Western Public Management Theory
从交际理论视角看《哈克贝里·费恩历险记》中方言的翻译
分类号密级公开UDC编号2013010209硕士学位论文从交际理论视角看《哈克贝里·费恩历险记》中方言的翻译申请人姓名周玉俏导师姓名及职称欧阳利锋教授申请学位类别文学学科专业名称翻译学培养单位高级翻译学院学位授予单位广东外语外贸大学2018年5月28日分类号________密级______公开_UDC__编号2013010209广东外语外贸大学硕士学位论文On the Translation of Some Dialect-based Expressions in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn----from PeterNewmark's Communicative Theory从交际理论视角看《哈克贝里·费恩历险记》中方言的翻译申请人姓名周玉俏导师姓名及职称欧阳利锋教授申请学位类别文学学科专业名称翻译学论文提交日期2018年5月22日论文答辩日期2018年5月22日答辩委员会何高大教授（主席）张保红教授莫爱屏教授葛诗利教授邢杰副教授学位授予单位广东外语外贸大学独创性声明本人郑重声明：所呈交的学位论文是本人在导师指导下进行的研究工作及取得的研究成果。
据我所知，除了文中特别加以标注和致谢的地方外，论文中不包含其他人已经发表或撰写过的研究成果，也不包含为获得广东外语外贸大学或其他教育机构的学位或证书而使用过的材料。
与我一同工作的人对本研究所做的任何贡献均已在论文中作了明确的说明并表示谢意。
作者签名：签字日期：2018年5月28日学位论文版权使用授权书本学位论文作者完全了解广东外语外贸大学有关保留、使用学位论文的规定，有权保留并向国家有关部门或机构送交论文的复印件和磁盘，允许论文被查阅和借阅。
本人授权广东外语外贸大学可以将学位论文的全部或部分内容编入有关数据库进行检索，可以采用影印、缩印或扫描等复制手段保存、汇编学位论文。
作者签名：导师签名：签字日期：2018年5月22日签字日期：2018年5月22日On the Translation of Some Dialect-based Expressions in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn ----from Peter Newmark's CommunicativeTheorySubmittedin Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements forthe Degree of Master of Artsin Translation StudiesGuangdong University of Foreign StudiesMay2018IACKNOWLEDGEMENTSFirst and foremost,I would like to extend my sincere thanks to my supervisor,Ouyang Lifeng,who offered me many enlightening instructions and significant suggestions.Besides that,I especially appreciate his understanding,encouragement and patience.Without his help,it is impossible for me to finish my thesis in time.Meanwhile,I am grateful to my classmate,Lei Yadi,for helping me look for materials for my thesis.Furthermore,I am also extremely obliged to my nephew.He provided me with a lot of current popular colloquial words and expressions,which were very significant to me.Last but not least,gratitude goes to my parents for their generous support.IIABSTRACTThe Adventures of Huckleberry Finn,a masterpiece by Mark Twain in his middle age,is well-known for its humor and sarcasm reflected in its extensive use of dialects,such as the Missouri Negro dialect,the backwoods South Western dialect,the ordinary“Pike-Country”dialect,and four modified varieties.Thus,the dialect-based expressions is a continuous object of study by both western and Chinese literary critics.Many of them pose satire towards its numerous coarse language.This thesis takes Newmark’s communicative theory as the theoretical basis to analyze translation strategies of the dialect-based expressions in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn.Newmark holds the idea that all texts could be translated by two methods:semantic translation and communicative.He classifies text into three types,including the expressive text,the informative and vocative text.Semantic translation is for the expressive text-types. Communicative translation is for the informative and vocative text-types.Text type serves as the decisive factor in selecting translation method.Since the dialect-based expressions in this novel belongs to the vocative one,communicative translation method is appropriate to be employed.Under the guidance of communicative translation,this thesis concludes the following four translation strategies:the application of colloquial expressions,amplification and omission,structure reorganization and the application of Chinese dialect expressions. Currently,although the first three strategies are more popular than the last one,only by using all of them together,can the translated version lead to a better reproduction of English dialect’s humorous effect and a better conveyance of its social information.Keywords:dialect,dialect translation,communicative translation,The Adventures of Huckleberry FinnIII摘要《哈克贝利·费恩历险记》是著名美国小说家马克·吐温于中年时期完成的一部巨作。
西方行政学说史丁煌读后感读后感
英文回答：Upon perusing the annals of Western administrative theory, I have garnered a more profoundprehension of the metamorphosis and progression of administrative ideology in the Western sphere. It is intriguing to behold the evolution of the notion of administration over the course of centuries, from antiquity to the contemporary era. The literature not only furnishes aprehensive survey of the pivotal theories and luminaries in Western administrative thought, but also proffers a discerning critique of the manifold paradigms that have molded the discipline. This has engendered in me an appreciation for the intricacy of administrative theory and its pertinence to contemporary governance and public management.我根据西方行政理论的史料，对西方领域行政思想的变迁和进步有了更深刻的认识。
数百年来，从古代到当代，行政概念的演变令人感兴趣。
这些文献不仅对西方行政思想中的关键理论和流派进行了全面的调查，而且对塑造这一学科的多种范式提出了深刻的批评。
西方文论知识点总结
西方文论知识点总结一、西方文论的概念与起源1.1 西方文论概念西方文论（Western Literary Theory）是指西方文学研究的理论体系，其研究对象包括文学的产生、形式、内容、风格、流派、主题、意义等方面。
西方文论旨在通过对文学作品和文学现象的分析和解释，揭示文学艺术的内在规律和历史变迁，探寻人文精神和审美价值。
1.2 西方文论的起源西方文论的历史可以追溯到古希腊文学哲学思想的萌芽。
古希腊的文艺批评家如亚里士多德、赫拉克利特等人，关于文学的审美规范、创作技巧和审美功能的思考，为西方文论的形成奠定了基础。
文艺复兴时期，意大利人文主义者的文学批评活动，如维特鲁威、蓬塔诺等人提出了一些与西方文论相关的理论观点，为文论的发展打下了基础。
二、西方文论的发展与演变2.1 古典主义文论古典主义文论是指欧洲17世纪至18世纪初的一种文学批评思潮。
古典主义文学批评主张在文学创作中遵循古典艺术的规范和传统，追求规范化、经典化和理性化，通过对古希腊和罗马文学作品的模仿和借鉴，强调文学作品的规则性和完美性。
代表性人物有法国的柯尼耶、英国的杜费等。
2.2 浪漫主义文论浪漫主义文论兴起于18世纪末19世纪初的欧洲。
浪漫主义文学批评主张文学创作中的个性化、想象力和情感表达，追求文学作品的奇特、唯美和非理性特质。
浪漫主义文论强调文学作品与作者的个人情感和审美感受的融合，具有强烈的主观性和抒情性。
代表性人物有德国的施莱格尔兄弟、英国的科尔里奇等。
2.3 现实主义文论现实主义文论盛行于19世纪后半期的欧洲。
现实主义文学批评主张文学作品要反映社会生活的客观现实，追求作品的真实、自然和精确，强调作品的社会性和历史性。
现实主义文论强调文学作品的客观性和客观表现对社会现实的关注和表现。
代表性人物有法国的米约、英国的伦斯特、俄国的陀思妥耶夫斯基等。
2.4 后现代主义文论后现代主义文论兴起于20世纪后期的西方国家。
后现代主义文学批评主张超越现实主义与浪漫主义的二元对立，批判现代化的理性主义和真理寻求，追求个体化、异质化和多元化，强调文学作品的多样性和开放性。
公共管理学完整版英文翻译XN__
Chapter 2课本第一章An Era of Change改变的年代、时代Introduction引言There has been a transformation（转化、变革）in the management of the public sectors of advanced countries.在发达国家的公共部门的管理已经有了一个变革。
This new paradigm poses（形成，造成） a direct challenge to several of what had previously been regarded as fundamental principles of traditional public administration.这个新的范例对几个原先被认为是传统公共行政的基础规则提出了直接挑战。
These seven seeming verities（真理）have been challenged.这几个真理被挑战。
Economic problems in the 1980s meant governments reassessed（重新评估）their bureaucracies and demanded changes.1980s的经济问题意味着政府重新评估他们的官僚制并且需要改变。
All these points will be discussed at greater length（长度）later, but the main point is there has been total change in a profession that saw little change for around a hundred years.这些观点会在以后做更大范围的讨论，但是这里强调的主要是一点：一百年来很少发生变革的公共职业领域发生了全面变革。
A new paradigm一个新的范例There is some debate over whether or not public managemnet, particularly the new public management, is a new paradigm for public sector management.有个争论，关于公共管理尤其是新的公共管理是不是公共部门管理的一个新的范例。
(完整版)公共管理导论_笔记_欧文.休斯
《公共管理导论》欧文.休斯第一章：改革的时代1.1导言1、传统的公共行政学原理：1）政府本身应按照等级制、官僚制的原则进行组织2）政府一旦介入到某一政策领域内，它就可以通过官僚制组织结构成为商品和服务的直接提供者3）政治与行政能够相分离4）认为公共行政是行政管理的一种特殊形式，因此，它需要一种终身制的、能够同样为任何政治领导人服务的职业官僚2、新公共管理具有以下一些主要观点1）注重管理而不是政策2）注重绩效评估和效率3）将公共官僚制组织划分为一些在用户付费的基础上相互协调的机构4）利用准市场化和签约包出工程的方式促进竞争5）削减成本6）具有一种特别重视产出目标、限期合同、金钱刺激和自主管理的管理风格3、企业型政府的十条原则（奥斯本、盖博勒）1）大多数企业型政府鼓励提供服务者之间的竞争2）他们授权各公民，将控制权从官僚制组织转移到社区中3）关注结果而不是投入4）以目标而不是规则和规定为导向5）把服务对象界定为顾客并赋予其选择权6）致力于赚钱而不仅仅是花钱7）实行分析，引入参与管理8）采用市场机制而不是官僚机制9）不仅重视提供公共服务，而且极力所有部门，为解决其社区文体付诸行动4、新公共管理管理主义企业型政府1.2行政与管理行政：服从指令和服务，注重的是过程、程序和符合规定管理：1）取得某些结果（有效率的）2）取得这些结果的管理者的个人责任1.3公共部门的研究公共管理：注重战略、外部环境的处理以及组织的广泛使命和目标1.4 变革的紧迫问题1、对公共部门的抨击：规模、范围和方法2、经济理论的变革1）公共选择理论：将微观经济学运用于政治与社会领域的经济思想的一个分支。
主要假设是以完全理性为基础，断定“最好的”结果应是市场力量的作用最大化，政府的作用则相应减少，允许竞争和选择。
公共选择理论试着从研究官僚和政客的角度上探索政府带来的影响，并且假设这些人都是根据于自己的私利采取行动，他们的一举一动都是为了增进自己的经济利益（如他们的个人福利）。
行政管理公共管理论文中英文外文翻译文献
行政管理公共管理论文中英文外文翻译文献中英文外文翻译文献The New Public Management SituationNo doubt, many countries in the world, and both developed countries and developing countries, in the late 1980s and early 1990s began a continuous public sector management reform movement. The reform movement is still in many aspects government continue to the organization and management of the influence. People in these reforms view repudiating them. Critics especially in Britain and the United States, critics say the new mode of various problems exist, but also does not have the international prevailing reform of public management, could not be called paradigm. Criticism from almost every aspect of the change. Most of the academic criticism belong to the mouth. Different schools of thought in detail discussion, The academic journal articles and abstraction, from reality. At the same time, in the practice of public management and implementation of the reform and the change. As I in other articles in the thought, in most countries, the traditional public administrative mode for public management mode has been replaced. The reform of public department responded to the realities of several interrelated problems, including: the function of public sector provide public services of low efficiency, Economic theory of change, Private sector related changes impact of globalization, especially as a kind of economic power, Technology changes made decentralization and better control globally becomes possible. The administrative management can be divided into three stages: the development of distinct phases, and public administration before traditional pattern and public management reform stage. Each stage has its ownmanagement mode. From a stage of transition to the next stage is not easy, from the traditional public administration to public administration has not yet completed the transition. But it was only a matter of time. Because the new mode of theoretical basis is very strong. The new public management movement ", "although this name, but it is not only a debate in the booming, and in most developed countries have taken the best management mode of expression. The traditional administrative mode than it's age is a great reform, but that time has passed.A traditional patternObviously, in the late 19th century bureaucracy system theory, not sound already exists some form of administrative management. Public administration has a long history, and it is the concept of a government and the rise of civilization as history. As the case Glad2den Osama bin laden (point), a model of administrative since the government appears has existed. First is endowed with founder or leader, then is the social or administrative person to organizers of eternity. Administration management or business is all in social activities, although not among factors, but the glow of social sustainable development is of vital importance. Recognized administrative system in ancient Egypt is already exists, its jurisdiction from the Nile flooding caused by the year to build the pyramids irrigation affairs. China is adopted in the han dynasty, Confucian norms that government should be elected, not according to the background, but according to the character and ability, the government's main goal is to seek the welfare of the people. In Europe, various empire - Greek, Roman, and the holy Roman, Spain's administrative empire, they first by the central through various rules and procedures. Weber's thought, "modern" medieval countries develop simultaneously with "bureaucratic management structure development". Although these countries in different ways, but they have common features, it can be called before modern. Namely, the administrative system of early essence is the personification of, or the establishment in Max Weber's "nepotism" basis, i.e. to loyal to the king or minister certain human foundation, not is personified, With allegiance to the organization or individual basis rather than for the foundation. Although thereare such a viewpoint that administration itself not only praise from traditional mode, the characteristic of early but often leads to seek personal interests corruption or abuse of power. In the early administrative system, we now feel very strange approach has the functions of government administration is generally behavior. All those who walk official tend to rely on friends or relatives for work or buy officer, which means the money to buy the first officer or tax officials, and then out to the customer to money, which is the first to buy officer recovery investment cost, and can make a fortune. America in the 19th century FenFei system of "political parties" means in the ruling changed at the same time, the government of all administrative position is changed. Modern bureaucracy is before "personal, traditional, diffusion and similar and special", and according to the argument, modern Weber bureaucracy is "impersonal, rational, concrete, achievement orientation and common". Personalized government is often inefficient: nepotism means incompetent not capable person was arranged to positions of leadership, FenFei political corruption, in addition to making often still exist serious low efficiency. The enormous success of traditional administrative pattern that early practice looks strange. Specialization and not politicized administrative in our opinion is so difficult to imagine that trace, there exist other system. Western administrative system even simple selection of officials to pass the exam, until 1854, Britain and north G..M. Trevelyan report after Northcote - began to establish in China, although the system has long passage.The traditional public administrative patternIn the late 19th century, additionally one kind of pattern on the world popular, this is the so-called traditional administrative pattern. Its main theoretical basis from several countries, namely, the American scholars and Germany Woodrow Wilson of Max Weber's, people put their associated with bureaucracy model, Frederick Tyler systematically elaborated the scientific management theory, the theory of the private sector from America, for public administration method was provided. And the other theorists, Taylor without focusing on public sector, but his theory was influential in this field. The three traditional public administration mode is theorist of main effect.In other countries, plus G..M. Trevelyan and North America, the state administration of administrative system, especially the Wilson has produced important influence. In the 19th century, the north G..M. Trevelyan and put forward through the examination and character, and appointed officials put forward bias and administrative neutral point of view. The traditional administrative pattern has the following features:1. The bureaucracy. The government shall, according to the principle of bureaucratic rank and organization. The German sociologist Max Weber bureaucracy system of a classic, and analysis. Although the bureaucracy in business organizations and other tissues, but it is in the public sector got better and longer.2. The best way of working and procedures are in full manual detail codes, for administrative personnel to follow. Strictly abide by these principles will run for the organization provides the best way.3. Bureaucratic service. Once the government policy areas in, it will be through the bureaucracy to provide public products and service providers.4. In political and administrative two relations, political and administrative managers generally think of administrative affairs can be separated. Administration is the implement instruction, and any matter policy or strategic affairs shall be decided by the political leaders, which can ensure that the democratic system.5. Public interests are assumed to individual civil servants, the only motive for public service is selfless paying.6. Professional bureaucracy. Public administration is viewed as a kind of special activities, thus requirements, obscure, civil servants neutral equal employment and lifelong service to any political leaders.7. The administrative task is to carry out the meaning of the written instructions and not others assume the personal responsibility.Through the comparison of the early administrative pattern, we can better understand the main advantages and Webber system differences. Webber system and it is the most important mode of various before the difference: the rule-based impersonal system replaced the personification of administrative management system. An organization and its rules than any of the people are important organization. Bureaucracy is itsoperation and how to respond to customer must is personified. As Weber has demonstrated that the modern office management ", will be incorporated into various regulations deeply touched it. The modern public administration by law theory, to command certain affairs authority has been awarded the legitimate public authority. This does not grant an institution specific cases through some instructions. It only matters is abstractly control some issues. In contrast, through personal privileges and give concession regulation of all affairs. The latter is completely dominated by the hereditary system, at least these affairs is not the traditional infringement is this situation."It is very important. Early administration based on personal relationships, be loyal to relatives, protect, leaders or political, rather than on the system. Sometimes, the early administration is politically sensitive, because of the administrative organs of the staff is appointed, they also politicians arms or mainstream class. However, it is often autocratic, autocratic administration may be unfair, especially for those who can't or unwilling to input personal and political game. One of the basic principles for with weber impersonal system to completely eliminate autocratic - at least in ideal condition is so. File exists, the reference principle of parallel and legal basis in the same environment means will always make the same decision. Below this kind of circumstance is not only more efficient, and the citizen and bureaucratic hierarchy know myself.Other differences were associated with this. In various regulations and impersonal basis, will naturally formed strict hierarchy. Personal rating system and its provisions in the left unchanged. Although Webber emphasizes the entire system, but he also noticed the bureaucracy of the organization and individual term.The traditional administrative mode won great success, it is widely adopted by governments around the world. Theoretically or in practice, it shows the advantage. And before the corruption flourished, it is more efficient than system, and the thought of individual professionalization civil servants and amateur service has a great progress. However, this model is also exposed the problems that shows that the model can even said outdated, also can say is outdated.The theory of public administration has been difficult to describe the pillar. Political control theory has problems. Administrative means follow instructions, so people demand a well-ordered transceiver method. Instruction between implementers and has a clear division. But this is not the reality, and with the public service domain expands the scale and more impossible. The traditional mode of another theoretical pillar - bureaucracy theory is no longer considered particularly effective form of organization. Formal bureaucracy could have its advantages, but people think it often training to routineer and innovators, Encourage executives rather than risk aversion risk-taking, encourage them to waste instead of effective use of scarce resources. Webb was the bureaucracy is regarded as an ideal type ", "but now this ideal type is inert, cultivate the progressive, leads to low efficiency, these mediocrity and is believed to be the public sector of the special disease. It is also criticized. Actually, the word "bureaucracy in today's more likely as low efficiency of synonyms.The new public management modeIn the 1980s, the public sector is a traditional administrative pattern of new management methods of defects. This method can alleviate some of the problems of traditional pattern, also means that the public sector operation aspects has changed significantly. The new management method has many names: management of "individualism", "the new public administration", based on the market of public administration ", after the bureaucracy model "or" entrepreneurial government ". To the late 1990s, people tend to use "and the concept of new public administration". Although the new public management, but for many of the names of public management of department of actual changes happened, people still have a consensus. First, no matter what, it is called mode with traditional represents a significant change of public administration, different more attention and managers of the individual responsibility. Second, it is clear to get rid of the classical bureaucracy, thereby organization, personnel, term and conditions more flexible. Third, it stipulates the organization and personnel, and it can target according to the performance indicators measuring task completion. Also, to plan the assessment system for more than everbefore, and also can be more strictly determine whether the government plans to achieve its objectives. Fourth, the senior executives are more likely to color with political government work, rather than independent or neutral. Fifth, the more likely the inspection by the market, buyers of public service provider and distinguish "helmsman, with the rower to distinguish". Government intervention is not always refers to the government by means of bureaucracy. Sixth, appeared through privatization and market means such as inspection, contract of government function reduce trend. In some cases, it is fundamental. Once happened during the transformation from the important changes to all connected with this, the continuity of the steps are necessary.Holmes and Shand as a useful characteristics of generalization. They put the new public management paradigm, the good as management method has the following features: (1) it is a more strategic or structure of decision-making method (around the efficiency, quality and service). (2) decentralization type management environment replaced concentration level structure. The resource allocation and service delivery closer to supply, we can get more itself from the customers and related information and other interest groups. (3) can be more flexible to replace the method of public products supply directly, so as to provide cost savings of the policy. (4) concerned with the responsibility, authority as the key link of improving performance, including emphasize clear performance contract mechanism. (5) in the public sector, and between internal to create a competitive environment. (6) strengthen the strategic decision-making ability, which can quickly, flexible and low cost to manage multiple interests outside change and the response. (7) by request relevant results and comprehensive cost reports to improve transparency and responsibility. (8) general service budget and management system to support and encourage the change.The new public management and realize a result that no one in the best way. Managers in endowed with responsibility and without being told to get results. Decision is a management job duties, if not for achieving goals, managers should assume responsibility.ConclusionThe government management over the past 150 years experienced three modes. First is the personification of modern administrative mode, or when the pattern of its defects and increasingly exposed to improve efficiency, it is the second mode of traditional bureaucracy model is replaced. Similarly, when the traditional administrative mode problems, it is the third model is the new public management, from the government to alternative market. Since 1980s, the dominance of the market as the 1920s to 1960s dominant bureaucracy. In any kind of government, market and bureaucratic system are coexisting, just a form at some stage dominant, and in another stage of another kind of form, the dominant. The new public management is increasingly weakened and bureaucracy in the public administration field market dominant period.In reality, the market and bureaucracy, mutual complement each other. The new public management may not be completely replace the bureaucracy, as in 1989, the eastern Europe before bureaucracy could not instead of the market. But the new public management movement is early traditional bureaucracy, many functions can be and often by market now. In a bureaucracy system for organizational principle is weakened environment, market solutions will be launched. Of course not all market prescription can succeed, but this is not the issue. The government of new public management will be a toolbox dowsed solutions. If the scheme of the ineffective, the government will from the same source for other solutions. The theory behind the government management has already happened, we can use the term "paradigm" to describe it. In public administration academia, many of the new public management denial of critics. But their criticism of the government reform quickly. In the new public management mode, another a kind of new mode, but certainly not returned to the traditional administrative pattern.新公共管理的现状毫无疑问,世界上许多国家,无论是发达国家还是发展中国家,在20世纪80年代后期和90年代初期都开始了一场持续的公共部门管理变革运动。
