Old and middle English
古英语,中古英语,现代英语的特点
古英语,中古英语,现代英语的特点The Evolution of English: A Brief Overview of Old English, Middle English, and Modern English.The history of English language is a fascinating journey through time, marked by significant changes and evolution. The three main stages of English language development are Old English (also known as Anglo-Saxon), Middle English, and Modern English. Each stage exhibits unique characteristics and reflects the social, cultural, and historical context of its time.Old English, the earliest stage of English, dates back to the 5th century and was primarily spoken in Anglo-Saxon England. This period is characterized by a heavy reliance on Germanic vocabulary and a complex grammatical structure. Old English nouns, for example, had a variety of forms depending on their function in a sentence, including different forms for the singular, plural, nominative, accusative, genitive, and dative cases. Verbs also had awide range of forms to express different tenses, moods, and voices.The vocabulary of Old English was primarily Germanic, but it also borrowed words from other languages,particularly Latin and Norse. This borrowing was due to the influence of the Roman Empire and the Viking invasions of England. Old English literature, such as the Beowulf epic, displays a rich and varied vocabulary, as well as a complex grammatical structure.Middle English, which spanned from the 11th to the 15th century, saw significant changes in both vocabulary and grammar. The Norman invasion of England in 1066 introduced a new ruling class that spoke French, resulting in a large influx of French words into the English language. This influx, along with the influence of other languages such as Latin and Greek, led to a significant increase in the size and diversity of the English vocabulary.Grammatically, Middle English saw a simplification of the Old English grammatical system. The number of nounforms was reduced, and the system of verb conjugation became less complex. Adjectives also began to lose their grammatical gender and number forms. These changes made English grammar easier to learn and use, especially for those who were not native speakers.The Renaissance period in the 15th century marked a further change in English, with a renewed interest in classical literature and a focus on the refinement of the language. This period saw the emergence of Early Modern English, which was characterized by a more standardized spelling system and a more consistent grammar.Modern English, which began in the 16th century and continues to the present day, is the result of further changes and evolution. The Industrial Revolution, the growth of empires, and the development of new technologies all had a profound impact on the language. The standardization of spelling and grammar, the expansion of vocabulary, and the influence of other languages have all contributed to the development of Modern English.Modern English is characterized by a wide range of dialects and accents, reflecting the diverse cultural and geographical backgrounds of its speakers. The vocabulary of Modern English is vast and diverse, with words borrowed from many different languages. The grammar of Modern English is relatively simple compared to Old English, with fewer noun forms and a more consistent system of verb conjugation.In conclusion, the history of English language is a fascinating journey through time, marked by significant changes and evolution. Old English, Middle English, and Modern English each exhibit unique characteristics that reflect the social, cultural, and historical context of their respective periods. From the complexity of Old English grammar to the simplicity of Modern Englishspelling and grammar, the evolution of English language is a testament to the adaptability and resilience of human language.。
1.2 The Old English Period and Middle English Period
The Old English Period and the Middle English Period (449-1485)（Brief Introduction）Part one About the Middle Ages (476-1453)In European history, the thousand-year period following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century (476 A.D) is called the Middle Ages. It is so called because it came between ancient times and modern times.In the latter part of the fourth century the Huns (匈奴)swept into Europe from central Asia, robbing and killing as they came along, and large numbers of the half civilized Germanic tribes such as the Visigoths, the Franks, the Angles and Saxons, and the Vandals fled their homelands in northern Europe and were pushed to cross the Danube river(多瑙河) into the territory of the Roman Empire. In A.D. 476 a Germanic general killed the last Roman emperor and took control of the government. While the Eastern Roman Empire continued, the power of ancient Rome was gone. In its place mushroomed a great many Germanic kingdoms, which in a few hundred years were to grow into the nations known as England, France, Spain, Italy, and Germany. Between the fifth and eleventh centuries, western Europe was the scene of frequent wars and invasions. The political unity had given way to widespread destruction and confusion. Hunger and disease killed many lives; towns and villages fell into ruin and great areas of land lay waste.During the Medieval times there was no central government to keep the order. The only organization that seemed to unite Europe was the Christian church. It continued to gain widespread power and influence. In the Late Middle Ages, almost everyone in western Europe was a Christian and a member of the Christian Church. Christianity took the lead in politics, law, art and learning for hundreds of years. It shaped people’s lives. That is why the Middle Ages is also called the “Age of Faith”.Whatever names we may give to this span of time, this is a period in which classical, Hebrew and Gothic heritages merged. And it is this fusion and blending of different ideas and practices that paved the way for the development of what is the present-day European culture.As for England, where the early inhabitants were Celts, since historical times, it has been conquered three times. It was conquered by the Romans, the Anglo-Saxons, and the Normans.England was not much affected by the Roman Conquest, but she felt the full weight of the other two conquests.The Anglo-Saxons brought to England the Germanic language and culture, while the Normans brought a fresh wave of Mediterranean civilization, which includes Greek culture, Roman law, and the Christian region.It is the cultural influences of these two conquests that provided the source for the rise and growth of English literature.Part two The Old English Period---The Anglo-Saxon Period(449-1066) 盎格鲁-撒克逊时期I.Historical backgroundBetween the 8th and 5th centuries BC, the Celts inhabited Britain and became the dominant residents. The name Britain came from the Britons, a Celtic tribe. In 55 and 54 BC, Britain was twice invaded by Roman troops led by Julius Caesar, and was invaded again by the Romans under Claudius I in 43 AD. Britain subsequently became a Roman province and it remained so until the beginning of the 5th century and the Celts became either slaves or unfree cultivators of the land. The Romans were excellent builders and they constructed towns and cities which prospered far longer than any previous settlements on the island.In 410, Germanic barbarians attacked Rome, forcing all Roman troops to leave Britain in order to defend their own nation, and thus ending the Roman occupation of Britain. After the Romans withdrew from the island, the tribes of Angles, Saxons and Jutes (later known simply as Anglo-Saxons) migrated to England from what is today Denmarkand Northern Germany. They settled down there and soon ruled over the whole of England, enslaving some of the native Celts while driving the others to the hills north and west, to Wales and Scotland and even Ireland across the sea. Thus began the Anglo-Saxon period in Britain and English, the language of the Angles, replaced the old Celtic language, as the dominant language of the land.II. The Old English LiteratureThe Anglo-Saxons were heathen upon their first arrival in England. In A.D. 597, the first missionaries led by St. Augustine came to England from Rome and converted King Ethelbert of Kent, and within a century all England was Christianized. Churches were built and the monks ere among the most learned in the country. The heathen mythology was gradually replaced by the Christian religion, but heathen concepts of nature and the supernatural persisted for a considerable period of time and often were curiously mixed with Christian views and expressions. This phenomenon found its expression not infrequently in literary works of the Anglo-Saxon period.The Germanic tribes from the Northern Europe brought with them not only the Anglo-Saxon language (the basis of Modern English), but also a specific poetic tradition, which is bold and strong, mournful and elegiac in spirit. Generally speaking, the Old English poetry that has survived can be divided into two groups:A. the religious group ---Mainly on biblical themes/containing specific Christian doctrines: Genesis A, Genesis B and Exodus are poems based on the Old Testament; The Dream of the Rood comes from the New TestamentB. the secular group ---Including the national epic poem, Beowulf, and a number of more or less lyrical poems of shorter length, which evoke the Anglo-Saxon sense of the harshness of circumstance and the sadness of the human lot, The Traveler's Song and the Seafarer.BeowulfBeowulf, a typical example of Old English Poetry, is regarded today as the national epic （民族史诗）of the Anglo-Saxons. It describes the exploits of a Scandinavian hero, Beowulf, in fighting against the monster Grendel, his revengeful mother and a fire-breathing dragon.The story took place in Scandinavia and was originally in an oral form, sung