Work and Simple Machines - Jefferson Lab
机械原理英语
机械原理英语Mechanical Principles in English。
Mechanical principles are the foundation of engineering and technology. Understanding these principles is crucial for anyone working in the field of mechanical engineering. In this document, we will discuss some of the key mechanical principles in English.First and foremost, it is important to understand the concept of force. Force is a vector quantity that can cause an object to accelerate, decelerate, or change direction. It is measured in units of newtons and is represented by the symbol F. The magnitude and direction of a force are essential in determining its effect on an object.Next, let's consider the concept of work and energy. Work is done when a force acts on an object to move it a certain distance. The amount of work done is equal to the force applied multiplied by the distance moved in the direction of the force. Energy, on the other hand, is the ability to do work. There are different forms of energy, including kinetic energy (energy of motion) and potential energy (energy of position).Another important mechanical principle is the study of simple machines. Simple machines are basic mechanical devices that apply a force to accomplish work. The six types of simple machines are the lever, wheel and axle, pulley, inclined plane, wedge, and screw. These simple machines can be combined to create more complex machines that make work easier.Furthermore, it is crucial to understand the concept of mechanical advantage. Mechanical advantage is a measure of the force amplification achieved by using a tool, mechanical device, or machine system. It is calculated by dividing the output force by the input force. Understanding mechanical advantage is essential for designing and optimizing mechanical systems.Additionally, the study of motion and its principles is fundamental in mechanical engineering. Motion is described in terms of displacement, velocity, and acceleration.The laws of motion, formulated by Sir Isaac Newton, are the foundation of classical mechanics. These laws describe the relationship between the motion of an object and the forces acting on it.Moreover, the study of fluid mechanics is essential in understanding the behavior of fluids (liquids and gases) and their interactions with solid objects. Fluid mechanics plays a crucial role in various engineering applications, including the design of pumps, turbines, and hydraulic systems.In conclusion, the study of mechanical principles in English is essential for anyone working in the field of mechanical engineering. Understanding concepts such as force, work and energy, simple machines, mechanical advantage, motion, and fluid mechanicsis crucial for designing and optimizing mechanical systems. By mastering these principles, engineers can develop innovative solutions to complex engineering problems and contribute to the advancement of technology and society.。
斯蒂芬P罗宾斯管理学归纳
管理者：是在组织中工作并指挥别人工作(d e)人.组织(de)特性：任何组织都有明确(de)目(de)；任何组织都是由人组成(de)；任何组织都发育出一种系统性结构.组织也可表述为：具有明确目(de)、由人组成(de)和具有系统性结构(de)实体.管理者与操作者管理者（Managers)：是在组织中工作并指挥别人工作(de)人.作为管理者一定有下属.操作者(Operatives)：是在组织中直接从事某项工作或任务,不具有监督其他人工作(de)职责(de)人.操作者没有下属.什么是管理与管理者(de)工作1．什么是管理管理（Management）：是管理者为实现组织目标同别人一起,或通过别人使组织活动完成得更加有效(de)过程.在这一过程中管理者发挥计划、组织、领导、控制等职能.管理(de)有效性：管理效率与管理效果(de)统一性a)效率（Efficiency）：指输入与输出(de)关系.在既定输入条件下,输出越大,效率越高.在管理中输入(de)是具有稀缺性(de)资源,提高效率意味着对稀缺性资源(de)有效利用.b)效果（Effectiveness）：指管理活动在实现组织目标过程中所达到(de)结果. 2．管理者(de)工作管理者(de)工作是指管理者在实现组织目标过程中具体做什么存在两种基本理论：管理职能理论；管理者角色理论.a)管理职能(Management functions)理论：从管理过程(de)角度表述管理者是做什么(de).许多管理学者对此有自己(de)看法.b)管理者角色（Management roles）理论：60年代末期,亨利·明茨伯格提出.从管理者在管理中充当(de)角色来表述管理者是做什么(de).斯蒂芬·P·罗宾斯(de)关于管理(de)四个基本职能计划组织领导协调5．管理者工作(de)特殊性不同(de)管理层次、同(de)组织类型、同(de)组织规模、同国度(de)组织早期(de)管理实践与思想（——19世纪末）亚当斯密（Adam Smith）在 1776年发表(de)国富论着作中提出,劳动分工（Division of Labor）能提高劳动生产率,组织和社会将从劳动分工中获得巨大经济利益(de)光辉论断.古典管理理论阶段——20世纪前半期四大流派：１．科学管理学派奠基人：美国(de)泰罗（）----被称为“科学管理之父”代表作：1911年,科学管理原理2．一般行政管理学派代表人物：法国(de)亨利·法约尔（Henri Fayol）----被称为“现代经营管理理论之父”代表作：1916年,工业管理与一般管理他明确提出管理工作(de)五大职能——计划、组织、指挥、协调、控制代表人物：德国(de)马克斯·韦伯（Max Weber）----被称为“组织理论之父”代表作：社会和经济组织(de)理论３．人力资源（Human Resources）管理学派早期(de)倡导者 (Early advocates)①罗伯特·欧文（Ｒobert Ｏwen)－他认为关心雇员既能为管理当局带来高利润,同时又能减轻人们(de)痛苦.②雨果·明斯特伯格（Hugo Munsterberg）--- 心理学与工业效率（1912）开创了工业心理学领域,研究如何使生产率和个人心理调适达到最大.③玛丽·帕克·福莱特（Mary Parker Follett）--认为管理者(de)任务是调和与协调群体(de)努力,管理者和工人应将他们看作是共同群体(de)一部分.④切斯特·巴纳德（Chester·Barnard）--经理(de)职能将组织视为一个社会系统,这个系统要提高效率需要人们之间(de)合作.从而将古典管理观点与人力资源联系起来.人际关系学说(de)创立代表人物：美国哈佛大学教授埃尔顿·梅奥（ Elton Mayo 1880-1949）霍桑试验：第1阶段：变换照明条件试验（1924—1927）——照明强度增加或减少试验组与对照组(de)产量都增加.只有当光线降到月光水平时,试验组(de)产量才降低.——结论：（1）工场(de)照明只是影响工人生产效率(de)一项微不足道(de)因素（2）照明对产量(de)影响无法准确测量,即工作条件(de)好坏与劳动生产率没有直接关系第2阶段：继电器装配室试验（1927—1928)试验各种工作条件(de)变动对小组生产率(de)影响：如改进材料供应方法、增加工间休息、供应午餐和茶点、缩短工作时间、实行团体计件工资制等,在工作时间内大家可以互相自由交谈,产量上升.取消了这些条件之后,产量仍维持在高水平上.结论：督导方法(de)改变使工人(de)态度有所变化,因而产量增加.第3阶段：大规模(de)访问与调查（1928—1931）两年多时间里,两万多人次(de)普查与访问.结论：任何一位员工(de)工作绩效,都受到其他人(de)影响第4阶段：接线板接线工作室试验（1931—1932）采取集体计件工资制刺激大部分成员都自行限制产量标准7312个接点实际6000—6600个接点（1）怕标准再度提高（2）怕失业（3）保护速度慢(de)同伴工人对不同(de)上级持不同态度成员中存在着一些小派系结论：人们(de)生产效率不仅要受到物质条件和环境(de)影响更重要(de)是受社会因素和心理因素等方面(de)影响.霍桑试验(de)结论1)由“经济人”假设到“社会人”假设,工人是“社会人”而不仅仅是“经济人”2)生产率(de)提高和降低,主要取决于人(de)士气3)组织中存在非正式组织4)新型(de)领导在于提高工人(de)满足度,从而激发工人(de)劳动积极性4．定量管理学派（方法）管理理论在当代面临(de)挑战与变化管理(de)全球化与工作人员多样化要激励、提高效率、满足需要就必须认识、尊重承认多样化(de)差别跨文化管理中(de)沟通与激励道德问题例如,道德(de)功利观（即完全按照成果、利润来制定决策(de)道德观点）受到资源浪费、损害环境和应该承担社会责任(de)挑战依照社会公正又比依照效率和利润有更多(de)模糊性管理中(de)道德下滑,曾被看作不道德、应受谴责(de)行为至今变得可以接受或必要(de)做法（歪曲会计信息、利用知情者(de)信息获取利润等）激励创新和变革面临变动(de)环境与竞争,如何推动技术、组织、管理创新,如何处理组织文化变革中(de)阻力处理员工面临(de)变革压力管理者只有改变管理风格,变计划、指挥为关注激励、指导和鼓励,才能管理得更有效企业再造（Re-engineering）授权工人所受(de)教育和培训比泰罗时代高很多,管理者完全可以更多授权下属、团队或工人决策,改进质量、效率和责任感.授权与控制,分权与集权(de)矛盾．工作人员(de)两极化目前,大多数组织(de)政策都是偏向激励工资较高(de)高技能(de)工人.如何激励、给予挑战那些从事低技能工作(de)人,鼓励他们提高生产率公司裁员与解雇公司成员,无论是裁掉(de)或者留下(de),都必定面临不确定性、焦虑与不安.人们会反思,自己会不会是“下一批”,生产率与质量会因此而下降,直到再度认为安全为止问题是,公司必须精干,人员要减少.管理者在裁员(de)形式下研究新(de)管理方法,如何沟通如何领导如何激励都是非常重要(de).知识时代(de)管理---建立学习型组织及虚拟组织知识经济(de)到来使信息与知识成为重要(de)战略资源,而信息技术(de)发展又为获取这些资源提供了可能.顾客(de)个性化、消费(de)多元化决定了企业只有能够合理组织全球资源,在全球市场上争得顾客(de)投票,才有生存和发展(de)可能.建立学习型组织.彼德·圣吉(P. M. Senge)所着(de)第五项修炼（1990）---:企业惟一持久(de)竞争优势源于比竞争对手学得更快更好(de)能力.公司核心能力与虚拟组织.1990年美国战略学家C普拉哈拉德与英国加里哈默尔在哈佛商业评论上发表了公司核心能力(de)论文,建议公司将经营(de)焦点放在不易被抄袭(de)“核心能力”上,由此引发后来(de)"虚拟组织"热.虚拟组织与传统(de)实体组织不同,它是围绕核心能力,利用计算机信息技术、网络技术及通信技术与全球企业进行互补、互利(de)合作,合作目(de)达到后,合作关系随即解散.1994年出版(de)由史蒂文·L·戈德曼、罗杰·N·内格尔及肯尼斯·普瑞斯合着(de)灵捷竞争者与虚拟组织是反映虚拟组织理论与实践(de)较有代表性(de)着作.管理万能论认为组织(de)管理者能够克服万难去实现组织(de)目标,管理者要对管理绩效负全责.组织(de)效果和绩效(de)差别,在于组织中管理者(de)决策和能力.组织中(de)最高管理者被认为是组织(de)中流砥柱.管理象征论组织(de)成果受到大量(de)管理者无法控制因素(de)影响,而管理者对实际成果(de)控制极为有限.因此,管理者作用只是象征性(de),其能力是有限(de)或者是无能(de).