考答案:Franz Boas;Leonard Bloomfield;Edward Sapir4.The famous linguistic work Metaphors We live By is composed by RonaldLangacker。

英语同等学力人员申请硕士学位试卷及答案指导(2025年)

2025年同等学力人员申请硕士学位英语自测试卷及答案指导一、口语交际（共10分）第一题Conversation:A: Hi Jacob, how are you?B: Hi Anna, I’m doing pretty well, thanks. How about you?A: I’m doing great. I was just thinking about the upcoming group project. We need to split the work.B: Sure, no problem. What tasks do you think we should work on?A: Well, I was considering the research part since I have experience in that area.B: That sounds fair. I’ll take care of the writing part then. Let’s set up a meeting to discuss the specifics later.A: Definitely. I’ll send out the meeting invite next week.1、What is the purpose of their conversation?a)Planning a meetingb)Discussing the division of laborc)Complaining about the workloadd)Introducing new members to the teame)Sharing personal health updatesAnswer: b2、Whom is Anna talking to?a)Her family memberb)Her colleaguec)Her friendd)Her professore)Her clientAnswer: b3、What task is Anna considering for herself?a)Writingb)Presentingc)Researchd)Editinge)DesigningAnswer: c4、What task is Jacob taking care of?a)Researchb)Writingc)Presentationd)Editinge)DesigningAnswer: b5、What will Anna do after the conversation?a)Call Jacobb)Send out a meeting invitec)Finish the project aloned)Cancel the projecte)Ask for more tasksAnswer: b第二题A conversation between two friends, Alice and Bob, about their study plans and university life.Alice: Hi, Bob! It’s been a while since we last studied together. Are you still preparing for the postgraduate entrance exam?Bob: Hi, Alice! Yes, I am. I’m really excited to enter graduate school. How about you? Have you made any progress on your studies?Alice: Yes, I’ve been working hard. I’m particularly focused on preparing for the TOEFL exam as it’s a requirement for my pro gram. Last week, I attended a preparation class and I wanted to discuss it with you.Bob: That’s great! What do you think of the class?Alice: I found it quite helpful. The instructor explained the format and strategies for each section. We even had a little practice session at the end.Bob: Nice! I heard about the class. Do you think it covered everything important?Alice: Yeah, I think it did. They even provided some sample questions andanswered our doubts. I was able to improve my speaking skills, which is essential for my program.Bob: Speaking skills are indeed crucial. By the way, is there anything you want to improve the most?Alice: Definitely my writing. It’s really challenging for me. I struggle to organize my thoughts and write coherently. So, any tips you can give me would be appreciated.Bob: Sure, I can help with that. First, try to practice writing short essays on a regular basis. It’ll help you get used to the structure and vocabulary required for academic writing.1.What topic did Alice discuss with Bob about her study plan?A) The postgraduate entrance examB) The TOEFL examC) The preparation class for the postgraduate entrance examD) The challenges she faces in her writing2.How does Alice feel about the preparation class she attended?A) She thinks it’s a waste of time.B) She thinks it’s quite helpful.C) She thinks it’s not informative enough.D) She thinks it’s too difficult for her.3.What kind of assistance does Alice seek regarding her writing improvement?A) Reading tipsB) Speaking tipsC) Writing tipsD) Vocabulary tips4.What does Bob suggest Alice do to improve her writing?A) Practice reading a lotB) Practice writing short essays regularlyC) Focus solely on spoken EnglishD) Take a proofreading course5.What is one aspect of the TOEFL exam that Alice needs to improve on?A) Listening skillsB) Reading skillsC) Writing skillsD) All of the aboveAnswers:1.B2.B3.C4.B5.C二、词汇-选择填空（本大题有10小题，每小题1分，共10分）1、In today’s fast-paced world, staying healthy requires a__________balance of physical exercise, a nutritious diet, and mental well-being.A. perfectB. perfectibleC. perfectiveD. perfectible答案：A解析：选项A “perfect” 意为“完美的”，符合题意。

高二英语心理学基础阅读理解30题

高二英语心理学基础阅读理解30题1<背景文章>Psychology is a fascinating field that studies the mind and behavior. The origin of psychology can be traced back to ancient times. Philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle were among the first to think deeply about the nature of the mind.In the 19th century, psychology began to emerge as a separate scientific discipline. Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig, Germany. This marked a significant step in the development of psychology as a scientific field.Since then, psychology has continued to evolve and expand. Different schools of thought have emerged, including behaviorism, psychoanalysis, and cognitive psychology. Each school has its own unique perspective on understanding the mind and behavior.Today, psychology plays an important role in many areas of life, including education, healthcare, and business. Psychologists use scientific methods to study human behavior and mental processes in order to help people lead better lives.1. The origin of psychology can be traced back to ___.A. the 20th centuryB. ancient timesC. the 18th centuryD. modern times答案：B。