西方公共行政管理理论l
西方公共行政管理理论lPublic administration is a field of study that focuses on the management of public policies and programs. It is a discipline that incorporates theories from various fields such as political science, management, sociology, and economics. The Western public administration management theory has evolved over time and has been influenced by various scholars and practitioners. In this paper, we will explore the key theories in Western public administration management, their evolution, and their impact on the field.Classical Public Administration TheoryThe classical public administration theory emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and was heavily influenced by the thinking of Max Weber, Frederick Taylor, and Henri Fayol. Weber’s bureau cratic model emphasized the need for a hierarchical structure, division of labor, and clear rules and procedures. Taylor’s scientific management theory focused on maximizing efficiency and productivity through standardization of work processes. Fayol’s administrative management theory highlighted the importance of coordination, planning, and control in organizations.These early theories laid the foundation for modern public administration and still have a significant influence on the field today. However, they have been criticized for their focus on hierarchical structures and bureaucratic processes, which are seen as rigid and inflexible in today's dynamic and fast-changing environment.Behavioral Public Administration TheoryThe behavioral public administration theory emerged as a response to the limitations of the classical theory. This theory focused on the human side of organizations and emphasized the importance of understanding human behavior in the workplace. Scholars such as Chester Barnard, Herbert Simon, and Mary Parker Follett contributed to the development of this theory.Barnard’s theory of cooperation emphasized the importance of informal organizations and the role of communication and leadership in achieving organizational goals. Simon’s decision-making theory focused on the limitations of human rationality and the need for administrative decision-making to be flexible and adaptive. Follett’s theories on conflict resolution and power dynamics laid the groundwork for modern organizational behavior and human resource management.The behavioral public administration theory introduced concepts such as motivation, communication, leadership, and organizational culture into the field of public administration. It shifted the focus from the formal structures and processes to the people within the organizations and their interactions. This theory has had a lasting impact on the field and is still relevant in contemporary public administration practices.New Public Management TheoryThe new public management (NPM) theory emerged in the 1980s as a response to the perceived inefficiencies and bureaucratic nature of traditional public administration. This theory, heavily influenced by the thinking of scholars such as David Osborne, Ted Gaebler, and Christopher Hood, emphasized the need for a results-oriented, market-driven approach to public administration.NPM introduced management practices from the private sector into the public sector, such as performance measurement, competition, outsourcing, and customer orientation. It also emphasized the use of market mechanisms, such as contracts and incentives, to improve efficiency and effectiveness in public service delivery.NPM has had a significant impact on public administration around the world, leading to widespread reforms in public sector organizations. However, it has also been criticized for its focus on efficiency at the expense of equity, its reliance on market mechanisms in public services, and its de-emphasis of public interest and accountability.Postmodern Public Administration TheoryThe postmodern public administration theory emerged as a response to the limitations of traditional public administration theories in addressing the complex and diverse challenges of contemporary society. This theory, influenced by scholars such as Camilla Stivers, Hugh Miller, and John De Lascio, emphasized the need for a more inclusive, participatory, and reflexive approach to public administration.Postmodern public administration challenged the notion of objective and neutral administration and highlighted the importance of understanding power, diversity, and social justice in public policy and management. It also emphasized the need for collaborative and networked governance models that involve multiple stakeholders in decision-making and implementation.This theory has had a significant impact on the field of public administration, leading to the adoption of more inclusive and participatory approaches in public policy and management. It has also raised important questions about the role of public administrators in addressing social and environmental justice issues and promoting equity and diversity in public services.Evolution of Western Public Administration Management TheoryThe evolution of Western public administration management theory has been characterized by a shift from a focus on hierarchical and bureaucratic approaches to a more inclusive, participatory, and reflexive approach. The classical theory laid the foundation for modern public administration but has been criticized for its rigidity and inflexibility. The behavioral theory introduced the human side of organizations and emphasized the importance of understanding human behavior in the workplace. The NPM theory introduced market-driven approaches to public administration but has been criticized for its focus on efficiency at the expense of equity and public interest. The postmodern theory challenged traditionalapproaches to public administration and emphasized the need for a more inclusive, participatory, and reflexive approach.Impact of Western Public Administration Management TheoryThe theories of Western public administration management have had a significant impact on the field and have shaped the way that public services are delivered and managed. The classical theory laid the foundation for modern public administration and still has a significant influence on the field today. The behavioral theory introduced concepts such as motivation, communication, leadership, and organizational culture into the field of public administration. The NPM theory led to widespread reforms in public sector organizations, introducing market mechanisms and performance measurement into public service delivery. The postmodern theory has raised important questions about the role of public administrators in addressing social and environmental justice issues and promoting equity and diversity in public services.ConclusionThe theories of Western public administration management have evolved over time and have been influenced by various scholars and practitioners. The classical theory laid the foundation for modern public administration, the behavioral theory focused on the human side of organizations, the NPM theory emphasized market-driven approaches to public administration, and the postmodern theory challenged traditional approaches to public administration. These theories have had a significant impact on the field and have shaped the way that public services are delivered and managed. As the field of public administration continues to evolve, it is important for scholars and practitioners to continue to explore and develop new approaches to public administration management that are responsive to the complex and diverse challenges of contemporary society.。
论当代西方工商管理理论在中国的应用-管理类毕业论文
摘要本文就从西方工商管理理论的发展进程，工商理论在中国的应用现状，以及如何使用三个方面，对当代西方工商管理理论在中国的应用进行阐述。
现在的中国工商业界也正在经历着东方文化与西方思潮在现今工商管理工作中碰撞、思索、实践的过程。
本文就从西方工商管理理论的发展进程，工商理论在中国的应用现状，以及如何使用三个方面，对当代西方工商管理理论在中国的应用进行阐述。
工商管理理论不同于许多自然科学、社会科学的是，没有一个最优理念，没有一个放之四海而皆准的唯一理论。
关键词：西方管理理论、中国工商业发展；AbstractIn this paper, the application of contemporary western business administration in China is demonstrated from such three aspects as development process of Western business administration, application of it as well as how to use it. Now business communities in China are also experiencing the stage where eastern culture and western ideologies are having a collision, thought out and put into practices in modern business management. In this paper, the application of contemporary western business administration in China is demonstrated from such three aspects as development process of Western business administration, application of it as well as how to use it. One thing makes business administration theory differ from other natural sciences and social sciences lies in the fact that there is neither an optimal concept nor a universal theory regarding it.Key word：The western management theory、Chinese industrial and commercial development。
公共管理学名词解释
公共管理学名词解释公共管理学是一门研究公共部门组织与管理的学科。
它关注着政府和非营利组织在提供公共服务、管理公共资源以及应对公共问题和挑战方面的理论和实践。
下面将对公共管理学中常见的一些名词进行解释。
一、公共管理（Public Management）公共管理是指政府和非营利组织通过制定政策、实施法规、规划和组织资源，以提供公共服务并管理公共事务的过程。
公共管理涉及公共领域的政策制定、资源配置、组织管理、绩效评估等一系列活动，旨在提高公共部门的效率、效能和公正性。
二、政府治理（Governance）政府治理是指政府与社会各方在公共事务中的合作与协调。
它强调政府不再是单方面的决策者和执行者，而是与民间组织、市场机制以及公众进行互动和合作，共同解决公共问题。
政府治理推崇多元主体参与、信息透明、法治保障和有效的监督机制。
三、公共政策（Public Policy）公共政策是政府为解决公共问题而采取的行动方案和决策。
它是政府在特定的社会、经济和政治背景下，对问题进行界定、目标设定、资源配置和行动实施的过程。
公共政策的制定和实施需要考虑社会公众的需求、权益和利益，同时也受到政府自身的能力和资源限制所制约。
四、绩效管理（Performance Management）绩效管理是通过设定目标、制定评估标准、追踪和评估绩效，以及采取相应的激励和改进措施，来提高组织绩效的管理方法和过程。
在公共管理领域，绩效管理强调公共部门应该注重结果导向、客观评估和透明度，以实现公共资源的高效利用和公共服务的质量提升。
五、公共选择理论（Public Choice Theory）公共选择理论是一种分析政府和公共部门行为的经济学理论。
它认为政府官员和公共机构在决策和行动中也是基于个人利益和理性选择的，需要考虑权衡成本和利益，以及政治激励和制约对行为的影响。
公共选择理论的应用能够帮助理解公共决策和政策形成的动机和机制。
六、公众参与（Public Participation）公众参与是指政府在制定决策和实施政策过程中，在合适的时间和领域，主动且有效地征求和利用公众的意见、建议和参与。
行政管理理论英文
行政管理理论英文Public Administration TheoryIntroductionPublic administration is an important field of study that focuses on the implementation and management of government policies and programs. It encompasses various theories and approaches that aim to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of public sector organizations. In this paper, we will explore several key theories in public administration, including classical, behavioral, systems, and contingency theories. We will also examine the evolution of public administration theory and its relevance in today's complex and rapidly changing world.Classical TheoryClassical theory is one of the earliest and most influential approaches to public administration. It is based on the idea that organizations should be structured and managed in a rational and hierarchical manner. This theory was developed during the late19th and early 20th centuries, when industrialization and urbanization led to the need for more efficient and effective forms of governance.One of the key figures in classical theory is Max Weber, who proposed the concept of bureaucracy as a way to organize and manage complex organizations. Weber identified several key principles of bureaucracy, including division of labor, hierarchy of authority, rules and regulations, impersonality, and career advancement based on merit. These principles are intended to create a rational and efficient organizational structure that caneffectively carry out the goals and objectives of the government. Behavioral TheoryBehavioral theory emerged as a reaction to the shortcomings of classical theory, particularly its emphasis on formal structure and rational decision-making. Behavioral theorists argued that human behavior is complex and often irrational, and that organizations should be designed and managed with this in mind. This approach focuses on the psychological and sociological aspects of organizational behavior, with an emphasis on employee motivation, leadership, and group dynamics.One of the key figures in behavioral theory is Chester Barnard, who proposed the concept of the "acceptance theory of authority." According to Barnard, authority is only effective if it is acceptedby the subordinates, and managers must take into account the needs and motivations of their employees in order to achieve organizational