by the bards/poets at the end of the 6th century. The present script was written down in the 10th century and found in 1705.Thematically the poem presents a vivid picture of how the primitive people wage heroic struggles against the hostile forces of the natural world under a wise and mighty leader. The poem is an example of the mingling/mixture of nature myths and heroic legends.Part three The Middle English Period (1066-1485)I. Background informationIn late Saxon England, feudalism assumed definite shape, with the king at the top, then the earls and the thanes, then the freemen and last the serfs. Agriculture developed and trade expanded. Towns came into existence and wealth became more concentrated. With the Norman Conquest, feudalism underwent further development.The Norman Conquest (1066) brought England more than a change of rulers. Politically, a feudalism system was established in England; religiously, the Rome-backed Catholic Church had a much stronger control over the country; and great changes also took place in languages. After the conquest, three languages co-existed in England. French became the official language used by the king and the Norman lords; Latin became the principal tongue of church affairs and in universities; and Old English was spoken only by the common English people.After the Norman Conquest, England became no longer an isolated nation and trade relations with the European continent grew steadily. The three centuries afterwards saw the large scale introduction into England of French culture,including French customs and manners, medieval French literature and the literature of Italy and other European countries.The Norman Conquest starts the medieval period in English literature, which covers about four centuries. The accession of Henry VII in 1485, the beginning of the Tudor dynasty, is an arbitrary but convenient one to mark the "end" of the Middle Ages in England.II. The Middle English Literature1.Popular folk literature and RomanceAs a result of the simultaneous use of three different languages, there were in England a number of literary works written in Norman-French and in Latin besides those in English. The literature the Normans brought to England is remarkable for its bright, romantic tales of love and adventure, in marked contrast with the strength and somberness of Angle-Saxon poetry.(爱情故事和传奇故事，特点是明快和浪漫，有别于以往的强悍和忧郁。
关于英语的历史
关于英语的历史英语的历史开始于盎格鲁—撒克逊人对英格兰的占领与统治。
此前，英国本土上的早期语言是当地凯尔特人使用的凯尔特语(Celtic)，其中含有一些拉丁语成分。
此后，英语经历了古英语(Old English)、中古英语(Middle English) 和现代英语(Modern English)三个发展阶段。
公元前 700 年左右，凯尔特人开始越过海峡，迁徙到对岸的不列颠岛上。
这些人中，有一支名叫布立吞人 Britons 的民族成为岛上的主体民族，因此罗马人称该岛为布里塔尼亚 Britannia(布立吞人之地)，英语中的不列颠 Britain 由此而来。
古英语(Old English)古英语时期(公元449-1150年)，英语词汇量约有五六万，其主体是统治者使用的盎格鲁—撒克逊语(Anglo-Saxon)，词汇属于西耳曼支的日耳曼词(Germanic)。
这部分词汇构成今天称之为本族语词(Native Words)的主体公元 43 年，罗马征服不列颠，将其划为帝国西北边陲的一个行省。
然而，北方的皮克特人 Picts 却经常南下骚扰罗马占领下的不列颠。
于是在公元 122 年，哈德良皇帝下令在罗马占领区北面修筑了一条长长的防御工整，这长墙因此被称为哈德良墙。
哈德良墙后来也成为不列颠岛上两个主体民族英格兰人和苏格兰人之间的分界线。
公元 449 年，北方的皮克特人和爱尔兰人大举进犯不列颠。
布立吞人 Britons 从欧洲搬来了几支日耳曼部族的救兵，主要有三支，分别是盎格鲁人 Angles、撒克逊人Saxons 和朱特人 Jutes。
日耳曼援兵们轻松击溃了皮克特人和爱尔兰人，却将本地的布立吞人 Britons 四处驱逐。
入侵者在不列颠建立了七个主要王国，从此不列颠开始被以盎格鲁人为首的日耳曼部族所占领，他们的语言开始发展成一种新语言，即英语English(盎格鲁人的语言)，这个阶段的英语被称为古英语由于公元六世纪晚期基督教的引入，超过 400 个拉丁词被借用引入英语，包括：priest, paper, school 等词，以及一些较少的希腊语词汇公元十、十一世纪，古英语受到了属于北日耳曼语支的古诺尔斯语的强烈影响。
英语词汇发展史
英语词汇发展史简介语言史家一般把英语的历史分为三个时期：①古英语（Old English）时期（AD450-1100）；②中古英语（Middle English）时期（AD1100-1500）；③现代英语（Modern English）时期（AD1500至今）1 古英语时期（又称盎格鲁-撒克逊时期the Anglo-Saxon Period）日耳曼部落在不列颠定居以后，各自占领一些地区。
盎格鲁人占领了泰晤士河以北的英格兰大部分地区和苏格兰的低地，朱特人占领了肯特郡一带地区，撒克逊人占领了泰晤士河以南的大部分地区。
各个部落建立了一些小王国，出现了英语史上的七国时代（the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy）。
直到公元830年，阿尔弗烈德大王（Alfred the Great）才统一了整个英格兰地区。
由于全国长期没有统一，所以古英语时期存在着多种方言，主要的方言有四种：西撒克逊语（West Saxon）、肯特语（Kentish）、莫西亚语（Mercian）和北恩布瑞安语（Northumbrian）。
这四种方言都曾一度占主导地位。
西撒克逊语保存下来的手稿最多，其它方言在形成英语的过程中也起到了重要的作用。
古英语的词汇有着浓厚的日耳曼语族的特点。
这主要表现为复合法是重要的构词方法，复合词在古英语词汇中占有显著的地位。
据统计，在史诗《贝奥武夫》（Beowulf）3183行的诗句中，竟有1069个复合词。
有些复合词中不重读的部分，渐渐失去独立地位，而演变为词缀，如for-，in-，-ful等派生法在古英语中也广泛使用，共有24个名词后缀、15个形容词后缀，-dom，-hood，-ship，-ness，-the，-ful，-ish 等词缀都可溯源到古英语时期。
古英语时期诗歌有一种特殊的修辞手法，即头韵（alliteration），由此产生的许多短语一直保留至今，如might and main（全力地），friend and foe（敌友），a labour of love（出自喜爱而做的事）。
英国文学填空练习教程文件
英国文学填空练习Part OneOld and Middle English LiteratureI.Fill in the blanks1.Choose the best answer Critics tend to divide Chaucer’s literary career intothree periods: the French period, the Italian period and the English period.2.Chaucer employed the heroic couplet in writing his greatest work TheCanterbury tales.3.The framework in The Canterbury Tales is a pilgrimage.4.When Chaucer died on the 25th of October 1400, he was the first to be buriedin Westminster Abbey.5.The Prologue provides a framework for the tales in The Canterbury Tales,and it comprises a group of vivid pictures of various medieval figures.6.The 15th century has traditionally been described as the barren age in Englishliterature.7.Poetry can be classified as narrative or lyric. Narrative poems stress actions,and lyrics stress songs.Part TwoEnglish Literature in the Renaissance PeriodI.Fill in the blanks1.The second period of English Renaissance is also called the Elizabethanperiod or the age of Shakespeare.2.Shakespeare’s plays have been traditionally divided into four categoriesaccording to dramatic type: histories, comedies, tragedies and romances.3.Edmund Spenser is often referred to as “the poets’ poet” because of hisconsiderable influence on later poets.4.Spenser’s Amoretti is a serie s of 88 sonnets in which he links each quatrainto the next by a continuing rhyme: abab bcbc cdcd ee. This form is usuallycalled Spenserian sonnets.5.Christopher Marlowe is considered the first great English dramatist and themost important Elizabethan playwright before Shakespeare.6.Shakespeare’s 154 sonnets fall into two series: one series are addressed to W.H, a young man, and the other addressed to a dark lady.7.The writings of Francis Bacon mainly fall into three categories: philosophical,literary and professional.8. A Shakespearean sonnet is composed of three quatrains and a concludingcouplet.Part ThreeEnglish Literature in the 17th CenturyI.Fill in the blanks1.The poems of John Donne belong to two categories: the youthful love lyricsand the later sacred verse.ton gave us the only epic since Beowulf, and Bunyan gave us the onlygreat allegory.3.Bunyan’s most important work is The Pilgrim’s Progress, written in the old-fashioned, medieval form of allegory and dream.4.In the 19th century English literature, a new literary trend, critical realism,appeared after the romantic poetry.5.John Donne is the founder of the school of metaphysical poetry. His worksare characterized by mysticism in content and fantasticality in form.6.Because of the success of Paradise Lost, John Milton produced in 1671another epic, Paradise Regained.7.John Milton’s Paradise Lost opens with the description of a meeting amongthe fallen angels, and ends with the departure of Adam and Eve from theGarden of Eve.8.The most distinguished literary figure of the Restoration Period was JohnDryden, poet, critic, and playwright.9.Paradise Lost is a long epic. The stories are taken from the Old Testament.10.Part Four18th Century LiteratureI.Fill in the blanks1.Thomas Gray’s “Elegy Written in a Country Churchyards” is taken as amodel of sentimental poetry, esp. the graveyard school.2.The exciting tale of Robinson Crusoe is largely an adventure story rather thanthe study of human character.3.An Ode, in ancient literature, is an elaborate lyrical poem composed for achorus to chant and to dance to.4.5.In Jerusalem, William Blake expounded his theory of imagination, assertingthat the world of imagination is the world of eternity.6.“ Till a’ the seas gang dry, my dear,And the roacks melt wi’ the sun:I will luve thee still, my dear,While the sands of life shall run”The above lines are taken from Robert Burns’famous poem “My Luve’sLike a Red, Red, Rose”.7.Friday is a character in the novel Robinson Crusoe.8.Henry Fielding is called the Father of the English Novels.9.The 18th century is known as the age of enlightenment or the age of reason.10.In Gulliver’s Travels, Yahoos are the creatures living in Houyhnynms.Part FiveRomantic LiteratureI.Fill in the blanks1.As an age of romantic enthusiasm, the Romantic Age began in 1798 whenWordsworth and Coleridge published Lyrical Ballads and ended in 1832 when Scott died.2.The Englightenment was a progressive intellectual movement throughoutwestern Europe in the 18th century.3.4.In the Preface of the 2nd and 3rd editions of Lyrical Ballads, Wordsworth laiddown the principles of poetry composition.5.The English Romantic Age produced two major novelists, Walter Scott and JaneAusten.6.Wordsworth, Coleridge and Southey are referred to as the “Lake Poets” becausethey lived in the Lake District in the northwestern part of England.7.In 1805, Wordsworth completed his long autobiographical poem entitled ThePrelude.8.Percy Shelley mourned for John Keats’ premature death in an elegy “Adonais”,writing “he is made one with nature”.9.In his poems Wordsworth aimed at simplicity and purity of the language, fightingagainst the conventional forms of the 18th century poetry.10.“Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage” is long poem created by Byron. It contains fourcantos in the Spenserian stanza, namely a 9-line stanza rhymed abbabbcbcc, in which the first eight lines are iambic pentameter while the 9th line in iambichexameter.11.The greatest English realist of the 19th century was Charles Dickens.12.Don Juan is Byron’s masterpiece, written in the prime of his creative power. Hecalled it an “epic satire”, “ a satire on abuse of the present state of society”.13.The plot of Shelley’s lyrical drama Prometheus Unbound is borrowed fromPrometheus Bound, a play of the Greek tragedian Aeschylus.14.Walter Scott is the creator and a great master of the historical novel. Hisnovels give a panorama of feudal society from its early stage to its downfall. 