2023年度军队文职人员社会公开招聘考试《英语语言文学》练习题

2023年度军队文职人员社会公开招聘考试《英语语言文学》练习题学校:________ 班级:________ 姓名:________ 考号:________一、单选题(55题)1.This country is( )deflationary pressure and the country′s policy-makers should create a better policy mix to cope with the new economic environment.A.confronted withB.coping offC.taking offD.wearing off2.The panel has not yet reached agreement on a crucial question，however，( )to recommend legislation that would make it a crime for private funding to be used for human cloning.A.whetherB.ifC.thatD.how3.Which of the followings is not the novel of Ernest Hemingway？( )A.From Whom the Bell TollsB.The Sun Also RisesC.The Old Man and the SeaD.This Side of Paradise4.-It was an interesting exhibition，wasn′t it？-No，it was very uninteresting.Which maxim of the Politeness Principle that above example violates？( )A.The tact maximB.The modesty maximC.The agreement maximD.The sympathy maxim5.The following American states are among the first thirteen colonies except( ).A.MarylandB.South CarolinaC.DelawareD.Colorado6.Which of the following works expresses the desire for an escape from society and a return to nature？( )A.Dreiser′s Sister CarrieB.Henry Jame′s The Portrait of a LadyC.Fitzgerald′s The Great GatsbyD.Mark Twain′s The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn7.With( )and fashionable elements，Beijing attracts a large number of young people every year.A.originalB.modemC.novelD.innovative8.The indigenous people in Australia are( )，which have 2.2% of the total population in 2001.A.aboriginesB.MaorisC.CherokeesD.people from India9.( ) was honored as“the Father of English PoetryA.William LanglandB.Sir Thomas MarloryC.Geoffrey ChaucerD.Bede10.There are different types of affixes or morphemes.The affix"-ed"in the word"learned"is known as a（n）__________.A.derivational morphemeB.free morphemeC.inflectional morphemeD.free form11.His encounter( )the dog had completelly unnerved him.A.toB.withC.ofD.for12.( )，domesticated grapes grow in clusters，range in color from pale green to black，and contain sugar in varying quantities.A.Their botanical classification as berriesB.Although their botanical classification as berriesC.Because berries being their botanical classificationD.Classified botanically as berries13.( ) is NOT included in the modernist groupA.Oscar WildeB.Virginia WoolfC.William Butler YeatsD.T.S.Eliot14.Bloomfield introduced the IC analysis，whose full name is ( ) Analysis.A.Internal ComponentB.Innate CapacityC.Internal ConstituentD.Immediate Constituents15.According to the Official Language of Act of Canada，there are two official languages in Canada，they are( )A.English and SpanishB.English and PortugueseC.English and FrenchD.English and Celtic16.Which kind of animal is not the executive of Australia？( )A.EmuB.KiwiC.Duck-billed platypusD.Kangaroo17.( )you start，you will never give up.A.Even ifB.If onlyC.WhileD.Once18.I apologize if I( )you，but I assure you it was unintentional.A.offendB.had offendedC.should have offendedD.might have offended19.The Cooperative Principle is proposed by ( ).A.SaussureB.GriceC.ChomskyD.Leech20.My watch fell down on the ground and there was a hairline crack in the( )of dial plate.A.frontierB.boundaryC.limitD.rim21.Which of the following literary forms is regarded as the most common and influential form that English ( ) poetry has taken since 16th century？A.Sonnet B.Blank Verse C.Free Verse D.Essay22.Which of the following is not the function of the Australian parliament？( )A.Making lawsB.Authorising the Government to spend public moneyC.Scrutinising govermment activitiesD.Interpreting constitutional provisions23.The Commonwealth of Australia was established in( )A.1875B.1862C.1900D.190124.The little girl( )her elder brother with breaking the doll mother bought for her.A.scoldedB.accusedC.reproachedD.condemned25.( ) deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic worldexperience.A.ReferenceB.ConceptC.SemanticsD.Sense26.The formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another is ( ) calledA.blendingB.clippingC.acronympounding27.The National Day of Canada is( )A.July 1stB.June 1stC.October 1stD.July 3rd28.My( )your proposal speaks volumes for my will.A.consent toB.consent withC.hatred ofD.admission of29.Today is Children’s Day，you are allowed to eat( )in my restaurant.A.freeB.freelyC.hardD.hardly30.The bomb destroyed a police station and damaged a church( )A.badlyB.badC.worseD.mostly31.The security of a country is( )related to the safety of the rest world.A.merelyB.closeC.mereD.closely32.Which of the following statements is NOT TRUE？( )A.Walt Whitman introduced great innovations to American literature，and devised a poetic style，free verseB.Emily Dickinson′s poems are usually long，exploring the inner life of the individualC.Jack Kerouac′s On the Road is a representative work of the Beat WritersD.Arthur Miller is concerned with the conflicts of the individual within society，and Death of a Salesman is his masterpiece33.Among the following poets，who is NOT a lake poet？( )A.Samuel Taylor ColeridgeB.Robert SoutheyC.William WordsworthD.William Colins34.Which of the following words is made up of bound morphemes only？( )A.HappinessB.TelevisionC.EcologyD.Teacher35.Industrialization of sofware trade leads to the production of software( ).A.elementsB.sectionsponentsD.factors36.The computer center，( )last year，is very popular among the students in this school.A.openB.openingC.having openedD.opened37.This photo shows a( )image of the driver who hit the passerby and ran.A.plainB.distinctC.obviousD.evident38.John is reading an interesting book on evolution theory which was written by Charles Darwin，who was a British naturalist who developed a theory of evolution based on natural selection.What design feature of language is reflected in the example？( )A.CreativityB.ArbitrarinessC.DisplacementD.Duality39.The path in the park looked beautiful，( )with( )leaves.A.covered；fallingB.covered；fallenC.covering；fallingD.covering；fallen40.The UN put the( )forward so as to better cope with the tense situation in the Middle East.A.conferenceB.summitC.rallyD.seminar41.The northern part of the Australia has a tropical climate with only two seasons，and the dry season lasts from( ).A.January to JuneB.July to NovemberC.November to AprilD.May to October42.If we are to use the technique of IC analysis to analyze the sentence“She broke the window with a ( ) stone yesterday”，where is the first cut？A.Between stone and yesterdayB.Between she and brokeC.Between broke and the windowD.Between window and with43.The anthem of Canada is ( )A.Canada The BeautifulB.O CanadaC.God Defend CanadaD.Advance Canada Fair44.The fifth-generation computers，with artificial intelligence，( )and perfected now.A.developedB.have developedC.are being developedD.will have been developed45.( ) is the first African-American winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature.A.Ralph EllisonB.Toni MorrisonC.Richard WrightD.James Baldwin46.The novel For Whom the Bell Tolls is written by ( )A.Scott FitzgeraldB.William FaulknerC.Eugene O′NeilD.Ernest Hemingway47.China is an agricultural country，therefore agriculture is inevitably( )in national economy.A.inevitableB.fundamentalC.radicalD.basic48.I am so sorry for that I can’t contact you too frequently these days since I’m busy working on an important project( )teB.hardlytelyD.closely49.Not until the game had begun( )at the sports ground.A.had he arrivedB.would he have arrivedC.did he arriveD.should he have arrived50.What is the construction of the sentence “The boy smiled”？( )A.ExocentricB.EndocentricC.CoordinateD.Subordinate51.Which of the following sounds does not belong to the allomorphs of the English plural morpheme？( )A.[s]B.[iz]C.[ai]D.[is]52.He( )with Smith at least four times in the past three years.A.has been seen to meetB.was seen to meetC.had been seen meetingD.is seen meeting53.The passengers in missing airplane were( )dead after several months of search.A.rectifiedB.testifiedC.certifiedD.verified54.The answers to the problem，the scientists say，is to build up the immune system，which not only will give greater( )to disease but will boost cellular regeneration and improve the skin.A.persistenceB.insistenceC.resistanceD.instance55.Washington D.C.is named after( ).A.The U.S.President George WashingtonB.Christopher ColumbusC.Both George Washington and Christopher ColumbusD.None of them参考答案1.A2.A3.D5.D6.A7.B8.A澳大利亚的原住民是土著居民。