goals. This perspective led to a greater emphasis on human relations and employee participation in decision-making, as well as a recognition of the importance of informal networks and communication within organizations.Systems TheorySystems theory is based on the idea that organizations are complex and interdependent systems that must be understood as a whole, rather than as a collection of separate parts. This approach emphasizes the interconnectedness of different elements within an organization, as well as the interactions between the organization and its external environment. Systems theory also highlights the importance of feedback loops and the ability of organizations toadapt and evolve in response to changing conditions.One of the key figures in systems theory is Ludwig von Bertalanffy, who developed the concept of "general systems theory." According to von Bertalanffy, general systems theory provides a framework for understanding the common principles that underlie all complex systems, regardless of their specific nature or domain. This approach has been influential in shaping our understanding of organizations as open, dynamic, and adaptive systems that are constantly interacting with their environment. Contingency TheoryContingency theory is based on the idea that there is no one-size-fits-all approach to management, and that the best course of action depends on the specific context and circumstances facing an organization. This approach emphasizes the need for managers to be flexible and adaptable in their decision-making, and to take into account the unique challenges and opportunities presented by different situations.One of the key figures in contingency theory is Fred Fiedler, who developed the "contingency model of leadership." According to Fiedler, the effectiveness of a leader depends on the match between their leadership style and the situational context in which they are operating. This perspective has led to a greater recognition of the importance of situational awareness and the need for managers to be able to adjust their approach in response to changing conditions.Evolution of Public Administration TheoryOver the years, public administration theory has evolved in response to changes in the external environment, as well as advances in organizational and management scholarship. One important trend has been the shift from a focus on formal structure and rational decision-making to a greater emphasis on organizational behavior and the complex, dynamic nature of organizations. This has led to a greater recognition of the importance of human relations, employee motivation, and the need for organizations to be able to adapt and evolve in response to changing conditions.Another important trend has been the increasing recognition of the importance of the external environment in shaping the behavior and performance of organizations. This has led to a greater emphasis on the interconnectedness of organizations and the need for them to be able to respond to changes in their external environment in order to remain effective. This has also led to a greater recognition of the importance of collaboration and networked governance in addressing complex and interdependent public policy challenges.Relevance in Today's WorldPublic administration theory remains highly relevant in today's complex and rapidly changing world. Organizations are facing unprecedented challenges and opportunities as a result of globalization, technological innovation, and demographic change. In this context, the principles and insights provided by public administration theory can help organizations to navigate these challenges and to remain effective and responsive in the face of uncertainty and complexity.One important area of relevance is in the realm of public policy and governance. Public administration theory provides valuable insights into the management of public sector organizations, as well as the design and implementation of public policies and programs. This can help to ensure that public sector organizations are able to effectively carry out their mandates and to deliver high-quality services to the public in a cost-effective and accountable manner.Another important area of relevance is in the realm of organizational behavior and management. Public administration theory can help to illuminate the complex and dynamic nature of organizations, as well as the challenges and opportunities facing managers and leaders. This can help to ensure that organizations are able to adapt and evolve in response to changing conditions, as well as to foster a more inclusive, collaborative, and effective work environment.ConclusionIn conclusion, public administration theory encompasses a diverse range of perspectives and approaches that aim to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of public sector organizations. Classical, behavioral, systems, and contingency theories each provide valuable insights into the management and governance of organizations, as well as the challenges and opportunities facing them. The evolution of public administration theory has led to a greater emphasis on the dynamic and interconnected nature of organizations, as well as the importance of collaboration and adaptability in responding to changing conditions. In today'scomplex and rapidly changing world, public administration theory remains highly relevant and can provide valuable guidance for organizations and policymakers as they navigate the challenges and opportunities of the 21st century.。
公务员执政
摘要公务员的行政道德是我国公职人员在管理社会公共事务过程中所必须遵循的行为规范，是行使社会公共权力中所必须遵守的准则。
作为具体实施行政权力的主体,行政人员所遵循的行政道德在社会不断发展的过程中和其自身环境和社会风气的熏陶下所受影响较大。
当前，贪污腐败现象是我们党和国家所面临的重大难题，党中央也一次又一次的强调反腐倡廉的重要性和决心，所以我们必须深入研究公务员行政道德建设中存在的问题，提出解决行政缺失的关键意见建议，解决当前我国迫切需要解决的这一重大问题。
本文首先阐述了之所以研究我国公务员行政道德建设问题的目的及意义，接着介绍了在全面建设小康社会与中国特色社会主义的大背景下，作为公务员所要具备的行政道德要求，分析当前我国社会变化，对我国公务员行政道德所造成的影响，探讨我国公务员行政道德建设中存在的问题及原因，吸取传统道德伦理和现代西方公共行政道德理论的有益成分，寻找符合中国特色社会主义的公务员行政道德的理论支撑，构建当代中国公务员行政道德基本框架。
在最后提出加强公务员行政道德建设的有效途径，其中包括强化行政道德教育，完善行政道德规范体系，健全行政道德建设机制，发挥公务员表率作用及借鉴国外在行政道德中取得的经验，并在发挥公务员表率作用及借鉴国外经验中提出了大量的个人观点，着力为当前行政道德缺失所产生的社会影响提供对策，为指导公务员行政道德建设实践提供参考。
关键词：行政道德公务员ABSTRACTCivil servant's administrative morality as a kind of professional ethics and the exercise of public power is our country civil servants，Management in the process of social and public affairs that must be followed by the code of conduct and guidelines, civil servants as the specific implementation of administrative behavior, they should follow the administrative morality influenced by their own quality of civil servants and social development is large, especially in today's administrative morality under the condition of serious lack, lack of emphasis on management of the construction of civil servant's administrative morality become urgent needs to solve a major problem in today's China.This article attempts to start from the basic theory of civil servant's administrative morality, based on the Chinese characteristic socialism construction and expectation to the requirement of civil servant's administrative morality, analysis our country current social change on the influence of the civil servant's administrative morality, discusses the problems existing in the civil servant's administrative morality construction and the reasons. On this basis, the reasonable absorb moral revolution, traditional ethics and modern western public administrative ethics theory of beneficial ingredients, find accord with socialism with Chinese characteristics of the civil servants administrative ethics theory support, build the basic framework of the contemporary Chinese civil servant's administrative morality. In this paper finally puts forward the effective ways to strengthen the construction of civil servant's administrative morality, including to strengthen the administrative morality education, improving the administrative ethics system, and improve the mechanism of administrative morality construction, give play to the role of civil servant leadership and based on the experience of the abroad in the administrative morality, and in the play to the civil servant leadership and drawlessons from foreign experience put forward a lot of personal point of view, in order to solve the current social effects resulting from lack of administrative morality provide countermeasure, to provide the reference to guide the construction of civil servant's administrative morality practice.Key words: Administrative Morality Civil servant。
MPA论文必备理论基础
MPA论文必备理论基础1. 新公共管理（New Public Management, NPM）•理论内容：新公共管理是20世纪80年代末至90年代初在公共管理领域兴起的一种理论和实践方法。
其核心思想是将市场化、竞争和效率的原则引入公共部门，强调服务质量、顾客导向和绩效结果。
•代表人物观点：o大卫·奥斯本（David Osborne）和特里·盖布（Ted Gaebler）：在他们的著作《重新创造政府》（Reinventing Government, 1992）中，他们提出了新公共管理的基本原则，主张公共部门应效仿私营部门的管理实践，如引入竞争、绩效评估和客户服务导向，以提高效率和效能。
2. 公共服务动机理论（Public Service Motivation, PSM）•理论内容：公共服务动机理论关注公共部门员工的内在动机，强调人们在公共服务领域工作的动机不仅仅是经济利益，还包括对社会服务和公共价值的承诺。
•代表人物观点：o詹姆斯·洛威（James L. Perry）：洛威提出公共服务动机的核心在于公共部门工作者的内在动机，如为社会福利而工作的使命感。
他的研究表明，公共服务动机可以显著影响员工的工作满意度和组织承诺。
o拉瑞·戈德（Loriann Roberson）：与洛威共同研究公共服务动机的影响，重点分析了动机与公共部门组织绩效的关系，并提出了提高公共服务动机的策略。
3. 治理理论（Governance Theory）•理论内容：治理理论关注政府、市场和社会之间的互动与合作，研究如何通过多层次、多方参与的机制来实现政策目标和社会治理。
•代表人物观点：o安东尼·吉登斯（Anthony Giddens）：吉登斯在《第三条道路》（The Third Way, 1998）中探讨了现代社会治理的复杂性，提出了“第三条道路”的理念，强调政府应通过与市场和社会的合作来应对全球化和社会变迁的挑战。
西方公共行政管理理论摘要
西方公共行政管理理论摘要公共行政管理是一个复杂的领域，涵盖了政府部门的运营、政策制定、公共服务提供等方面。
在西方国家，公共行政管理理论已经形成了一套比较完备的体系，包括了许多重要的理论和模型。
本文将从管理理论、行政效率和公共服务等方面，分别介绍一些重要的理论模型和观点。
一、管理理论西方公共行政管理理论中最重要的理论之一就是新公共管理（New Public Management，NPM）理论，该理论强调市场化、精细化、竞争化和私有化。
新公共管理理论主张政府应该借鉴市场机制和私营企业的管理经验，提高政府行政效率和服务质量。
该理论的支持者认为，通过引入竞争机制、节约成本和提高效率，可以更好地满足公民的需求。
另一个重要的管理理论是公共价值理论（Public Value Theory），该理论强调政府应该注重创造社会价值和公共利益。
公共价值理论认为，政府的核心职责是为公民提供公共服务，并且在政策制定和执行过程中要充分考虑社会公共价值和长期利益。
该理论的支持者认为，政府的管理活动应该以社会效益为导向，关注公共利益的最大化。
二、行政效率行政效率是公共行政管理中一个重要的议题，也是学术界和政策界关注的焦点之一。
在行政效率方面，西方公共行政管理理论提出了一些重要的观点和模型。
其中最重要的是新制度主义理论（New Institutionalism），该理论认为组织的制度安排对效率有重要影响。
新制度主义理论强调制度的设计和管理对组织的绩效和效率有重要的影响，政府部门需要不断优化其组织结构和运作机制，以提高行政效率。
此外，资源依赖理论（Resource Dependence Theory）也是一个重要的行政效率理论，该理论认为政府部门的行政效率受到资源的依赖程度的影响。
资源依赖理论强调政府部门需要根据其资源依赖程度来优化其组织结构和资源配置，以提高行政效率。
该理论的支持者认为，政府部门需要充分利用外部资源，降低不必要的资源浪费，从而提高行政效率。
公共管理导论_笔记_欧文.休斯
公共管理导论_笔记_欧文.休斯《公共管理导论》欧文.休斯第一章：改革的时代1.1导言1、传统的公共行政学原理：1）政府本身应按照等级制、官僚制的原则进行组织2）政府一旦介入到某一政策领域内，它就可以通过官僚制组织结构成为商品和服务的直接提供者3）政治与行政能够相分离4）认为公共行政是行政管理的一种特殊形式，因此，它需要一种终身制的、能够同样为任何政治领导人服务的职业官僚2、新公共管理具有以下一些主要观点1）注重管理而不是政策2）注重绩效评估和效率3）将公共官僚制组织划分为一些在用户付费的基础上相互协调的机构4）利用准市场化和签约包出工程的方式促进竞争5）削减成本6）具有一种特别重视产出目标、限期合同、金钱刺激和自主管理的管理风格3、企业型政府的十条原则（奥斯本、盖博勒）1）大多数企业型政府鼓励提供服务者之间的竞争2）他们授权各公民，将控制权从官僚制组织转移到社区中3）关注结果而不是投入4）以目标而不是规则和规定为导向5）把服务对象界定为顾客并赋予其选择权6）致力于赚钱而不仅仅是花钱7）实行分析，引入参与管理8）采用市场机制而不是官僚机制9）不仅重视提供公共服务，而且极力所有部门，为解决其社区文体付诸行动4、新公共管理管理主义企业型政府1.2行政与管理行政：服从指令和服务，注重的是过程、程序和符合规定管理：1）取得某些结果（有效率的）2）取得这些结果的管理者的个人责任1.3公共部门的研究公共管理：注重战略、外部环境的处理以及组织的广泛使命和目标1.4 变革的紧迫问题1、对公共部门的抨击：规模、范围和方法2、经济理论的变革1）公共选择理论：将微观经济学运用于政治与社会领域的经济思想的一个分支。
主要假设是以完全理性为基础，断定“最好的”结果应是市场力量的作用最大化，政府的作用则相应减少，允许竞争和选择。
公共选择理论试着从研究官僚和政客的角度上探索政府带来的影响，并且假设这些人都是根据于自己的私利采取行动，他们的一举一动都是为了增进自己的经济利益（如他们的个人福利）。
韦伯行政管理理论的主要内容
韦伯行政管理理论的主要内容韦伯行政管理理论（Max Weber's administrative management theory）是20世纪早期最具影响力的管理理论之一。
这一理论提出了一系列关于组织结构、权威、规范和职权的思想，对现代组织管理产生了深远的影响。
本文将对韦伯行政管理理论的主要内容进行较为详细的介绍，以深入了解这一理论的核心观点和意义。
在20世纪初，韦伯以其对社会学和管理学领域的卓越贡献而著称。
他在其作品《经济与社会》中首次提出了行政管理的理论框架，并将其与传统组织形式进行了对比。
韦伯认为，传统的官僚制组织形式存在着许多不足之处，而它们的主要问题在于缺乏合理化和规范化。
因此，韦伯提出了一种以合理和权威为基础的新型组织形式，即官僚形式。
这一理论后来演化为现代组织理论的基础，并成为了现代管理学的重要组成部分。
韦伯的行政管理理论主要包括以下几个方面的内容：一、官僚制度韦伯认为，官僚制度是一种高度合理化和规范化的组织形式，它具有以下几个特点：分工明确、等级制度、规范化、专业化和完全预设的权利和义务。
它适用于复杂的组织结构和大规模的组织活动，是一种高效的组织形式。
同时，韦伯也指出，官僚制度也存在着一些问题，比如官僚主义、权威主义和机械化。
二、权威韦伯将权威分为三种形式：传统权威、合法权威和魅力权威。
传统权威是因为个人对传统、宗教或家族的忠诚而产生的一种权威形式；合法权威是基于合法规则和法律的权威形式；而魅力权威是基于个人的魅力和魅力而建立的一种权威形式。
在组织中，权威是组织发挥规范效力的重要基础，它可以帮助组织实现较高的工作效率和生产力。
三、规范韦伯认为，规范是对个人行为进行规范和约束的一种形式，它有助于维持组织的秩序和稳定。
官僚制度通过规范制度来规范组织成员，使组织活动得以顺利进行。
规范还可以减少人为错误和偏差，提高组织的运行效率。
四、职权韦伯将职权分为三种类型：传统的职权、合法的职权和魅力的职权。
Development of Public Management Theory2022