两种观点(de)现实综合在现实中,管理者既不是万能(de),也不是软弱无能(de).每一个组织都存在限制管理者进行决策(de)约束力量.组织文化(de)意义与作用组织文化是组织在长期生产经营管理活动中,所自觉形成(de)并为广大员工恪守(de)经营宗旨、价值观念和道德行为准则,是组织独具特色(de)思想意识、价值观念和行为习惯.作用形象、凝聚、激励、导向、规范.是组织文化是企业(de)一种无形资产,也称它为组织(de)“灵魂法”.产生(de)原因：a)科技发展,人(de)智力因素加大作用b)更好调动员工积极性以适应激烈竞争 c)组织规模扩大,需要强化管理组织文化主要由以下三个相互作用(de)层次构成：1．显性(表层)(de)物质文化,体现在形象(de)设计与塑造上,也称形象文化；2．次层(中层)(de)标准文化,体现在制度(de)制订与执行上,也称制度文化；3．核心(深层)(de)认知文化,体现在观念(de)形成与固化上,也称理念文化.国内学者认为组织文化(de)特征1、稳定性2、隐形性3、潜移性4、继承性文化对管理(de)影响1．组织文化要与时俱进,才能适应管理要求２．组织文化直接影响管理者(de)行为３．组织文化影响管理职能实施(de)全过程什么组织环境组织环境（Environment）：对组织绩效发挥潜在影响(de)外部机构或力量（因素）(de)总和．国内环境与国际环境；硬环境与软环境．组织环境(de)特性a)不确定性：动态环境：不确定性大稳态环境：不确定性小b)复杂性：环境因素很多．如政治、经济、文化、社会等c)层次性：一般环境；具体环境海尔企业文化模式剖析1．自始至终(de)高起点,超前(de)观念体系,争取最大运作空间.2．融欧、日、美、中管理思想于一体,创造自我独特优势.3．因势利导、实事求是(de)运作程序.4．大处着眼、小处着手、一丝不苟(de)运作方式.5．以观念创新为龙头,强化系统整合,保持可持续发展.6．充分发挥新闻舆论工具(de)指针和利剑作用.7．兼并、联合中用无形资产盘活有形资产(de)“吃休克鱼”理论.什么是社会责任社会责任主要是指组织特别是工商企业应社会承担(de)责任.关于社会责任(de)两种相反观点a)古典观（纯经济观）重要(de)倡导者是诺贝尔经济学奖获得者米尔顿·弗里德曼.认为工商企业是经济组织,公司(de)管理者应对股东负责,实现股东利益最大化.当公司将资源用于“社会利益”时,他们是在削弱市场机制(de)基础.社会责任会引起公司(de)额外成本,从而会对公司(de)生存产生威胁.b)社会经济观认为公司是社会法律允许存在与维持(de)社会组织机构,它不仅仅是经济机构,它不能只对股东负责,还要对社会负有责任．认为古典观强调(de)是公司(de)短期资本收益最大化,忽视了长期资本收益最大化以及它与社会(de)关系．社会干预(de)层次社会义务符合经济和法律责任社会响应对社会环境变化(de)适应社会责任符合社会道德规则什么是管理道德道德（Ethics）通常是指规定行为是非(de)惯例\规则或原则.属于法律范畴之外(de)思想精神领域.我国提出“以德治国”,认为道德包括社会公德、家庭美德和职业道德.对一个公司来说,也有道德(de)问题存在,即公司道德.在公司管理者决策中和组织(de)运转中都会涉及道德(de)问题.２．四种不同(de)道德观a)道德(de)功利观---管理者决策目标是为大部分人提供最大化利益,对少数人利益可以忽视.例如,解雇少数员工,而维护公司利益.b)道德(de)权利观---管理者决策要保护个人权利与隐私.例如要尊重妇女工作(de)权力.c)道德(de)公正观---管理者要公平公正地决策,对所有(de)利益攸关者(de)利益都给予重视.例如对新工人最低工资标准(de)执行.d)社会契约整合理论---管理者行为适合社会与区域要求.因地制宜制定政策.管理决策基本概念:从两个以上(de)备选方案中选择一个(de)过程.指组织或个人为了实现某种目标而对未来一定时期内有关活动(de)方向、内容及方式(de)选择或调整过程.管理者识别并解决问题及利用机会(de)过程.决策(de)特点:目标性可行性选择性满意性过程性动态性决策影响因素: 环境传统决策方式决策者对风险(de)态度伦理组织文化时间决策制定过程步骤1：识别问题步骤2：确定决策标准步骤3：给每个标准分配权重步骤4：拟定方案步骤5：分析方案步骤6：选择方案步骤7：实施方案步骤8：评价决策效果两种类型(de)问题a)结构良好问题：直观、熟悉或易确定(de)问题.接近理性假设.b)结构不良问题：新问题或非常规(de)问题.关于问题(de)信息是含糊(de)或不完整(de).两种类型(de)决策a)程序化决策——适用于结构良好问题.运用例行方法解决这类问题.程序化决策要求建立程序、规则和政策.b)非程序化决策——适用于结构不良问题.运用例外方法解决这类问题.在现实决策中,两种决策存在于各级管理中,但程度有差异.由于程序化决策可以提高决策效率,管理者通常制定制度、规则而将非程序化决策转化为程序化决策.确定性决策方案分析由于每一个方案(de)结果是可以确定(de),所以管理者可以做出精确决策.例如：某公司拟生产一新产品,需投资100万元,可形成每年5000件(de)生产能力,单件产品成本500元,好(de)市场前景可以确定,并有把握以每件600元价格售出,该公司希望3年内收回投资,试分析该公司是否应进行这一新产品(de)生产每年利润：（600—500）×5000 = 50（万元）收回投资年限： 100÷50 = 2（年）＜ 3年决策：该公司可以进行这一新产品(de)生产.风险性决策方案分析风险性决策方案(de)风险来自于多种客观自然状态出现(de)可能性不能完全确定,只能有个大概(de)估计.在此情况下,方案(de)选择是有一定(de)风险(de).例如：某公司拟生产一新产品,拟定了两个方案：一是新建一个车间,需投资300万元；另一个是对原来(de)车间进行改造,需投资120万元.两方案(de)使用期均为10年.依据以下资料进行方案选择.应用期望值法进行决策：新建车间方案期望值：100×0．7×10+（－20）×0．3×10－300 = 340（万元）改造车间方案期望值：30× 0．7 × 10 +10× 0．3 × 10 －120 = 120（万元）决策：选择新建车间方案不确定性决策方案分析当决策方案(de)自然状态出现(de)概率也不知道时,决策者面临(de)是不确定性决策方案分析.这时决策结果更多地受到决策者心理导向因素(de)影响.有三种基本情况：⒈乐观(de)决策者会按照“大中取大”原则进行决策；⒉悲观(de)决策者会按照“小中取大”原则进行决策；⒊希望决策遗憾最小(de)决策者按照“后悔值法”进行决策.例如：某公司开发一新产品,有关决策资料如下表：按照“大中取大”原则：大批生产方案（800万元/年）按照“小中取大”原则：小批生产方案（ 90万元/年）按照“后悔值法”如何进行决策后悔值矩阵0 50 190200 0 90400 150 0最大后悔值190200400 最小后悔值 {190} 大批生产群体决策优点：提供更完整(de)信息产生更多(de)方案增加对方案(de)接受性提高合法性缺点：消耗时间少数人统治屈从压力责任不清计划是管理(de)首要职能.计划(de)定义：组织在预测基础上为实现其预期目标而对未来活动进行(de)事先规划（动词） .计划是一个组织活动(de)纲领性文件（名词） .组织必须有正式计划,但同时存在大量(de)非正式计划.正式计划是我们研究(de)对象.影响计划(de)因素１．组织层次２．组织生命周期３．环境不确定性程度４．未来许诺期限什么是目标目标（objectives）：组织或个人期望达到(de)结果．由于组织是为一定目(de)而存在(de),所以组织(de)目标在管理中有很重要(de)作用．目标(de)作用①决策(de)方向；②衡量实际绩效(de)标准；③激励和凝聚组织中成员(de)力量；④计划包含(de)内容部分．美国管理学家德鲁克认为一个成功(de)企业应在八个方面建立自己(de)多目标体系：(1)市场目标 (2)技术改进与发展目标 (3)提高生产力目标 (4)物质和金融资源目标(5)利润目标 (6)人力资源目标 (7)职工积极性发挥 (8)社会责任目标管理（MBO）由美国着名管理学家德鲁克在1954年(de)着作管理实践中提出(de)一种管理思想目标管理是一种综合(de)以工作为中心和以人为中心(de)管理方法；是一个组织中上级管理人员同下级管理人员,以及同职工一起共同制定组织目标；使目标同组织内每个人(de)责任和成果相互密切联系,并明确地规定了每个人(de)职责范围,并用目标来激励、管理、评价和决定对每个成员(de)贡献和奖励报酬等.因此,目标管理就是一个组织(de)上下级管理人员和组织内(de)所有成员共同制定目标,共同实施目标(de)一种管理方法.目标管理（MBO）(de)共同要素：明确目标；参与决策；规定期限；反馈绩效．组织结构（organization structure）：是组织中正式确定(de)使工作得以分解、组合和协调(de)框架体系.即：是描述组织结构(de)框架.组织结构特征：复杂性,正规化,集权化机械式组织结构设计选择1．职能型结构（functional structure）：通过将同类专家组合在一起,从劳动分工中取得效率.如会计、营销、生产、研发等(de)分工.最早由泰勒倡导.2．分部型结构(divisional structure)：设计并建立自我包容(de)自治单位.美国通用汽车公司和杜邦公司在20世纪20年代首创(de).分部型结构中(de)每一个单位或事业部一般都是自治(de),分部经理对绩效全面负责,同时拥有充分(de)战略和运营决策(de)权利.有机式组织设计选择1．简单结构（simple structure）：低复杂性、低正规化、通常只要两三个层次和职权集中在一个人手中(de)“扁平化”组织结构.优点：反应快速、灵活、运营成本低、责任明确.缺点：当组织发展之后原有(de)低复杂性、低正规化和职权集中将出现不适应. 2．矩阵结构（matrix structure)：将产品部门化对结果(de)重视和责任感与职能专业化(de)优势结合起来(de)组织结构.打破了传统(de)“统一指挥原则”,建立了双重指挥链.优点：兼收了职能专业化和产品部门化(de)优点.缺点：容易产生混乱,双重指挥,协调工作量大.具有激励作用(de)职务设计一、职务扩大化扩大职务范围增加任务数量降低任务频率二、职务丰富化增加职务深度扩大员工自我控制及时反馈沟通(de)定义：沟通是人与人之间通过语言、文字、符号或其他(de)表达方式,进行信息传递和交换(de)过程沟通(de)基本模型和要素（1）传送者与接收者（2）编码和解码（3）传送器与接收器（4）通道与噪音（5）反馈沟通(de)障碍（一）传送者(de)障碍1.目(de)不明；2.表达模糊；3.选择失误；4.形式不当.（二）接收者(de)障碍1.过度加工；2.知觉偏差；3.心理障碍；4.思想差异.（三）克服沟通障碍策略1.使用恰当(de)沟通通路；2.考虑接收者(de)观点和立场；3.充分利用反馈机制；4.以行动强化言语；5.避免一味说教管理沟通是围绕企业经营而进行(de)信息、知识与情报(de)传递过程,也是企业有效动作(de)润滑剂.管理沟通(de)基本作用：降低经营模糊性、实现有效管理、满足员工对信息量(de)需要、构建工作关系.管理沟通(de)功能管理沟通是润滑剂管理沟通是黏合剂管理沟通是催化剂招聘方式选择内部搜寻广告应征员工推荐公共就业机构私人就业机构学校招聘临时性支援服务借用员工单独合同解聘方式选择解雇调换提前退休临时解雇减少工作周工作分享员工定向(de)目标是什么减少新员工(de)焦虑让新员工尽快熟悉工作促进外部人向内部人(de)转变成功生涯管理(de)步骤审慎地选择第一项职业做好工作展现正确(de)形象了解权力结构获取对组织资源(de)控制保持可见度不要在一个职位上停留太久继续学习找个导师支持你(de)上司保持流动性考虑横向发展建立一个关系网络管理变革：公司为适应外部环境变化而进行(de)自身改变.变革特征：变革(de)系统性变革(de)复杂性变革(de)创新性变革(de)群众性变革(de)持久性两种变革方式：渐进式变革：以改进、完善现有系统为主要目标,在一个相当长(de)时期内缓慢地变革,变革过程比较稳定,波动较小,对改善产品质量、降低成本、改进工艺、提高绩效,经常可以取得好成绩.优点：一次性投入(de)资源较少、见效快、阻力小、风险少,易于成功；缺点：分散(de)局部变革可能影响整体变革目标不能达到最优,整体变革(de)分散实施可能增加变革(de)成本.急进式变革：一种快速(de)、急风暴雨式(de)变革,其特点是对现有系统(de)冲击力度大,不是在原有基础上修修补补,创新程度也大,可以在较短(de)时间内收效.优点是：容易突破传统观念和习惯势力(de)阻碍,迅速提升企业(de)竞争能力,适应外部环境(de)变化达到整体最优.其缺点是：急剧(de)变化不易为职工和相关人员接受与适应,可能产生较大(de)阻力,因而可能引发较大(de)摩擦成本,变革(de)风险也比渐进式变革大.个体行为分析——态度态度(attitudes)：是人们关于事物、事件和人(de)评价性陈述.态度(de)三种成分：认知由人持有(de)信念、观点、知识和信息组成.如：“我认为认真做事比较好.”情感人(de)态度中(de)情感部分.如：“我不喜欢他,因为他做事马虎.”行为以某方式对某人某事作出反应(de)意向.如：因为他做事马虎,我拒绝与他共事.态度(de)特性1态度是后天学习(de)过程 2态度必须指向特定对象 3态度是一种内在(de)心理结构4态度(de)协调性和不一致性 5态度(de)协调性；稳定性；可变性6态度(de)核心成分是价值观个性在先天生理(de)基础上,在一定(de)社会历史条件下(de)社会实践活动中经常表现出来(de)比较稳定(de)区别于他人(de)个体倾向(如需要、动机、态度、兴趣、理想、信念、世界观等)和个体心理特征（气质、性格和能力等）(de)总和.气质（脾气、秉性、性情）是人所固有(de)一种典型而稳定(de)心理特征,是个性心理活动进行(de)速度；强度；稳定性和指向性.特性：遗传性、先天性类型：1.希波克拉特(公元前460~前322年) 体液分类黄胆汁-——胆汁质：精力充沛,情绪发生快,言语发生急而快,率直热情,易怒,急燥果敢,思想难转弯,没有忍性.。
工程硕士英语课后练习答案
Uint 1Part A II Getting informa tion:1.They couldn't underst and those people.2.He wrote to Henry Ford II and got help from him.3.She preferred to save money. The evidence：“Watchin g my money grow was more rewardi ngthan anythin g I could have bought.‖4.To be a success ful salespe rson, one needs to be a great listene r.5.Toy making.IV Transla tionA1. 两位美国名人解释为什么不是你挣的而是你所学的更重要。
2. 我从不认为我那时比其他任何人强，但我一直相信我当时干的活别人都赶不上。
3. 看到存款数增加比我当时原本可以买到的任何东西都更让我满足。
4. 我发自内心的关心他们的问题。
并能理解她们的愿望。
给她们出些该如何化妆的点子。