15.In “To Autumn”, Keats writes,Season of mists and mellow fruitfulness,Close bosom-friend of the maturing sun;Conspiring with him how to load and blessWith fruit the vines that round the thatch-evs runThe figure of speech used in the lines is personification.16.“Ode to a Nightingale” expresses the contrast between the happiness of the naturalworld and the pain of the human reality.17.Percy Shelley was memorized and honored as “the heart of all hearts” after hisdeath.18.Many critics regard Shelley as one of the greatest of all English poets. They pointespecially to his lyrics.19.Romanticism was in effect a revolt of the English imagination against theneoclassical reason, which prevailed from the days of Pope to those of Johnson.20.Odes are generally regarded as Keats’ most important and mature works.21.“Ode on a Grecian Urn” shows the contrast between permanence of art andtransience of human passion.22.Scott is considered “the father of historical novels”.23.Two prevailing themes of Pride and Prejudice are pride and prejudice and loveand marriage.24.Kubla Khan was composed in a dream after the poet Coleridge took the opium.25.All such works of Coleridge as “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner”, “Christabel”,and “Kubla Khan” revealed his keen interest in mystery.26.Wordsworth is regarded as a “worshipper of nature”.27.“I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud”, “An Evening Walk”, “My Heart Leaps up”, and“Tintern Abbey” are all masterpieces on nature.28.The constant sight of nature in the wondrous beauty of Lake District awoke loveand reverence in Wordsworth.29.In 1797, Wordsworth made friends with S.T. Coleridge and a year later theyjointly published the Lyrical Ballads.30.The main idea running through the romantic poem Prometheus Unbound is that offreedom.31.Shelley, with a triumphant praise of the imagination, highly exalts the role ofpoetry, thinking that poetry alone could free man and offer the mind a wider view of its powers. He holds that poetry “is as more direct representation of the actions and passins of our internal being.”32.French revolution and British industrial revolution gave great impetus to therise of the Romantic Movement.Part Six19th century Literature1.The comic element is strong in Charles Dickens’ first novel, The PickwickPapers which appeared in monthly sections between April 1836 andNovember 1837.2.In the 19th century English literature, a new literary trend, critical realism,appeared after the romantic poetry.3.The Victorian Age in English literature was largely an age of prose, especiallyof the novel.4.5.David Copperfield is one of Charles Dickens’ best works. It is written in thefirst person and is the most autobiographical of all his books.6.Written in 1837-38, Oliver Twist tells the story of an orphan boy, whoseadventure provide material for a description of the lower depths of London.7.Although writing from different points of view and with different techniques,the Victorian novelists shared one thing in common, that is, they wereconcerned about the fate of the common people.8.Robert Browning’s poetic experiments transferred the thematic interest ofpoetry from mere narration of the story to revelation and study ofcharacters’ inner world and brought to the Victorian poetry some psycho-analytical element.9.Wuthering Heights is written by Emily Bronte. It is a morbid story of love,but a powerful attack on the bourgeois marriage system. It shows true loveion a class society is impossible of attainment.10.In his works, Dickens sets out a full map and a large-scale criticism of the 19thcentury England, particularly London.11.Thomas Hardy, novelist and poet, is one of the representatives of Englishcritical realism at the turn of the 19th century.12.The Mayor of Casterbridge, one of the century’s finest novels, traces the riseand fall of Michael Henchard, a tough, egotistical, fellow who sold his wifeand baby at a fair.13.Jane Eyre represents those middle class working women, who are strugglingfor the recognition of their basic rights and equality as a human being.14.In her novels, George Eliot seeks to present the inner struggle of a soul andto reveal the motives, impulses and hereditary influences which governhuman action.15.The two most predominating poets of the Victorian period are AlfredTennyson and Robert Browning.16.In many Hardy’s later novels, the conflict between the tradition and themodern is brought to the center of the stage.17.As a woman of exceptional intelligence and life experience, George Eliotshows a particular concern for the destiny of women.Part SevenEarly 20th Century Literature1.Modernism takes the irrational philosophy and the theory of psycho-analysisas its theoretical base.2.“Araby” from Dubliners is a tale of the frustrated quest for beauty in themidst of drabness.3.The major themes of the modernist literature are the distorted, alienated andaill relationships between man and nature, man and society, man and man,and man and himself.4.W.B.Yeats experienced a slow and painful change in his poetic creation,starting in the romantic tradition and finishing as a mature modernist poet.5.T.S. Eliot’s major achievement in play writing has been the creation of averse drama in the 20th century to express the ideas and actions of modernsociety with new accents of the contemporary speech.6.In his famous essay “Tradition and Individual Talent”, T.S. Eliot put greatemphasis on the importance of tradition both in creative writing and incriticism.7.“The Hollow Man”, which bears a strong thematic resemblance to “TheWaste Land”, is generally regarded as the darkest of Eliot’s poems.8.Structurally and thematically, George Bernard Shaw follows the greattradition of realism.9.Joyce seems to mean that the novel Ulysses describes the mental activities oftwo Dubliners in a single day.10.Virginia Woolf represents the much more readable novelists of the stream ofconsciousness school. She is a fine artist, a woman of sharp sensitivity who, in one of her frequent mental depressions, committed suicide.11.All of Joyce’s novel and short stories have the same setting, Ireland,especially Dublin, and the same subject, Dubliners and their life.12.The statement “A demanding mother turns away from her husband and givesall her affection to he r sons” sums up the main plot of D.H Lawrence’s Sons and Lovers.13.In Mrs. Dalloway, Virginia Woolf adopted a writing technique called streamof consciousness, in which the whole story was presented with the interior monologues of the characters.14.“She frankl y wanted him to climb into the middle class, a thing not verydifficult, she knew. And she wanted him in the end to marry a lady.” is taken from D.H Lawrence’s Sons and Lovers.15.D.H. Lawence’s poems fall roughly into three categories--- satirical andcomic poems, poems about human relationship and emotions, and poems about nature.16.The poem “The Waste Land”, which is 433 lines long, is broadlyacknowledged as one of the most recognizable landmarks of modernism, the first part of it is “The Burial of the dead”, and the third part of it is “The Fire Sermon”.17.In 1913, Eliot published his first volume of verse, Prufrock and OtherObservations in which the influence of some French symbolism can be seen.。
英语的发展历程英文
英语的发展历程英文The Evolution of the English LanguageEnglish is a language that has undergone significant changes throughout its history. From its origins as a Germanic language spoken by tribes in what is now known as England, to becoming one of the most widely spoken languages in the world, its evolution has been influenced by various factors. This article will provide a brief overview of the key stages in the development of the English language.Old English, also known as Anglo-Saxon, was the earliest form of English spoken from the 5th to the 11th century. It was heavily influenced by Germanic dialects spoken by the Anglo-Saxon settlers and had a complex inflectional grammar system. The vocabulary of Old English also included words of Celtic, Latin, and Norse origin.The next significant stage in the evolution of English was Middle English, which was spoken from the 11th to the 15th century. During this period, the Norman Conquest in 1066 brought the French language to England, resulting in a fusion of Old English and French vocabulary. The influence of Latin also increased, especially in the fields of religion, law, and medicine. Middle English grammar simplified compared to Old English, but it still maintained some of the complex features.The Early Modern English period emerged in the late 15th century and lasted until the late 17th century. This era coincided with important historical events such as the Renaissance and theProtestant Reformation. The printing press invention by William Caxton in 1476 played a crucial role in standardizing English spelling and accelerating the spread of the written language. The works of influential writers like William Shakespeare contributed significantly to the development of Early Modern English vocabulary and grammar.The Late Modern English phase started in the late 17th century and continues until the present day. This period witnessed significant changes in pronunciation and the rise of the British Empire, which helped English become a global language. Industrialization and technological advancements also brought new words and concepts into the English vocabulary.Currently, English exists in various forms, including American English, British English, and other regional or dialectal variations. Additionally, the widespread use of English as a lingua franca in international communication has led to further adaptations and the inclusion of loanwords from other languages.In conclusion, the English language has evolved over time from its Germanic roots to become a global language with diverse influences. The stages of Old English, Middle English, Early Modern English, and Late Modern English reflect the dynamic nature of language and its ability to adapt to different cultures and historical developments.。