Development of Public management theoryBureaucracy management:The classic oneA Several theorists bridged the gap between strictly private and public sector management.One good example is Max Weber exploring sociologist,who explored the ideal bureaucracy(n官僚主义)in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism.Bureaucratic Theory was developed by a German Sociologist and political economist Max Weber(1864-1920).According to him, bureaucracy is the most efficient form of organization.The organization has a well-defined line of authority.It has clear rules and regulations which are strictly followed.According to Max Weber, there are three types of power in an organization:[1]Traditional Power,[2]Charismatic(adj.领袖魅力的)Power,and[3]Bureaucratic Power or Legal Power.The characteristics or features of Bureaucratic Organisation.B Weber admired bureaucracy for its trustworthiness.The bureaucracy was constituted by a group of professional,ethical public officials.These servants dedicate themselves to the public in return for security of job tenure(长期任职)among the many advantages of public employment.There is a high degree of Division of Labour and Specialisation as well as a defined Hierarchy (n.层级,阶级)of Authority.There are well defined Rules and Regulations which follows the principle of Rationality,Objectively and Consistency.There rules cover all the duties and rights of the employees.These rules must be strictly followed.Selection and Promotion is based on Technical qualifications.There are Formal and Impersonal relations among the member of the organisation.Interpersonal relations are based on positions and not on personalitics (n.个性品质)．C Bureaucratic organisation is criticised because of the following reasons:Bureaucratic organisation is a very rigid(adj.僵硬的,死板的)type of organisation.Too much emphasis on rules and regulations which are rigid and inflexible.It does not give importance to human relations. No importance is also given to informal groups which nowadays play an importantrole in all business organizations.Yet,too much importance is given to the technical qualifications of the employees for promotion and transfers.Dedication(n.奉献)and commitment of the employee is not considered.It is suitable for government organizations.It is also suitable for organisations where change is very slow.There will be unnecessary delay in decision-making due to formalities and rules（礼节和规则）.It is appropriate for static organizations.There is difficulty is coordination（n.协调）and communication.Management:A consolidated disciplineD Herbert Simon,Chester Barnard,and Charles Lindblom are among the first of those recognized as early American public administrators.These men ushered in an era(时代)during which the field gained recognition as independent and unique,despite its multidisciplinary（多学科的）nature. Simon contributed theoretical separation to discern management,decisions based upon objectively determined facts.Simon developed other relevant theories as well.Similar to Lindblom’s subsequently discussed critique of comprehensive rationality（合理性）,Simon also taught that a strictly economic man,one who maximizes returns or values by making decisions based upon complete information in unlimited time,is unrealistic.Instead,most public administrators use a sufficient amount of information to make a satisfactory decision:,they “satisfice.”(v.追求最低的满意度)In decision-making,Simon believed that agents face uncertainty about the future and costs in acquiring information in the present.These factors limit the extent to which agents can make a fully rational decision,thus they possess only"bounded rationality"and must makedecisions by"satisficing,"or choosing that which might not be optimal(adj.最佳的)but which will make them happy enough."Rational behavior,in economics,means that individuals maximizes his utility function（效益，功能)under the constraints(n.约束，限制)they face(e.g., their budget constraint,limited choices,...)in pursuit of their self-interest.Chester Barnard was also one of the watershed scholars.Barnard published.“The Economy of Incentives”(1938),in an attempt to explain individual participation(n.参与)in an organization. Barnard explained organizations as systems of exchange.Low-level employees must have more incentive(n.激励)to remain with the organization for which they exchange their labor and loyalty. The organization(and higher level employees)must derive sufficient benefit from its employees to keep them.The net pull of the organization is determined by material rewards,environmental conditions,and other intangibles(n.无形因素）like recognition.He gives great importance to persuasion,much more than to economic incentives.He described four general an four specific incentives including Money and other material inducements;Personal non natural opportunities for distinction;Desirable physical conditions of work;Ideal benefaction,such as pride of workmanship etc.A new humanist era:Rethinking power and managementG Humanists embrance a dynamic(adj.动态的)concept of an employee and management techniques.This requires a theoretical shift away（变化，偏离）from the idea that an employee is a cog in the industrial machine.Rather,employees are unique individuals with goals,needs, desires,etc.H The humanist era ushered in other possible interpretations of such topics as power and management.One of the most significant was Douglas McGregor's“Theory X and Theory Y.”McGregor's work provided a basis for a management framework(n.框架),a structure upon whose rungs the classic and new-aged management might be hung.First,commonly held by early management theorists,Theory X begins with the assumption(n.假设，前提).that humans possess an inherent aversion to work.Employees must therefore be coerced and controlled if management expects to see results.Further,lazy humans prefer direction bordering micromanagement whenever possible.I Theory Y is much more compatible with the humanist tradition.This begins with the assumption that work is as natural for humans as rest or play.Further,employees will direct and control themselves as they complete objectives(完整的目标).Humans learn naturally and seek responsibility.Consequently,managers need only to steer employees in a cooperative manner toward goals that serve the organization.There is room for many to create and share power.J The Z-Organization can be thought of as a complimentary(adj.赠送的，免费的)third element to McGregor's dichotomy（二分法）.Z-organizations are a Japanese organizational model.Similar to Theory-Y management,Z organizations place a large degree of responsibility upon the employees.Further,relatively low-level employees are entrusted with the freedom to be creative,“wander around the organization”and become truly unique,company-specific employees. However,employees achieve only after"agreeing on a central set of objectives and ways of doing business"In Z Organizations,decision-making is democialic and participatory（民主的，参与的). Despite the many advantages of this organizational model,there are several draw-backs.These include the depredation of a large professional distance-de-personalization is impossible in Z-organizations.Since,in reality,there is high percentage of workers would like work for the financial return than the job objectives.A high level of（自律，自我约束)is also necessary.Questions14-21Choose Two appropriate letters and fill in boxes14-15.What are the features and advantages for Bureaucratic Management?A There are equal opportunities coming from little hierarchy of authority among companies.B employees'promotion can be much fairer which is based on job duties not on characters.C employees enjoy a greater freedom of duties than their strict right.D Selection and Promotion is based on mastery of new technology.E These employees can dedicate themselves to the public for stability of a long term job. Choose Two appropriate letters and fill in boxes16-17.What are the limitations for the ideas of Bureaucratic Management?A Commitment of the employee is not taken into consideration enough.B There is difficulty in decision-making based on formalities and rules.C Employees are casually oragnised as no importance is given to formal groups.D There is difficulty in enforcement of rules and regulationsE It is not applicable to dynamic organisations where change is very fast.Choose Two appropriate letters and fill in boxes18-19.What are the aims of management as Douglas McGregor's work of the“Theory V.”A Employees must be coerced and controlled if management expects to see results.B Employees has natural tendency for rest or play.C Humans will not automatically seek responsibility.D managers may guide employees in a cooperative manner toward objectivesE There is little room for manager to designate or share his power.Choose Two appropriate letters and fill in boxes20-21.What are the limitations for the“Theory Z.”A decision-making is democratic and participatory.B organization mode has mlacrent design fault.C not all employee set higher interest in the job than that of wagesD Personalization remains un-eliminated in organizations.E self-discipline is an unnecessary quality.Questions22-26Use the information in the passage to match the people(listed A-E)with opinions or deeds below Write the appropriate letters A-E in boxes22-260n your answer sheet.NB Some people may match more than one ideasA Mark weberB McGregorC Herbert SimonD Chester BarnardE Charles Lindblom22Employees like to follow professional,ethical public officials to secure a job.23Highly effective can be achieved only after“agreeing on a core of objectives andmethod of doing things.24Managers need to take the employees'emotional feeling,besides the material rewards,into incentives system.25Individuals can maximize their self-interest when all the budget and choices are utilised well 26The assumption that humans possess a natural dislike to work who ought to be forced and controlled.Answer Keys14-15B EB段第二行到第三行“there servants dedicate themselves to the public in return for security of job tenure”servant和employee同意替换，job tenure和for stability of a long term job同意替换。
西方行政管理理论论文
西方行政管理理论论文Western administrative management theory is one of the most influential approaches to understanding and improving the functioning of public and private organizations. From Max Weber’s theory of bureaucracy to Frederick Taylor’s scientific management, Western administrative management theory has greatly contributed to the development of modern organizations. In this paper, we will examine the major contributors and key concepts of Western administrative management theory, and analyze its strengths and weaknesses.One of the most significant figures in Western administrative management theory is Max Weber, whose theory of bureaucracy has had a lasting impact on the study of organizations. Weber believed that a bureaucracy is a rational and efficient way of organizing a large organization. He argued that bureaucracies are characterized by a division of labor, a hierarchy of authority, rules and procedures, impersonal relationships, and career advancement based on merit. Weber’s ideas have great ly shaped the understanding of organizational structure and management practices.Another influential figure in Western administrative management theory is Frederick Taylor, who is known for his theory of scientific management. Taylor believed that by applying scientific principles to the study of work, organizations could achieve greater efficiency and productivity. He proposed that management should take a scientific approach to design work processes, select and train employees, and provide incentives fo r performance. Taylor’s ideas laid the foundation for modern management practices such astime and motion studies, standardization of work processes, and performance-based incentives.Another major contributor to Western administrative management theory is Henri Fayol, who is known for his theory of the fourteen principles of management. Fayol believed that there are certain principles that should guide the management of organizations, including unity of command, division of work, and centralization of authority. His ideas have greatly influenced the understanding of organizational structure and management practices.Despite the significant contributions of Western administrative management theory to the study and practice of management, it has also been criticized for its limitations. One of the main criticisms of the theory is its rigid and mechanistic view of organizations. Critics argue that the theory overlooks the complexities of human behavior and the dynamic nature of organizations. Another criticism is its focus on efficiency and productivity at the expense of other important values such as employee well-being and social responsibility. Furthermore, the theory has been criticized for its lack of attention to issues of diversity, equity, and inclusion in organizations.In conclusion, Western administrative management theory has greatly influenced the study and practice of management. Major contributors such as Max Weber, Frederick Taylor, and Henri Fayol have proposed important ideas and concepts that have shaped the understanding of organizational structure and management practices. However, the theory has also been criticized for its limitations, including its rigid and mechanisticview of organizations, and its focus on efficiency and productivity at the expense of other important values. Overall, Western administrative management theory continues to be a valuable framework for understanding and improving the functioning of organizations, but it should be complemented with other perspectives that take into account the complexities of human behavior and the dynamic nature of organizations.。