四川省部分中学2023高中英语必修二Unit5Music必考知识点归纳

四川省部分中学2023高中英语必修二Unit5Music必考知识点归纳单选题1、This lack of self-interet and promotion kept Cunningham focused on his craft, ________ him to capture New York’s unique street style.A．to enableB．enablingC．enabledD．enables答案：B考查非谓语动词。

句意：这种缺乏自私自利和宣传的心态让坎宁安专注于自己的艺术创作，这让他能够捕捉到纽约独特的街头风格。

分析句子可知，空格所在的部分是句子的状语，空格处用非谓语动词，句子的主语This lack of self-interet and promotion与enable之间是逻辑上的主动关系，应用现在分词，作结果状语。

故选B。

2、The performers of course sang in Chinese, but the music, exaggerated movements and mime helped get the meaning __ ______ to the audience.A．overB．throughC．acrossD．on答案：C考查介词词义辨析。

句意：。

当然，演员们的唱词是中文的，但观众可以借助伴奏、夸张的动作和形体模仿来理解表演内容。

A.get over克服；B.get through完成；C.get across使……被理解；D.get on上车。

由“get the meaning ________ to the audience”可知，但观众可以借助伴奏、夸张的动作和形体模仿来理解表演内容，因此空格处是across，故选C。

3、The great policy has ________ amazing chain effects in developing agriculture in my hometown.A．come acrossB．turned aroundC．brought aboutD．got through答案：C考查动词短语词义辨析。