Old and Middle English Period
Old and Middle English PeriodWilliam Langland’s (威廉朗格兰) is written in the form of a dream vision.正确答案： B. Piers the Plowman 《农夫皮尔斯》The fifteen century has been traditionally described as the barren age in English literature. But it is the spring tide of English .正确答案：balladsAmong the Middle English poets, three are the greatest. One is the author of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. 《高文爵士和绿衣骑士》The other two are William Langland (威廉朗格兰) and____.正确答案：Geoffrey Chaucer 杰弗里·乔叟Today Chaucer is regarded as the father of English poetry. His masterpiece is .正确答案：The Canterbury Tales《坎特伯雷故事》In the year 1066, the Normans defeated the Anglo-Saxons at the battle of .正确答案：Hastingswas the first to be buried in Poet’s corner of Westminster Abbey. (威斯敏斯特大教堂) 正确答案：Geoffrey ChaucerIt is to that we owe much of the preservation of Old Anglo-Saxon Literature.正确答案： B. Alfred the Great (阿尔弗雷德大帝)Chaucer employed the _____ couplet in writing his greatest work The Canterbury Tales.正确答案：Heroiccaptured the spirit of the medieval period just as it was ending.正确答案： D. Geoffrey ChaucerThe history of English literature begins in the____ century.正确答案：5thAfter the withdrawal of the Roman troops, England was soon invaded by three Germanic (Teutonic) tribes: the Angles, the and the Jutes.正确答案：Saxonsis the repetition of a speech sound in a sequence of nearby words, and is usually applied only to consonants and only when the recurrent sound begins a word or a stressed syllable within a word.正确答案： A. AlliterationChaucer did much in making the dialect of the foundation for modern English language.正确答案：LondonIn the medieval period, was the important code of behavior for the knights.正确答案：chivalryis a 3182-line alliterative verse, considered the monumental work in English poetry of the Anglo-Saxon period, or the national epic of the English people.正确答案： A. Beowulf (贝奥武夫/贝武夫)English literature actually began with the settlement in England.正确答案： C. Anglo-SaxonThe accelerated the development of feudalism in England.正确答案：Norman ConquestThe work that presented, for the first time in English literature, a comprehensive realistic picture of the medieval English society and created a whole gallery of vivid characters from all walks of lifeis most likely _______.正确答案： D. Geoffrey Chaucer’s The Canterbury Talesis the best of Arthurian romances, the most attractive and beautiful romance of chivalry, and one of the finest pieces of artistry of the English Middle Ages.正确答案： D. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight 《高文爵士和绿衣骑士》The Vision Concerning Piers the Plowman is ’s famous poem.正确答案：William LanglandIn his Italian period (c. 1372~1385), Chaucer wrote under the influence of the great literary geniuses of early Renaissance in Italy—, Petrarch and Boccaccio.(但丁，彼特拉克，卜伽丘)正确答案： D. DanteIn , St. Augustine (圣奥古斯丁) and his monks landed in Kent. Then England was Christianized part by part in the following century.正确答案：597Which of the following does not happen in the Middle English period?正确答案： D. The accepting of Christianity.For nearly two centuries into the Old English period, pagan poetry and pagan spirit remained dominant on the poetic scene. It was essentially a body of .正确答案：heroic poetryThe only organic whole poem to come out of the Anglo-Saxon period is .正确答案： B. Beowulf 贝奥武夫/贝武夫The two important prose works of the Old English period are The Ecclesiastical History of England by Bede and founded by King Alfred the Great. （爱德华一世）正确答案： A. Anglo-Saxon ChronicleBeowulf unfolds a picture of an early society, of its public life, its customs, rituals and cultural activities.正确答案： B. DanishThe spirit of knighthood is reflected in the literature, especially in the , based on the stories of King Arthur (亚瑟王).正确答案： D. Round Table LegendsBeowulf is a ______ poem, describing an all-round picture of the tribal society.正确答案： D. paganChaucer Was once influenced by Italian Literature. His major work during this period is _____. 正确答案： A. Troilus and CriseydeThe most important romance of the Middle English period is about . It was written in Latin.正确答案： C. King Arthur and His Knights of the Round TableIn English poetry, a four-line stanza is called .正确答案： B. quatrainThe provides a framework for the tales in The Canterbury Tales, and it comprises a group of vivid pictures of various medieval figures.正确答案：General Prologue PrologueWhich of the following is not the effect of “Norman Conquest”?正确答案： C. The decline of Christianity.Beowulf is of heritage, and contains evidently pre-Christian elements.正确答案：Germanicis the most important writer of the 14th cent ury.正确答案： d. ChaucerThe 15th century saw the development of popular literature, chiefly popular , and miracle and morality plays in the later part of the century.正确答案：balladsIn 410, the Romans abandoned the island, which marks the end of “”.正确答案：Roman ConquestChaucer’s masterpiece is.正确答案： A. The Canterbury TalesCritics tend to divide Chaucer’s literary career into three periods: the F rench period, theperiod and the English period.正确答案：ItalianThe narrative poems in the Middle English period fell roughly into three subject groups: “The Matter of ”, “The Matter of Britain” and “The Matter of Rome”.正确答案：FranceThe most important work of Alfred the Great is ____, which is regarded as the best monument of the Old English prose.正确答案： D. The Anglo-Saxon ChroniclesChaucer’s active career provided him not only with knowledge but also experienc es, which accounted for the wide range of his writings. The following are all his career EXCEPT . 正确答案： D. businessman and churchmanThe Canterbury Tales contains the ____ and 24 tales, two of which left unfinished.正确答案：General Prologue PrologueThe beginning of settlement in Britain took place in about 700 B. C. The settlers were Celtic-speaking tribes called .正确答案：BritonsIn 1066, led the Norman army to invade and defeat England.正确答案： D. William the Conqueror_____is the most prevailing literary form in the Middle Ages.正确答案：RomanceIn the 14th century, the two most famous are and Langland.正确答案：Geoffrey Chaucer ChaucerThe main in The Canterbury Tales is especially interesting, in which Chaucer draws a group of vivid sketches of typical medieval figures from different walks of life,正确答案：General Prologue PrologueIn 55 B. C., Britain was invaded by the Roman general .正确答案： A. Julius Caesar。
英语语言的历史发展可以分为三个阶段讲解学习
英语语言的历史发展可以分为三个阶段，分别是：古英语（Old English），中世纪英语（Middle English）和现代英语（Modern English）。
古英语（449--1100）。有记载的英语语言起始于449年，当时包括央格鲁－撒克逊人（Angles-Saxons）在内的德国部落入侵大不列颠。尽管85％的古英语词汇现在已经不再使用，和现代英语相比，古英语中的外来词很少，但派生词缀较多。古英语中还有较多描述性的复合词。
现代英语（1500――至今）。1476年，卡克斯顿（William Caxton）在英国开始引进印刷机的使用，标志着中世纪英语转入现代英语阶段。
为体现英语语言的威望，文艺复兴时期（Renaissance）有更多的拉丁和希腊词汇加入英语，另外，一些外来语（如criterion, focus）仍保留了原来词语的复数形式。还有一些更保留了当时的拼写和发音。
787年，北欧海盗对英语语言的影响意义是深远的，古英语无论从发音还是拼写上都与现代英语大相径庭。
中世纪英语（1100――1500）。1066年的诺曼底征服事件在英语语言发展史上是一个标志性的转折点。到1300年左右，法语的使用开始减少。到14世纪末期，英语又重新成为官方语言。
中世纪பைடு நூலகம்语的语音变化较少，但句法上已经形成了固定的词序，并且扩展了情态动词、助词结构。不规则动词越来越少，很多不规则动词的过去式和过去分词也趋向规则化。到1000年，语言使用中已确定了-s作为名词复数的构成，而古英语中曾以-en结尾表示复数便渐渐不再被人们使用。
AHistoryoftheEnglishLanguage
AHistoryoftheEnglishLanguage第一篇：A History of the English LanguageA History of the English Language(2011-10-11 23:17:57)转载标签：分类：英语语言概论杂谈A History of the English LanguageThe history of English is a complex and dynamic history.It is often, albeit perhaps too neatly, divided into four periods: Old English, Middle English, Early-Modern English, and Late-Modern English.English is classified genetically as a Low West Germanic language of the Indo-European family of languages.Currently, nearly two billion people around the globe understand it.It is the language of aviation, science, computing, international trade, and diplomacy.It holds a crucial place in the cultural, political, and economic affairs in countries all over the world.From its early beginnings as a series of Germanic dialects, English has been remarkable in both its colonizing power and its ability to adopt and amass vocabulary from all over the world.Yet it was nearly wiped out in its early years(Bragg 2003).Old English(500-1100AD) It is nearly impossible to identify the birth of a language, but in the case of English, it is safe to say that it did not exist before the West Germanic tribes settled Britain.During the fifth and sixth centuries A.D., West Germanic tribes from Jutland and southern Denmark(Norseland)invaded the British Isles.These tribes--which included the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes--spoke a Germanic language now termed Old English, a language which is similar to modern Frisian.Out of these tribes, four major dialects of Old English emerged, Northumbrian in the north of England, Merican in the Midlands, West Saxon in the south and west, and Kentishin the Southeast.These tribes, along with the English language, may well have been wiped out altogether by Viking raiders if not for a Wessex king named Alfred the Great.After defeating the Vikings, who threatened both the English way of life and its language, Alfred the Great encouraged English literacy throughout his kingdom(McCrum, et al 1986).Before the Germanic tribes arrived, the Celts were the original inhabitants of Britain.When the Germanic tribes invaded England, they pushed the Celt-speaking inhabitants out of England into what is now Scotland, Wales, Cornwall, and Ireland.The Celtic language survives today in the Gaelic languages, and some scholars speculate that the Celtic tongue might have influenced the grammatical development of English, though the influence would have been minimal(Bryson 1990).Around A.D.850, Vikings or Norsemen made a significant impact on the English