新公共管理英语翻译
New Public Management : Contemporary Western trend of the new publicadministrationFrom the start of the 1970s, the West has dominated the field of public administration nearly a century. and was regarded to be effective, even the best traditional or mainstream public administration, subjected to a new external environment increasingly tough challenges, and the almost routine, rigid-tier system can not meet the increasingly rapid changes in information and knowledge-intensive society and economic life, build on its two major theoretical basis -- Goodnow Wilson and the political-administrative theory and the two-layer management Huibaike no theory Law answered and solved the government faces an increasingly serious problems and difficulties : the financial crisis, the social welfare policy unsustainable, government agencies increasingly bloated, inefficient, the public lost confidence in the government's ability, "government failure" theory has begun to dominate.It is in this historical backdrop, a new public administration theory, Management -- New Public Management (NewPublic Management) in the 1980s, the Anglo-American two crops, and the rapid expansion of the Western countries.And the number of traditional public administration within the framework of the changes, Public management is not new to the existing administrative structure and ways of some degree of partial adjustment or simply to lower administrative costs and reduce administrative expenses, but more importantly, it is the traditional model of public administration of a prehensive settlement and denied.1.The new public management theoryIf the traditional public administration to Wilson. Goodnow political- administrative theory and the two-Weber-tier system on the support of their theory, new public while management of modern economics and private enterprise management theory and methods as its theoretical basis.First, the new public management from modern economics has many theoretical basis, From the "rational" (the rational is for their own interests. want to pay the smallest gain maximum benefits) of the premise is the basis for performance management; from the public choice theory and transaction cost which the government should be market-oriented or customers, improve the efficiency of services, the quality and effectiveness of the basis; from the cost-effectiveness analysis was to define the performance goals, Measurement and evaluation, and so on the basis.Secondly, the new public management from the private management methods to absorb nutrients. The new public administration that many private sector management methods and means available to the public sector borrowing. Such as the private sector, the organizational form of flexibility in adapting to the environment, and not Weber said the rigid hierarchy; outputs and outes of the high degree of importance (for the private sector, output means profits in a highly petitive market environment, we must make profits to provide customers with high-quality service, Meanwhile, as far as possible to reduce costs), rather than just input and output weight; personnel management to achieve a flexible system of employment contracts and performance pay system, rather than by hiring a permanent office, and so on.In short, the new public management, and is already by the private sector tosuccessfully used management methods, If performance management, goal management, organizational development, human resources development is not unique to the private sector. They can be used in public sector management.2. The new public administration of the basic featuresNew Public Management is a very loose concept, it refers to an attempt to replace the traditional public administration management theory, Also referred to a new model of public administration, also refers to the contemporary Western ongoing public administration reform movement. Its name in western countries is not necessarily the same as in the United Kingdom called "management", in the United States known as the "entrepreneurial government" or "new public management" In some other countries, also known as the "market-oriented public administration," and so on, but they have broadly similar features.Firstly, the new public management to change the traditional model of public government and the relationship between society, reopened to the functions of the government and with the munity relations position : that the government is no longer superior, "self-service" bureaucracy, government officials should be responsible "corporate managers and managers" the public is to provide the government's tax revenue "taxpayers" and access to government services in return for the "clients" or "customers" government services should be customer-oriented and should enhance the public's need to respond to force. In recent years, Britain, Germany, the Netherlands and other government services to simplify the procedures and to develop and publish service standards, in a regional and an administrative certain sectors or industries offer "one-stopshop" service. It is in this new government-munity relations model as applied by some of the specific measures.Secondly, with the traditional public administration, only the input, output or not, New Public Management pay more attention to the activities of the outputs and outes that provide public services to the efficiency and quality, thus entrusted to the "first-line managers and managers" (that is, low-level civil service) to the post of powers, responsibilities and If the plan and budget, the attention to the organization's strategic goals and long-term plans, the emphasis is on the Budget for its "total" control, to the front line managers in the allocation of resources and personnel arrangements, and so on the full autonomy to adapt to the fluctuating external environment and the ever changing needs.Thirdly, and closely related, 1:00, the new public management oppose traditional public administration re-pliance with established laws and regulations, Light performance measurement and assessment practices, advocating the relaxation of the strict regulatory system (that is, through legislation, system control), achieve strict control of the performance goals, which was to determine organizations, individuals of specific goals, under the performance indicator (performance indicator) on the target for pletion of the measurement and assessment, as a result, the so-called three E, in which the economy (economy), efficiency (efficiency) and the effect (effect), and other three variables.Fourth, public administration and the traditional exclusion of private sector management methods differ, New Public Management emphasizes the wide adoption of successful private sector management methods and means (such as cost-benefit analysistotal quality management, management by objectives) and the mechanism of petition, the abolition of the supply of public services monopoly, If "government contracts for rent" and "petitive bidding", the new public management, The main function of government is to serve the munity, But this does not mean that all public services should be provided directly by the government. According to the government services and the different nature of the corresponding supply mode. As shown :Market status / mode of constitutional duties1. The service activities by the Constitution provides that the government is within the scope of duties, while no other petitor, If defense, should be borne by the government.2. Although the Constitution stipulates the functions of government, but there are other petitors exist, in other words, the non-governmental sector are engaged in this activity, such as hospitals, in this case, The government is not obliged to provide such a service in person, and goes through the tender, the contract leasing, and other forms, will be rented to other public or private sector, government, as long as its performance targets and measured assessment, and provide corresponding remuneration, it is nevertheless a good quality of service and efficient and effective way. This is the "reinventing government", the author of a Osborne and Gaebler said the government should "steer and not the paddling."3. The Constitution does not provide is the duty of the government, the market and the existence of petitors, such as film and video industry, Then the government can not engage in this activity, and pletely by the private sector.4. Which is not provided for the constitution is the duty of the government, but also theabsence or lack of this activity in the petitors As institutions of higher learning, then the government should actively develop the market and encourage people to participate in activities to enhance the service efficiency, quality and effectiveness.It is important to point out, these are just typical four types of public services, in reality.新公共管理-当代西方新公共管理的趋势从20世纪七十年代初，西方国家已经主宰了公共管理领域将近一个世纪，被认为是有效，甚至最好的传统或者主流公共管理，在新的外部环境作用下，严峻的挑战以及几乎程式化的死板的系统已经不能应对信息、知识密集型社会以及经济生活的挑战，传统的公共管理的理论根底是威尔逊、古德诺的政治—行政二分论和韦伯的科层制论，政府面临越来越严厉的问题和困难，如经济危机，社会福利政策的不均衡，政府机构日益膨胀以及效率低下等，群众对政府丧失了信心，政府无能论成为主流。
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Western Public Management TheoryNotes: All rights reserved, permission should be obtained from the author prior to any application.Chapter 1: An era of change•The challenge to public administration•The emergence of a new approach•Imperatives of changeIntroduction•Time: the mid-1980s•Contents: A new public paradigm was emerging in place of the rigid, hierarchical, bureaucratic form of public administration.•Countries: US, Britain, Germany, France, Australia and so on.1.The challenge to principles of public administration•Bureaucracy•One-best way of working•Bureaucratic delivery•Politics/administration dichotomy•The public interest (public servant)•A professional bureaucracy•Administrative2. The emergence of a new approach•Focus on management, performance appraisal and efficiency•Focus on a user-pay basis, the use of quasi-markets and contracting out to foster competition, cost-cutting•Focus on output targets, monetary incentives and freedom to manage-----RhodesPrinciples of National Performance Review•Accountable for achieving results•Putting customers first•Empowering employees to get results•Producing better governments for less-----GoreOECD•Results•A focus on clients•Outputs•Management by objectives and performance management•Use of markets and market-type mechanism•Competition•Devolution of authority•Accountability3. Imperatives of change•The attack on the public sector•Economic theory•Changes in the private sector•Technological changeThe attack on the public sector•The scale of the public sector•The scope of government•The methods of governmentEconomic theory•Public choice theory---The key assumption of public choice is rationality.---It argued for a maximum role for market and a minimal role for government. •Principal/agent theory---Agents act in the interests of principals, their activities need to be monitored by shareholders.•Transaction cost theory--- Transactions would be less costly if contracted out to reduce administrative costs and provide some competition.Private sector change•The management and efficiency of public sector affects the private economy and national competitiveness.