Introduction to Public Relations Evaluation
学术英语(社科)-Unit1含答案ppt
Unit 1
Decision-Making Behaviors in Economic Activities
Text A
Critical reading and thinking
What is the author trying to prove?
What is the author assuming I will agree with?
Do you agree with the author?
Unit 1
Decision-Making Behaviors in Economic Activities
Critical reading and thinking
Activities
Example 2: water vs. diamond
Why is water so cheap, while diamonds are so
expensive?
water
Necessary for survival
diamond
Unit 1
Decision-Making Behaviors in Economic Activities
Text A
Critical reading and thinking
Example 3: a seat belt law
American laws require seat belts as standard equipment on new cars.
Unit 1
Decision-Making Behaviors in Economic Activities
Text A
Key terms
marginal cost: 边际成本 the additional cost from an increase in an activity
英语语言学知识整理1
Chapter 1 Introduction语言学的定义：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.问题：How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language?→It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.What the linguist has to do “first, then, but”:①to observe and collect language facts and generalizations are made about them.②to formulate some hypotheses about the language structure.③to check the hypotheses thus formed repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity.The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)问题: What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?→phonetics（语音学）→the study of sounds→phonology（音位学）→study how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning→morphology（形态学）→study the way in which symbols or morphemes are arranged and combined to form words.→syntax（句法学）→the study of rules of forming sentences →semantics（语义学）→the study of meaning→pragmatics（语用学）→ the context of language use Sociolinguistics（社会语言学）：The studies of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics（语言心理学）：Relate the study of language to psychologyApplied linguistics（应用语言学）：In a narrow sense it refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Some important distinctions in linguistics:①prescriptive（规定性）/descriptive（描写性）②synchronic（共时）/diachronic（历时）③speech（口语）/writing（书面语）④langue（语言）/parole（言语）（the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure ——Course in General Linguistics）⑤competence（语言能力）/performance（语言应用）（the American linguist N. Chomsky）⑥traditional grammar （传统语法）/modern linguistics（现代语言学）问题：in what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?①linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.②modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.③modern linguistics does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.问题：Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?In modern linguistics, a synchronic (不考虑历史演进的, 限于一时的) approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic (探求现象变化的, 历时的) one.Because it is believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.Synchronic descriptions are often thought of as being descriptions of language in its current existence, and most linguistic studies are of this type.问题：For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented”by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today’s world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.Spoken language reveals more true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised”record of speech. And linguists’data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regarded as authentic.语言的定义：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Design features of language（7个识别特征）①arbitrariness 任意性（at the syntactic level）②productivity 能产性，创造性Secondary units（底层结构 sounds）③duality 双层性Primary units （上层结构 units of meaning）④displacement 不受时空限制性（handle generalization and abstraction）⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性⑥interchangeability 互换性⑦convention 约定性Functions of language：三大主要功能：The descriptive functionThe expressive functionThe social functionRoman Jacobson（6种首要因素，结构主义语言学家）①speaker addresser→emotive 感情功能②addressee→conative 意动功能③context→referential所指功能④message→poetic 诗学功能⑤contact→phatic communion交感功能⑥code→metalinguistic 元语言功能Other functions:①phatic function 问候功能②informative f. 信息功能③interrogative f. 询问功能④expressive f. 表达功能⑤evocative f. 感染功能⑥directive f. 指令功能⑦performative f. 行使（权力）功能M.A.K. Halliday①ideational②interpersonal（indicate/establish/maintain/social relationships）③textual问题：How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?The distinction between langue and parole was made by Saussure, langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently, while parole varies from people to people, and from situation to situation.The distinction between competence and performance proposed by the American linguists Chomsky, competence is a deal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and the performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguisticcommunication. Imperfect performance is caused by social and psychological factors.Saussure makes this distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. In his opinion, parole is simple a mass of linguistic facts, too varied confusing for systematic investigation, and that linguistics should do is to abstract langue from parole, i.e., to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks what linguists should study is the ideal speaker’s competence, not his performance, which is too haphazard to be studied.问题：What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?①arbitrariness 任意性（at the syntactic level）②productivity 能产性，创造性Secondary units（底层结构 sounds）③duality 双层性Primary units （上层结构 units of meaning）④displacement 不受时空限制性（handle generalization andabstraction）⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性⑥interchangeability 互换性⑦convention 约定性Chapter 2 PhonologyPhonetics: （语音学）①the study of the phonic medium of language②look at speech sounds from 3 distinct but related points of view.Ⅰstudy the sounds from the speaker’s point of view→articulatory phonetics（发音语音学）Ⅱlook at the sounds from the hearer’s point of view→auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）Ⅲstudy the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves →acoustic phonetics（声学语音学）③study how sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived. Organs of speech:⒈three important areas①The pharyngeal cavity→the throat② the oral cavity→the mouth③ the nasal cavity→the nose⒉The pharyngeal cavity→windpipe/glottis/larynx/vocalcords⒊the oral cavity→tongue/uvula/soft palate(velum)/hard palate/teeth ridge(alveolus)/teeth/lipsInternational Phonetic Alphabet （IPA）①diacritics 附加符号②broad transcription（宽式标音）→the transcription with letter-symbols only③narrow transcription（严式标音）→the transcription withletter-symbols together withthe diacriticsClassification of English speech sounds①two broad categories of speech sounds in English: Vowels/consonants②two ways to classify the English consonants: In terms ofmanner ofarticulationIn terms of place of articulation③In terms of manner of articulation:Stops/fricatives/affricates/liquids/nasals/glides④In terms of place of articulation:Bilabial/labiodental/dental/alveolar/palatal/velar/glottal⑤Classification of English vowels⒈criteria :（monophthongs）单元音The position of the tongue in the mouth: front/central/back The openness of the mouth: close vowels/semi-closevowels/semi-openvowels/open vowels The shape of the lips: unrounded/roundedThe length of the vowels: tense/lax⒉diphthongs 双元音/ ei // ai // au // əu // ɔi // iə //εə// uə /Phonology 音韵学，语音体系Difference of phonology and phonetics:①Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in allhuman languages.②Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a languageform patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.Phone（音素）: A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. Phoneme（音位）: It is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.Allophone（音位变体）: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.Phonemic contrast（音位对立）Complementary distribution（音位变体的互补分布）Minimal pairs（最小对立体）：含音位的单词的全部音标Minimal set（最小对立集）：is used to find the important sounds in language.Phonological Analysis（音位分析）Principle: certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phase, whereas other sounds do not.Phonetically similar sounds:描述音位关系Free variants: 音位的自由变体The difference of pronouncing a sound caused by dialect, habit, individual difference or regional differences instead of by any distribution rule.Some rules in phonology①sequential rules: 序列规则If a word begins with a / l / or a / r /, then the next sound must be a vowel.If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules:The first phoneme must be / s /The second phoneme must be / p / / t / / k /The third phoneme must be / l // r // w /②assimilation rule:同化规则③deletion rule：省略规则Suprasegmental features 超音段特征≠超音段（比音位更大的语言单位）①stress（单词，句子层面）：the location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.Syllable音节：A syllable nucleus (often a vowel) with optional initial and final margins (often consonants)单音节词多音节词英语单词都有重读音位学中，单词由音节构成，音节由音位构成。
语言学重要概念梳理（中英文对照版）
语⾔学重要概念梳理（中英⽂对照版）第⼀节语⾔的本质⼀、语⾔的普遍特征（Design Features）1.任意性 Arbitratriness：shu 和Tree都能表⽰“树”这⼀概念；同样的声⾳，各国不同的表达⽅式2.双层结构Duality：语⾔由声⾳结构和意义结构组成（the structure ofsounds and meaning）3.多产性productive: 语⾔可以理解并创造⽆限数量的新句⼦，是由双层结构造成的结果（Understand and create unlimited number withsentences）4.移位性 Displacemennt：可以表达许多不在场的东西，如过去的经历、将来可能发⽣的事情，或者表达根本不存在的东西等5.⽂化传播性 Cultural Transmission：语⾔需要后天在特定⽂化环境中掌握⼆、语⾔的功能（Functions of Language）1.传达信息功能 Informative：最主要功能The main function2.⼈际功能 Interpersonal：⼈类在社会中建⽴并维持各⾃地位的功能establish and maintain their identity3.⾏事功能 performative：现实应⽤——判刑、咒语、为船命名等Judge，naming，and curses4.表情功能 Emotive Function：表达强烈情感的语⾔，如感叹词/句exclamatory expressions5.寒暄功能 Phatic Communion：应酬话phatic language，⽐如“吃了没？”“天⼉真好啊！”等等6.元语⾔功能 Metalingual Function：⽤语⾔来谈论、改变语⾔本⾝，如book可以指现实中的书也可以⽤“book这个词来表达作为语⾔单位的“书”三、语⾔学的分⽀1. 核⼼语⾔学 Core linguistic1)语⾳学 Phonetics：关注语⾳的产⽣、传播和接受过程，着重考察⼈类语⾔中的单⾳。
(NEW)刘润清《新编语言学教程》笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解
语言来源于人本能表达情感的声音。 4. Yo-He-Ho Theory (呦嘿吼理论) Language came from the cries uttered, during strain of work. 语言来源于共同劳动时发出的呦嘿声。 5. Ta-Ta Theory (哒哒说) Language came from the combination of certain gestures and tongue movements. 语言来源于移动舌头发出的声音与某个手势的结合。 6. Bow-Wow Theory (汪汪理论) Language came from imitation of animal cries and other sounds heard in nature. 语言起源于人们模仿动物的叫声和其他自然界中的声音。
本章内容索引： I. Definition of linguistics II. Linguistics vs. traditional grammar III. Scope of linguistics 1. Microlinguistics 2. Macrolinguistics IV. Definition of language V. Origins of language
VI. Design features of language (语言的定义特征) 【重点、考点：论述语言的识别特征】 1. Arbitrariness (任意性) This refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. There is no reason, for example, why English should use the sounds /dɔg/ to refer to the animal dog,
Chapter 1 What is public relation
R
= Research A = Action C = Communication E = Evaluation （评估）
R-O-S-I-E Research-Objectives-strategies（策略）implementation（实施）-Evaluation
R-P-I-E Research-Planning-ImplementationEvaluation
“Public
relations is a planned process to influence public opinion, through sound character and proper performance, based on mutually satisfactory two-way communication.”