2023军队文职人员社会公开招录《英语语言文学》典型题题库

2023军队文职人员社会公开招录《英语语言文学》典型题题库学校:________ 班级:________ 姓名:________ 考号:________一、单选题(55题)1.I just wonder( )that makes him so excited.A.why it doesB.what he doesC.how it isD.what it is2.Looking like a common object，the key chain has a(n)( )meaning to me.A.extraodinaryB.particularC.peculiarD.exceptional3.The northern part of the Australia has a tropical climate with only two seasons，and the dry season lasts from( ).A.January to JuneB.July to NovemberC.November to AprilD.May to October4.He( )with Smith at least four times in the past three years.A.has been seen to meetB.was seen to meetC.had been seen meetingD.is seen meeting5.Theodore Dreiser ′s works include the following EXCEPT ( )A.An American TragedyB.Trilogy of DesireC.Sister CarrieD.The Adventures of Hucklebery Finn6.If we are to use the technique of IC analysis to analyze the sentence“She broke the window with a ( ) stone yesterday”，where is the first cut？A.Between stone and yesterdayB.Between she and brokeC.Between broke and the windowD.Between window and with7.A sentence is considered when it conforms to the grammatical knowledge in the mind of ( ) native speakers.A.rightB.wrongC.grammaticalD.ungrammatical8.Sister Carrie is a masterpiece of ( )work.A.romanticB.classicC.neoclassicD.naturalistic9.The old man has developed a( )headache which cannot be cured in a short time.A.perpetualB.permanentC.chronicD.sustained10.Once environmental damage( )，it takes many years for the system to recover.A.has doneB.is to doC.doesD.is done11.They gave each other a big hug with( )，since they haven’t seen each other for 15 years.A.passionB.sensationC.sentimentD.emotion12.She ought to stop working.She has a headache because she( )too long.A.has been readingB.had readC.is readingD.read13.( ) is regarded as the“father of American literature”A.James Fenimore CooperB.Ralph Waldo EmersonC.Thomas JeffersonD.Washington Irving14.The anthem of Canada is ( )A.Canada The BeautifulB.O CanadaC.God Defend CanadaD.Advance Canada Fair15.Waiting for Godot is written by ( )A.Samuel BeckettB.James JoyceC.Oscar Widewrence16.( ) deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic worldexperience.A.ReferenceB.ConceptC.SemanticsD.Sense17.The Great Charter was signed in( )and had( )clauses.A.1251，63B.1251，73C.1215，63D.1215，7318.Which of the following is NOT a usual subject of Emily Dickenson′s poems？( )A.NatureB.Life and deathC.Love and marriageD.War and peace19.NP and ( ) are essential components of a sentence.A.VPB.PPC.APD.all of the above20.“Hen”is called“母鸡” in Chinese and“poule” in French.What design feature of language is reflected ( ) in the example？A.DisplacementB.Cultural transmissionC.DualityD.Arbitrariness21.Which of the following words is made up of bound morphemes only？( )A.HappinessB.TelevisionC.EcologyD.Teacher22.Which of the following statements about American education is wrong？( )A.Elementary and secondary education is free and compulsoryB.More public collges，universities than private onesC.Private school fnancially supported by religious，nonreligious and private organizations，individualsD.Credits taken at community colleges are normally applicable to requirement for a four-year bachelor’s degree23.In the nineteenth century，Samuel Gridley Howe founded the Perkins School for the Blind，( )for children in Boston，Massachusetts.A.that institutesB.while institutedC.was an institutionD.an institute24.English consonants can be classified into stops，fricative，nasals ect.，in terms of ( )A.openness of mouthB.manner of articulationC.place of articulationD.voicing25.Neither of the young men who had applied for a position in the university _____.A.has been acceptedB.have been acceptedC.was acceptedD.were accepted26.( ) is commonly considered to be the beginning of English literature and is the oldest surviving epic in English literatureA.BeowulfB.The Canterbury TalesC.Sir Gawain and the Green KnightD.The Fates of the Apostles27.The computer center，( )last year，is very popular among the students in this school.A.openB.openingC.having openedD.opened28.The Anglo-Saxons brought( )religion to Britain.A.ChristianB.DruidC.Roman CatholicD.Teutonic29.The Commonwealth of Nations is an association of independent countries ( )A.that speak English as their native languageB.that have a large number of British immigrantsC.that were once colonies of BritainD.that fought on the side of Britain in the two world wars30.This kind of glasses manufactured by experienced craftsmen( )comfortably.A.is wormB.wearsC.WearingD.are worn31.( ) is NOT included in the modernist groupA.Oscar WildeB.Virginia WoolfC.William Butler YeatsD.T.S.Eliot32.I am so sorry for that I can’t contact you too frequently these days since I’m busy working on an important project( )teB.hardlytelyD.closely33.The population of working age increased by 1 million between 1981 and 1986，( )today it is barely growing.A.whereasB.even ifC.afterD.now that34.The criterion used in IC analysis is ( )A.transformationB.conjoiningC.groupingD.substitutability35.The sense relation between“John plays the piano”and“John plays a musical instrument” is ( )A.synonymyB.antonymyC.entailmentD.presupposition36.Consonant articulation is relatively easy to feel and as a result is most conveniently described in terms of ( ) and manner of articulation.A.placeB.speedC.powerD.time37.It was the training that he had as a young man( )made him such a good engineer.A.hasterC.whichD.that38.The security of a country is( )related to the safety of the rest world.A.merelyB.closeC.mereD.closely39.The fifth-generation computers，with artificial intelligence，( )and perfected now.A.developedB.have developedC.are being developedD.will have been developed40.A ( ) is not a sound，it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.A.phonemeB.phoneC.soundD.speech41.Of the following writers，( )is NOT a Nobel Prize Winner.A.Samuel BeckettB.James JoyceC.John GalsworthyD.William Butler Yeats42.When I was a little child，I was used to sleeping with the window( )at night in summer.A.open wideB.open widelyC.wide openD.opened wide43.( )to speak when the audience interrupted him.A.Hardly had he begunB.No sooner had he begunC.Not until he beganD.Scarcely did he begin44.Today is Children’s Day，you are allowed to eat( )in my restaurant.A.freeB.freelyC.hardD.hardly45.After knowing his partner has been under arrest，he( )his crime.A.concededB.admittedC.recognizedD.confessed46.The UN put the( )forward so as to better cope with the tense situation in the Middle East.A.conferenceB.summitC.rallyD.seminar47.The National Day of Canada is( )A.July 1stB.June 1stC.October 1stD.July 3rd48.This country is( )deflationary pressure and the country′s policy-makers should create a better policy mix to cope with the new economic environment.A.confronted withB.coping offC.taking offD.wearing off49.( )with traditional contexts，the Internet-based learning environment provides new ways of presenting and obtaining knowledge.paredparingC.To Comparepare50.According to the Official Language of Act of Canada，there are two official languages in Canada，they are( )A.English and SpanishB.English and PortugueseC.English and FrenchD.English and Celtic51.The color in her shirt( )gently after it was washed by washing machine.A.fadedB.vanishedC.dissolvedD.evaporated52.Henry Fielding′s ( )indicates the genre of novel has got to the mature period.A.Joseph AndrewsB.Jonathan WildC.The History of Tom Jones，a FoundlingD.Amelia53.Which of the following clusters of words is an example of alliteration？( )A.A week seatB.Safe and SoundC.Knock and KickD.Coat and Boat54.Conceptual meaning is not ( )A.affectiveB.cognitiveC.logicD.denotation55.So involved with their computers( )that leaders at summer computer camps often have to force them to break for sports and games.A.became the childrenB.become the childrenC.had the children becomeD.do the children become参考答案1.D2.B3.D4.A5.D6.B7.C8.D9.C10.D11.D12.A13.D14.B15.A16.A17.C18.D19.A20.D21.C22.B考查美国的教育情况。