5. 结果我创下了化妆品销售量的最好成绩。
B1.She plans to set up her own business.2.Attitud e also matters.3.She had polishe d all the furnitu re beforethe guestsarrived.4.Some managers have no idea how to handlepeople.5.We finishe d the work in recordti me.6.She likes everyth i ng to be in place beforeshe starts working.7.She often puts in 12 hours’ work a day.8.He acquire d the informa tion from the newspap ers.9.There’s an opening for an assista nt in our departm ent.10.The organiz ation works to promote friendship between nations。
WORKANDCONSTANTFORCE工作和恒定的力
CHAPTER 5WORK AND ENERGYI NTERNET A SSIGNED P ROBLEMS1 – 30James Prescott Joule (1818 – 1889)WORK AND CONSTANT FORCE1. How much work is done by the gravitational force when a Hint: The force and the displacement are both 265-kg object falls2.80 m? downwards, so the angle between them is 0o .2. A 65.0-kg physics student climbs a flight of stairs 20.0 m high. Hint: The minimum force required to lift theHow much work is required?firefighter is equal to his weight. The force and the displacement are both upwards so the angle between them is 0o .3. A 1300-N box rests on the floor. How much work is required to Hint: The work done to move it across the floor move it at constant speed4.0 m along the floor against a is the work done by the pulling force. The friction force of 230 N? angle between the pulling force and the direction of motion is 0o .G G ΔxG4. How much work is done pushing a 160-kg crate 10.3 m across Hint: Since it is not accelerating horizontally or a rough floor without acceleration, if the coefficient of friction vertically, the work done to move it across was 0.50? the floor is done by the pushing force. . A5.0-kg bo across a floor at a rate of Hint: Since the acceleration of the box is constantG F G ΔxG5x is accelerated from rest 2.0 m/s 2 for 7.0 s. Find the net work done on the box.find the distance moved. Assume the box starts from rest.6. A 330-kg piano slides 3.6 m down a 28o incline and I kept from Hint: The piano is moving with a constant velocity accelerating by a man who is pushing back on it parallel to thedown the plane. P F Gis the force of the manincline. The coefficient of friction is 0.40. Calculate the force pushing on the pia o. nexerted by the man. G7. Using the information from problem 6, calculate the work done Hint: The work done by the man is the work done by the man on the piano. by P F G . The angle between P F Gand thedirection of the motion is 180.ot is the minimum work. Wha 8 needed to push a 950-kg car 810 m Hint: Ignore the frictional force. INETIC ENERGY; WORK-ENERGY PRINCIPLE. At room temperature, an oxygen molecule, with mass of Hint: Find the velocity from the kinetic energy. up along a 9.0o incline?NK9 5.31 x 10-26Kg, typically has a KE of about 6.21 x 10-21J. How fast is the molecule moving?10. How much work is needed for a 68-kg runner to accelerate Hint: Solve by using the KE formula. 1. How much work from rest to 7.5 m/s?1 must be done to stop a 1250-kg car traveling Hint: The work done on the car is equal to the 2. An 88-g arrow is fired from a bow whose string exerts an Hint : The force exerted by the bow on the arrow t at 105 km/h? change in its kinetic energy.1 average force of 110 N on the arrow over a distance of is in the same direction as the displacemen 78 cm. What is the speed of the arrow as it leaves the bow of the arrow. ? 3. At an accident scene on a level road, investigators measure a Hint: The work needed to stop the car is equal1 car’s skid mark to be 88 m long. The accident occurred on a to the change in the car’s kinetic energy. rainy day, and the coefficient of kinetic friction was estimated That work comes from the force of frictionto be 0.42. What was the speed of the car when the driveron the car, which is assumed to be static slammed on the brakes? friction since the driver locked the brakes.d = stopping distance m g G G frPOTENTIAL ENERGY4. A spring has a spring constant of 440 N/m. How much must this Hint: Use the elastic potential equation and solve1 spring be stretched to store 25 J of potential energy?for distance.15. A 4.1-kg block is attached to a spring with a force constant of Hint: Sum the work done by the spring for each 550 N/m, as shown below.segment of path one.Find the work done by the spring on the block as the block 6. A 7.0-kg monkey swings from one branch to another 1.2 m Hint: Subtract the initial gravitational PE fromMoves from A to B along paths 1 and 2?1 higher. What is the change in potential energy?the final gravitational PE.17. As a cliff diver drops to the water from a height of 46 m, his Hint: The cliff diver plunges straight downward gravitational potential energy decreases by 25,000 J. What due to the force of gravity. is the diver’s weight in Newtons?18. A 1200-kg car rolling on a horizontal surface has speed of Hint: Assume that all of the kinetic energy of d 65 km/h when it strikes a horizontal coiled spring and is of the car becomes PE of the compresse brought to rest in a distance of 2.2 m. What is the spring spring. constant of the spring?9. A dart of mass 0.100 kg is pressed against the spring of a toy Hint: Initially the dart is at rest so KE = 0. Ignore 1 dart gun as shown. The spring (with spring constant k = 250N) friction and the only PE is elastic. is compressed 6.0 cm and released. If the dart detaches from the spring when the spring reaches its natural length (x = 0), what speed does the dart acquire?CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY0. Jane, looking for Tarzan, is running at top speed 5.3 m/s and Hint: The only forces acting on Jane are gravity2 grabs a vine hanging vertically from a tall tree in the jungle. and the vine tension. The tension pulls inHow high can she swing upward?centripetal direction, and so can do no work. 1. A novice skier, starting from rest, slides down a frictionless 35.0o Hint: The forces on the skier are gravity and 11 , v y 22 , v y2 incline whose vertical height is 185 m. How fast is she going the normal force. The normal force is when she reaches the bottom? perpendicular to the direction of motion,2. At an amusement park, a swimmer used a water slide to enter Hint: As the swimmer descends the slide herand so does no work.