不久全国各大商场就陆续对这些问题产品进行了下架 处理，随之,全国各地消费者蜂拥退货.但宝洁公司却 设置了很高的退货门槛.：消费者必须持有卫生部指 定医院出具的过敏凭证、购买凭据，并且所要退货产 品所剩含量必须在1/3以上，同时需要填写一份内容 为：“尽管产品本身为合格产品，不存在质量问题， 但本着对消费者负责的态度，我们决定为您做退货处 理，经双方协议同意退款××元„„”的协议书。这 些苛刻的退货条款激起众怒，媒体一片哗然。自9月 14日至9月24日，从新华社最先报道该消息的10天来， 全国各地多处因退货发生消费者与SK-II工作人员的 肢体冲突，宝洁上海及成都两处办公室被破坏，位于 北京、广州的另两处办公场所分别增派了保安，北京 分公司在原先的大门旁边又安装了一道门。
Spin cannot cover up for poor performance
THE TOPIC
Discourse Architectures: Designing and Visualizing Computer Mediated ConversationThomas EricksonIBM Research30 Sawmill River Rd, Rt. 9a Hawthorne, NY 10532 USA +1 612 823 3663snowfall@Susan HerringSchool of Library andInformation ScienceIndiana UniversityBloomington, IN USAherring@Warren SackSchool of InformationManagement and SystemsUC BerkeleyBerkeley, CA USAsack@THE TOPICConversation is an essential component of our daily work, social and intellectual lives. We use it as a means for decision making and conducting business. It is a vital component of our educational,legal and governmental systems.It is through conversation that we create, develop, validate, and share knowledge.Each new media technology potentially changes conversation. The telegraph, telephone, radio, television and tape recorder each made new sorts of long-distance conversation possible,with profound and far reaching effects. Starting in the late twentieth century we have been confronted with a virtual explosion of new,computer-based, technologies of conversation.Today we have a wide variety of forms of computer mediated conversation (hereafter CMC) including, to name only a few,chat, instant messaging, email,web pages,newsgroups,3D virtual worlds, and media spaces.Despite the overall popularity of CMC technologies, and their near ubiquitous use in the workplaces of the western world, relatively little work has been done to understand how they influence existing patterns of conversation or facilitate new patterns. Furthermore, the work that has been done is spread across a wide array of disciplines such as anthropology,communications,computer science, information science,linguistics,literature,political science, psychology, rhetoric, and sociology, and draws upon diverse theories and methods.As researchers who study CMC, and as designers who create new forms of CMC, we have an intense interest in improving our understanding of mediated conversation, and in the different approaches and methods that can be turned to this end. This workshop will investigate the relationship between conversation and the design of CMC systems.Specifically,we propose to examine conversational coherence from the perspective of graphical interfaces.* in the Proceedings ofACM CHI 2002, Minneapolis, MN, April 22nd, 2002.�Discourse Architectures1We use the phrase 'Discourse Architectures' to highlight the relationship between online conversation and structure. The phrase has two meanings, both of them relevant to our concerns.One meaning has to do with the structure of conversation itself,that is,with the ways in which the utterances which form a conversation interrelate and build upon one another. What makes a set of utterances or messages a coherent conversation? And,of course,one might ask such questions about larger units of conversation (even entire conversations), and how they relate to the larger discourses of which they are a part. We are interested in analytical techniques for identifying conversational structure and explicating the forces which shape it.The second meaning has to do with architectures for discourse, with the ways in which the design of CMC systems shapes the conversation that takes place within them.That is,just as physical architecture facilitates certain activities and inhibits others, so do CMC system architectures facilitate certain types of conversations. For example,interfaces may convey more or less detailed information about which users are online at any given moment, and what kinds of activity they are engaged in. How does the availability (or lack) of such information affect the way users of the system converse? Thus, we are interested how designers create systems intended to support particular sorts of conversation.Each of these meanings raises a set of issues that is described in further detail below.Coherence and Visualization in CMCCoherence is an aspect of communication that is addressed in most, if not all, theories of discourse. It is a sociotechnical force that has been explained in various theories with the help of,for example,scripts,plans, goals, frames, metaphors, games, rules, social networks,1The phrase “Discourse Architecture” originated as the name of a group at Apple Research consisting of Austin Henderson,Dave Curbow, Paul Dourish, Tom Erickson and Jed Harris. Its coiner is unknown; its particular meanings varied depending on the individual, and were often broader than its use here.*turn-taking, co-citation, co-occurrence of words, cohesion, speech acts, implicature, presupposition, or actor-network theories. Coherence, broadly defined, is that which in a discourse connects statements with statements, statements with people, and people with other people. It is, in short, the “glue” of text and conversation.Moreover, many approaches to discourse analysis make use of some form of graphical or diagrammatic representation in order to illustrate patterns of connections among utterances, meanings, and people in conversations. Within some disciplinary boundaries (e.g., linguistics), these graphical representations are primarily intended to address specific research questions or support theoretical models. In other areas (e.g., for certain projects done for Computer-Supported Cooperative Work environments, or involving innovative forms of graphical chat), the purpose of the representations is more pragmatic: they are actual graphical interfaces that users can manipulate. We are interested in both kinds of representations, especially in the ways in which diagrams based on conversation research and/or theory might, suitably modified, be useful as interface designs, and interface designs might usefully provide information to researchers about the nature of conversation. More generally, it is our hope that by bringing together diverse graphical representations of computer mediated conversational structure, we might provide researchers from different disciplinary backgrounds with a “neutral space” where otherwise disparate theories of coherence can be fruitfully compared, and new graphical interfaces for supporting coherence in conversation can be proposed.Approaches to CMC System DesignDesigners also approach their task in different ways, depending on their theoretical background assumptions. For some designers (and CMC researchers), face to face conversation is the standard against which other forms of conversation are measured. After all, there is ample evidence that our sensory and cognitive systems are tuned to face to face, oral conversations; all other modalities of ‘conversation’ are, in evolutionary terms, extremely recent. From this perspective, it makes sense to focus on understanding how CMC differs from face-to-face interaction, and to explore ways of using new technologies to bridge the gap. For example, since most forms of mediated conversation are missing the hand and face gestures that accompany face-to-face interaction, it makes sense to design new conversational technologies that provide users with virtual bodies via which they might gesture and emote (e.g., 3D avatars or two-way video). This approach can be seen as an effort to create technology that supports the full range of features of face-to-face conversation, complete with complex visual and audio cues. As such, it can be considered ‘mimetic’, in that it aims for a high degree of realism, or mimicry of face-to-face communication.Other designers (and researchers) take the view that differences between face to face conversation and various forms of CMC are not necessarily problematic. They observe that although mediated forms of conversation lose some features of face-to-face conversation, they also add new features. For example, while text-based CMC takes place without gestures and facial expressions, at the same time its embodiment as text means that the conversation remains visible on the screen, or can be stored and retrieved for later display, in contrast to the ephemeral nature of speech. In other words, online conversation is persistent, and with persistence comes an array of new features such as the ability to search, annotate, and replay conversations (Erickson and Herring, 1999). From this perspective, it makes sense to optimize the advantages of the medium, even if it means leaving behind face-to-face communication as an ideal — indeed, it may be possible to make CMC better than face to face conversation. This approach to system design can be considered ‘evolutionary’, in that it aims to produce new forms of conversation suited to the media within which they occur. Both of these approaches require that designers draw on theories of conversation and methods for studying it. Theories and methods for analyzing face-to-face conversation necessarily inform the design of mimetic systems, and can shed light on the ways in which evolutionary systems differ from face-to-face communication. In addition, the evolutionary approach must remain open and sensitive to new possibilities, leading perhaps to the need for new methods and theories of computer-mediated conversation which take into account media constraints and affordances.ApproachIn general, we propose to invite researchers and designers of CMC systems to submit position papers that address how they deal with the issue of conversational coherence in their work. For researchers this might involve theories of coherence, or it might involve analytical methods (grounded in some theoretical perspective) for examining ways in which coherence is achieved. For designers this might involve approaches to designing systems that foster or encourage some form of coherence, or it might involve analyzing the ways in which coherence is achieved (or not) in existing systems. In both cases, we are particularly interested in the role played by graphical representations, either in support or illustrating analysis, or, in the context of CMC, in the way it serves as a resource for the production and maintenance of coherence.Because we hope to draw participants from a very wide range of disciplines, we are concerned with making sure the conversation in the workshop itself is coherent! Our principle strategy for achieving this is that, as a precursor to the workshop, we will ask all accepted members to access an existing CMC system, and to use it to illustrate how their theories, analytical techniques, or design approaches would apply to it. We will then all share a concrete common ground, and hopefully, in the course of the workshop, will be able to better understand some of the strengths and weaknesses of various approaches, and, in particular, perhaps gain some insights into how different approaches complement one another.FORMAT OF THE WORKSHOPParticipation Solicitation and SelectionWe will solicit participants from a number of mailing lists, including lists for disciplines that don’t typically attend CHI (e.g. linguistics, rhetoric, sociology). Potential participants will be asked to submit position papers, which will be used as a basis of selection. Assuming a sufficient pool of strong applicants, we will also aim to balance the workshop in terms of disciplinary orientation, and position on the analysis-design spectrum. Method of InteractionBecause we are aiming for a single-day workshop, we will design sessions based around themes that emerge from the accepted position papers. Each session will have a moderator (possibly one of the organizers, possibly a participant), and will explicitly foreground a subset of the position papers.As noted above, we will ask participants to prepare for the workshop by visiting a to-be-selected public or semi-public CMC system. The purpose is to provide participants with a concrete common ground, to which they may apply their theories, analytical techniques, and design approaches. At this point, we are not sure whether we want everyone to look at the same site, or whether we will select two or three different sites. The latter approach might be preferable if we find some very strong subgroups among participants (for example, a group of people studying USENET, another group focused on CMC for education, and a third group oriented towards 3D virtual environments). In either case, each session’s presentation and discussion will refer to the (a) site and the conversations and associated practices that occur within it. Thus, we hope to have a computer projector and a live connection to the internet.Workshop ScheduleThe nature of the sessions is dependent upon the position papers, so it is difficult to be specific. In the first session, we will introduce the workshop, the CMC site(s), and do round-the-table 5-minute introductions. The other three sessions will consist of: introduction by moderator; discussion; capture. (‘Capture’ is a 10 minute discussion aimed at summarizing key ideas; participants will also write capture key ideas on post-its for later display).Pre-Workshop ActivitiesWe will ask potential participants to prepare position papers. Accepted participants will be expected to read