•Globalization: an extra imperative to the reformTechnological change•How did it affect the management of government?The type of organizational structureThe efficiency of managementThe ideology of peopleChapter 2: The traditional model ofpublic administration•Early administration•The reform of the nineteenth century•Weber‘s theory of bureaucracy•Wilson and political control•Taylor and scientific management•Problems with the traditional modelIntroduction•Began in the 19th century•Became formalised between 1900 and 1920, lasted for almost 100 years. •Theoretical foundations✓Max Weber in Germany✓Wilson and Taylor in the U.S.✓The Northcote-Trevelyan Report in U.K.•Characteristics:✓Formal control of the political leadership✓Based on a hierarchical model of bureaucracy✓Permanent, neutral and anonymous officials✓Motivated only by the public interest✓Serving any governing party equally✓Only performing polices decided by the politicians1.Early administration•Earlier systems of administration were personal, based on loyalty to a particular individual such as a king or a minister. (patronage or nepotism)•Spoils system: ‗to the victor belong the spoils‘Periodic chaosIncompetenceGrowing conflicts between executive and legislature2.The reforms of the 19th century(1)The Northcote-Trevelyan Report (1854)To select young men in lower ranks of public service through the establishment of a proper system of examination before appointmentTo abolish the patronage; establish a central examining boardTo reorganize office staffs of central departments to deal with intellectual and mechanical work respectivelyTo fill higher posts by promotion from inside based on merit(2)The Civil Service Act（1883）☞Competitive examinations for all applicants to the classified service☞Appointments from those graded highest in the examinations☞An effective probationary period before absolute appointment☞Establishment of a Civil Service Commission3.Weber’s theo ry of bureaucracy(1)Three types of authorityCharismaticTraditionalRational/legal(2)Six principles for bureaucracyFixed and jurisdictional areas ordered by laws or administrative regulationsOffice hierarchy and levels of graded authorityManagement of the modern office is based on written documents.Management is done by people who receive expert training.Official activity demands the full working capacity of the official.Office management follows general rules which can be learned.Q: What’s t he most important difference between Weber and previous models? •Impersonal•Personal(3)The position of the official•Strives for and enjoys a distinct social esteem•Appointed by a superior authority•Employed for life•Legal guarantees against arbitrary dismissal•Fixed salary and compensation according to status and length of service•Set for a career within the hierarchical order----The official is to be part of an elite with status higher than that of ordinary citizens.4.Wilson and political control•Evils of the spoils system resulted from the linking of administrative questions with political ones.•The worlds of politician and public official were to be separate.•The administration is presumed to be anonymous and neutral.5.Taylor and scientific management•Two main points:✓Standardising work✓Controlling so extensively and intensively as to provide for the maintenance of all these standards5.Taylor and scientific managementScientific management involved:✓Time-and-motion studies✓Wage-incentive system✓Changing the functional organisationSummarizing Taylor’s principles•Use scientific methods to determine the most efficient way of doing work•Select the best person to perform the job•Train workers to ensure that appropriate work procedures are followed and appropriate results are achieved6. Human relations◆Mayo: Hawthorne experiments (1924-1932)✓Work is a group activity.✓The need for recognition, security and sense of belongings is more important than the physical conditions.✓The worker‘s attitude s and effectiveness are conditioned by social demands.✓Informal groups have strong controls on work habits and attitudes of the individual.8. Problems with the traditional model•The model of political control•One–best way of thinking•The theory of bureaucracy•Criticism from the RightThe problem of one best way•There was no creativity other than that of finding the right page of the manual. •Administrators have no responsibility for results; one-best way thinking allowed them to evade responsibility.The problem of bureaucracy•There was some conflict between bureaucracy and democracy.Secrecy, rigidity and hierarchy•Formal bureaucracy could no longer be considered as a particularly efficient form of organisation.Criticism from the Right•Bureaucracy restricted the freedom of individual and its power needed to be reduced. •Bureaucracy was inefficient compared to the market.•Individual ambition led to budget maximization by the agency.Chapter 3: Public management•The meaning of management•The beginning of a management approach•The public management reforms•The managerial programme•Theoretical bases of management•Criticisms of managerialismIntroduction☞The achievement of results and the personal responsibility of managers☞Organizations, personnel and employment conditions are more flexible.☞Setting objectives and measurement of achievements through performance indicators ☞Senior staff are likely to be politically committed to the government.☞Government functions are likely to face market tests.☞Reducing government functions through privatisation and other forms of market testing and contracting.1. The meaning of managementStrategyManaging internal componentsManaging external constituenciesStrategy•Establishing objectives and priorities•Devising operational plansManaging internal components•Organising and staffing•Directing personnel and the personnel management system•Controlling performanceManaging external constituencies•Dealing with ‗external‘ units•Dealing with independent organisations•Dealing with the press and public2. The beginnings of a management approach•(1) Fulton Report (1968)•The system should be opened up.•Outsiders should be employed at all levels.•The rigid hierarchical structure should be removed.•Management task of the Civil ServiceTask of the Civil ServiceFormulation of policy under political directionCreating the ―machinery‖ for implementation of policyOperation of the administrative machineAccountability to Parliament and the public2. The beginnings of a management approach•(2) Civil Service Reform Act (1978)Merit pay for middle managementEstablishment of a Senior Executive Service (SES) to form an elite group at the top 2.The beginnings of a management approach•Reasons✓Severe resource constraints (oil shock)✓More changes of government in 1980s✓Influence of re-structuring the national economy✓Arguments about the growth of government3. The public management reforms•Hiring economists or people trained in management•Borrowing management techniques from the private sector•Pushing back the dividing line between public and private sector activity •Changing working conditions inside the system4. The managerial programme•OECD (1991)(1) Raise the production performance of public sector✓Improving human resources management✓Staff involvement in decision-making✓Relaxing controls✓Using information technology✓Service to clients✓User-charge(2) Make greater use of private sector✓Contracting out✓Ending monopolies4. The managerial programme•Hood (1991)✓Hands–on professional management✓Explicit standards and measures of performance✓Greater emphasis on output controls✓Disaggregation of units in the public sector✓Greater competition✓Private sector styles of management practice✓Greater discipline and parsimony in resource use4. The managerial programme•Pollitt(2001)✓From inputs and process to outputs✓Measurement of performance indicators and standards✓More specialized and flat organizational forms✓Contract or contract-like relationships✓Market mechanisms for the delivery of public service✓A blurring of the ―frontier‖ between the public and private sectors✓Efficiency and individualism5. Main points involved in the public management reforms•A strategic approach•Management not administration•A focus on results•Improved financial management•Flexibility in staffing•Flexibility in organisation•A shift to greater competitionA strategic approach•Long-term planning and strategic management✓Deciding the organization's mission✓Establishing the organization's objective✓Analyzing the organization's environmentManagement not administration•Professional management✓High-profile managers who have management background are appointed to head departments or agencies to get results.✓They are public figures and prefer to working for one political party.A focus on results•Performance by individuals and agencies✓Develop performance indicators✓Define the contributions expected over the year, comparing with actual achievement at the end of the year✓Extend to rewarding or sanctioning staffImproved financial management•Performance and programme budgeting system✓Cutting costs✓Directing resources to emphasize those programmes which most assist the achievement of strategic objectivesFlexibility in staffing•The device of SES can transfer senior managers readily between positions and departments.•Inefficient staff can be dismissed quickly with protection against arbitrary dismissal. Flexibility in organisation•Splitting large departments into different parts by setting up agencies to deliver service for a small policy department(Next Steps)✓Giving more authority to the executive agencies✓Reducing the numbers of staff in the core civil service5. Main points involved in the public management reforms•The new contractualism•A stress on private sector styles of management practice•Relationships with politician•Relationships with the public•Separation of purchaser and provider•Re-examining what government doesThe new contractualism•Any government service can be provided by contract.✓Contracts with private sector providers✓Individual performance contracts for staff✓Contracts with clients and the publicA stress on private sector styles of management practice•Staffing changes✓To appraise the staff performance and to reward them accordingly with merit pay✓Short-term appointments by contract✓Appointment to the highest level from outside6. Theoretical bases of management•Economics•Private managementEconomics•Economics offered precision, prediction, backed by a motivational theory of how people acted.•The focus on results, efficiency and measurement owes much to economics.Private managementFlexibility of organizationFocus on resultsStrategic planningPersonnel practicesFormal means of evaluationFocus on objectives7. Criticisms of managerialism•The economic basis•The basis in private management•Neo-Taylorism•Politicization•Reduced accountability•Difficulties with contracting-out•Ethical issues•Implementation and morale problemsThe economic basis•Economics is a flawed social science and its application to government is similarly flawed.•Its application to government is ill-conceived because of the uniqueness of the public sector.The basis in private management•Difficult to specify objectives and even if they are set out there are frequent changes. •Difficult to measure results in the public sectorPoliticization•Ignoring the fact that public service is fundamentally a political instrument; no public interest beyond that of the government of the day•Leading to problems that Wilson and the reform movement in the 1880s tried to repair Ethical issues•Corruption can be endemic and has serious consequences for the political system. •Contracts with government are often kept secret so the transparency is not there in practice.Chapter 4 The role of government•The need for a public sector•Market failure•Instruments of government•Phases of government intervention•Basic functions of government•The size of government debate1. The meaning of public sector☞The public sector is the result of public, political decision-making. Governments are command-based that can force people to comply.☞Two features put forward by Stiglitz☞Universal membership☞CompulsionPrivate and public management•V oluntary/coercive•Different forms of accountability•An outside agenda set by the political leadership•Difficulties in measuring output or efficiency•Difficulty of control or coordination2. The need for a public sector (Musgrave)•Without government, markets do not work for the following reasons:✓Free entry and full market knowledge for consumers and producers✓Competition✓Contractual arrangements and exchanges✓Externalities✓Distribution of income and wealth✓High employment, price stability and the socially-desired rate of economic growth3. Key kinds of market failure•Public goods (Non-excludable)If provided to one, they are available to all.