θm g G N F G2 the main pool. If the swimmer starts at rest, slides without gravitational potential energy is converted friction, and descends through a vertical height of 2.61 m, what into kinetic energy. Set the loss inis her speed at the bottom of the slide? gravitational potential energy equal to the 3. A sled is initially given a shove up a frictionless 28.0o incline. It Hint: The forces on the sled are gravity and the gain in kinetic energy by setting her change in mechanical energy equal to zero.2 reaches a maximum vertical height 1.35 m higher than where normal force. The normal force isit started. What was its initial speed?perpendicular to the direction of motion, 4. In the high jump, Tom’s kinetic energy is transformed into Hint: All the forces on the jumper are conservative. and so does no work.2 gravitational potential energy without the aid of a pole. With what minimum speed must Tom leave the ground in order to lift her center of mass 2.10 m and cross the bar with a speed of 0.70 m/s? F GNLAWS OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY5. A ski starts from rest and slides down a 22o incline 75 m Hint: Use Newton’s second law for forces n,2 long. If the coefficient of friction is 0.090, what is the ski’s perpendicular to the direction of motio speed at the base of the incline?Noting that there is no acceleration perpendicular to the plane. OWER6. How longP2 will it take a 1750-W motor to lift a 315-kg piano to Hint: The work necessary to lift the piano is the 7. If a car generates 18 hp when traveling at a steady 88 km/h, Hint: If the car has a constant velocity, then the a sixth-story window 16.0 m above? work done by an upward force, equal to in magnitude to the weight of the piano.2 what must be the average force exerted on the car due to total resistive force must be of the same friction and air resistance? magnitude as the engine force, so that the 8. A 1400-kg sports car accelerates from rest to 95 km/h in 7.4 s. Hint: The energy transformed is the changenet force is zero.2 What is the average power delivered by the engine?in kinetic energy of the car.29. You raise a bucket of water from the bottom of a deep well. If Hint: The power required is the force times theyour power output is 108 W, and the mass of the bucket and velocity, where the force is just the weight the water in it is 5.00-kg, with what speed can you raise theof the bucket. bucket?30. The old record for running the stairs of the Empire State Hint: The power required is the work required Building was set on February 3, 2003. The 86 flight, with a to change the elevation divided by the total of 1576 steps, was run in 9 minutes and 33 seconds. If time. the height gain of each step was 0.20 m, and the mass of the runner was 70.0 kg, what was his average power output during the climb? Give your answer in watts. θ m g GNFFORMULAS USED IN THIS WORKSHEETNote: The following are general formulas, are not in any ord r, and have not necessarily been modified to fit eache individual problem. Distance “d” can be expressed as “x” when horizontal or “y” when vertical. v d t =Δ 0 v v at =+()22002 v v a x x =+− 21002y y v t at =++ 21002x x x v t at Δ=−=+cos cos W Fd mgd θθ== opush push cos 0k W F d mgd μθ== ocos 0W F x ma x =Δ= Δ()P fr sin sin cos k F mg F mg θθμθ=−=−212KE mv v =→=2211f i 22W K mv mv =Δ=−22112121222Fd W KE KE mv mv v ==−=−→=1v =x =()()2222111222W k x x x x 3⎡⎤=−+−⎣⎦()G 212PE mgy mgy mg y y Δ=−=−1 UU mgy mg y=⇒=22211222mv mv kx k x =→= 2212kx v m =2122v yg=2v =1v =2v = W mgh mgh P t ttP==→=()221212energy transformedtimem v v KE Ptt−Δ===P F v= P Pv F mg==W mgh P t t==NAME: _______________________________ DATE: ___/___/___ PERIOD: _______Honors Physics - Internet Assigned ProblemsAll worksheet answers must be submitted on this form and turned in on the due date.Chapter: _______ Problems: ______________________________________Answer SheetYour actual calculations must be stapled to the back of this form.#FORM AANS ERUNIT UL W #FORMULAANS ERNIT W U 1. 16. 2. 17. 3. 18. 4. 19.5. 206. 21.7. 22.8. 23.9. 24. 10. 25. 11. 26. 12. 27. 13. 28. 14. 29. 15.30.。
lessons from jefferson
学科英语精读教者课时班级课题Unit 2 Lessons from Jefferson教学目的、任务：1. Get to understand Jefferson and learn his ideas and its meaning in the society of present. Understand “Go and see”, “You can learn from everyone”, “Judge for yourself”, “Do what you beli eve his right”, “Trust the future; trust the young”, “only a nation of educated people could remain free”. Try to understand the history of the Declaration of Independence; Jefferson’s devoting and achievements; the presidents: Washington and Lincoln2. About the text, Ss should grasp the text content, text structure, basic vocabularies and required grammar points of the section.教学重点review the reading skills they learnt教学难点to grasp one skill of paragraph developing —topic sentences教学方法讲解法、任务驱动法课型新课教具多媒体教学过程：Chinese English有趣be of interest某人的遗训lessons from somebody至少at least独立宣言Declaration of Independence现代青年modern youth获得知识obtain knowledge来源很广from many sources亲自做调查personal investigation被任命为be appointed to调查to find out州议会大厦the state capitol研究文件study papers有关这一问题on the subject做现场调查make on-the-spot investigations 向…..学习learn from论出身by birth论所受的教育by education属于belong to社会阶层social class出身卑微of humble origin发号施令give an order想尽办go o ut of one’s way烧饭锅cooking pot自己作判断judge for oneself接受别人的意见accept other people’s opinions 不经认真考虑without careful thought判断真理和谬误judge truth and error一切真实和虚伪的东西everything true and false做出正确的判断form a correct judgment完全信任be safely trusted毫不犹豫not hesitate a moment相互冲突的思想conflicting ideas力量的源泉source of strength绝对的一致unquestioning agreement保持活力keep alive批评的对象the object of criticism反驳answer the critics付诸行动act on表达观点express one’s philosophy站在一面take one side坚决地with decision对某人的行动不满resent one’s actions被束缚于be chained to无用的习俗customs which have lost theirusefulness活着的一代the living generation基于be based on同时代的人men of one’s age擅长be an expert in…农作物轮作crop rotation土壤保持soil conservation普遍作法standard practice优于superior to现有的in existence日常生活中的工作the tasks of ordinary life。
中考英语商界精英故事单选题80题答案解析版
中考英语商界精英故事单选题80题答案解析版1.Bill Gates is known for his success in the technology industry. In his early years, he showed great interest in _____.A.musicB.sportsputersD.art答案：C。
解析：Bill Gates 以在科技行业的成功而闻名，早期他对电脑表现出极大兴趣。
A 选项music 音乐，与Bill Gates 的早期经历不符；B 选项sports 运动，也不符合；D 选项art 艺术，同样不符合。
只有C 选项computers 电脑符合Bill Gates 的早期兴趣爱好。
2.The young entrepreneur started his business journey by selling _____ in the street.A.booksB.fruitsC.clothesD.toys答案：D。
解析：年轻的企业家通过在街上卖玩具开始他的商业旅程。
A 选项books 书，通常不是在街上容易售卖的物品；B 选项fruits 水果，在街上售卖水果不是常见的创业起点；C 选项clothes 衣服，在街上卖衣服也不太符合常见的早期创业场景。
D 选项toys 玩具更符合年轻创业者的起点。
3.When Mark Zuckerberg was in college, he developed a social networking site. He was majoring in _____.puter scienceB.biologyC.historyD.literature答案：A。
解析：Mark Zuckerberg 在大学时开发了社交网站，他的专业是计算机科学。
B 选项biology 生物学，与开发社交网站无关；C 选项history 历史，也不符合；D 选项literature 文学，同样不符合。
学术英语-理工--Unit-2练习答案
3 Identifying topic sentences
for information
Enhancing your academic language
Translate the following sentences from Text 6 into Chinese.