language by importing many North Germanic words into the language.From the middle of the ninth century, large numbers of Norse invaders settled in Britain, especially in the northern and eastern areas and, in the eleventh century, a Danish(Norse)King, Canute, ruled England.The North Germanic speech of the Norsemen had a fundamental influence on English.They added basic words such as “that,” “they,” and “them,” and also may have been responsible for some of the morphological simplification of Old English, including the loss of grammatical gender and cases(Bragg 2003).The majority of words that constitute Modern English do not come from Old English roots(only about one sixth of known Old English words have descendants surviving today), but almost all of the 100 most commonly used words in modern English do have Old English roots.Words like “water,” “strong,” “the,” “of,” “a,” “he”“no” and many other basic modern English words derive from Old English(Bragg 2003).Still, the English language we know today is a far cry from its Old English ancestor.This is evidenced in the epic poem Beowulf, which is the best known surviving example of Old English(McCrum, et al 1986), but which must be read in translation to modern English by all but those relative few who have studied the work in the original.The Old English period ended with the Norman Conquest, when the language was influenced to an even greater extent by the French-speaking Normans.The Norman Conquest and Middle English(1100-1500)In 1066, William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy, invaded and conquered England and the Anglo-Saxons.After the invasion, the Norman kings and the nobility spoke a dialect of Old French known as Anglo-Norman, while English continued to be the language of the common people.This class distinction can still be seen in the English language today in words such as “beef” vs.“cow” and “pork” vs.“pig.” The aristocracy commonly ate beef and pork, which are derivatives of Anglo-Norma, while the Anglo-Saxon commoners, who tended the cattle and hogs, retained the Germanic and ate cow and pig.Many legal terms, such as “indict,” “jury,” and “verdict” also have Anglo-Norman roots because the Normans ruled the courts.It was not uncommon for French words to replace Old English words;for example, “uncle” replaced “eam” and “crime” replaced “firen.” French and English also combined to form new words, such as the French “gentle” and the Germanic “man” forming “gentleman”(Bryson1990).To this day, French-based words hold a more official connotation than do Germanic-based ones.When the English King John lost the province of Normandy to the King of France in 1204, the Normannobles of England began to lose interest in their properties in France and began to adopt a modified English as their native tongue.When the bubonic plague devastated Europe, the dwindling population served to consolidate wealth.The old feudal system crumbled as the new middle class grew in economic and social importance as did their language in relation to Anglo-Norman.The highly inflected system of Old English gave way to, broadly speaking, the same system of English found today which, unlike Old English, does not use distinctive word endings.Unlike Old English, Middle English can be read(albeit with some difficulty)by modern English speakers.By 1362, the linguistic division between the nobility was largely over and the Statue of Pleading was adopted, making English the language of the courts and Parliament.Edward the III became the first king to address Parliament in English in 1362, and the first English government document to be published in English since the Norman Conquest was the Provisions of Oxford.And the most famous literary example of Middle English is Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales.The Middle English period came to a close around 1500 with the rise of Modern English(McCrum, et al 1986).Early Modern English(1500-1800)The Renaissance brought with it widespread innovation in the English language.The rediscovery of classical scholarship created an influx of classical Latin and Greek words into the language.While Latin and Greek borrowings diversified the language, some scholars adopted Latin terms awkwardly and excessively, leading to the derogatory term “inkhorn.” An important item for scholars, an inkhorn was simply a horn pot that held ink for quills...but later it became a deprecatory term for pedantic writers who borrowed obscure and opulent termssuch as “revoluting” and “ingent affability”(Bragg 2003).The invention of the printing press also marked the division from Old English to Modern English as books became more widespread and literacy increased.Soon publishing became a marketable occupation and books written in English were often more popular than books in Latin.The printing press also served to standardize English.The written and spoken language of London already influenced the entire country, and with the influence of the printing press, London English soon began to dominate.Indeed, London standard became widely accepted, especially in more formal context.Soon English spelling and grammar were fixed and the first English dictionary was published in 1604(Bryson 1990).In the fifteenth century, the Great Vowel Shift--a series of changes in English pronunciation--further changed the English language.These purely linguistic sound changes moved the spoken language away from the so-called “pure” vowel sounds which still characterize many Continental languages today.Consequently, the phonetic pairings of most long and short vowel sounds were lost, resulting in the oddities of English pronunciation and obscuring the relationship of many English words and their foreign roots.The Great Vowel Shift was rather sudden and the major changes occurred within a century, though the shift is still in process and vowel sounds are still shortening, albeit much more gradually.The causes of the shift are highly debated.Some scholars argue that such a shift occurred due to the “massive intake of Romance loanwords so that English vowels started to sound more like French loanwords.Other scholars suggest it was the loss of inflectional morphology that started the shift”(Bragg 2003).Late-Modern English(1800-Present)The pronunciation, grammar, and spelling of Late-Modern English are essentially the same as Early-Modern English, but Late-Modern English has significantly more words due to several factors.First, discoveries during the scientific and industrial revolutions created a need for a new vocabulary.Scholars drew on Latin and Greek words to creat e new words such as “oxygen,” “nuclear,” and “protein.” Scientific and technological discoveries are still ongoing and neologisms continue to this day, especially in the field of electronics and computers.Just as the printing press revolutionized both spoken and written English, the new language of technology and the Internet places English in a transition period between Modern and Postmodern.Second, the English language has always been a colonizing force.During the medieval and early modern periods, the influence of English quickly spread throughout Britain, and from the beginning of the seventeenth century on, English began to spread throughout the world.Britain’s maritime empire and military influence on language(especially after WWII)has consequently been significant.Britain’s complex colonization, exploration, and overseas trade both imported loanwords from all over the world(such as “shampoo,” “pajamas,” and “yogurt”)and also led to the development of new varieties of English, each with its own nuances of vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation.Significantly, one of England’s colonies, America, created what is known as American English and, in some respects, American English is closer to the English of Shakespeare than the modern Standard British English(or the modern Queen’s English)because many Americanisms are originally British expressions that were preserved in the colonies while lost at home(e.g., “trash” for “rubbish”).Native American andSpanish vocabulary have also been a great influence on American English, importing or adopting such words as “raccoon,” “canoe,” “mustang,” “ranch,” and “vigilante”(Bragg 2003).Global EnglishRecently, English has become a lingua franca, a global language that is regularly used and understood by many countries where English is not the first/native language.In fact, when Pope John Paul II went to the Middle East to retrace Christ’s footsteps and addressed Christians, Muslims, and Jews, the Pope didn’t speak Arabic, Italian, Hebrew, or his native Polish;instead, he spoke in English.In fact, English is used in over 90 countries, and it is the working language of the Asian trade group ASEAN and of 98 percent of international research physicists and chemists.It is also the language of computing, international communication, diplomacy, and navigation.Over one billion people worldwide are currently learning English, making it unarguably a global language.--Posted January 27, 2008ReferencesBragg, Melvyn.2003.The Adventure of English: The Biography of a Language.New York: Arcade Publishing.Bryson, Bill.1990.Mother T ongue: English and How it Got That Way.New York: Perennial.McCrum, Robert, William Cran, and Robert MacNeil.1986.The Story of English.New York: Viking.。
英语专八-最全英美文学常识.