核心词汇讲堂智慧树知到答案章节测试2023年湖南师范大学

第一章测试1.This individual distinction may cause conflict between us in every aspect ofour life.A:differenceB:distinguishC:distinctD:distinctive答案:A2.Where can LINKING be used?A:Situational conversationsB:Short expressionsC:Complicated sentencesD:Medium-length sentences答案:ABCD3.Many undergraduates prefer to study something that boosts the ____ oflanding a job.A:prospectB:expectC:inspectD:aspect答案:A4.The police officer was _____ to look after the only witness.A:resignedB:designedC:departedD:assigned答案:D5.Can you _____ your speech into five minutes?A:repressB:depressC:compressD:impress答案:C6.Which of the following affixes are negative prefixes?A:mis-B:non-C:im-D:com-答案:ABC7.Which of the following prefixes is not used to indicate space or direction?A:contra-B:circum-C:inter-D:ex-答案:A8.When birds _______, they sometimes fly in formation.A:emigrateB:migrateC:immigrateD:integrate答案:B9.The coming of the railways in the 1830s ______ our society and economy.A:transmittedB:transformedC:transportedD:transferred答案:B10.The Gettysburg Address was delivered by________?A:Abraham LincolnB:Thomas JeffersonC:George WashingtonD:John Adams答案:A第二章测试1.Concerning the function words, pick the odd category out.A:adverbsB:connectivesC:articlesD:prepositions答案:A2.Identify the small things in life that make you feel good, and do one daily.A:discloseB:displayC:dismissD:discover答案:D3.The course provides a(n) _____ view of Shakespearean literature.A:inclusiveB:comprehensiveC:extensiveD:intensive答案:B4.The technical innovations will help do away with heavy manual labour andraise _____.A:productivityB:produceD:production答案:A5.As we know, the books in the library are _________ by subject.A:clarifiedB:purifiedC:simplifiedD:classified答案:D6.Which of the following suffixes are noun suffixes?A:-ousB:-ityC:-ageD:-ment答案:BCD7.Which of the following words is an adjective?A:worldlyB:extremelyC:exceedinglyD:accidentally答案:A8.Which of the following words is not a “native word” in English?A:moonB:fatherC:governmentD:arm答案:C9.Your advice would be ___ valuable to him, who is at present at his wits’ end.A:exceedinglyB:excessivelyC:exclusivelyD:extensively答案:A10.The students in our university have almost limitless resources at their _______.A:disposureB:disposalC:dispositionD:dispose答案:B第三章测试1.I have been very fortunate to travel extensively throughout the world whilestill young.A:widelyC:excessivelyD:broadly答案:A2.When a plosive is followed by another plosive or an affricate, either within aword or between words, the first plosive should be exploded.A:错B:对答案:A3.We have to examine his claim before we _____ any further.A:recedeB:proceedC:precedeD:concede答案:B4.Before my speech I’ve _____ a state of calmne ss and confidence.A:sustainedB:maintainedC:containedD:attained答案:D5.The magician on the stage _____ the frog into a princess.A:performedB:conformedC:transformedD:reformed答案:C6.What does the root -pel- mean?A:drawB:pushC:pullD:lead答案:B7.They have no way to _____ of the hazardous waste they have produced.A:imposeB:composeC:disposeD:expose答案:C8.How to say “请您带好随身物品” in English?A:Please take your belongings.B:Please take away your carry bags.C:Please take good personal luggage.D:Make sure you have all your belongs with you.答案:D9.I guess the whole paper has to be rewritten; only the first few paragraphsmay be _______.A:maintainedB:retainedC:containedD:sustained答案:B10.The pioneers _______ their journey after a short rest.A:presumedB:assumedC:resumedD:consumed答案:C第四章测试1. A healthy and positive mind shall alert you if you are making an unhealthychoice.A:assureB:remindC:warnD:inform答案:C2.There will be no difficulty in the world that they cannot _____.A:outputB:overcomeC:outcomeD:outbreak答案:B3.The professor told the students not to ______ the difficulties of the work.A:overwhelmB:underestimateC:undertakeD:overestimate答案:B4.The company looks poised to make a significant _____ in China.A:downfallB:breakthroughC:blackmailD:ill-treat答案:B5.Please pick out the word in which the plosive is unaspirated.A:stimulateB:touchC:happyD:income答案:A6.Is eggplant an American or British word?A:AmericanB:British答案:A7.Which of the following words means a small shop or store that sellsfashionable clothes or expensive gifts?A:entrepreneurB:cuisineC:unifyD:boutique答案:D8.What does harassment mean in Chinese?A:严厉B:骚扰C:痛苦D:尴尬答案:B9.Which of the following English