•ExternalitiesMarket transactions often have effects on third parties, or on the environment. •Natural monopolyThere are some goods when supplied to one customer it becomes cheaper to provide to the next.•Imperfect informationIf information is not gained, especially by the buyer, markets can be less than optimal.4. Instruments of government•The method government uses to intervene, the mechanism used when government action is justified in some way.☞Provision☞Subsidy☞Production☞RegulationGovernment provision•Government provides goods and services directly through the government budget. •Three methodsAllocationDistributionStabilisationDistribution•Governments try to redress to some degree the inequalities in wealth and income between citizens.•The major part of distribution policy is social welfare.☞Transfer payment☞Tax benefitStabilisation•Stabilisation policy is where the government aims to improve the overall economy through budgetary policy.•Objective: full employment, price stability, economic growth, balance of payments Subsidy•A sub-category of provision and is where the government assists someone in the private economy to provide government-desired goods and services.Production•Governments produce goods and services for sale in the market, and users are charged in the same way as if the items were provided by the private sector.Regulation•Using laws made by government to affect the private economy in some way. It involves allowing or prohibiting activities through the legal system.Summary•There is a shift away from government provision with budget cut-backs being quite general.•There‘s a major shift away from public production through privatization.•There has been an increase in public regulation.5. Phases of government intervention•The laissez-faire society•The rise of the welfare state•Neo-classicismThe laissez-faire society•Mercantilism: The political part of society was to dominate the economic.•Adam Smith: The Wealth of Nations in 1776✓Protecting the society from the violence and invasion of other independent societies (defence)✓Establishing an administration of justice (law)✓Erecting and maintaining certain public works and public institutions (infrastructure) •The government‘s r ole was to stay out of economic life as far as possible.The rise of the welfare state•Began in Germany in the 1880s•The first programmes were not adopted in the U.S. until the New Deal of 1930s. •After World War II most European countries set up more elaborate welfare programmes. •Reassert the political over the economic✓Finance✓Political support✓Political and economic theoriesNeo-classicism•The assumption of individual rationality•The elaboration of models from this assumption•A maximum role for market forces•A minimum role for governmentSummary●The role of government has waxed and waned.●The election of the Clinton administration signalled a return to governmentalism.●Approval of government institutions rose to high levels after the year of 2001.●Government should facilitate the role of private sector instead of being its competitor.6. Basic functions of government (World Bank)•Establishing a foundation of law•Maintaining a non-distortionary policy environment•Investing in basic social services and infrastructure•Protecting the vulnerable•Protecting the environmentBasic functions of government (Anderson)•Providing economic infrastructure•Provision of various collective goods and services•Resolution and adjustment of group conflicts•Maintenance of competition•Protection of natural resources•Minimum access by individuals to the goods and services of the economy •Stabilisation of the economy7. The size of government debate●Debate over the size and growth of government✓High spending meant lower growth and a poorer economy; government is still too large and dominant.✓There‘s no real correlation between spending and economic health.●The most common measure of government size is to look at the total amount of government outlays as a percentage of the total economy.Chapter 5 Public Enterprise•Meaning of public enterprise•Reasons for establishing public enterprise•Kinds of public enterprise•The privatisation debate•Control and accountability•The future of public enterprise2. Reasons for establishing public enterprise (Rees)•To correct market failure•To alter the structure of pay-offs in an economy•To facilitate centralised long-term economic planning•To change the nature of the economy, from capitalist to socialistReasons for establishing public enterprise•Inadequate private supply•Improving competition•Reducing social costs•Rescuing private firms if their closure is against the public interest•Protecting national sovereignty3. Kinds of public enterprisePublic utilitiesLand transport and postal serviceEnterprises in competitive environmentsRegulatory authoritiesPublic utilities•They are provided as services with connections to households from a network including water, sewerage, electricity, gas and telecommunications.✓Natural monopoly✓Political sensitivity•Many governments have historically favoured outright ownership of public utilities. Land transport and postal service•Competitive✓Postal service (US Post Office)✓Public transport (trucks, private cars and buses, airlines)•Poor financial returnsEnterprises in competitive environments•Banks, insurance companies, airlines, oil companies•They compete directly with private companies in the same market.•They are most examined in discussion of scaling down the public sector and have been considerably reduced by privatisation.Regulatory authorities•They are government-owned and controlled, and finance their activities by the sale of commodities.•Two featuresNo real assetsUse of coercive power of government4. The privatisation debate◆(1) Meani ng of ‗Privatisation‘ (Heald)•Charging•Contracting-out•Denationalization•Liberalization(2) Meaning of ‘Privatisation’ (Price)•The sale of public assets•Deregulation•Opening up state monopolies to greater competition•Contracting-out•The private provision of public service•Joint capital projects using public and private finance•Reducing subsidies•User-charges(3) The privatisation debate◆Economic arguments◆Arguments about efficiency◆Ideological conceptions of what the role of government in society should be◆Control and accountabilityEconomic arguments (support views)◆Stimulating competition◆Reducing taxes by using the proceeds from sales◆Reducing government spending◆Reducing government borrowingEconomic arguments (opposing views)•The problem of monopolies✓New private monopolies could raise price, cut services and make consumers worse off. •Problems of privatisation of utilities✓Private ownership with strict government control provides no necessary efficiency advantage.✓Gas and electricity companies in UK were attacked for increasing executive salaries and making high profits by raising prices.Managerial efficiency arguments•Private management is inherently superior to public management.•The proponents make the mistake of comparing actual public management practices with an idealized private management world.•Efficiency depends more on the regulatory environment than ownership.Ideological arguments•Debate about the respective merits of market and non-market systems of resource allocation✓Limited role of government; the superiority of private enterprises—the Right✓A fairer, even socialist society—the Left•The reason for privatisation was the pragmatic one of raising revenue rather than changing the shape of society.Accountability●Poor accountability is a justification for privatization.✓No political accountability as in ministerial department✓No accountability to shareholders as in private sector●The problem is to find a mutually satisfactory accountability system for both government and the enterprise.Government control and managerial freedom•The political representatives are entitled to control on the public‘s behalf.•Sub-optimality in the framework of control•The incompatible interests can be dealt with in combination of monitoring, rewards and penalties, education and persuasion, legitimizing open bargaining under rules. Chapter 6 Public policy and policy analysis•Meaning of public policy•Policy analysis•Empirical methods•Policy process models•Limitations of the policy analysis approach•Responses to criticism•Political public policy1. Meaning of public policy(1) Public policy analysis✓The function of policy research is to facilitate public policy processes through providing accurate and useful decision-related information. The focus is on methods and science.(2) Political public policy (Lynn)✓Public policy is the output of a diffuse process made up of individuals who interact with each other in small groups in a framework dominated by formal organisations. Those organisations function in a system of political institutions, rules and practices, all subject to societal and cultural influences.2. Policy analysis•The size and complexity of the 1960s social programmes led to a demand for better analysis.•The early period of policy analysis is regarded as a failure by assuming that numbers or techniques alone can solve policy problems.•Policy analysis is supposed to be a supplement to the political process and not a replacement of it.3.Empirical methods☐Benefit-cost analysis☐Decision theory☐Optimum-level analysis☐Allocation theory☐Time-optimization model4. Policy process models(1) Anderson•Problem identification and agenda formation•Formulation•Adoption•Implementation•Evaluation•Problem formulation•Searching for alternatives•Forecasting the future environment•Modelling the impacts of alternatives•Evaluating the alternatives(3)Patton and Sawicki modelMonitor policy outcomesEstablish evaluation criteriaIdentify alternative policies•Thinking hard•Researched analysis and experiment•Brainstorming techniques•Writing scenariosEvaluate alternative policies•This step is regarded as the most important.•It should identify what alternatives are feasible; what will be expensive or politically impossible.•More data should be collected or the original problem redefined.5. Limitations of the policy analysis approach•Quantitative methods•Separate public policy discipline•Overemphasis on decisions•Not used, or used less•The rational model•A faulty model of science•Undemocratic6.Responses to criticism•Nagel☞Traditional goals (Three Es): Effectiveness, efficiency, and equity☞High-level goals (Three Ps): Participation, predictability and due process7. Political public policy•Policy-making is viewed as a political process.•Managers can be influenced by the external political environment, their organisations and their own personalities.Question:•What‘s the biggest difference between the two approaches?•Can these two perspectives be crossed?•The biggest difference is the role given to the political process.✓Policy analysis looks for one best answer from alternatives and uses statistics to do so. ✓There is no single best answer. The debate on a policy issue survives in the whole political process.Model by Hogwood and Gunn•Deciding to decide•Deciding how to decide•Issue definition•Forecasting•Setting objectives and priorities•Options analysis•Policy implementation, monitoring and control•Evaluation and review•Policy maintenance, succession or terminationChapter 7: Strategic management•Definition of strategy•Strategy in the private sector•Strategy in the public sector•Strategic planning models•Strategic management•Criticisms1. Meaning of strategy•Strategy is a term deriving from the military; it refers to the objective of winning the war.•It is used to create focus, consistency, and purpose for an organization by producing plans, ploys, patterns, positions, and perspectives that guide strategic action.2. Strategy in the private sector●Three forms of strategic planning✓Business strategic planning (60S)✓Corporate strategic planning (70S)✓Strategic management (80S)●Some points in common✓An organizational mission✓The environmental scan✓A set of objectives✓A strategic plan。