英国文学(English Literature)一、Old and Medieval English Literature中古英语文学(8世纪-14世纪)1) The Old English Period / The Anglo-Saxon Period古英语时期(449-1066)a. pagan poetry(异教诗歌): Beowulf《贝奥武甫》- 最早的诗歌；长诗(3000行) heroism & fatalism & Christian qualitiesthe folk legends of the primitive northern tribes; a heroic Scandinavian epic legend; 善恶有报b. religious poetry: Caedmon(凯德蒙610-680): the first known religious poet; the father of English songCynewulf(基涅武甫9C): The Christc. 8th C, Anglo-Saxon prose: Venerable Bede(673-735); Alfred the Great(848-901)2) The Medieval Period中世纪(1066-ca.1485 / 1500):a. Romance中世纪传奇故事(1200-1500): the Middle Ages; 英雄诗歌无名诗人- Sir Gawain and the Green Knight《高文爵士与绿色骑士》: Celtic legend; verse-romance; 2530 lines~ 14th C,Age of Chaucer:* Geoffrey Chaucer(乔叟1340-1400): 文风：vivid and exact language, his poetry is full of vigor and swiftnessthe father of English poetry; the father of English fiction; 首创“双韵体”couplet; 首位用伦敦方言写作英国作家The Canterbury Tales:pilgrims stories 受Boccaccio(薄伽丘) - Decameron《十日谈》启发The House of Fame; Troilus and Criseyde; The Romaunt of the Rose《玫瑰罗曼史》(译作)* William Langland(朗兰1332-1400)：The Vision of Piers Plowman《农夫皮尔斯之幻象》: 普通人眼中的社会抗议b. 15th C, English ballads: Thomas Malory (1395-1471):Morte D’Arthur《亚瑟王之死》- 圆桌骑士二、The Renaissance Period英国文艺复兴(1500-1660): humanism十四行诗，文艺复兴，无韵诗，伊丽莎白戏剧1) 诗歌Henry Howard(霍华德1516-1547)a. Thomas Wyatt (怀亚特1503-1542): the first to introduce the sonnet into English literatureb. Sir Philip Sidney(雪尼爵士1554-1586)：代表了当时的理想- “the complete man”Defense of Poetry《为诗辩护》Astrophel and Stella; Arcadia《阿卡狄亚》: a prose romance filled with lyrics; a forerunner of the modern worldc.Edmund Spenser(斯宾塞1552-1599): the poets’ poet; non-dramatic poet of伊丽莎白时代- long allegorical romance文风：a perfect melody, a rare sense of beauty and a splendid imagination. The Shepherd CalendarThe Faerie Queen《仙后》：long poem for Queen Elizabeth; Allegory - nine-line verse stanza/ the Spenserian Stanza Spenserian Stanza(斯宾塞诗体): Nine lines, the first eight lines is in iambic(抑扬格) pentameter(五步诗),and the ninth line is an iambic hexameter(六步诗) line.2) Prose 散文a. Thomas More(莫尔1478-1535): 欧洲早期空想社会主义创始人Utopia《乌托邦》: More与海员的对话b. John Lyly (黎里1553-160，剧作家&小说家)：EupheusEuphuism(夸饰文体): Abundant use of balanced sentences, alliterations(头韵) and other artificial prosodic(韵律) means.The use of odd similes(明喻) and comparisonsc. Francis Bacon (培根1561-1626)：英国首位散文家，中世纪至现代欧洲时期; 近代唯物主义哲学奠基人和近代实验科学先驱the trumpeter of a new age;Essays(论说文集)：Of Studies, Of Love, Of Beauty: the first true English prose classic3) 戏剧a. Christopher Marlowe(马洛1564-1593): University Wits 大学才子派Edward II；The Jew of Malta《马耳他的犹太人》first made blank verse(无韵诗：不押韵的五步诗) the principle instrument of English dramaThe Tragical History of Doctor Faustus《浮士德博士的悲剧》：根据德国民间故事书写成; 完善了无韵体诗。
中古英语名词
中古英语名词古英语（Old English）是指英语早期的一种历史语言形态，通常指公元 5 至 11 世纪英国所使用的英语。
中古英语（Middle English）是指公元 1066 年至公元 1470 年之间的英语，它是中古时期的英语形态。
中古英语作为英语语言进化过程中的一部分，是英语漫长的历史的刻画。
中古英语时期是英国历史上发生了许多重要事件的时期，同时也是英语语言发展过程中最关键的时期之一。
中古英语中传统的名词使用方式、文化与社会的变化及英语的拓展都深刻影响了现代英语的特质。
1. Religion（宗教）中英世纪是英国历史上宗教对人民影响最深的一个阶段，因此，中古英语中出现了很多与宗教有关的名词。
比如：Faith（信仰）：指对一个或多个宗教的信仰或信心，例如“faith in God”（对上帝的信仰）。
Heaven （天堂）：指天主教和基督教中信仰的天堂。
Church （教堂）：指基督教徒聚集的地方，同时也是基督教的标志。
God （上帝）：指天主教和基督教中的神，是信仰的中心。
2. Politics（政治）中世纪是英国政治制度逐渐发展的时期，在这期间出现了许多重要的政治名词，例如：King（国王）：指君主制中的最高统治者。
Queen（女王）：指君主制中国王的妻子或女儿，继承王位时称为女王。
Earl（伯爵）：指英国贵族等级制度中的较高等级的爵位。
Baron（男爵）：指英国贵族等级制度中的较低等级的爵位。
3. Daily life（日常生活）中古英语时期的日常生活主要以耕种和手工制作为主，因此涉及到了许多与生活相关的名词，例如：Plow（犁）：指农村耕种用的工具。
Hammer（锤子）：指制作工具时用到的锤形的工具。
Knife（刀）：指生产生活中使用的刀具。
Bread（面包）：指用面粉制成的食品，是中世纪常见的主食。
4. Education（教育）中世纪的教育主要由宗教机构来完成，主要是古典文化的传承，因此，涉及到了很多与教育相关的名词，例如：Book（书）：指用纸或其他材料制成的书籍，是中世纪文化传承的重要媒介。
The Old and Middle Age English literature古世纪英国文学
The Old and Medieval Ages
The Renaissance Period The Neoclassical Period
Part Four
Part Five Part Six
The Romantic Period
The Victorian Period The Modern Period
The cultural influences
The Anglo-Saxons and the Normans conquests much affected England. The cultural influences of these two conquests provided the source for the rise and growth of English literature.
Another Way of Looking at the History of English
Old English 400-1066 Beowulf
“Gaæþa wyrd swa hio scel” (OE)
( f r o m = “ Fate goes ever as it must ” (MnE) Beowulf!)
Transition to Beowulf
The major text we will read from this period is the epic Beowulf. It is the story of a Scandinavian (Geat) “thane” (warrior or knight) who comes to help a neighboring tribe, the Danes, who are being attacked by a monster. We study English history to understand the context of Beowulf, and we study Beowulf to understand the world which was Old England.
最新英语语言的历史发展可以分为三个阶段
英语语言的历史发展可以分为三个阶段，分别是：古英语（Old English），中世纪英语（Middle English）和现代英语（Modern English）。
必修一Unit 1Key pointsWarm-up1. 与感觉有关的及物动词以–ing结尾和-ed结尾做形容词-ing 令人有某种感觉，-ed 人被引起某种感觉Move, excite, frighten, disappoint, pleas, satisfy, surprise, interest, encourage, bore2. suppose vt. 猜想，料想；认为，相信（1）s uppose+that-clause 认为，猜想eg: I ~(that) you are right. 我认为你说的对。
（2）做假定，假设，相当于if eg: ~your father saw you now, what would you say? 假设你父亲现在看到了你，你该怎么说？（3）B e supposed to do 被期望或要求，应该eg: I thought we were ~ to be paid today. 我以为我们今天会发薪水呢。
（4）B e not supposed to do 不应当，不准eg: We are not ~ to play football on Sundays. 我们不准在礼拜天踢足球。
（5）S upposing that-clause 假定（supposing 做连词）eg: ~ (that) you are wrong, what will you do then? 假定你错了，你将会做什么呢？考点：否定前移suppose, think, imagine, believe eg: I don’t supp ose anyone will volunteer, will they?Lesson 11. Forty-three-year-old man=forty-three years old man2. switchswitch on=turn on 把开关打开switch off=turn off 把……关掉switch over 转换频道，转变2. moment（1）at the moment 此刻，目前eg: I am busy at the moment, but I will do it later. 我现在很忙，但是我稍后会处理这件事的。
(完整word版)英国文学史及作品选读习题集
1 Old & Middle English LiteratureⅠ. Essay Questions1. What are the three parts told in the story of Beowulf? How is heroic ideal reflected in Beowulf?2. State the social significance of William Langland’s Piers the Plowman and comment on the poem’s w riting features.3. Compare Chaucer’s The Canterbury Tales with old English poetry and the works of other Middle English poets to illustrate that Chaucer is the first realistic writer in English literature.4. What is the function of the General Prologue to The Canterbury Tales?Ⅱ. Define the following terms.1. Old English period (the Anglo Saxon period)2. Alliteration3. Prose4. Courtly love5. Morality play6. Couplet7. Meter8. Foot9. Scottish Chaucerians10. Ballad (Popular ballad)11. Middle English period12. Anglo-Norman period13. Arthurian legend14. RomanceⅢ. Fill the blanks.1. The Old English poetry can be divided into two groups: the_____ poetry and the ____ poetry.2. _____ is regarded as the “Father of English Song”, the first known religious poet of England.3. The history of English literature begins in the____ century.4. _____is the most prevailing literary form in the Middle Ages.5. The most magnificent prose work of the 15th century is Morte d’ Arthur concerning with____ legend.6. The only important prose writer in the 15th century is Sir______.7. Critics tend to divide Chaucer’s literary career into three periods: the ____ period, the___ period and the____ period.8. Among the Middle English poets, three are the greatest. One is the author of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. The other two are ____ and ____.9. The Canterbury Tales contains the ____ and 24 tales, two of which left unfinished.10. Chaucer employed the _____ couplet in writing his greatest work The Canterbury Tales.11. The framework in The Canterbury Tales is a ____.12. When Chaucer died on the 25th of October 1400, he was the first to be buried in ____.13. Besides Chaucer, King James I also wrote in verses of seven lines, so this kind of verse came to be called the________14. Compared with Chaucer, “Father of English poetry”, __________ in the 14th century can be called “Father of Scottish Poetry and Scottish History”.15. The ___________is an important stream of the British literature in the 15th century.16. The __________century has traditionally been described as the barren age in English literature.17. Poetry can be classified as narrative or Lyric. Narrative poems stress action, and Lyrics__________.Ⅳ. Choose the best answer.1. Beowulf is a ______ poem, describing an all-round picture of the tribal society.A. paganB. ChristianC. romanticD. lyric2. Caedmon’s life story is vividly described in _____’s Historic Ecclesiastica.A. GrendelB. BedeC. CynewulfD. Beowulf3. The most important work of Alfred the Great is ____, which is regarded as the best monument of the Old English prose.A. The Song of BeowulfB. The Ecclesiastical History of the English PeopleC. Apollonius of TypeD. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles4. In the 14th century, the important writers are the following EXCEPT_______.A. William LanglandB. John GowerC. Thomas MaloryD. Geoffrey Chaucer5. Chaucer Was once influenced by Italian Literature. His major work during this period is _____.A. Troilus and CriseydeB. The Romaunt of the RoseC. The Legend of Good WomenD. The Canterbury Tales6. Chaucer’s active career provided him not only with knowledge but also experiences, which accounted for the wide range of his writings.7. Chaucer’s narrative poem _____ is based on Boccaccio’s poem “Filostrato”.A. The Legend of Good WomenB. Sir Gawain and the Green KnightC. The Book of the DuchessD. Troilus and Criseyde8. All the following writers belong to the Scottish Chaucerians EXCEPT_______.A. Robert HenrysonB. William DunbarC. Thomas MaloryD. King James I9. In English poetry, a four-line stanza is called____.A. heroic coupletB. quatrainC. Spenserian stanzaD. terza rima10. The work that presented, for the first time in English literature, a comprehensive realistic picture of the medieval English society and created a whole gallery of vivid characters from all walks of life is most likely _______.A. William Langland’s Piers the PlowmanB. Geoffrey Chaucer’s The Canterbury TalesC. J ohn Gower’s Confessio AmantisD. Sir Gawain and the Green KnightⅤ. Short-answer questions1. What are the main characteristics of Anglo-Saxon literature?2. What are the artistic features of Old English poetry?3. What are the major subjects that the English romance mainly deals with?4. Summarize Chaucer’s literary ca reer and the representative works of each period.5. How many groups do the popular ballads fall into according to the contents or subjects?6. What are the stylistic features of ballads?