1 就前者来说，玩家按照顺序移动，〔那么〕每个人都了解 其他玩家之前的动作。就后者而言，玩家同时做出动作， 那么不了解其他玩家的动作。
9
3 Identifying topic sentences
for information
Enhancing your academic language
Match the words with their definitions.
23 the optimal (最正确的) method for improving speaking practice
2 当一个人思考别人会如何反响的时候，他必须站在别人的 角度，用和他们一样的思考方式进行思考；一个人不能将 自己的推理强加在别人的身上。
6
3 Identifying topic sentences
for information
Enhancing your academic language Match the words with their definitions.
1 —— d 2 —— f 3 —— i 4 —— b 5 —— h
do your fair share of the work. 8 They threatened him with a(n) lawsuit (诉讼). 9 No difficulty can deter (阻止) us from trying it again. 10 joint together for mutual (相互的) benefits
机械设计制造及其自动化英文书籍
机械设计制造及其自动化英文书籍机械设计制造及其自动化是一个重要的领域，它涵盖了机械工程、制造工程、自动控制和计算机科学等多个学科。
以下是几本关于机械设计制造及其自动化的英文书籍，它们提供了丰富的知识和理论基础，可帮助读者深入了解和应用这一领域的各种技术。
1. “Design of Machinery: An Introduction to the Synthesis and Analysis of Mechanisms and Machines” by Robert L. Norton 这本书是机械设计中经典的教材之一。
作者通过详细介绍机构和机械的设计、综合和分析等内容，帮助读者理解机械工程的基本原理和方法。
书中还涵盖了各种设计工具和技术，例如几何建模、运动分析和动力学等，这些内容对于理解机械系统的运动和性能至关重要。
2. “Mechanical Design: Theory and Methodology” by Jack A. Collins这本书主要介绍了机械设计的理论和方法。
作者详细解释了机械设计过程中的各个阶段，包括需求分析、概念设计、详细设计和制造等。
这本书还强调了重要的设计原则，如强度、刚度和可靠性等。
读者可以通过学习这本书，掌握机械设计的核心原理和方法，并能应用于实际工程项目中。
3. “Manufacturing Engineering and Technology” by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid这本书介绍了现代制造工程和技术的各个方面。
作者详细讲解了各种制造过程和方法，包括制造设备和工艺、材料处理和成形、自动化和控制等。
这本书还强调了质量控制和可持续制造等重要主题。
读者可以通过阅读这本书，了解制造工程的最新发展和应用，并学习如何应用现代制造技术来提高生产效率和产品质量。
4. “Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing” by Mikell P. Groover这本书主要介绍了自动化生产系统和计算机集成制造技术。
管理学原理英文教材(清华大学出版社)中文翻译精简版
第二章管理的昨天和今天管理实践总是要反映时代和社会的环境。
一、管理与其他研究领域的联系管理学具有来自人文和社会科学的丰富遗产，它们对管理理论和实践有着直接的影响。
人类学是研究社会的学科，它有助于了解人类及其活动。
人类学有助于管理者更好的理解不同国家和不同组织中人们基本的价值观、态度和行为的差异。
经济学关于资源配置的学科，提供了理解变化中的经济以及竞争和自由的全球市场环境的作用。
理解自由贸易和保护政策对于在全球市场上运作的任何管理者都是绝对必要的。
哲学考察事物的本质，特别是价值观和伦理道德。
道德直接涉及组织的存在以及什么行为对一个组织是适当的命题。
洛克的自由伦理理论认为自由、平等、正义和私有财产是法定的权利。
卡尔文的新教伦理鼓励个人努力工作获得成功，亚当斯密认为市场和竞争而不是政府才应该是经济活动的唯一调节者。
政治学研究个人或群体在政治环境中的行为，主要包括：在经济系统中权利的分配，个人如何为了自己的利益而操纵权力。
管理者受到一个国家政府的组成形式的影响，也就是这个国家是否允许公民拥有财产，是否通过公民介入和强化契约的能力来实现他们权利。
一个国家在财产契约方面立场，会决定它的组织的形式和政策。
另外，心理学和社会学和管理学也存在联系，不能忽视。
二、管理的历史背景负责计划、组织、领导和控制活动的专门人员的指挥下所做的组织性的努力，已经存在了几千年。
埃及的金字塔、中国长城、威尼斯的早期企业雏形。
组织早在几千年前就存在，管理也付诸实施。
20世纪前两件事情在促进管理研究方面扮演着重要的角色。
1）1766年亚当斯密《国富论》，主张组织和社会将从劳动分工中获得经济利益，即将工作分解为狭窄的、重复性的任务。
2）始于18世纪英国的工业革命，工业革命的主要贡献是以机械力代替了人力，从而使在工厂中生产商品比在手工作坊中生产更经济。
大型公司的发展要求建立正式的管理系统，于是，产生了正式的管理理论以指导管理者运行这类组织。
小学上册第1次英语第5单元期中试卷
小学上册英语第5单元期中试卷英语试题一、综合题(本题有100小题，每小题1分，共100分.每小题不选、错误，均不给分)1.My ________ (玩具名称) is a colorful addition to my life.2.They are _____ (celebrating) a birthday.3.My friend is a _____ (医生) in a hospital.4.The park is ___. (fun)5.Acids taste ______ and can be sour.6. A thermos bottle reduces heat ______.7.What is the name of the famous monument in Washington, D.C. dedicated to Abraham Lincoln?A. Jefferson MemorialB. Lincoln MemorialC. Washington MonumentD. Vietnam Veterans MemorialB8.Rush brought many people to ________ (加利福尼亚). The Grea9.The _______ has a variety of colors and shapes.10.I want to _______ (visit/leave) my grandparents.11.We will have a ________ next week.12. A _______ is a fun project for children.13.The ______ teaches us about ancient history.14.Which animal is known for having antlers?A. BearB. DeerC. LionD. Elephant15.My favorite _____ is a friendly little puppy.16.My mom loves to organize ____ (events).17.Did you see that _____ (小鸟) building a nest?18.They are _____ (listening) to music.19.What is the name of the animal that builds dams?A. BeaverB. OtterC. FoxD. WolfA20.The chemical symbol for scandium is ______.21.My sister is passionate about __________ (环境保护).22.The girl loves to ________.23.The ______ is a source of inspiration for many.24.Machu Picchu is an ancient __________ (印加) city located in Peru.25.Electricity can make ______ (machines) work.26. A mixture of gases is called an ______.27.She has a _____ (cat/dog) at home.28.What do we call a story that is told through dialogue and action?A. NovelB. PlayC. PoemD. Short Story29.How many zeros are in one million?A. FiveB. SixC. SevenD. Eight30.Which fruit is yellow and curved?A. AppleB. GrapeC. BananaD. OrangeC31.The pufferfish can inflate itself to _________ (自卫).32.What is the name of the famous natural wonder located in Arizona?A. Grand CanyonB. Niagara FallsC. Mount RushmoreD. YosemiteA33.The __________ (历史游戏) can teach through engagement.34.Which animal is known for its ability to change colors?A. DogB. ChameleonC. CatD. ElephantB35.What is the name of the fairy tale character who lost her glass slipper?A. Snow WhiteB. CinderellaC. RapunzelD. Sleeping Beauty36.What is the opposite of "big"?A. SmallB. TallC. WideD. LargeA Small37.What do you call a series of mountains?A. ValleyB. RangeC. HillD. PlateauB38.I enjoy reading books about ______ (太空). They are very ______ (神秘).39.The cat is hiding ________ the bed.40.I love to _______ (explore) new places.41.I need a new ___. (pencil)42.I can _____ (count/sing) to twenty.43.The __________ (文化表现) reflect societal values.44.My sister is very _____ (聪明).45.The ________ has colorful petals that bloom in spring.46.The ________ (narrative) tells a story.47.What do we call a place where people keep and breed animals?A. ZooB. FarmC. SanctuaryD. ParkB48.The frog jumps from lily pad to _______.49. A __________ is a type of animal that can camouflage itself.50.My ________ (玩具名称) is a perfect companion.51.The chemical formula for platinum(II) chloride is _____.52.What is the main source of energy for the Earth?A. The MoonB. The SunC. StarsD. Wind53.My cousin loves to _______ (动词) during summer. 她的活动很 _______ (形容词).54.What is 7 x 3?A. 18B. 20C. 21D. 2455.The ancient Romans enjoyed _____ as a form of entertainment.56. A butterfly starts as a ______ (幼虫).57.The _____ (护士) helps patients.58.The _____ (wind/snow) is blowing.59.The _____ (orchid) has many varieties.60.The __________ is the region around the nucleus where electrons are found.61. A diatomic molecule is made up of ______ atoms.62.I want to be a ___ (scientist/artist).63.My _______ (小狗) loves to bark.64.The kangaroo is a unique _______ (澳洲) animal.65. A ______ is a type of mixture where components are evenly distributed.66.What do you call the person who teaches you at school?A. DoctorB. TeacherC. EngineerD. Chef67.Many people enjoy _______ to plants in their gardens.68. A ____ is a playful animal that enjoys being around people.69.What do we call the time taken for the Earth to rotate once on its axis?A. DayB. MonthC. YearD. HourA70. A __________ is a type of chemical bond where electrons are shared.71. A ______ is a type of animal that can breathe underwater.72.Hydrochloric acid is