words is not borrowed from French?A:childB:governmentC:muttonD:beef答案:A10.Which of the following words means ‘统一；使成一体’?A:unifyB:dispenseC:machineD:umbrella答案:A第五章测试1.To begin with, doing sports in the morning will refresh our body as well asgive us a good appetite to enjoy breakfast.A:energizeB:revolveC:extendD:stretch答案:A2.which “ed” in the following words sounds different?A:lodgedB:vanishedC:watchedD:washed答案:A3.He wouldn’t change his idea once he’s made up his mind. Any _________ to lethim change will be in vain.A:attractB:distractC:attemptD:tempt答案:C4.The _________ is a person who is on trial for committing a crime.A:innocentB:guiltyC:accuserD:accused答案:D5.Conversion is a change in _________ of a word without changing its form.A:pronunciationB:stressC:meaningD:part of speech答案:D6.Which is the euphemism for ethnic groups in America?A:The underdevelopedB:Evergreen clubC:The disadvantagedD:People of color答案:D7.It was not a serious accident; the car needs only some _______ repairs.A:majorB:secondaryC:minorD:primary答案:C8.The present difficulties ______ from our failure to deal with the problem whenit first arose.A:sponsorB:stemC:steerD:step答案:B9.He said camps were being set up to ________ people, with blankets, food andwater being sent along.A:shelterB:shieldC:accommodateD:entertain答案:A10.Red may be associated with the feeling of anger.A:错B:对答案:B第六章测试1.To a worker,what from the point of view of society is necessary labor is fromhis own point of view voluntary play.A:reluctantB:willingC:valuableD:automatic答案:B2.“Hello, I’m Pete.” What intonation should the underlined word bepronounced in?A:Rising-FallingB:Falling-RisingC:RisingD:Falling答案:D3.Taxi and cab are two words that are clipped from taxicab.A:错B:对答案:B4.How many basic intonations are there in English?A:fourB:twoC:threeD:one答案:A5.Which of the following words does not take “to do” as the object?A:affordB:endeavourC:riskD:pledge答案:C6.Physics_____ a compulsory course for every student.A:areB:is答案:B7.Which of the following words is not unique to women?A:housewifeB:housekeeperC:housemaidD:hostess答案:B8.Which of the following words are blends?A:taxiB:pubC:motelD:smog答案:CD9.The doctor ________________ having fabricated data in his graduation thesis.A:escapedB:acknowledgedC:avoidedD:considered答案:B10.The household goods __________ of great concern to the family with a newhouse.A:had beenB:isC:has beenD:are答案:D第七章测试1.Chinese upbringing has aroused widespread argumentations about theeducation methods of east and west.A:arisenB:risenC:raisedD:increased答案:C2.Which of the following stresses is wrong?答案:A3.All the representatives think highly of the _____ candidate.A:arbitraryB:pushyC:rebelliousD:ambitious答案:D4.His failure to stop his car accounted the traffic accident.A:ofB:forC:fromD:to答案:B5.It’s important to children to more good books.A:expandB:exposeC:exploreD:exploit答案:B6.Denotation refers to the literal meaning or “dictionary definition” of a termA:错B:对答案:B7.Which of the following words may arouse negative feelings in a reader?A:arbitaryB:slimC:manlyD:ambitious答案:A8.Function words should be stressed in an English sentence.A:对B:错答案:B9.Which of the followng phrases means “归结于”?A:come down toB:come up withC:look down onD:come out of答案:A10.These criminals know how to play the system and get __________ it.A:by onB:away withC:along withD:out for答案:B第八章测试1.What makes some people able to face difficult circumstances with strength— and even enthusiasm — when the chances of success are slim?A:smallB:vagueC:lightD:dim答案:A2.“I hope that you could.” Which word in this sentence should be stressed?A:hopeB:couldC:thatD:I答案:A3.He went over and sat down in a(n) chair next to Christine.A:vacantB:blankC:bareD:empty答案:A4.Many species of animals have now from the face of the earth.A:extinctB:vanishedC:diedD:ceased答案:B5.Parent and child are social antonyms.A:对B:错答案:A6.Antonyms are words that are different in sound and spelling but nearly alikeor exactly the same in meaning.A:对B:错答案:B7.The water was so _______ that we could see the fish inside clearly.A:apparentB:invisibleC:transparentD:vague答案:C8.Who is regarded as the master of figures of speech?答案:B9.Which figure of speech is adopted in the sentence “A good app le rotten atheart.”A:personificationB:paradoxC:punD:oxymoron答案:D10.The copy is ______ with the ones you bought last.A:similarB:familiarC:equalD:identical答案:D。