Ⅵ. Answer the questions according to the following poem.When the sweet showers of April fall and shootDown through the drought of March to pierce the root,Bathing every vein in liquid powerFrom which there springs the engendering of the flower,When also Zephyrus with his sweet breathExhales an air in every grove and healthUpon the tender shoots, and the young sunHis half-course in the sign of the Ram has run,And the small fowls are making melodyThat sleep away the night with open eye(So nature pricks them and their heart engages)The people long to go on pilgrimagesAnd palmers long to seek the stranger strandsOf far-off saints, hallowed in sundry lands,And specially, from every shire’s endIn England, down to Canterbury they wendTo seek the holy blissful martyr, quickIn giving help to them when they were sick.Questions:1. What is expressed in these opening lines of The Canterbury Tales?2. How does the author emphasize the transition from nature to divinity?3. Comment on Chaucer’s contribution of rhymed stanzas.KeysⅠ. Essay questions.1. Structurally speaking, Beowulf is built around three fights. The first part deals with the fight between Beowulf and the monster Grendel that has been attacking the great hall of Heorot, built by Hrothgar, the Danish King. The second part involves a battle between Beowulf and Grendel’s mother, a water-monster, who takes revenge by carrying off one of the king’s noblemen. The last part is about the fight between Beowulf and a firedrake that ravages Beowulf’s kingdom.Beowulf is a pagan poem concerned with the heroic ideal of kings andkingship in North Europe. Battle is a way of life at that time. Strength and courage are basic virtues for both kings and his warriors. The king should protect his people and show gentleness and generosity to his warriors. And in return, his warriors should show absolute obedience and loyalty to the king. By praising Beowulf’s wisdom, strength and courage, and by glorifying his death for his people, the poem presents the heroic ideal of a king and his good relations to his warriors and people.2.Piers the Plowman remains a classic in popular literature. It was very popular throughout the fourteenth and the fifteenth centuries. It praises the poor peasants, and condemns and exposes the sins of the oppressors. It played an important part in arousing the revolutionary sentiment on the eve of the Rising of 1381 headed by Wat Tyler and John Ball. It is a realistic picture of medieval England. But Piers is not a representative of the poor peasants. He is one of the well-to-do peasants. He has no intention of upsetting the feudal order of society, and he accepts the existing social relations. This is the limitation of the poem.Writing features:(1) Piers the Plowman is written in the form of a dream vision. The author tells hisstory under the guise of having dreamed it.(2) The poem is an allegory which relates truth through symbolism.(3) The poem uses indignant satire in his description of social abuses caused by thecorruption prevailing among the ruling classes, ecclesiastical and secular. (4) The poem is written in alliteration.3. The vast bulk of Old English poetry is specifically Christian, devoted to religious subjects. More importantly, it is almost all in the heroic mode due to the great influence of the heroic ideal, i.e. Beowulf is the ideal of kingly behavior. The idealized hero figures predominantly in Old English literature. Middle English romance generally concerns the knight. It makes liberal use of the improbable, ofte4n of the supernatural. Religious writing reflects the unchanging principles of medieval Christian doctrine, which looked to the world to come for the only answer to men’s troubles. William Langland’s Piers the Plowman reflects the great religious and social issues of his day, yet it is written in the form of a dream vision. It is Chaucer alone who, for the first time in English literature, presented to us a comprehensive realistic picture of the English society of his time and created a whole gallery of vivid characters from all walks of life in his masterpiece The Canterbury Tales.4. The General Prologue is usually regarded as the great portrait gallery in English literature. It is largely composed of a series of sketches differing widely i8n length and method, and blending the individual and the typical in varying degrees. The purpose of the General Prologue is not only to present a vivid collection of character sketches, but also to reveal the author’s intention in bringing together a great variety of people and narrative materials to unite the diversity of the tales by allotting them to a diversity of tellers engaged in a common endeavour, to set the tone for the story-telling-one of jollity which accords with the tone of the whole work: that of grateful acceptance of life, to make clear the plan for the tales, to motivate the telling of tales and introduce the pilgrims and the time and occasion ofthe pilgrimage. The pilgrims are people from various parts of England. They serve as the representatives of various sides of life and social groups. Each of the pilgrims or narrators is presented vividly in the Prologue. Ranging in status from a knight a humble plowman, the pilgrims are a microcosm of 14th-century English society. On the other hand, there is also an intimate connection between the tales and the Prologue, both complementing each other. The Prologue provides a framework for the tales.Ⅱ. Define the following terms.1.Old English period (the Anglo-Saxon period): The Old English Period, extended from the invasion of Celtic England by Germanic tribes (the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes) in the first half of the fifth century to the conquest of England in 1066 by the Norman French under the leadership of the seventh century did the Anglo-Saxons, whose earlier literature had been oral, begin to develop a written literature.2. Alliteration: alliteration is the repetition of a speech sound in a sequence of nearby words. The term is usually applied only to consonants, and only when the recurrent sound begins a word or a stressed syllable within a word.3. Prose: Prose is an inclusive term for all discourse, spoken or written, which is not patterned into the li8nes either of metric verse or free verse.4. Courtly love: It is a doctrine of love, together with an elaborate code governing the relations betwe4en aristocratic lovers, which was widely represented in the lyric poems and chivalric romances of western Europe during the Middle Ages.5. Morality play: Morality plays are medieval allegorical plays in which personified human qualities acted and disputed, mostly coming from the 15th century. They developed into the interludes, from which it is not always possible to distinguish them, and hence had a considerable influence on the development of Elizabethan drama.6. Couplet: A couplet is a pair of rhymed lines that are equal in length.7. Meter: Meter is the recurrence, in regular units, of a prominent feature in the sequence of speech-sounds of a language.8. Foot: A foot is the combination of a strong stress and the associated weak stress or stresses which make up the recurrent metric unit of a line. The relatively stronger-stressed syllable is called, for short, “stressed”; the relatively weaker-stressed syllables are called “light,” or most commonly, “unstressed”. The four standard feet distinguished in English are: (1) Iambic (the noun is “iamb”): an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable. (2) Anapestic (the noun is “anapest”):two unstressed syllables followed by a stressed syllable. (3)Trochaic (the noun is “trochee”): a stressed syllable. (4) Dactylic (the noun is “dactyl”):a stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables.A metric line is named according to the number of feet composing it: Monometer: one footDimeter: two feetTrimester: three feetTetrameter: four feetPentameter: five feetHexameter: six feetHeptameter: seven feetOctameter: eight feet9. Scottish Chaucerians: The name is traditionally given to a very diverse group of 15th-and 16th- century Scottish writers who show some influence from Chaucer, although the debt is now regarded as negligible or indirect in most cases.10. Ballad (popular ballad): Ballad is also known as the folk ballad or traditional ballad. It is a song, transmitted orally, which tells a story. Ballads are thus the narrative species of folk songs, which originate, and are communicated orally, among illiterate or only partly literate people.11.Middle English period: The four and a half centuries between the Norman Conquest in 1066, which effected radical changes in the language, life, and culture of England, and about 1500, when the standard literary language had become recognizably “modern English”, that is similar to the language we speak and write today.12. Anglo-Norman period: The span from 1100 to 1350 is sometimes discriminated as the Anglo-Norman Period, because the non-Latin literature of that time was written mainly in Anglo-Norman, the French dialect spoken by the invaders who had established themselves as the ruling class of England, and who shared a literary culture with French-speaking areas of mainland Europe.13. Arthurian legend: It is a group of tales (in several languages) that developed in the Middle Ages concerning Arthur, semi-historical king of the Britons and his knights. The legend is a complex weaving of ancient Celtic mythology with later traditions around a core of possible historical authenticity.14. Romance: It is a literary genre popular in the Middle Ages (5th century to 15th century), dealing, in verse or prose, with legendary, supernatural, or amorous subjects and characters. The name refers to Romance languages and originally denoted any lengthy composition in one of those languages. Later the term was applied to tales specifically concerned with knights, chivalry, and courtly love. The romance and the epic are similar forms, but epics tend to be longer and less concerned with courtly love. Romances were written by court musicians, clerics, scribes, and aristocrats for the entertainment and moral edification of the nobility. Popular subjects for romances included the Macedonian King Alexander the Great, King Arthur Charlemagne. Later prose and verse narratives, particularly those in the 19th-century romantic tradition, are also referred to as romances; set in distant or mythological places and times, like most romances they stress adventure and supernatural elements.