the position papers of others, and have visited the CMC site. Plan for DisseminationWe will write a workshop report to be published in the bulletin of an appropriate ACM SIG.Special Requests to the Workshop ChairsWe would like a computer projector, and an analog phone line so that we can access our CMC site(s). We also expect to show interactive systems for doing or analyzing CMC, something that also requires projection.In view of our interest in recruiting participants who would not normally attend CHI, we hope that it might be possible to allow people to attend the workshop even though they have not registered for CHI. ORGANIZERS’ BACKGROUNDSThomas Erickson is a Research Staff Member at the IBM T.J. Watson Research Center in New York where he works on designing systems which support network mediated group interaction. An interaction designer and researcher, his approach to systems design is shaped by work in sociology, rhetoric, architecture and urban design. He has contributed to the design of many products, and authored about 40 publications. In the area of conversation, his work includes the design of new CMC systems using social proxies, graphical representations of people and their activities online. Tom is an experienced workshopper, having participated in many CHI workshops, and having co-organized the CHI ’97 Workshop on Pattern Languages, the CHI ’00 Workshop on Community Data, and workshops in other venues. Susan Herring is Associate Professor of Information Science and Adjunct Associate Professor of Linguistics at Indiana University Bloomington. One of the first scholars to conduct research on computer-mediated discourse, she has published and presented extensively on such topics as coherence, complexity, politeness, gender differences, and change over time in Internet communication. Her current interests include developing methods for analyzing multimedia discourse in new and experimental CMC systems. She has co-organized a series of annual workshops and minitracks on Persistent Conversation (with Tom Erickson) at HICSS, now in its fourth year. Warren Sack is Assistant Professor and head of the Social Technologies Group at UC Berkeley, SIMS. His research focus is on the role technology plays in the creation, reproduction and transformation of the network society. He designs, implements, theorizes and analyzes new media technologies. Of particular relevance to the workshop is his work on the Conversation Map a prototype system that automatically generates graphical summaries of email-based Very Large Scale Conversations. Before coming to Berkeley, he was a research scientist at the MIT Media Laboratory and a research collaborator in the Interrogative Design Group at the MIT Center for Advanced Visual Studies. REFERENCES1.Erickson, T. and Herring, S. “Persistent Conversation:A Dialog Between Research and Design,” Proceedingsof HICSS 2001. IEEE Press, 2001.2.Erickson, T. Smith, D. N., Kellogg, W. A., Laff, M.R., Richards, J. T., and Bradner, E. Socially Translucent Systems: Social Proxies, Persistent Conversation, and the Design of ‘Babble’. The Proceedings of CHI '99. ACM Press, 1999.3.Sack, W. “Conversation Map: An Interface for VeryLarge-Scale Conversations,” Journal of Management Information Systems(Winter 2000-2001). Also see: /~sack/CM250 WORD ABSTRACT FOR THE CALLWe use the phrase “Discourse Architectures” to highlight the relationship between online conversation and structure. The phrase has two meanings, both of them relevant to our concerns. One meaning has to do with the structure of conversation itself, that is, with the ways in which the utterances which form a conversation interrelate and build upon one another. The second meaning has to do with architectures for discourse, with the ways in which the design of CMC systems shapes the conversations within them.This workshop will investigate the relationship between the structure of conversation and the design of CMC systems. Specifically, we propose to examine conversational coherence from the perspective of graphical interfaces.Many approaches to discourse analysis make use of some form of graphical or diagrammatic representation in order to illustrate patterns of connections among utterances, meanings, and people in conversations. Within some disciplines (e.g., linguistics), these graphical representations are primarily intended to address specific research questions or support theoretical models. In other areas (e.g., CSCW), the purpose of the representations is more pragmatic: they are actual graphical interfaces that users can manipulate. We are interested in both kinds of representations, especially in the ways in which diagrams based on conversation research and/or theory might, suitably modified, be useful as interface designs, and the ways in which interface designs might usefully provide information to researchers about the nature of conversation.Discourse Architectures: Designing and Visualizing Computer Mediated ConversationThomas Erickson IBM T.J. Watson ResearchCenter30 Sawmill River Rd, Rt. 9a Hawthorne, NY 10532 USA snowfall@Susan HerringSchool of Library andInformation ScienceIndiana UniversityBloomington, IN USAherring@Warren SackSchool of InformationManagement and SystemsUC BerkeleyBerkeley, CA USAsack@Discourse Architectures*We use the phrase 'Discourse Architectures' to highlight the relationship between online conversation and structure. The phrase has two meanings, both of them relevant to our concerns.One meaning has to do with the structure of conversation itself, that is, with the ways in which the utterances which form a conversation interrelate and build upon one another. What makes a set of utterances or messages a coherent conversation? And, of course, one might ask such questions about larger units of conversation (even entire conversations), and how they relate to the larger discourses of which they are a part. We are interested in analytical techniques for identifying conversational structure and explicating the forces which shape it.The second meaning has to do with architectures for discourse, with the ways in which CMC systems can be designed to shape the conversation that takes place within them. That is, just as physical architecture facilitates certain activities and inhibits others, so do CMC system architectures facilitate certain types of conversations. In this sense, we are interested how designers create systems intended to support particular sorts of conversation. Coherence and Visualization in CMC Coherence is an aspect of communication that is addressed in most, if not all, theories of discourse. Coherence, broadly defined, is that which in a discourse connects statements with statements, statements with people, and people with other people. It is, in short, the “glue” of text and conversation.Many approaches to discourse analysis make use of some form of graphical or diagrammatic representation in order to illustrate patterns of connections among utterances, meanings, and people in conversations. Within some disciplinary boundaries (e.g., linguistics), these graphical representations are primarily intended to address specific research questions or support theoretical models. In other areas (e.g., CSCW), the purpose of the representations is *The phrase “Discourse Architecture” originated as the name of a group at Apple Research consisting of Austin Henderson, Dave Curbow, Paul Dourish, Tom Erickson and Jed Harris. Its coiner is unknown; its particular meanings are varied depending on the individual, and were often broader than its use here.more pragmatic: they are actual graphical interfaces that users can manipulate. We are interested in both kinds of representations, especially in the ways in which diagrams based on conversation research and/or theory might, suitably modified, be useful as interface designs, and interface designs might usefully provide information to researchers about the nature of conversation.More generally, it is our hope that by bringing together diverse graphical representations of computer mediated conversational structure, we might provide researchers from different disciplinary backgrounds with a “neutral space” where otherwise disparate theories of coherence can be fruitfully compared, and new graphical interfaces for supporting coherence in conversation can be proposed. The WorkshopResearchers and designers of CMC systems are invited to submit position papers that address how they deal with the issue of conversational coherence. For researchers this might involve theories of coherence, or it might involve analytical methods (grounded in some theoretical perspective) for examining ways in which coherence is achieved. For designers this might involve approaches to designing systems that foster or encourage some form of coherence, or it might involve analyzing the ways in which coherence is achieved (or not) in existing systems. In both cases, we are particularly interested in the role played by graphical representations, either in support or illustrating analysis, or, in the context of CMC, in the way it serves as a resource for the production and maintenance of coherence.Because we hope to draw participants from a very wide range of disciplines, we are concerned with making sure the conversation in the workshop itself is coherent. Our principle strategy for achieving this is that, as a precursor to the workshop, we will ask all accepted members to access an existing CMC system, and to use it to illustrate how their theories, analytical techniques, or design approaches would apply to it. We will then all share a concrete common ground, and hopefully, in the course of the workshop, will be able to better understand some of the strengths and weaknesses of various approaches, and, in particular, perhaps gain some insights into how different approaches complement one another.。
人工智能导论IntroductiontoArtificialIntelligence
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［″PROLOG″,″PROGRAMMING″,″in logic″］
2.1 基本PROLOG
2.1.1 PROLOG的语句
1. 事实(fact) 格式 〈谓词名〉(〈项表〉).
student( john). like(mary,music). abc. repeat. 功能 一般表示对象的性质或关系。
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pre1(″ob1″,″ob2″,Z) pre1(″ob1″,X,Y)
3.
所谓回溯, 就是在程序运行期间, 当某一个子目标 不能满足(即谓词匹配失败)时,控制就返回到前一个 已经满足的子目标(如果存在的话), 并撤消其有关变 量的约束值, 然后再使其重新满足。 成功后, 再继续 满足原子目标。如果失败的子目标前再无子目标, 则控制就返回到该子目标的上一级目标(即该子目标 谓词所在规则的头部)使它重新匹配。回溯也是 PROLOG的一个重要机制。
Varieties in relation to regions__ and social factors-2010
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AmE fiber meter favor labor marvelous woolen license inclose BrE AmE dialog monolog omelet burned leaped gray naught pajamas BrE
Varieties in relation to social factors
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Standard English
Varieties in relation to social factors
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AmE BrE fiber fibre meter metre favor favour labor labour marvelous marvellous woolen woollen license licence inclose enclose AmE dialog monolog omelet burned leaped gray naught pajamas BrE dialogue monologue omelette burnt leapt grey nought pyjamas
The Use of Different Prepositions
• • • • • • She often goes shopping at the weekend. BrE She often goes shopping on the weekend. AmE I happened to meet him in the train. BrE I happened to meet him on the train. AmE Peter lives just round the corner. BrE Peter lives just around the corner. AmE
Lecture Notes Introduction to H-Matrices