david moore taught science阅读理解

David Moore Taught ScienceIntroductionDavid Moore, a renowned scientist and educator, dedicated his life to teaching science to students. Through his passion, knowledge, and innovative teaching methods, he established himself as one of the most influential science teachers of our time. In this article, we will explore the impact David Moore had on science education and discuss the various aspects of his teaching career.Early Life and Education1.Moore’s upbringing in a science-oriented family2.His educational background and early interest in scienceTransition to Teaching1.Moore’s decision to pursue a career in teaching2.Challenges he faced in the early years and how he overcame them3.The impact of his teaching philosophy on student engagement andlearning outcomesInnovative Teaching Methods1.Interactive experiments and demonstrations in the classroom–Advantages of hands-on learning–Examples of memorable experiments conducted by Moore2.Integration of technology into science education–Utilizing digital tools and simulations to enhance learning–How Moore’s use of technology revolutionized science classroomsMentorship and Collaborations1.Moore’s role as a mentor to aspiring science teachers2.Collaborative projects with fellow educators and scientists3.The importance of collaboration in advancing science educationContributions to Curriculum Development1.Designing a comprehensive science curriculum–Incorporating real-world applications and current research–Ensuring curriculum alignment with national educational standards2.Writing textbooks and educational resources–Introduction of innovative teaching materials–How Moore’s resources continue to shape science educationRecognition and Legacy1.Awards and accolades received during Moore’s career2.The lasting impact of his teaching on generations of students3.Continuing his legacy through scholarships and science educationinitiativesConclusionDavid Moore’s passion for science and dedication to teaching made him an exceptional educator. His innovative teaching methods, mentorship, and contributions to curriculum development have left an indelible mark on science education. As we reflect on his legacy, let us remember the importance of inspiring students through hands-on learning, collaboration, and the integration of technology in science classrooms.。

伟大投资者的策略英文

6
Nature Of Investment Strategies
What is Your Advantage?
Superior Information Receive market-moving material before others
(difficult in the Internet Age and in the presence of Insider Trading laws.) Use of relevant information sources with limited distribution (e.g. obscure website, bulletin board, newsgroup, newsletter, etc.)
9
Nature Of Investment Strategies (cont’d)
Length of Strategy Effectiveness (Fleeting vs. Eternal, Static vs. Dynamic)
Successful strategies often self-destruct. Successful investors attract attention. People reverse engineer successful strategies. Too much money chasing too few investment
Sanford Grossman, Renowned Wharton Finance Professor and successful hedge fund manager.
13
Benjamin Graham
Q: Who is this person? A: Benjamin Graham is known as the father of