found in our ______.73.What do you call a liquid that can dissolve other substances?A. SolventB. SoluteC. MixtureD. SolutionA74. A _______ is a type of mixture where one substance dissolves in another.75.How many sides does a square have?A. ThreeB. FourC. FiveD. Six76.What is the opposite of 'hot'?A. ColdB. WarmC. CoolD. SpicyA77.The engineer, ______ (工程师), develops solutions to real-world problems.78.What do we call the time when flowers bloom?A. WinterB. SpringC. SummerD. Fall79.We use ______ (草) to make lawns green.80.The chemical formula for sodium sulfide is ______.81.I found a _______ (小猫) abandoned in the street.82.The _______ (The Great Society) aimed to improve education and healthcare in the US.83.My uncle is a ______. He travels a lot for work.84.The teacher is _____ the students to listen. (asking)85.The ______ (花蜜) attracts bees and butterflies.86.The garden is _______ (繁茂的).87.The chemical formula for potassium chloride is __________.88.What do we call the time of year when plants start to grow?A. WinterB. SpringC. SummerD. FallB89.My dad helps me with my ____.90.The _____ can vary in brightness and color.91.The __________ is a large area of grassland in Africa.92.What do we call a young rabbit?A. KitB. PupC. BunnyD. CalfA Kit93.What is the capital city of the USA?A. New YorkB. WashingtonC. Los AngelesD. ChicagoB94.I have a toy _______ that can race with my friends.95.The _______ shows how elements combine to form compounds. (化学方程式)96.I have a toy ________ that dances.97.My favorite snack is ________ (苹果干) after school.98.I often help my __________ with cooking. (妈妈)99.How many hours are there in a day?A. 12B. 24C. 36D. 48B100. Colosseum was used for ________ (竞技). The Roma。
五年级英语历史事件时间线整理完形填空题30题答案解析版
五年级英语历史事件时间线整理完形填空题30题答案解析版1The American Revolution was a significant event in history. George Washington led the Continental Army against the British. Thomas Jefferson wrote the Declaration of Independence. Benjamin Franklin was also an important figure. He was a scientist, inventor, and diplomat. Another key person was John Adams. He played a crucial role in the early days of the United States.1. George Washington was the leader of the _______ Army.A. BritishB. FrenchC. ContinentalD. Spanish答案：C。
乔治·华盛顿是大陆军的领导者。
A 选项British 是英国的；B 选项French 是法国的；D 选项Spanish 是西班牙的，都不符合。
本题考查对历史人物身份的了解。
2. Thomas Jefferson wrote the Declaration of _______.A. ConstitutionB. Bill of RightsC. Independence答案：C。
托马斯·杰斐逊写了《 独立宣言》。
A 选项Constitution 是宪法；B 选项Bill of Rights 是权利法案；D 选项Treaty 是条约，都不符合。
本题考查对历史事件的了解。
3. Benjamin Franklin was a scientist, inventor and _______.A. writerB. painterC. diplomatD. musician答案：C。
mankiw principles of economics
mankiw principles of economics Mankiw's Principles of Economics: An In-Depth AnalysisIntroduction:In the field of economics, Gregory Mankiw's book "Principles of Economics" stands as a standard introductory text for students worldwide. This comprehensive work covers a wide range of topics, including the fundamental principles that drive economic decision-making. In this article, we will delve into Mankiw's principles, exploring each step in detail.1. The Ten Principles of Economics:Mankiw's book is built around ten fundamental principles that form the backbone of economic study. These principles provide a framework for analyzing various economic issues and making rational decisions. Let's examine each principle one by one:a. Principle 1: People Face Trade-Offs:This principle states that because resources are limited, individuals, businesses, and societies need to make choices. Investing in onearea often means sacrificing another. For example, allocating more funds to education might require cutting healthcare spending.b. Principle 2: The Cost of Something is What You Give Up to Get It: This principle highlights the concept of opportunity cost. Any decision involves giving up alternative choices, and the cost of a choice is measured by the value of the next best alternative foregone.c. Principle 3: Rational People Think at the Margin:Rational individuals make decisions by comparing marginal benefits and marginal costs. They choose the option that offers the greatest benefit while considering incremental changes.d. Principle 4: People Respond to Incentives:This principle recognizes that people's behavior is influenced by the motivations and incentives they face. For instance, a higher price for a good leads to decreased demand.e. Principle 5: Trade Can Make Everyone Better Off:Trade allows individuals or countries to specialize in producing what they are best at, thus increasing overall productivity andbenefiting all parties. This principle supports the case for international trade.f. Principle 6: Markets Are Usually a Good Way to Organize Economic Activity:A market economy allocates resources through the forces of supply and demand. This principle asserts that markets are efficient in coordinating economic activities and distributing goods and services.g. Principle 7: Governments Can Sometimes Improve Market Outcomes:This perspective acknowledges that there are situations when markets fail to allocate resources efficiently. In these cases, government interventions, such as regulations or taxes, can potentially improve outcomes.h. Principle 8: A Country’s Standard of Living Depends on Its Ability to Produce Goods and Services:Productivity is a key determinant of a country's standard of living. Economic growth can be achieved by increasing productivity through technological advancements, education, and infrastructuredevelopment.i. Principle 9: Prices Rise When the Government Prints Too Much Money:This principle recognizes the negative effects of inflation resulting from excessive money supply. The increase in money circulation reduces the value of money, leading to rising prices.j. Principle 10: Society Faces a Short-Run Trade-Off Between Inflation and Unemployment:This principle highlights the Phillips curve, which suggests a trade-off between inflation and unemployment in the short run. A government can stimulate economic growth and reduce unemployment in the short term by increasing the money supply, but this can lead to inflationary pressures.2. Applying Mankiw's Principles:Understanding and applying these principles helps individuals make informed decisions and policymakers design effective economic policies. Let's explore how these principles apply to real-world scenarios:a. Policy-Making: Policymakers can use Principle 7 to justify regulations that correct market failures. For example, the government may set emission standards to combat pollution caused by market activities.b. Personal Finance: Applying Principle 2, individuals