Lecture Notes Introduction to H-MatricesDirk Praetorius John-von-Neumann Lectures(November15-17,2004),Humboldt University,Berlin Institute for Analysisand Scientific ComputingChapter1Introduction1.1MotivationLetΩbe a domain(or the boundary of a domain)in R d and X h afinite dimensional space of functions onΩwith basis u1,...,u n∈X h.We are interested in a structured approximation of the stiffness matrixA∈R n×n,A jk=a(u j,u k)induced by the bilinear form a:X h×X h→R,a(u,v)= Ω Ωu(x)κ(x,y)v(y)dy dx,where we assume that the double integral exists in a proper sense.Generically,this leads to a dense stiffness matrix,i.e.assembling,storage,and matrix-vector multiplication are of complexity O(n2).Example.Symm’s integral equation in2D readsV u=f with(V u)(y)=−1π Γlog|x−y|u(x)ds x,(1.1)whereΓis a closed boundary in R2and ds x denotes integration with respect to the surface measure and integration variable x.The right-hand side f is given in H1/2(Γ)=H−1/2(Γ)∗,and the variational formulation of(1.1)involves the bilinear forma(u,v)= Γ(V u)(y)v(y)ds y=−1π Γ Γu(x)log|x−y|v(y)ds y ds x.(1.2)This defines an elliptic and bounded bilinear form a(·,·)on the energy space H−1/2(Γ)provided Γ⊆ x∈R2 |x|<1 .Let T be a partition of the boundary into connected boundary pieces and consider X h=P0(T),i.e.the T-piecewise constant functions.Then,the Galerkin method for Symm’s integral equationfits into our abstract setting.2 If the dense matrix A has further algebraic structure,e.g.A is circulant,it is well-known that one can reduce assembling and storage up to O(n)and matrix-vector multiplication up to O(n log(n))by use of the Fourier transform.However,in general the matrix A lacks further structural properties.1Naturally,the question arises if one can replace A by an algebraically structured A such that the approximation error A − Ais arbitrarily small.The outline of these lecture notes is as follows:In the following section,we show how to obtain a structured approximate matrix A.We use interpolation of the integral kernel κ(x,y )on subdomains of Ω×Ω,where κ(x,y )is smooth.Together with a hierarchical organisation of the basis u 1,...,u n of X h ,we obtain a so-called hierarchical matrix ,shortly:H -matrix .Interpolation of the kernel is by no means the only technique that leads to H -matrices.Other approximations of A like adaptive cross approximation and panel clustering also lead to H -approximant of A .In Chapter 2,we introduce H -matrices algebraically and prove that the complexity for storage and matrix-vector multiplication is almost linear,i.e.O (kn log(n ))with k corresponding to the a priori approxmation order.We then introduce the so-called H 2-matrices ,which have some enhanced hierarchical structure so that one can employ the fast multipole method to end up with a complexity O (k 2n )for storage and matrix-vector multiplication.Finally,in Chapter 3,we consider the approximation error by use of H -or H 2-matrices.This is done by estimating the interpolation error for tensor ˇCebyˇs ev interpolation.Citing the first Strang lemma,we stress that the apriori choice of k =O (log(n ))does not affect the convergence order of the discrete scheme (whenever the bilinear form a (·,·)is elliptic):Therefore,one should always avoid to compute A exactly but use some approximant instead.1.2How do H -Matrices Arise?In the previous section we did motivate,why it would be interesting to have some further algebraical structure in the stiffness matrix of integral equations.Some nice structure will arise by interpolation of the integral kernel.A subset σof the index set I ={1,...,n }is called cluster .We define the patch of a cluster by ∪σ:=∪j ∈σsupp(u j ).Furthermore,for easier numerical handling,we fix an axis-oriented bounding boxB σ= d j =1[a j ,b j ]with ∪σ⊆B σ.For typical integral kernels κ(x,y ),e.g.κ(x,y )=log |x −y |,the restriction κ|B σ×B τis smooth,provided that σ,τ⊆I are clusters with dist(B σ,B τ)>0.Thus,κ(x,y )can be well approximatedby interpolation:Let x (σ)m ∈B σbe interpolation nodes and L (σ)m be the corresponding Lagrange polynomials,i.e.polynomials with L (σ)m (x (σ)n )=δmn with the Kronecker delta δmn .Now,we usethe approximationκ(x,y )≈M m =1κ(x (σ)m ,y )L (σ)m (x )for (x,y )∈B σ×B τ.(1.3)For indices j ∈σand k ∈τ,we obtainA jk = ∪σ ∪τu j (x )κ(x,y )u k (y )dy dx≈M m =1 ∪σu j (x )L (σ)m (x )dx =V στjm ∪τu k (x )κ(x (σ)m ,y )dy =W στkm .(1.4)2If A|σ×τdenotes the submatrix(A jk)j∈σ,k∈τof A,Equation(1.4)simply readsA|σ×τ≈Vστ(Wστ)T.(1.5) Provided that the approximation rank M satisfies M min{|σ|,|τ|},the approximation on the right-hand side of(1.5)reduces the storage requirements and(as we will see later on)the complexity of algebraic operations.The cluster blocks(σ,τ),on which we use interpolation to obtain a low rank approximation of A|σ×τ,are generated by a recursive tree splitting of the index set I.The splitting algorithm makes use of geometrical information,e.g.the bounding boxes,so that∪σand∪τare well separated and interpolation is a reasonable tool.Let us consider the following simple example withΩ=[0,1].The nodes x j:=j/n for j=0,...,n define a partition ofΩinto n subintervalls I j=[x j−1,x j].If we consider the matrixA∈R n×n,A jk:= I j I k log|x−y|dy dx,type:then our algorithm leads to a block matrix of the followingThe small blocks on(or close to)the diagonal of the matrix will be computed exactly,whereas we will use interpolation on the blocks which are far from the diagonal.3Chapter2Algebraical Structure of H-Matrices2.1Cluster TreeLet I be an index set with n=|I|elements.The elements of I are called degrees of freedom. For each index I∈I,let x I∈R d be an associated point.Assume that to each non-empty subset σ⊆I,refered to as cluster,belongs a bounded domain∪σ⊆R d.For each clusterσwefix the bounding box Bσ,defined as the axis oriented box Bσ= d j=1[a j,b j]of minimal size containing ∪σ,i.e.∪σ⊆Bσ.Example.(i)Let T is a triangulation ofΩand consider the space P0(T)of all T-piecewise constant functions.The basis functions of P0(T)are just the characteristic functionsχT for T∈T and I:=T.Forσ⊆I,the corresponding domain is∪σ:= T∈σT.For T∈T let x T denote, e.g.,the center of the element T.(ii)If we consider the space S1(T)consisting of all T-piecewise affine and globally continuous functions,then I is just the set of all nodes of T.We consider the hat function basis of S1(T)and define∪σ:= z∈σsupp(φz),whereφz denotes the hat function corresponding to the node z∈I. For z∈I,let x z=z be the node itself.2 For the ease of presentation,we define cluster trees as binary trees,i.e.each node in the tree that is not a leaf,has precisely two sons.This assumption can be weakened easily.For notational simplicity,we identify the tree with the set of its nodes.Definition.T is a cluster tree for the index set I and the parameter C leaf∈N,provided(i)I is the root of T,(ii)each nodeσ∈T is a subset of I,(iii)ifσ∈T is a leaf,then|σ|≤C leaf,(iv)ifσ∈T is not a leaf,then there are two unique(non-empty)clustersσ ,σ ∈T withσ=σ ∪σ andσ ∩σ =∅,called sons.We write sons(σ)={σ ,σ }.The constant C leaf is a pay-offconstant:The smallest admissible blocks in an H-matrix will be of size C leaf×C leaf.If the block is too small,the approximate computation of it is more costly than the exact assembling.For my computations,I choose C leaf between20and100.Lemma2.1.For a cluster tree T,there holds#T≤2#leaves−1≤2n−1i.e.the number of nodes in the tree is bounded by the number of indices.4Proof.The lemma is proved by induction on n.The claim is obvious true for n=1.For n>1 and#leaves>1we consider the sonsσ,τof the root I and apply the induction hypothesis for the branches withσ,τas roots to obtain#T=#Tσ+#Tτ+1≤(2#leavesσ−1)+(2#leavesτ−1)+1=2#leaves−1,where we have used that the branches of a cluster tree are disjoint. One obtains a cluster tree simply by splitting the bounding boxes.The following recursive function is called with CreateClusterTree(I,∅).Algorithm2.2:Create Cluster Treefunction CreateClusterTree(σ,T)if|σ|≤C leafreturnelseCreate axis oriented box Bσof minimal size with∪σ⊆BσSplit Bσalong longest edge into Bσ ,BσDefine sonsσ ,σ ofσbyσ = I∈σ x I∈Bσ ,σ =σ\σ .Addσ to T and call CreateClusterTree(σ ,T)Addσ to T and call CreateClusterTree(σ ,T)endRemark.For pathological triangulations it may happen that the algorithm fails becauseσ =σ,σ =∅.Thus,an implementation needs some minor modifications.Remark.For a cluster tree T,we define the functionlevel:T→N0inductively by level(I)=0and level(σ ):=level(σ)+1forσ ∈sons(σ).The depth of a cluster tree is defined bylevel(σ).depth(T):=maxσ∈TFor uniform meshes one can proof that there holds depth(T)=O(log(n))due to binary splitting of the index set.However,for pathological examples like the following one can in fact observe depth(T)=O(n):We consider the interval[0,1]with a partition into n+1subintervals defined inductively by x0:=0and x j+1:=x j+(1/2)j+1for j=0,...,n,and x n+1:=1.Then,the cluster tree generated by Algorithm2.2satisfies depth(T)=O(n).52.2Block PartitioningThe cluster tree T provides a hierarchical tree.The next step is to derive a hierarchical partition of I×I.The index set I×I corresponds to a matrix,i.e.we are constructing some(hierarchical) block structure for a matrix A∈R n×n.Definition.Letσ,τ∈T be clusters with bounding boxes Bσ,Bτ⊆R d.The pair(σ,τ)is called block.For afixed parameterη>0,the block(σ,τ)is admissible providedmax{diam(Bσ),diam(Bτ)}≤ηdist(Bσ,Bτ).(2.1) For a partitioning P⊆T×T of I×I,we define the farfieldP far:= (σ,τ)∈P (σ,τ)is admissible (2.2) and the nearfieldP near:=P\P far= (σ,τ)∈P (σ,τ)is inadmissible .(2.3)The idea of the block partitioning P is as follows:For admissible blocks(σ,τ)∈P far we will compute the submatrix A|σ×τapproximately,e.g.by interpolation of the kernel.For inadmissible blocks (σ,τ)∈P near,we will compute the submatrix A|σ×τexactly.With a given admissibility condition,e.g.(2.1),the following algorithm computes a block partition-ing from a cluster tree T.The recursive function is called with CreateBlockPartitioning(∅,∅,I,I).Algorithm2.3:Create Block Partitioning(First Version)function CreateBlockPartitioning(P near,P far,σ,τ)if(σ,τ)admissibleadd(σ,τ)to P farelseif sons(σ)=∅and sons(τ)=∅for all(σ ,τ )∈sons(σ)×sons(τ)call CreateBlockPartitioning(P near,P far,σ ,τ )else/*inadmissible block which cannot be split any further*/add(σ,τ)to P nearendRemark.We will do some refinements of Algorithm2.3when we consider the H2-matrices.In fact,a block partitioning is nothing but a quad tree,but we omit any further definition.For a sparse matrix A∈R n×n a measure for the sparsity is the maximal number of non-zero entries per row and column,i.e.one considersC=max max j=1,...,n# k A jk=0 ,max k=1,...,n# j A jk=0 .6The idea of this definition carries over to the block partitioning.Definition.Let P be a given block partitioning of I×I.Then,the sparsity constantC sparse:=max maxσ∈T# τ∈T (σ,τ)∈P ,maxτ∈T# σ∈T (σ,τ)∈P ,(2.4) is a measure of the sparsity of the block partition.The sparsity constant enters all subsequent complexity estimates for H-and H2-matrices.Thus,it is important to observe a posteriori that C sparse does not blow up,whenever we are dealing with mesh-refinements(as we will usually do):If C sparse blows up,so does the complexity of arithmetic operations with hierarchical matrices as well as the storage requirements.Lemma2.4.According to the definition,there holds#P=#P near+#P far≤C sparse#T=O(n), as long as C sparse stays uniformly bounded.Remark.Note that the block partitioning is a theoretical tool.It has not to be implemented on its own:It is not built or stored,but somehow a built-in part in each algorithm.2.3H-MatricesHaving defined cluster tree,admissibility condition,and block partitioning,we canfinally touch the heart of the matter:hierarchical matrices.2.3.1Definition of H-MatricesDefinition.Let k∈N be the rank of admissible blocks.A matrix A∈R n×n is called hier-archical matrix,shortly H-matrix,with respect to T and k whenever there holds the following: For any admissible block(σ,τ)∈P far,there are matrices Vστ∈R|σ|×k and Wστ∈R|τ|×k such that A|σ×τ=VστW Tστ.(2.5)Please note that,forfixed T,P,and k,the set of all H-matrices is neither closed with respect to addition nor with respect to matrix-matrix multiplication.Nevertheless,one can define approximate arithmetic operations,called H-arithmetics.We refer to the literature.In the following,we only consider the storage requirements and the arithmetic complexity for a matrix-vector multiplication. Remark.For a hierarchical matrix A one only stores the nearfield A|σ×τfor(σ,τ)∈P near and the farfield matrices Vστ,Wστfor(σ,τ)∈P far.2.3.2Storage Requirements for H-MatricesAccording to the definition of our block partitioning algorithm,see Algorithm2.3,there holds level(σ)=level(τ)for(σ,τ)∈P.Therefore,we can define the depth of the block partitioning by depth(P)=maxlevel(σ).(σ,τ)∈P7Remark.For a uniform triangulation,there holds depth(P )=O (depth(T ))=O (log(n )).2Lemma 2.5.The storage requirements N Storage for an H -matrix satisfyN Storage ≤2C sparse (depth(P )+1)max {C leaf ,k }n,and one therefore expects N Storage =O (kn log(n ))for ”normal”cluster trees.Proof.For (σ,τ)∈P near ,there holds either |σ|≤C leaf or |τ|≤C leaf ,whence |σ||τ|≤C leaf (|σ|+|τ|).We obtainN Storage = (σ,τ)∈P far k (|σ|+|τ|)+(σ,τ)∈P near |σ||τ|≤(σ,τ)∈P max {C leaf ,k }(|σ|+|τ|)=max {C leaf ,k } depth(P )=0 σ∈T level(σ)= τ∈T(σ,τ)∈P |σ|+depth(P ) =0 τ∈T level(τ)= σ∈T (σ,τ)∈P |τ|≤2C sparse max {C leaf ,k }depth(P )=0 σ∈Tlevel(σ)= |σ|.Note that on any level of the cluster tree there holdsσ∈Tlevel(σ)=|σ|=|I|=naccording to the disjoint splitting in the tree structure.2.3.3Matrix-Vector Multiplication with H -MatricesFor any block matrix A ∈R n ×n ,there obviously holds(Ax )j = (σ,τ)∈Pj ∈σA |σ×τx |τjwith 1≤j ≤n .The following recursive algorithm is called withHMatrixVectorMultiplication(A ,I ,I ,x ,y )and computes the vector y =Ax .According to our block-partitioning from Algorithm 2.3,we define sons(σ,τ):= sons(σ)×sons(τ),if sons(σ)=∅and sons(τ)=∅,∅,otherwise ,for any pair of clusters (σ,τ)∈T ×T .8Algorithm2.6:MVM with H-Matricesfunction HMatrixVectorMultiplication(A,σ,τ,x,y)if(σ,τ)is admissibley|σ:=y|σ+VστW Tστx|τelseif sons(σ,τ)=∅for all(σ ,τ )∈sons(σ,τ)call HMatrixVectorMultiplication(A,σ ,τ ,x,y)else/*inadmissible block which cannot be split any further*/y|σ:=y|σ+A|σ×τx|τendPlease note that,for(σ,τ)∈P far,we perform VστW Tστx|τin two steps:First,we compute z= W Tστx|τ,second,we compute Vστz.With this convention,there holds the following lemma:Lemma2.7.The number N MVM of arithmetic operations for the matrix-vector multiplication with an H-matrix A satisfiesN Storage≤N MVM≤2N Storage,with N Storage from Lemma2.5.Proof.For B∈R M×N,the matrix-vector multiplication with a vector z∈R N needs N multi-plications and N−1additions to compute(Bz)j.Altogether,one needs M(2N−1)arithmetic operations to compute Bz∈R M.Hence,Algorithm2.6needs|σ|(2|τ|−1)=2|σ||τ|−|σ|operations per nearfield block(σ,τ)∈P near and|σ|(2k−1)+k(2|τ|−1)=2k(|σ|+|τ|)−|σ|−k operations per farfield block(σ,τ)∈P far.A comparison with the storage requirements per block,cf.proof of Lemma2.5,concludes the proof.2.4H2-MatricesIn the last section we introduced the H-matrices.We have seen that storage requirements and the arithmetic complexity for the matrix-vector multiplication are of order O(kn depth(P)).For uniform meshes depth(P)=O(log(n)).However,for highly adapted meshes one can have depth(P)=O(n) so that we do not gain anything from working with H-matrices.In this section we consider special H-matrices for which we have a second hierarchy.This additional hierarchy allows us to get rid of the term depth(P)in the complexity estimates,more precisely:the storage requirements and the matrix-vector multiplication are of order O(k2n)and thus linear with respect to n.The idea of the algorithms goes back to the Fast Multipole Method.2.4.1How do H2-Matrices Arise?We go back to the arguments of Section1.2and assume thatκ(x,y)is only singular for x=y, e.g.