Cancer Cure Hope

Researchers have discovered a chemical already used to treat rare metabolism conditions in children might help kill off cancer cells. The drug is cheap, it抯 already shown to be safe, and that has scientists cautiously optimistic. But it has patients wanting the drug卬ow!Now, if you think about the billions of dollars of drug development, many in the area of cancer therapeutics, how ironic is it a chemical cheaper than tylenol may hold they key to curing numerous cancers? We do want to emphasize the word may; all the research is still preliminary.Still, finding a cure, one that could effectively treat numerous cancers, if not all of them, is indeed the holy grail. 揂s an oncologist we are always looking for a way to improve the way in which we treat cancer,�says Dr. Peter Kozuch, an oncologist with Beth Israel Medical Center. 揟hat gets us very excited particularly if there is a novel mechanism of action which we think is happening with DCA.�DCA--dichloroacetic acid梚s a chemical used that was accidentally discovered to kill cancer cells卭r rather, cause cancer cells to kill themselves. 揑t is a very small molecule, tiny molecule, has the structural similarities to vinegar,� says researcher Dr. Evangelos Michelakis, a cardiologist at the University of Alberta who has been studying DCA.Yet, something so simple does something quite complex. It wakes up the mitochondria in cancer cells--the normal energy producing area of the cells, but shut off in cancer cells. The mitochondria appear to be also responsible for something called apoptosis, which means, normal cell death. In other words, cancer cells that don抰 ever want to die, will die normally in the presence of DCA.The effect was first seen in human breast, lung and brain cancer cells in a test tube. 揂nd we inject them in rats that do not have an immune system. And the human cancer cells keep growing in the body of the rat as they would in a human being so then we give the rats the DCA, they drinkit and we show the tumor stops growing and it shrinks,� says Dr. Michelakis. DCA is small, so it can penetrate all the tissues.It抯 already available. It抯 given by mouth, not IV. And it抯 already shown to be safe in humans. 揥e can be a little optimistic and motivated to move it to clinical trials immediately , which is what we are trying to do,� says Dr. Michelakis. But word has gotten out to patients; many are seeking the drug even though it hasn抰 be tested in humans yet.揟he early in formation referring to DCA which is dichloroacetic acid is very intriguing but I want viewers to keep in mind that this is in pre-clinical or early phase testing. Sometimes the drugs that seem post promising gin a test tube or mouse models just do not come to fruition,�says Dr. Kozuch.Dr. Michelakis says there is even a possibility this could make patients worse. It抯 believed the drug will bypass phase one testing, which mostly looks at safety, and move to phase two. They will likely be looking at patients with advanced cancers who have not responded to other treatments.。

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Oxford University Press and Journal of Consumer Research, Inc. are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Journal of Consumer Research.
*This article was a finalist in the 1984 Robert Ferber Award for Consumer Research competition for the best interdisciplinary article based on a recent doctoral dissertation. The award is cosponsored by the Association for Consumer Research and the Journal of Consumer Research. `-Judith Lynne Zaichkowsky is Assistant Professor of Marketing, Faculty of Business Administration, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, B.C., Canada V5A 1S6. The author wishes to thank Hal Kassarjian, who chaired the dissertation on which this article is based at the University of California, Los Angeles, and the Canada Council for financial support. A special thanks goes to The American University and Nanette Brown for help in word processing the manuscript. 341
to the different applications of the term "involvement." The literature suggests that a person can be involved with advertisements (Krugman 1962, 1965, 1967, 1977), with products (Howard and Sheth 1969; Hupfer and Gardner 1971), or with purchase decisions (Clarke and Belk 1978). Involvement with these different objects leads to different responses. For example, involvement with ads leads one to give more counterarguments to the ad (Wright 1974). Involvement with products has been hypothesized to lead to greater perception of attribute differences, perception of greater product importance, and greater commitment to brand choice (Howard and Sheth 1969). Involvement with purchases leads one to search for more information and spend more time searching for the right selection (Clarke and Belk 1978). Therefore, each area might have its own idiosyncratic result of the state of being involved with the object. Researchers generally use the resulting behaviors as indicators of the level of involvement. Previous research has examined involvement with advertisements via a five-point scale that measures the degree of attention to the ad (Wright 1973, 1974). Involvement with products has been measured by several methods: rank-ordering products (Sheth and Venkatesen 1968), rating a series of products on an eight-point concentric scale as to their importance in the subject's life (Hupfer and Gardner 1971), asking how important it is to get a particular brand (Cohen and Goldberg 1970), or finding the total times that subjects report "don't know" for a series of brands (Ray 1973). On a broader level, involvement has been measured by administering Likert statements that were thought to tap the underlying concept-e.g., the product means a lot to me, it matters to me, or the product is important to me (Lastovicka and Gardner 1978a; Traylor 1981). These diverse measures pose several problems for researchers. If conflicting results are obtained, we do not know if the discrepancy is due to different measures or to different behaviors. Second, many scales are singleitem measures and may not capture the total involvement concept. Finally, single-item measures have low reliability, and current multiple-item measures have not
Journal of Consumer Research, Inc.
Measuring the Involvement Construct Author(s): Judith Lynne Zaichkowsky Source: Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 12, No. 3 (Dec., 1985), pp. 341-352 Published by: Oxford University Press Stable URL: /stable/254378 Accessed: 24-08-2015 04:36 UTC REFERENCES Linked references are available on JSTOR for this article: /stable/254378?seq=1&cid=pdf-reference#references_tab_contents You may need to log in to JSTOR to access the linked references.
esearchers of consumerbehaviorhave historically
THE PROBLEM
Although researchers agree that the study of low versus high involvement states is interesting and important, there is currently little agreement about how to best define, and hence measure, the con983). The reasons for the diverse definitions and measures of involvement are perhaps due
the
Involvement
Construct*
JUDITHLYNNE ZAICHKOWSKY**
A bipolar adjective scale, the Personal Involvement Inventory (Pll), was developed to capture the concept of involvement for products. The scale successfully met standards for internalreliability,reliability over time, content validity,criterion-related validity, and construct validity. Tests of construct validity demonstrated that the scores were positively related to perceived differences among brands, brand preferences, interest in gathering informationabout the product category, and comparison of product attributes among brands.