can make better financial decisions by considering the opportunity cost. Saving for retirement may require sacrificing immediate consumption.c. International Trade: Principle 5 explains the benefits of trade. By specializing in producing goods or services in which they have a comparative advantage, countries can achieve higher productivity and overall welfare.d. Business Strategy: Rational business decision-making typically entails weighing marginal costs and benefits (Principle 3). Firms must determine whether the cost of expanding production justifies the potential increase in revenue.Conclusion:Gregory Mankiw's Principles of Economics offers a comprehensive and accessible framework for understanding economicdecision-making. These ten principles provide a solid foundation for analyzing different economic scenarios and making rational choices. By considering trade-offs, opportunity costs, incentives, and market forces, individuals, businesses, and policymakers can navigate complex economic issues and strive for optimal outcomes. Understanding and applying these principles not only helps in academic studies but also in everyday life.。
八年级英语工作生活单选题30题答案解析版
八年级英语工作生活单选题30题答案解析版1.She works in a big office and spends most of her time in front of the _____.puterB.bookC.penD.chair答案：A。
在办公室工作，大部分时间会在电脑前。
选项B“book”书、选项C“pen”笔、选项D“chair”椅子都不符合在办公室大部分时间所面对的物品。
2.In the factory, the workers use different _____ to make products.A.toolsB.papersC.booksD.cups答案：A。
工厂里工人用不同的工具制造产品。
选项B“papers”纸、选项C“books”书、选项D“cups”杯子都不是制造产品会用到的。
3.The manager is responsible for making important _____.A.choicesB.wordsC.picturesD.numbers答案：A。
经理负责做重要的选择。
选项B“words”单词、选项C“pictures”图片、选项D“numbers”数字都不符合经理的职责。
4.The secretary needs to type many _____ every day.A.lettersB.applesC.flowersD.cakes答案：A。
秘书每天需要打很多信件。
选项B“apples”苹果、选项C“flowers”花、选项D“cakes”蛋糕都不是秘书的工作内容。
5.In the office, people often have meetings in the _____.A.classroomB.libraryC.meeting roomD.garden答案：C。
在办公室，人们经常在会议室开会。
选项A“classroom”教室、选项B“library”图书馆、选项D“garden”花园都不是办公室里开会的地方。
八年级英语科技发明原理分析单选题30题及答案
八年级英语科技发明原理分析单选题30题及答案1.The inventor of the telephone is _____.A.Thomas EdisonB.Alexander Graham BellC.Guglielmo MarconiD.James Watt答案：B。
托马斯·爱迪生发明了电灯等，亚历山大·格拉汉姆·贝尔发明了电话，古列尔莫·马可尼发明了无线电，詹姆斯·瓦特改良了蒸汽机。
2.The light bulb was invented by _____.A.Nikola TeslaB.Thomas EdisonC.Alexander Graham BellD.Steve Jobs答案：B。
尼古拉·特斯拉在电学等领域有重大贡献但不是发明电灯，托马斯·爱迪生发明了电灯，亚历山大·格拉汉姆·贝尔发明了电话，史蒂夫·乔布斯是苹果公司创始人与电灯发明无关。
3.The main purpose of a telephone is to _____.A.provide lightB.send and receive soundC.cook foodD.clean the room答案：B。
电话的主要用途是发送和接收声音。
提供光的是电灯等；做饭的是炊具；打扫房间的是清洁工具。
4.What is the function of a light bulb?A.Make soundB.Provide lightC.Send messagesD.Cool the room答案：B。
电灯的功能是提供光。
发出声音的是音响等设备；发送信息的有手机等；给房间降温的是空调等设备。
5.Who is known as the father of the modern computer?A.Charles BabbageB.Thomas EdisonC.Alexander Graham BellD.Bill Gates答案：A。
4-H木材科学领导指南参考材料说明书
Reference MaterialsThe following are suggested references for the4-H wood science leader. They may be helpful in providing additional information about woodworking, finishing tools, wood science and technology, and related materials.These references are not listed in any of the member manuals, so it is up to you to suggest to your group those references that you would like them to use. Some of the items listed here may be appropriate for youth and may be available at your local library. Basic Woodworking. Feirer, John L. (gr. 9–12) Peoria, IL: Bennett Pub. Co., 1978.Basic Woodworking and Carpentry With Projects. Clifford, Jerrold R. (pap. txt., illus.) Blue Ridge Summit, PA: Tab Books, 1980.Basic Woodworking Projects. McGinnis, Harry and M. J. Ruley. (gr. 7–9) Bloomington, IL: McKnight Pub., 1959.Bench Woodwork. Feirer, John L. (gr. 7–9) New York, NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1978. Text and workbook available.Canadian Woods: Their Properties and Uses. Mullins, E. J. and T. S. McKnight. 3rd ed. Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto Press, 1981.Carpentry for Beginners. Hayward, Charles E. Drake Home Craftsman Series (illus.). Verplanck, NY: Emerson Books, 1969.Carpentry for Children. Walker, Lester. (illus.) New York, NY: Overlook Press, 1982.Carpentry for Kids. Herda, D. J. and Judy B. (gr. 4 up, illus.) New York, NY: Messner, 1980.Complete Book of Wood Finishing. Sharff, Robert. 2nd ed. (illus.) New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1974.Farm Builders Handbook. Lytle, R. J. 3rd ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1981.Forest Products and Wood Science: An Introduction. Haygreen, John G. and James Bowyer. (illus.) Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press, 1982.How To Do Your Own Wood Finishing. Hand, Jackson.2nd ed. Popular Science Skill Book. New York, NY: Harper & Row, 1976.If I Had A Hammer. Woodworking With Seven Basic Tools. Lasson, Robert. (gr. 4 up, illus.) New York, NY: Dutton Pub., 1974.Industrial Arts Woodworking. Feirer, John L. (gr. 9–12) Peoria, IL: Bennett Pub. Co., 1977.Making Toys in Wood. Hayward, Charles H. (rev. ed., illus.) New York, NY: Sterling Pub., 1980. Making Wooden Toys. Blizzard, Richard (illus.) New York, NY: Sterling Pub., 1982.Practical Woodwork. Hayward, Charles H. (gr. 9 up, illus.) Verplanck, NY: Emerson Books, 1967. Projects in Wood Furniture. Douglass, Harvey J. (gr. 7 up, rev. ed., illus.) Bloomington, IL: McKnight Pub., 1967. What Wood is That? A Manual of Wood Identification. Edlin, Herbert L. (illus.) New York, NY: Viking Press, 1969.Wood As A Building and Hobby Material: How to Use Lumber and Wood Base Panels and Round Wood Wisely in Construction for Furniture and as Fuel. Kubler, Hans. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1980.Wood Handbook: Wood As An Engineering Material. USDA Forest Products Laboratory. Agriculture Handbook #72. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1974.Wood Materials and Processes. Feirer, John L. (illus.) New York, NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1976. Wood: Materials and Processes. Feirer, John L. (gr. 7–12, rev. ed.) Peoria, IL: Bennett Pub. Co., 1980. Student and teacher edition available.Wood Structure and Identification. Core, Harold A. et al., (pap. txt., illus.) Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1979.The Woodworker’s Pocket Book. Hayward, C. and R. Lento. (illus.) Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1982.Woodworking for Kids. Torre, Frank. (gr. 3–7) New York, NY: Doubleday & Co., 1978.Woodworking for Kids. Starr, Richard (illus.) Newtown, CT: Taunton Press, 1982.Working With Wood. Background Information. Parker, Sheila. Science 5–13 series (illus.) Milwaukee, WI: Raintree, 1977.Working With Wood. Stages 1 & 2. Parker, Sheila. Science 5 13 series (pap. txt., illus.) Milwaukee, WI: Raintree, 1977.MagazinesThe following magazines may have dimensioned plans for woodworking projects and are usually available at your local magazine stand or library.The Family HandymanFine WoodworkingPopular MechanicsPopular ScienceWoman’s DayWorkbenchOther Sources of Educational AidsThe following sources may have literature and/or audiovisuals available to help. Some items may be free; others may be available at cost. Write for a guide or catalog to what’s available.American Plywood Association, P.O. Box 11700, Tacoma, WA 98411. “Plywood Publication Index.” It covers films, pamphlets and plans that are available. American Forest Institute, 1619 Massachusetts Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036. Guide to forest industries, educational materials, movies, and slide show rentals.American Wood Council, 1619 Massachusetts Ave., N.W, Washington, D.C. 20036. Pamphlet, “Some Little Known Facts About Wood.” Leaflet, “A Reader’s Guide to Wood Products.”American Paper Institute, 260 Madison Ave., New York, NY 10016. Guide to literature and audiovisuals. Craft Patterns Studio, 2200 Dean Street, St. Charles, IL 60174. Write for information on woodworking plans and craft patterns.Directions Simplified, Inc., P.O. Box 215, Briarcliff Manor, New York 10510. Write for a catalog and order form for patterns and books. Audiovisuals may also be available.Hardwood Plywood Manufacturers Association, 1825 Michael Faraday Dr., Reston, VA 22090. A list of hardwood plywood literature and plans is available. Mastercraft Plans, Box 631, Park Ridge, IL 60068. “Popular Plans & Patterns.”National Forest Products Association, 1619 Massachusetts Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036. Write for information on free and inexpensive literature.National Particleboard Association, 2306 Perkins, Silver Spring, MD 20910. Write for information on free and inexpensive literature.Southern Forest Products Association, P.O. Box 52468, New Orleans, LA 70152. Write for a copyof “Everything You Always Wanted To Know About Southern Pine and Ought To!”—a catalog of consumer, technical, and educational literature, films, and services.Southern Forest Institute, 3395 Northeast Expressway, Suite 380, Atlanta, GA 30341. Booklet: “How Paper Comes From Trees”; also other aids.Stanley Tools, Educational Department, 600 Myrtle Street, New Britain, CT 06050. Write for information on woodworking plans and safety charts. Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. Write for information on literature related to wood science, woodworking, and forestry. Weyerhaeuser Company, Box A, Tacoma, WA 98401. Write for information on literature and audiovisual aids relating to wood science and woodworking. Hand Tool Institute, 707 Westchester Avenue, White Plains, NY 10604. Write for information on the “Hand Tool Safety Guide to Selection and Proper Use”; also ask for information on any other related aids that are available.。
组织认同的基础理论、测量及相关变量
948
第 15 卷第 6 期
组织认同的基础理论、测量及相关变量
-949-
思是相同的。国内有些学者把两者都译成组织认同， 另一些学者则认为，应当分别译成组织认定和组织 认同，笔者同意后一种观点（见表 1）。组织认定 （organizational identity）与组织认同（organizational identification）两者既有区别又有联系，组织认定侧 重角色和身份的定义，压力主要来自于组织外部。 正如Golden-Biddle和Rao指出的，组织认定回答了 “我们是谁？”、“我们象征着什么？”等问题，帮 助成员形成自我概念和自我归类 [7]。组织认同侧重 于自我构念的形成（identity- formation），压力主要
心理科学进展 2007，15（6）：948~955 Advances in Psychological Science
组织认同的基础理论、测量及相关பைடு நூலகம்量*
魏 钧 陈中原
张勉
（北京科技大学经济管理学院，北京 100083） （清华大学经济管理学院 北京 100084）
摘 要 组织认同是个体源于组织成员身份的一种自我构念，它与组织认定、组织承诺等概念存在显著差异。 文章阐述了组织认同基础理论的三种主要观点，对比了差异论、资源论和信息论的研究视角和相互关系。文 章着重说明了组织认同的测量工具，分析了组织层面和个人层面的前因变量，以及组织认同对离职意愿等结 果变量的影响。文章最后指出今后有必要对扩展定义、影响因素和国家文化差异等方面进行探讨。 关键词 组织认同，自我构念，前因变量，结果变量。 分类号 B849:C93
来自于成员本身。如同Dukerich所言，组织认同过 程是成员认同组织的经历，是组织影响其成员形成 自我定义的过程[8]。同时，两者又有相互联系的一 面。首先，组织认定是组织认同的必然结果，这种 现象被称作“去个人化”（depersonalization）。其次， 组织认同需要借助组织认定来实现，Albert等人指 出，组织认同之所以能够发挥其同化作用，主要是 由于它具备区分功能和排他性，而这些功能的实现 离不开组织认定[9]。
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➢ The unit of power is the watt.
11
Check for Understanding
1.Two physics students, Ben and Bonnie, are in the weightlifting room. Bonnie lifts the 50 kg barbell over her head (approximately .60 m) 10 times in one minute; Ben lifts the 50 kg barbell the same distance over his head 10 times in 10 seconds.
Which student does the most work? Which student delivers the most power? Explain your answers.
12
Ben and Bonnie do the same amount of work; they apply the same force to lift the same barbell the same distance above their heads.
2
Work or Not?
➢ According to the scientific definition, what is work and what is not?
a teacher lecturing to her class
a mouse pushing a piece of cheese with its nose across the floor
Work and Simple Machines
1
What is work?
➢ In science, the word work has a different meaning than you may be familiar with.
➢ The scientific definition of work is: using a force to move an object a distance (when both the force and the motion of the object are in the same direction.)
➢ A father pushes a baby in a carriage.
➢ A woman carries a 20 kg grocery bag to her car?
6
What’s work?
➢ A scientist delivers a speech to an audience of his peers. No
8
W=FD
Work = Force x Distance
Calculate: If a man pushes a concrete block 10 meters with a force of 20 N, how much work has he done?
9
W=FD
Work = Force x Distance
7
Formula for work
Work = Force x Distance
➢ The unit of force is newtons ➢ The unit of distance is meters ➢ The unit of work is newton-meters ➢ One newton-meter is equal to one joule ➢ So, the unit of work is a joule
3
Work or Not?
➢ According to the scientific definition, what is work and what is not?
a teacher lecturing to her class
a mouse pushing a piece of cheese with its nose across the floor
➢ A body builder lifts 350 pounds above his head. Yes
➢ A mother carries her baby from room to room. No
➢ A father pushes a baby in a carriage. Yes
➢ A woman carries a 20 km grocery bag to her car? No
Yet, Ben is the most powerful since he does the same work in less timeely proportional.
13
2. How much power will it take to move a 10 kg mass at an acceleration of 2 m/s/s a distance of 10 meters in 5 seconds? This problem requires you to use the formulas for force, work, and power all in the correct order.
Calculate: If a man pushes a concrete block 10 meters with a force of 20 N, how much work has he done? 200 joules (W = 20N x 10m)
10
Power
➢ Power is the rate at which work is done.
4
5
What’s work?
➢ A scientist delivers a speech to an audience of his peers.
➢ A body builder lifts 350 pounds above his head.
➢ A mother carries her baby from room to room.