κ(x,y)=log|x−y|.For each clusterσ∈T,wefix interpolation nodes x(σ)m∈Bσand the9corresponding Lagrange polynomials L (σ)m .Now,let σ,τ∈T be clusters with dist(B σ,B τ)>0.We use the approximationκ(x,y )≈Mm,n =1κ(x (σ)m ,x (τ)n )L (σ)m (x )L (τ)n (y )for (x,y )∈B σ×B τ.(2.6)For indices j ∈σand k ∈τ,we obtainA jk = ∪σ ∪τu j (x )κ(x,y )u k (y )dy dx≈Mm,n =1κ(x (σ)m ,x (τ)n )M στmn∪σu j (x )L (σ)m (x )dx=V σjm∪τu k (x )L (τ)n (x )dy =V τkm,and this can be written in the formA |σ×τ≈V σM στ(W σ)T .(2.7)So far,we make only use of the hierarchy given by the cluster tree.Now,from the interpolationproperty,we obtain a second hierarchy:For σ ∈sons(σ),we have (according to polynomial interpolation,cf.Section 3.1)L (σ)m (x )=M =1L (σ)m (x (σ ) )=T σσ mL (σ )(x )(2.8)Given an index j ∈σ ,this leads toV σjm=Ωu j (x )L (σ)m (x )dx=M =1L (σ)m (x (σ ))Ωu j (x )L (σ )(x )dx=M =1V σjT m .With the submatrix V σ|σ defined by V σ|σ =(V σjm )j ∈σ ,m =1,...,M ,the last equation simply readsV σ|σ =V σ T σσ,(2.9)i.e.we have a relation between the V σmatrices of father and son:If we know all transfer matricesT σσ,we only need to store the matrices V σfor the leaves of T .This is the second hierarchy leading to H 2-matrices.2.4.2Definition of H 2-MatricesDefinition.A matrix A ∈R n ×n is called H 2-matrix ,with respect to T and k whenever there holds the following:There is a family (V σ)σ∈T of matrices V σ∈R |σ|×k called cluster basis and a family (M στ)(σ,τ)∈P far of multiplication matrices withA |σ×τ=V σM στV Tτfor all (σ,τ)∈P far .(2.10)Moreover,let there be transfer matrices T σ σ∈R k ×k withV σ|σ =V σ T σ σfor all σ∈T ,σ ∈sons(σ).(2.11)10One says that the the cluster basis(Vσ)is nested.Obviously,any H2-matrix A is a special H-matrix.To gain the linear complexity with respect to n,one has to guarantee that the nearfield has only linear storage requirements.In general this is not true for the block partitioning given by Algorithm2.3.Therefore,we modify the algorithm slightly:Algorithm2.8:Create Block Partitioning(Second Version)function CreateBlockPartitioning(P near,P far,σ,τ)if(σ,τ)admissibleadd(σ,τ)to P farelseif sons(σ)=∅if sons(τ)=∅for all(σ ,τ )∈sons(σ)×sons(τ)call CreateBlockPartitioning(P near,P far,σ ,τ )elsefor allσ ∈sons(σ)call CreateBlockPartitioning(P near,P far,σ ,τ)endelseif sons(τ)=∅for allτ ∈sons(τ)call CreateBlockPartitioning(P near,P far,σ,τ )else/*inadmissible block which cannot be split any further*/add(σ,τ)to P nearendRemark.For an H2-matrix A one only stores the nearfield A|σ×τfor(σ,τ)∈P near,the multipli-cation matrices Mστfor the farfield(σ,τ)∈P far,the transfer matrices Tσ σfor any father-son pair (σ,σ ),and the matrices Vσfor all leavesσ∈T(i.e.not for all clusters).H-Matrices2.4.3Storage Requirements for2Lemma2.9.Assume that the block partitioning P has been created by Algorithm2.8.Then the storage requirements N Storage for an H2-matrix A satisfyN Storage≤#T(k2+C sparse max{C2leaf,k2})+nk,whence one exspects N Storage=O(nk2).Proof.The number of blocks in P satisfies#P=#P far+#P near≤#T C sparse.A nearfield block (σ,τ)needs at most C2leaf memory units,a multiplication matrix Mστfor(σ,τ)needs k2memory11units.Thus,we need#P max{k2,C2leaf}≤#T C sparse max{k2,C2leaf}memory units to store all nearfield blocks and all multiplication matrices.The storage of the transfer matrices costs less than#T k2,since one has less than#T father-son pairings(σ ,σ). Finally,the matrices Vσhave only to be stored for the leaves of T:This leads to an additional storage requirement ofσ∈Tσleaf|σ|k=nkmemory units.2.4.4Matrix-Vector Multiplication with H2-MatricesAs for common H-matrices,we write the matrix-vector multiplication blockwise, (Ax)j= (σ,τ)∈P near j∈σA|σ×τx|τ+ (σ,τ)∈P far j∈σVσMστV Tτx|τ jwith1≤j≤n.We define families( xτ)τ∈T and( yσ)σ∈T of vectors xτ, yσ∈R k as follows: xτ:=V Tτx|τ,for allτ∈T,yσ:= τ∈T(σ,τ)∈P far Mστ xτfor allσ∈T.Then,there holds(Ax)j= (σ,τ)∈P near j∈σA|σ×τx|τ+ σ∈T j∈σVσ τ∈T(σ,τ)∈P far Mστ xτ j= (σ,τ)∈P near j∈σA|σ×τx|τ+ σ∈T j∈σVσ yσ jThat means,we split the H2-matrix-vector multiplication into four steps:(i)Forward transformation:Compute xτfor allτ∈T.(ii)Multiplication:Compute yσfor allσ∈T.(iii)Backward transformation:Compute y j= σ∈T j∈σ(Vσ yσ)j for all1≤j≤n.(iv)Add nearfield contribution:Update y j:=y j+ (σ,τ)∈P near j∈σ A|σ×τx|τ j for all1≤j≤n.12Claim.The multiplication step needs less than#T C sparse k(2k−1)+(C sparse−1)k ≤2C sparse k2#T arithmetic operations.Proof.For a clusterσ∈T,the sum overτ∈T with(σ,τ)∈P far has at most length C sparse,i.e.we have C sparse matrix-vector multiplications with k×k matrices and C sparse−1additions of vectors of length k.Claim.It needs less than C sparse#T C leaf(2C leaf−1)+C leaf =2C sparse C2leaf#T arithmetic oper-ations to compute the nearfield contribution and to add it to the far-field contribution.Proof.We have less than C sparse#T nearfield blocks.For each block(σ,τ)we need less than C leaf(2C leaf−1)operations to perform the matrix-vector product A|σ×τx|τand we need less than C leaf additions to add the result to the(already computed)far-field contribution.The forward transformation is realized by the following algorithm and called by FastForwardTransformation(I,x, x)Algorithm2.10:Fast Forward Transformationfunction FastForwardTransformation(τ,x, x)if sons(τ)=∅xτ:=V Tτx|τelseforτ ∈sons(τ)FastForwardTransformation(τ ,x, x)xτ:= xτ+T Tτ τ xτendendClaim.Algorithm2.10computes in4k2#T+k(2n−1)arithmetic operations the vectors xτ,for allτ∈T.Proof.For each leafσ∈T,it needs k(2|σ|−1)arithmetic operations to compute xτ.Thus,we need k(2n−1)arithmetic operations to compute xτfor all leavesτ∈T.Ifτ∈T is not a leaf,we have by definition of H2-matricesVτ= Vτ Tτ τVτ Tτ τ ,i.e.there holdsxτ=V Tτx|τ=T Tτ τV Tτ x|τ +T Tτ τV Tτ x|τ =T Tτ τ xτ +T Tτ τ xτ .This is precisely the procedure in the recursion step.In conclusion,it needs k(2k−1)+k=2k2 operations per son to update xτwith xτ .There are less than#T fathers in the tree,i.e.recursion steps to be done.13Finally,we consider the backward transformation called byFastBackwardTransformation(I,y, y)Algorithm2.11:Fast Backward Transformationfunction FastBackwardTransformation(σ,y, y)if sons(σ)=∅y|σ:=Vσ yσelseforσ ∈sons(σ)yσ := yσ +Tσ σ yσFastBackwardTransformation(σ ,y, y)endendClaim.Algorithm2.11needs less than4k2#T+n(2k−1)arithmetic operations tofinish the computation of the farfield contribution.Proof.To understand why Algorithm2.11works properly,letσ,σ be clusters with j∈σ ∈sons(σ). Using that Vσ|σ =Vσ Tσ σ,we obtainy j:= Vσ yσ+Vσ yσ + σ∈T\{σ,σ }j∈ σV σ y σ j= Vσ (Tσ σ yσ+ yσ )+ σ∈T\{σ,σ }j∈ σV σ y σ j.This explains the recursive structure in the algorithm.Analogously to the fast forward transforma-tion,we have n(2k−1)arithmetic operations for the computation of matrix-vector multiplications on the leaf level of T.Ifσ∈T is not a leaf,the recursion step needs k(2k−1)+k=2k2operations per son,i.e.altogether less than4k2#T arithmetic operations.Finally,we have proved the following lemma which shows that the complexity for the matrix-vector multiplication is independent on how good the cluster tree is:The depth of T does not enter the algorithmic complexity.Lemma2.12.By use of the introduced algorithms,the number N MVM of arithmetic operations for the matrix-vector multiplication with an H2-matrix A∈R n×n is bounded byN MVM≤ 2C sparse(k2+C2leaf)+8k2 #T+4kn.That means one expects N MVM=O(k2n),i.e.the complexity grows only linearly with respect to n=|I|.14Chapter3A Priori Analysis of the Approximation Error3.1ˇCebyˇs ev-InterpolationDuring this section,let p∈N denote afixed approximation order for the interpolation.The task is to define an interpolation operator on R d as was used in the introductory chapter.3.1.1Interpolation on the Interval[−1,1]Define theˇCebyˇs ev nodesζj∈[−1,1],for j=0,...,p byζj=cos 2j+1p+1π2 ,i.e.the nodes are the zeros of the(p+1)-stˇCebyˇs ev polynomial.Define the corresponding La-grange polynomials L j∈P p byL j(ζ)=n k=0ζ−ζkζj−ζkand notice that there holds L j(ζk)=δjk with Kronecker’s delta.Now,we obtain a projection I p:C[−1,1]→P p calledˇCebyˇs ev interpolation operator byI p u=p j=0u(ζj)L j.For any u∈C[−1,1],there holdsI p ∞,[−1,1]≤Λp u ∞,[−1,1](3.1) refered to as stability of the interpolation operator.The Lebesgue constantΛp,i.e.the operator norm of I p,satisfies11≤Λp≤2πlog(p+1)+1≤p+1(3.2)1cf.Rivlin:The Chebyshev Polynomials,Wiley Interscience,New York1984.15and thus grows only polynomially with the approximation order p.Furthermore,I p has the following (probably well-known)approximation propertyu−I p u ∞,[−1,1]≤2−p(p+1)!u(p+1) ∞,[−1,1]for u∈C p+1[−1,1].(3.3)3.1.2Interpolation on an Interval[a,b]We map theˇCebyˇs ev nodes from[−1,1]to[a,b]by use of the affine transformationψ(ζ)=12 a+b+ζ(b−a) ,i.e.we define the interpolation nodes t j=ψ(ζj)for j=0,...,p.If we define the corresponding Lagrange polynomials and the induced interpolation operator L j,we obtain stabilityI p u ∞,[a,b]≤Λp u ∞,[a,b]for u∈C[a,b]andΛp from(3.2)(3.4) and the approximation propertyu−I p u ∞,[a,b]≤ b−a2 p+12−p(p+1)! u(p+1) ∞,[a,b]for u∈C p+1[a,b].(3.5) This is easily proved by use of the fact thatψis a bijection from[−1,1]to[a,b].3.1.3Tensor Interpolation in R R dWe consider the compact(bounding)box B= d j=1[a j,b j]⊆R d and define an interpolation operator I p by tensor interpolation.To each0≤j≤p d,there corresponds a unique vector (j1,...,j d)∈{0,...,p}d.We define the tensor interpolation nodesx j=(t(1)j1,...,t(d)jd)with t(n)m denoting the m-thˇCebyˇs ev node in the interval[a n,b n].The tensor Lagrange polynomials are given byL j(x)=dm=1L(m)j m(x m),and there obviously holds L j(x k)=δjk.Finally,we have defined an interpolation operatorI p u=p dj=0u(x j)L j for u∈C(B).Lemma3.1.For the interpolation error on B,there holdsu−I p u ∞,B≤4−p2(p+1)!Λd−1pdiam(B)p+1dj=1 ∂p+1j u ∞,Bfor any u∈C p+1(B).16Proof.We define the interpolation I (j )p :C (B )→C (B )in the j -th direction by(I (j )p u )(x )=p k =0u (x 1,...,x j −1,t (j )k ,x j +1,...,x d )L (j )k (x j )Note that I (j )pinherits the stabilityI (j )p v ∞≤Λp v ∞for v ∈C (B )(3.6)and the approximation propertyv −I (j )p ∞≤ b j −a j 2 p +12−p(p +1)! ∂p +1j u ∞≤4−p 2(p +1)!diam(B )p +1 ∂p +1ju ∞for v ∈C p +1(B )(3.7)from the one dimensional case.With the representationu −I p u =u −d j =1I (j )p u=d k =1k −1 j =1I (j )p (u −I (k )p u )we obtain by use of (3.6)–(3.7)u −I p u ∞≤d k =1k −1 j =1I (j )p (u −I (k )p u ) ∞≤d k =1Λk −1p u −I (k )p u ∞≤4−p 2(p +1)!diam(B )p +1d k =1Λk −1p ∂p +1k u ∞which proves the lemma.Exercise.Prove that Equation (2.8)from page 10holds for our tensorial interpolation approach.To that end,prove that I p is a projection onto P p ([a 1,b 1])⊗···⊗P p ([a d ,b d ]).23.2Asymptotically Smooth KernelsDefinition.A kernel function κ(x,y )is asymptotically smooth provided there are constants c 1,c 2>0and the order of singularity s ∈R such that|∂αx∂βy κ(x,y )|≤c 1(c 2|x −y |)−(|α|+|β|+s )(α+β)!(3.8)for all multi-indices α,β∈N d 0with |α|+|β|≥1.Example.(i)The kernel κ(x,y )=|x −y |−s is asymptotically smooth with c 1=1=c 2.(ii)The kernel κ(x,y )=log |x −y |is asmypotically smooth with c 1=c 2=s =1.(iii)Any partial derivative κ(x,y )of an asymptotically smooth kernel κis again asymptotically smooth with constants c 2=c 2+εand c 1= c 1(c 1,c 2,ε)with arbitrary ε>0.217。
如何学会公开关系英语作文
如何学会公开关系英语作文How to Learn Public Relations English。
Public relations (PR) is an essential part of any organization or business. It is the practice ofestablishing and maintaining positive relationships between the organization and its stakeholders, including customers, employees, investors, and the public. As a result, PR professionals must have excellent communication skills, particularly in English, which is the lingua franca of international business. Here are some tips on how to learn PR English effectively.1. Build Your Vocabulary。
PR professionals must have a wide vocabulary to be able to communicate effectively with different stakeholders. Start by learning and memorizing key PR terms, such as crisis management, media relations, stakeholder engagement, and brand reputation. You can use flashcards or onlinetools like Quizlet to help you memorize these terms.2. Read Widely。
细叶小羽藓体内含氮量与大气氮沉降对应关系的研究
中国野生植物资源
Chinese Wild Plant Resources
doi: 10.3969/j. issn. 1006 -9690.2021.06.007
Vol. 40 No. 6 Jun. 2021
细叶小羽薛体内含氮量与大气氮沉降对应关系的研究
周晓丽"，许稳3,温章j刘学军j曹琼月打方炎明"
大气氮沉降主要包括湿沉降和干沉降两种形 式。大气N湿沉降（Wet deposition）是指大气中气态 和颗粒态N通过降雨或降雪的冲刷到达地表。大气 N干沉降（Dry deposition）是指大气中气态和颗粒态 N在未发生降水时,受重力、颗粒物吸附、植物气孔 吸收等一些大气过程传输到地表。Flechard等⑷和 Vet等⑸研究发现，干沉降约占总沉降量的2/3,所 以忽略干沉降势必会低估大气N的总沉降量。氮化 合物在大气中主要以氧化或还原形式存在。氧化形 式主要有降水中的硝酸盐（N（V）,气体中的二氧化 氮（NO?）、硝酸（HNO3）,以及气溶胶中的硝酸盐 （N03-）o氧化氮的主要人为来源是交通运输、工业 及能源生产，估计贡献了高达70%的氧化氮排放 *［6］o还原形式主要有降水中的^（NH4 +）,气体中 的氨气⑴比），以及气溶胶中的钱（NJV）。还原氮 的人为来源主要与农业活动有关，比如畜牧业及肥 料的生产和应用⑺。推算法是目前世界上各地监测
—36 —
第6期
周晓丽，等:细叶小羽薛体内含氮量与大气氮沉降对应关系的研究
monitoring method as an effective complement means to assess atmospheric nitrogen deposition, allowing for higher spatial resolution to determine changes in atmospheric nitrogen deposition, including in coun tries or areas where atmospheric heavy metals and nitrogen deposition monitoring networks are not estab lished. Key words Biomonitoring ； Haplocladium microphyllum ； Nitrogen concentration ； Atmospheric nitrogen deposition ； Congruent relationship
阿拉斯加铁路公司（ARRC）安全区说明说明书
2019
Safety and Security
The Alaska Railroad (ARRC) engages employees, customers and business partners in a Safe Zone, where we deliver and receive services in the safest manner possible. ARRC upholds safety as a fundamental value. Keeping each other safe is the responsibilty of each employee at every level. Toward that end, employees are expected to be aware of their surroundings and to act immediately to eliminate unsafe conditions and to prevent the risk of injury in the workplace. Maintaining a Safe Zone means:
cooperative ventures with public safety and school organizations. In recent years, ARRC has teamed up with OL to conduct public safety campaigns. The 2013 campaign took advantage of a national OL grant that helped to fund a $26,000 Summer Rail Safety Campaign. Since then, annual public safety campaigns funded entirely by ARRC begin early summer and last into late fall. Through traditional advertising, medica relations and social media avenues, annual public track safety campaigns continue to echo the recently updated OL message “See Tracks? Think Train.”
语言学中的名词解释总结
1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2. general linguistics: The study of language as a whole.3. applied linguistics: the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.4. prescriptive:If linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, ,it is said to be prescriptive.( i.e. to tell people what they should and should notIt’s a historical study of language,it studies the historical development of language over a period of time. (06C)8. langue: Lange refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.（08F/09C）linguistic competence:universally found in the grammars of all human languages,syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker. competence有什么区别？？11. performance : The actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.12. language : Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.13. design features : Design features refer to the defining properties of human language thatsounds.(08C)15. productivity: Language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by it’s users.16. duality（double articulation）: Language consists of two sets of structure, with lower lever ofsituation of the speaker.( regardless of time or space) (04)18. cultural transmission: The capacity for language is genetically based while the details of any language system have to be taught and learned.( Language is culturally transmitted rather than by instinct).19.Sociolinguistics: the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with society from the core of the branch.20.Psycholinguistics: the study of language processing, comprehending and production, as well as language acquisition.municative competence:the ability to use language appropriately in social situations.1. phonic medium : The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication constitute the phonetic medium of language.(and the individual sounds withinIt studies sounds from the speaker’s point of view, i.e. how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds. (03)4. auditory phonetics:The studies sounds from the hearer’s point of view, i.e. how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.5. acoustic phonetics: It studies the physical properties of the stream of sounds which the speaker issues.或者It studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves,the physical means by which sounds are transimitted through the air from one person to another)6. voicing: the way that sounds are produced with the vibration of the vocal cords.7. voiceless: the way that sounds are produced with no vibration of the vocal cords.8. broad transcription: The use of letter symbols only to show the sounds or sounds sequences in written form.9. narrow transcription: The use of letter symbol, together with the diacritics to show sounds in written form.10. diacritics: The symbols used to show detailed articulatory features of sounds.11. IPA: short for International Phonetic Alphabets, a system of symbols consists of letters and diacritics, used to represent the pronunciation of words in any language.12. aspiration: A little puff of air that sometimes follows a speech sound.13. manner of articulation : The manner in which obstruction is created.14. place of articulation : The place where obstruction is created.15. consonant: a speech sound in which the air stream is obstructed in one way or another.16. vowel : a speech sound in which the air stream from the lung meets with no obstruction.moving one vowel position to another through intervening positions.(08F)19. phone: A phonetic unit,the speech sounds we hear and produce during linguisticabstract phonological unit that is of distinctive value;it’s represented by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. (06F/ 04)patterns and function to distinguish and convey meaning.(06C)23. phonemic contrast : two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning,they form phonemic contrast.24. complementary distribution :allophones of the same phoneme and they don’t distinguish meaning but complement each other in distribution.25. minimal pair: two different forms are identical in every way except forone sound segment which occurs in the same position.26. sequential rules: The rules to govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.27. assimilation rule: The rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.28. deletion rule: The rule that a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographicallysegments(syllable, word, sentence),including stress tone intonation.(08F)30. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.31. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they’re col lectively known as intonation.32. nucleus: It refers to the major pitch change in an intonation unit.32. minimal set: sound combinations which are identical in form except for the initial consonant together constitute a minimal set.1. morphology: A branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words and rules forcan be added to it constantly.(08C)3. closed class: A group of words whose membership is small and does not readily accept new members,including conjunctions ,prepositions ,pronouns.etc.4. morpheme: The smallest unit of meaning of a language. It can not be divided without altering or destroying its meaning.5. affix: a letter or a group of letter, which is added to a word, and which changes the meaning or function of the word, including prefix, infix and suffix.6. suffix: The affix, which is added to the end of a word, and which usually changes the part of speech of a word.7. prefix: The affix, which is added to the beginning of a word, and which usually changes the meaning of a word to its opposite.8. bound morpheme: Morpheme that can not be used alone, and it must be combined wit others.（07F）10. derivational morpheme: Bound morpheme, which can be added to a stem to form a newcategories, such as number, tense and case.(but never change their syntactic category).(08F) 12. morphological rules: The ways words are formed. These rules determine how morphemes combine to form words.indicate such grammatical categories as numuber,tense or pluarity. (04)15.Derivation: Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.1. syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. category: It refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.3. syntactic categories: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories.4. major lexical category: one type of word level categories, which often assumed to be the heads around which phrases are built, including N, V, Adj, and Prep.5. minor lexical category: one type of word level categories, which helps or modifies major lexical category.6. phrase: syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase, the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.7. phrase category: the phrase that is formed by combining with words of different categories.(In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are NP, VP, PP, AP.)8. head: The word round which phrase is formed is termed head.9. specifier: The words on the left side of the heads and attached to the top levelare said to function as specifiers.10. complement: The words on the right side of the heads are complements.11. phrase structure rule:The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.12. XP rule: In all phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of the head while the complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarized as an XP rule, in which X stands for the head N,V,A or P.13. X^ theory: A theoretical concept in transformational grammar which restricts the form of context-free phrases structure rules.14. coordination: Some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same typeand or or. Such phenomenon is known as coordination.)The information about a word’s complement is included in the head andcomplementizer.(08F/09C)17. complement clause: The sentence introduced by the complementizer is called a complement clause.18. complement phrase: the elements, including a complementizer and a complement clause is called a complement phrase.19. matrix clause: the contrusction in which the complement phrase is embedded is called matrix clause.20. modifier: the element, which specifies optionally expressible properties of heads is called modifier.21. transformation : a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.22. inversion : the process of transformation that moves the auxiliary from the Infl position to a position to the left of the subject, is called inversion.23. Do insertion : In the process of forming yes-no question that does not contain an overt Infl,from appropriate transformations. (05)26. Wh question : In English, the kind of questions beginning with a wh- word are called wh question.27. Wh movement :The transformation that will move wh phrase from its position in deep structure to a position at the beginning of the sentence. This transformation is called wh movement.28. moveα: a general rule for all th e movement rules, where ‘alpha‘ is a cover term foe any element that can be moved from one place to another.补充29. universal grammar: the innateness principles and properties that pertain to the grammars of all human languages.第十一章30.structural analysis: to investigate the distinction of forms eg.morphemesin a language.31.IC analysis: how small components in sentences go together to form larger constituents.32.paradigmatic relation: the substitutional relation between a set of linguistic items,thatis,linguistic forms can be substitued for each other in the same positon.33.syntagmatic relation: the relation between any linguisticelements which are simultaneously present in a structure.34.immidiate constituent analysis（直接成分分析法）is the technique of breaking up sentences向心结构或内心结构) One construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents. The typical English endocentric constructions are noun phrases and adjective phrases.（03）36.exocentric construction(离心结构或外心结构) the opposite of endocentric construction,refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the whole group. Most constructions are exocentric.1. semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.2. Semantic triangle: It is suggested by Odgen and Richards, which says that the meaning of a word is not directly linked between a linguistic form and the object in the real world, but through the mediation of concept of the mind.3. sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form. It is abstract and de-contexturalized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.4. reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world. It deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.5. synonymy: Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are7. stylistic synonyms: synonyms that differ in style, or degree of formality.8. collocational synonyms: Synonyms that differ in their colllocation, i.e., in the words they gohave the same form. i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. (04)11. homophones: When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.12. homographs: When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.13. complete homonymy: When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms.14. hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.15. superordinate: The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate;and the more specific words are called its hyponyms;hyponyms of the same superordinate areco-hyponyms to each other.16. co-hyponyms: Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms.17. antonymy: The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning.18. gradable antonyms: Some antonyms are gradable because there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair.( e.g, antonyms old and young, between them there exist middle-aged, mature, elderly.)19. complementary antonyms: a pair of antonyms that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other. It is a matter of either one or the other.20. relational opposites: Pairs if words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items are called relational opposites. For example, husband---wife, father---son, buy---sell, let---rent, above---below.the truth of the other. E.g. Cindy killed the dog entails the dog is dead.(07F)或者Entailment is a relation of inclusion.If X entails Y,then the meaning of X is included in Y.22. presupposition: What a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of the massage already knows to make an utterance meaningful or appropriate。
Introduction to Pólya Enumeration Theory
The result is: PG (x1 , x2 , x3 , x6 ) = 1 x6 + 3x2 x2 + 2x2 + 4x3 + 2x6 . 1 2 3 2 12 1
14
Group Sn Cn Dn
1 n! 1 n 1 2 PCn (x1 , x2 , . . . )
Cycle Index
10
Step 4
P´lya’s Enumeration Theorem says that the number of distinct o k-colorings is PG (k, k, k, k) = 1 7 (k + 2k 6 + 2k 4 + 2k 3 + k 5 ) 8 k3 4 (k + 2k 3 + k 2 + 2k + 2) = 8 k3 (k + 1)(k 3 + k 2 + 2) = 8
H
There are three distinct compounds with the formula C6 H4 Br2 .
2
Example
R R
R
Figure 1: Common sense says that these the two bracelets on the left are the “same”, the third bracelet is “different”
P´lya Theory o
Formally: P´lya Theory counts equivalence classes, where the o equivalence classes are induced by group actions. Since groups describe symmetry, P´lya Theory is counting the number of o distinct objects in the presence of symmetry. Informally: P´lya Theory does “common sense” counting. o
Open Problems with PartWhole Relations
Alessandro Artale and Enrico Franconi
IRST, I-38050 Povo TN, Italy
Nicola Guarino
Ladseb-CNR
artale(irst.itc.it franconi(irst.itc.it
tions so that, for example, the composition of Member/Collection with Component/Object results in the Component/Object relation. In order to express such interactions, complex roles are needed; the language CI is enough to express these requirements. However, in order to express also disjointness among di erent part-whole relations, conjunction of roles is needed: such language is at least as expressive as T SLR [Schild, 1991], which is still an open problem. More generally, it is useful to di erentiate among several di erent part names: while modeling composite individuals it seems natural to give speci c names to attributes denoting parts [Artale et al., 1996]. In the domain of artifacts, we can consider for example the individual car1 of type Car. A rst modeling choice amount to saying that it has a part which is a wheel: Car(car1 ) ^ wheel1 car1 ^ Wheel(wheel1 ) On the other hand, a second modeling choice can make use of the attribute HAS-WHEEL: Car(car1 ) ^ HAS-WHEEL(car1 wheel1 ) ^ Wheel(wheel1 ) In this latter case, we have the hidden assumption that HAS-WHEEL is a kind of part attribute: 8 . HAS-WHEEL( ) ! Under such assumption, the latter formulation implies the former. The possibility of expressing hierarchies of roles is needed, and in particular for the transitive role. The sub-part role can be simulated with role conjunction involving the transitive role, which is still { as said before { an open problem. Another way to represent the part-whole relation, is to have a speci c transitive role in the language, without having at the same time the primitive direct part relation. This extension has been analyzed in [Sattler, 1996]; it is in correspondence with the union of multimodal K and S4 { i.e. K4n . Satis ability and susbumption in ALC with transitive roles have been proved to be PSPACE-complete. This approach seems de nitely to be more promising from a complexity point of view. Another point in favor of this approach is the debatable status of the direct part-whole relation in a conceptual modeling framework: we do not see the usefulness of having the direct part-whole relation in an ontology of the physical world.
英语语言学知识点整理
★Haliday—child language. Macrofunctions: ideational, interpersonal, textual.★what are major branches of linguistics? what does each study?Phonetics----the study of the phonic medium of language, it’s concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.Phonology---the study of sounds systems—the inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall.Morphology---It’s a branch of a grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.Syntax-------it's a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of a language.Semantics---It’s simply defined as the study of meaning in abstraction.Pragmatics---the study of meaning in context of words. The study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.Sociolinguistics—the study of language with reference to society.Psycholinguistics---the study of language with reference to the working of the mind. Applied linguistics---the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning.Chapter2 Phonology★three branches of phonetics:①Articulatory —describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ. ②Auditory-–studies the physical properties of speech sounds, reaches the important conclusion that phonetic identity is only a theoretical ideal. ③Acoustic-–studies the physical properties of speech sounds ,the way sound travel from the speaker to the hearer.★Organs of Speech : Pharyngeal cavity–咽腔Oral cavity–口腔greatest source of modification of air stream found here Nasal cavity–鼻腔★Broad transcription: The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only. (leaf /l/)★Narrow transcription: The transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics.(dark /l/~)★Phonetics and Phonology区别: are concerned with the same aspect of language- the speech sounds. ①Phonetics: it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; phonetic features they possess; how they can be classified, etc. ②Phonology: it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.★rules in Phonology:①Sequential rules: Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. ②Assimilation rules: The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by’ copying ’a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.③Deletion rule: It’s a phonological rule which tells us when a sound is to be deleted although its orthographically represented.★Suprasegmental超切分特征: The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called suprasegmental features. the main suprasegmental features include stress ,intonation and tone. (intonation: when pitch, stress and sound lenth are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation. //tone: Tone are pitch variations, which arecaused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Tone is a suprasegmental feature.)Chapter3 Morphology★open class words: new words can be added to these classes regularly. Such as nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. Such as Beatnik. Closed class words:conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns consist of the grammatical or functional words. The number of such words is small and stable since few new words are added.Chapter4 Syntax★determine a word’s category:①meaning. Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. The meaning associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives.(pretty lady, attribute the property “pretty” to the lady.)②inflection. Words of different categories take different inflections. Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as work and help take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix -ing. ③distribution. That is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. For example, the girl and a card ④小结 A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.★phrase包括: head, specifier, complement. ①The word round which phrase is formed is termed head. ②The words on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifiers. Specifiers have both special semantic and syntactic roles: Semantically, they help make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, they typically make a phrase boundary. ③The words on the right side of the heads are complements. Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head. They are attached to the right of the head in English.★phrase structure rule: The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.★XP rule: In all phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of the head while the complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarized as an XP rule, in which X stands for the head N,V,A or P.(XP-----> (specifier) X (complement))★coordination rule: Some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and or or. Such phenomenon is known as coordination. Such structure are called coordination structure. (Four important properties: ①There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction. ②A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated. ③Coordinated categories must be of the same type. ④The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.) Coordination Rule: X------ > X *Con X)★deep structure and surface structure: There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). //The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is calledsurface structure (or S-structure).Chapter 5 Semantics★The naming theory:(Greek scholar Plato) According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for, so words are just names or labels for things.★The conceptualist view: It holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather ,in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.★Contextualism: (J.R. Firth) people should be studied in terms of situation, use, context —elements closely linked with language behaviour. It’s based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. two kinds of context: the situational and the linguistic context. {A) the situational context: Every utterance occurs in a particular situation, the main components of which include, the speaker and the hearer, the actions they are performing, the various objects and events existent in the situation.-----The seal could not be found. B) the linguistic context: co-text, is concerned with the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation with another word, which forms part of the “meaning” of the word, and also with the part of text that precedes and follows a particular utterance.-----black coffer& black hair.}★Sense refers to the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, which is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form, it’s abstract and de-contextualized. //Reference is what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world, it is a matter of relationship between the form and reality. //关系: ①Linguistic forms, having the same sense, may have different reference in different situations. ②Linguistic forms with the same reference may differ in sense.-----morning star= evening star. ③Linguistic forms may have sense, but have no reference in the real world.------dragon, ghost.★Hyponymy:It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. the word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms.★X entails Y: entailment: the relationship between two sentences where the truth of one is inferred from the truth of the other. E.g. Cindy killed the dog entails the dog is dead. (X :John married a blond heiress. Y: John married a blond.)★componential analysis:an approach to analyze the lexical meaning into a set of meaning components or semantic features. For example, boy may be shown as [+human] [+male] [-adult]. semantic features:The smallest units of meaning in a word, which may be described as a combination of semantic components. For example, woman has the semantic features [+human] [-male] [+adult]. //Advantages: by specifying the semantic features of certain word, it will be possible to show how these words are related in meaning.★Predication Analysis:①The meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components, that is, the meaning of a sentence is not to be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its constituent words. E.g: The dog bit the man. & The man bit the dog.②There are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning and semantic meaning. Grammaticality: grammatical (well-formedness); Semantically meaningful:selectional restrictions. (selectional restriction: Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by the rules called selectional restrictions, i.e. constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.)……(consist of predicate and argument)Chapter 6 pragmatics★Context(John Firth): The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language, it’s generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. ★Speech act theory(John Austin)★Searle’s Classification of Speech Acts: 1 representatives: Stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true. 2 directives: Trying to get the hearer to do something. 3 commisives: Committing the speaker himself to some future course of action. 4 expressives: Expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state. 5 declaration: Bring about immediate changes by saying something. ///Conclusion: All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose but differ in their strength or force.★cooperative Principle (CP): Proposed by Paul Grice, the principle that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate in making conversation, otherwise, it would be impossible to carry on the talk.★Historical linguistics: a branch of linguistics, is mainly concerned with both the description and explanation of language changes that occurred over time.★semantic broadening: when the meaning of a word becomes broader, it may include all the meanings it used to mean, and then more. Such as holiday, which originally meant holy day, but it means any day which we don’t have to work.★semantic narrowing:semantic change has narrowed the meaning of some words. such as deer(any animal—a particular kind of animal)★semantic shif t: a lexical item may undergo a shift in meaning is the third kind of semantic change.★sociolinguistics: is the sub-field of linguistic that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.★Inter-relationship between language and society:A) language is used not only to communicate meaning, but also establish and maintain social relationships. B) Users of the same language in a sense all speak differently, due to their social backgrounds. C) Language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both the physical and the social environments of a society. E.g. there is only one word in English for snow, and there are several in Eskimo.D) Language is related to the structure if the society in which it is used, therefore, judgments concerning the correctness and purity of linguistic varieties are social rather than linguistic. E.g. the use of postvocalic [r] in England and in New York city.★speech community: the social group that is singled out for any special study.★speech variety: refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers. i.e. regional dialects, sociolects, registers★Register: in a restricted sense, refers to the variety of language related to one’s occupation. In a broader sense, the type of language which is selected as appropriate tothe type of situation is a register. {A) Field of discourse---- topic: the purpose and subject matter of the communicative behavior.---- why/ what---vocabulary, phonological, grammatical featuresB) Tenor of discourse---- role: participants and in what relationship they stand to each other.---- formality/ technicality of the language we use. C) Mode of discourse ---- means of communication.-----how ( speaking or writing).}★degree of formality: intimate; casual; consultative; formal; frozen★culture: A）In a broad sense: Culture means the total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of the human community. B) In a narrow sense: Culture may refer to a local or specific practice, beliefs or customs, which can be mostly found in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture etc.★The relationship between language and culture:①language as an integral part of human being permeates his thinking and way of viewing the world. It both expresses and embodies cultural reality. ②reflects and affects a culture’s way of thinking and helps perpetuate and change the culture and its influence, which also facilitates the development of this language at the same time. ③language is a part of culture.★Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: A belief that the way people view the world is determined wholly or partly by their structure of their native language.------interdependence of language and thought….(there are two a strong version and a weak one. The strong version believes that language patterns determine people’s thinking and behavior. The weak one holds that the former influences the later.)★Greetings and terms of address: A) People in different countries choose the proper greetings to greet different people they meet on different occasions. B) The terms of address can be different in different countries. C) Chinese people will also extend kinship terms and indicate people’s influential status.★cultural overlap: The situation between two societies due to some similarities in the natural environment and psychology of human being★cultural diffusion: Through communication, some elements of culture A enter culture B and become part of culture B, thus bringing about cultural diffusion.★linguistics imperialism: it is a kind of kind of linguicism which can be defined as the promulgation of global ideologies through the world-wide expansion of one language. ★language acquisition: It refers to the child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community. (the behaviourist, the innatist{ LAD= Language Acquisition Device}, the interactionist view{motherese, child directed speech, caretaker talk}★under-extension: Use a word with less than its usual range of denotation. E.g, baby uses animal to refer to cat, but denies the bird belongs to an animal.★over-extension:Extension of the meaning of a word beyond its usual domain of application by young children. E.g, baby uses apple for all fruit.★Atypical Development:hearing impairment, mental retardation, autism, stuttering, aphasia, dyslexia, dysgraphia.★second language acquisition:It refers to the systematic study of how one personacquires a second language subsequent to his native language.★Connection between first language acquisition and second language acquisition: ①Theoretically----The new findings and advances in fist language acquisition especially in learning theories and learning process are illuminating in understanding second language acquisition. ②Practically------The techniques used to collect and analyze data in first language acquisition also provide insights and perspectives in the study of second language acquisition. ③second language acquisition is different from first language acquisition and the second language learners generally fail to attain native-like competence.★interlanguage: A type of language produced by second and foreign language learners, who are in the process of learning a language, and this type of language usually contains wrong expressions. It is also called learner language.-- its main feature is fossilization.★overgeneralization: The use of previously available strategies in new situations, in which they are unacceptable. E.g: Jane suggested me to give up smoking (×).★cross-association: some words are similar in meaning as well as spelling and pronunciation. This internal interference is called cross-association. E.g. The apricot is too sour to eat it(×).★Individual Differences:①Language aptitude ②motivation（instrumental motivation; integrative motivation; resultative motivation; intrinsic motivation pleasure from learning.）③learning strategie (cognitive strategies; metacognitive strategies; affect/ social strategies) ④Age of Acquisition. ⑤Personality★Neurolinguistics: is the study of language disorders and the relationship between the brain and language. It includes research into how the structure of the brain influences language learning, how and in which parts of the brain language is stored, and how damage to the brain affects the ability to use language.★Aphasia refers to a number of acquired language disorder due to the cerebral lesions caused by vascular problems, a tumor, an accident and so on.★psycholinguistics is the study of psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language. It concerns the representation of language in the mind, the planning, production, perception and comprehension of speech, and language acquisition.front central backClose (high) i:I u:uSemi-close(middle)eз:Semi-open(middle) əo:Open (low)æΛoa:。
Multi-Perspective Question Answering
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Attitude Expression
The Source (writer, speaker, another person an institution, a document The Object (entities, actions, propositions, topic, context) Attitudes – Different typologies
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Two Ways of Expressing Private States
Explicit mentions of private states and speech events
The United States fears a spill-over from the antiterrorist campaign The part of the US human rights report about China is full of absurdities and fabrications.
Bruce Fraser Diane Litman David Pierce Ellen Riloff Theresa Wilson
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Part I: Overview
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Problem
Finding and organizing opinions in the world press and other text
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Attitude Typologies
Negative (reject); Positive (enjoy); Other (surprise) Opinion (criticize); Emotions (fear); Speculation (probably) Other (must, poor, better)
Lecture 4 Register Theory
Spoken from written
– Speeches, announcements
Spoken spontaneously
16
Mode relates to …
Lexis and grammar
– There are things that you say but you wouldn’t write down and vice versa
8
Register is a fuzzy concept
No distinct boundaries in registers We cannot easily define and name specific registers Rather, “register” refers to a set of tendencies determining language at all levels The tendencies being related principally to field, mode and tenor
– Variety due to user (accent, dialect) – Variety due to use
Halliday (1964) defines register in terms of field, tenor and mode.
4
Halliday on Field
The FIELD is the total event, in which the text is functioning, together with the purposive (= purposeful) activity of the speaker or writer; it thus includes the subject-matter as one element in it.
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Financial
Public Affairs and Government
Not-forProfit
Corporate
Emerging Trends
Introduction to Public Relations
Evaluation
In Part Two—Chapter 8, Our Focus Is Evaluation
Evaluation Is Used To Answer…
What remains to be done?
What have we accomplished?
What benchmarks can help us next time?
Slide 6 of 50
Introduction to Public Relations
• Post-testing messages by using survey techniques to
Slide 11 of 50
Introduction to Public Relations
Evaluation
Using Research Results
The public relations practice is cyclical in nature. Research data from the first cycle form the basis for planning subsequent efforts. Changes may be made in:
Targeted audiences are exposed to messages.
Non-targeted audiences receive messages.
Slide 19 of 50
Now we’ll look at audience response …
Introduction to Public Relations
Evaluation
Web-based Media Analysis
• Hook Media provides us with
an objective online tool for measuring the effectiveness of a Web-based media campaign.
Evaluation
Evaluating Program Progress
• Determine program effectiveness. • Identify unanticipated results. • Assess their impact on overall outcome. • Make adjustments as necessary.
Introduction to Public Relations
Evaluation
Four Measurement Strategies …
• The extent audiences are covered • Levels of audience response • The impact of the campaign as a whole • The extent of environmental influences
Introduction to Public Relations
Evaluation
The National Youth Anti-Drug Media Campaign
Click on the image to see how the National Youth Anti-Drug Campaign conducted its evaluation.
• Should the plan be modified or … • Can the discrepancies otherwise be corrected?
Slide 14 of 50
In-progress monitoring is similarly handled…
Introduction to Public Relations
Slide 18 of 50
We’ll examine them individually …
Introduction to Public Relations
Evaluation
Audience Coverage Is Measured By …
Maintaining complete records of messages sent and media usage to determine the extent that…
History
Strategic Planning
Theory
Law and Ethics
Chapter 8 falls here.
Slide 3 of 50
Action and Communication
Evaluation
Media Relations
Employee Relations
Community Relations
Evaluation
Charting a PR Media Campaign’s Measurable Results
Received message Changed opinions Changed behavior
158,000 4,525 253
Slide 10 of 50
Introduction to Public Relations
Objectives and Strategies
Measurement Techniques
Results
Response
Slide 8 of 50
Introduction to Public Relations
Evaluation
Evaluating Results
Evaluating research can tell:
Slide 2 of 50
A Conceptual Schema for Studying Public Relations
Part 1
Part 2
The Profession The Process
Part 3
The Publics
Part 4
The Practice
Introduction
Research
• How many audience members received messages. • How many changed an attitude or opinion. • How many changed behavior.
Slide 9 of 50
Introduction to Public Relations
We will learn the different ways to evaluate the results of a campaign and how to measure those results in order to prove a campaign’s value.
Slide 4 of 50
• Let’s look at an
evaluation of the HIV/AIDS campaign in Zaire, Africa.
• Click on the
image and see how they rated their success.
Slide 17 of 50
Now we’ll look at how results are measured …
programs or program cycles.
Slide 16 of 50
Measuring HIV campaign in Zaire…
Introduction to Public Relations
Evaluation
Evaluating the HIV/AIDS Campaign in Zaire
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Introduction to Public Relations
Evaluation
Evaluating Implementation
• Is implementation being conducted as planned? • After variations are analyzed and explained …
Introduction to Public Relations
Evaluation
Today’s Learning Objectives
• Understanding the need for evaluation
• Learning the ways in which evaluation is
Introduction to Public Relations
Part Two Public Relations…The Process
Chapter 8 Evaluating Public Relat of 50
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• Program strategies and/or tactics • Targeted audiences • Media and messages • The organization’s products, services, policies, or
procedures
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conducted
• Knowing closed system and open system