Ⅲ. Fill in the blanks.1. secular, religious2. Caedmon3. 5th4. Romance5. Arthurian6. Thomas Malory7. French, Italian, English 8. William Langland, Geoffrey Chaucer 9. General Prologue 10. Heroic11. pilgrimage 12. Westminster Abbey13. rhyme royal 14. John Barbour15. popular ballad 16. 15th17. songsⅣ. Choose the best answer.1. A2. B3. D4. C5. A6. C7. D8. C9. B 10. BⅤ. Short-answer questions.1. Anglo-Saxon literature is almost exclusively a verse literature in oral form. It was passed down by word of mouth from generation to generation. Most of its creators are unknown. There are two groups of English poetry in Anglo-Saxon period. The first group is the pagan poetry represented by Beowulf, the second is the religious poetry represented by the works of Caedmon and Cynewulf.2. (1) The use of alliteration. Each full line has four stresses with a number ofunstressed syllables, three of which begin with the same sound or letter.(2) The use of vivid poetic diction and parallel expressions for a single idea, suchas the sea is called” swan-road” or “whale-path”. A soldier is called “shield-bearer”, “battle-hero” or “whale-path”. A soldier is called “shield-bearer”,” battle-hero” or “spear-fighter, etc.3. The English romance mainly deals with three major subjects: the “Matter of France”, the “Matter of Ro me”, and the “Matter of Britain”.The “Matter of France” means a collection of tales about Charlemagne, the mighty ruler of France and neighbouring countries around 800 A.D., and his peers and their wars against the Saracens.The “Matter of Rome” covers ev erything from the ancient Romans and the Greeks. Alexander the Great, king of Macedonia and conqueror of Greece, Egypt, India and Persian Empire is the favorite hero of this group. Beside this, Trojan War is also dealt with in this group.The “Matter of Br itain” means the legendary history of Britain. It mainly deals with the exploits of King Arthur and his knights.4. Chaucer’s literary career is usually divided into 3 periods: the French period, the Italian period and the mature period.The French period refers to the period of French influence (1359-1372). During this period Chaucer wrote his earliest work: the Romaunt of the Rose, a free translation of a 13th-century French poem and his first important original work, The Book of the Duchess.The Italian period refers to the period of Italian influence (1372_1386), especially of Dante and Boccaccio. During this period, Chaucer mainly wrote three longer poems using the heroic stanza of seven lines: The House of Fame, Troilus and Criseyde, The Legend of Good Women.The mature period refers to the period when Chaucer had reached full maturity in his literary creation. His masterpiece The Canterbury Tales was produced in this period in which the heroic couplet was used.5. According to the contents or subjects, popular ballads can divided into different groups. A number of ballads narrating incidents on the English-Scottish border areknown as “Border Ballads”, which deal with bloody battles fought on the border of English and Scotland.Another important group of ballads is the series of 37 ballads of different lengths in Child’s collection, which tell of the wonderful deeds of Robin Hood, the famous outlaw, and his men. Most ballads do have a love or love-triangle theme. Sometimes love is present in a tender, romantic, even sentimental way.The fourth group is the sea ballads concerning sailors. The best-known is Sir Patrick Spens.Quite a few ballads are presented with themes of the domestic life, particularly of the relations between different members of a family. Unnatural relations such as murder and treachery are not infrequently appearing in this group.6. (1) Its simple language. The simplicity is reflected both in the verse form and thecolloquial expressions. By making use of a simple, plain language of the common people, the ballad leaves a strong dramatic effect to the reader.(2) The priority of the ballad is the story which deals only with the culminatingincident or climax of a plot.(3) Most of the ballads are quasi-historical, such as the ballad “Judas” and “RobinHood” ballad.(4) Ballads also tell their stories in a highly characteristic way; they are intenselydramatic. To strengthen the dramatic effect of the narration, ballads also make full use of hyperbole; actions and events are much exaggerated.(5) Music has and important influence on the ballads.(6) Using of refrains and other kinds of repetitions.Ⅵ. Answer the questions according to the following poem.1. The magnificent eighteen-line sentence that opens the General Prologue is a superb expression of a double view of the Canterbury pilgrimage. The first eleven lines are a chant of welcome to the spring with its harmonious marriage between heaven and earth which mellows vegetations, pricks foul and stirs the heart of man with a renewing power of nature. Thus, the pilgrimage is treated as an event in the calendar of nature, an aspect of the general springtime surge of human energy which wakens man’s love of nature. But spring is also the season of Easter and is allegorically regarded as the time of the Redemption through the sacrifice of Jesus Christ with its connotations of religious rebirth which wak ens man’s love of God (divine love). Therefore, the pilgrimage is also treated as and event in the calendar of divinity, an aspect of religious piety which draws pilgrims to holy places.2. The structure of this opening passage can be regarded as one from the whole Western tradition of the celebration of spring to a local event of English society, from natural forces in their general operation to a specific Christian manifestation. The transition from nature to divinity is emphasized by contrast between the physical vitality which conditions the pilgrimage and the spiritual sickness which occasions the pilgrimage, as well as by parallelism between the renewal power of nature and the restorative power of supernature (divinity).3. Chaucer introduced various rhymed stanzas to English poetry to replace the Old English alliterative verse. He first introduced into English octosyllabic couplet andthe rhymed couplet of iambic pentameter which is to be called later the heroic couplet. And in The Canterbury Tales, he employed the heroic couplet with true ease and charm for the first time in the history of English literature.。
英语的演变发展史
英语的演变发展史
英语的演变发展史是一个漫长且复杂的过程。
以下是英语的演变发展史的主要阶段：
1.古英语（Old English）（约5世纪-约11世纪）：古英语是英语的最早阶段，起源于5世纪的盎格鲁-撒克逊人的日耳曼语言。
它在语法、发音和词汇方面与现代英语有很大的差异。
2.中古英语（Middle English）（约11世纪-约15世纪）：中古英语是古英语向现代英语演变的过渡阶段。
在这个时期，英格兰受到了诺曼底公爵的征服，诺曼法语对英语产生了重要影响。
中古英语的词汇和语法发生了变化。
3.现代英语早期（Early Modern English）（约15世纪-约17世纪）：随着英格兰文艺复兴时期的到来，现代英语的早期阶段开始出现。
在这个时期，英语经历了大规模的词汇增加，很多现代英语的拼写和发音规则开始形成。
4.现代英语（Modern English）（17世纪至今）：现代英语是指从17世纪开始至今的英语阶段。
它包括早期现代英语、18世纪的乔治时代英语、19世纪的维多利亚时代英语等。
现代英语的词汇和语法经历了进一步的发展和演变，并受到科学、技术和全球化的影响。
值得注意的是，英语的演变发展是一个渐进的过程，没有明确的分界线。
在不同的历史时期，英语还受到了其他语言（如拉丁语、法语和希腊语）的影响，这些影响也对英语的词汇和语法产生了影响。
今天的英语是一种全球性语言，在世界范围内使用广泛。
these be句型用法
these be句型用法English Answer:"These be" is a grammatical construction used in Oldand Middle English, as well as in some modern dialects of English, to express a state or condition. It is formed bythe subject pronoun "these" followed by the present tense form of the verb "be" (e.g., "these be my friends").There are several different ways to use "these be" in a sentence. One common use is to describe a group of peopleor things. For example, in the sentence "These be my friends," the speaker is identifying the group of people as his or her friends. Another common use of "these be" is to describe a state or condition. For example, in the sentence "These be hard times," the speaker is describing thecurrent situation as being difficult."These be" can also be used to express a wish or desire. For example, in the sentence "These be the days," thespeaker is expressing a wish that the current time would continue indefinitely.In modern English, "these be" is somewhat archaic and is rarely used in formal writing. However, it is still found in some dialects of English, particularly in rural areas.中文回答：中文中没有直接对应 "these be" 的句型，但可以根据其不同的用法进行翻译。
古英语中古英语和现代英语例子 -回复
古英语中古英语和现代英语例子-回复【古英语中古英语和现代英语例子】【主题：英语语言的发展及变迁】引言：英语是一门历史悠久、流传广泛的语言。
它在不同时期、不同地区发生了巨大的变化和进化。
本文将以中括号内的主题为基准，一步一步介绍古英语、中古英语和现代英语的例子，并分析其演变过程和影响。
第一部分：古英语（Old English）古英语是英语历史上的第一个阶段，约公元450年至1066年使用。
在这个时期，英语受到了盎格鲁-撒克逊人、朱特人和丹麦人等日尔曼部落的影响。
其中，盎格鲁-撒克逊人的语言对古英语的形成起到了重要作用。
例子1：盎格鲁-撒克逊诗歌古英语的重要文学形式是诗歌，最著名的作品是贝奥武夫（Beowulf）。
这部史诗描述了一位英勇的战士贝奥武夫与怪兽的战斗。
古英语中使用的词汇和语法结构与现代英语相比相当不同。
例子2：古英语单词古英语的词汇很大程度上被改变或淘汰。
例如，古英语中的“eorþe”意味着“地球”，而现代英语中使用的“earth”就是它的后裔。
第二部分：中古英语（Middle English）中古英语是古英语后期发展而成的一种形式，约1066年至1470年间使用。
这个时期的英语受到了许多外来语言（如诺曼底法语）的影响，这些语言带来了新的词汇和语法结构。
例子1：《坎特伯雷故事集》（The Canterbury Tales）《坎特伯雷故事集》是中古英语文学杰作之一，由乔叟在14世纪末完成。
这部作品以诙谐的方式展示了各种社会类型的故事，其中使用了丰富多样的词汇和句法结构。
例子2：中古英语的法语借词由于诺曼底征服，法语成为英国贵族和法庭的主要语言。
因此，中古英语中有很多法语借词，如“government”（政府）和“royal”（皇家）等，这些词至今仍在现代英语中使用。
第三部分：现代英语（Modern English）现代英语是指自1470年以来的英语形式，经历了大量的词汇和语法变化。
英语发展史简述英文
英语发展史简述英文The development of English language can be divided into three major stages: Old English, Middle English, and Modern English.Old English (450-1100 AD) was spoken from the 5th century until around the 11th century. It was heavily influenced by Germanic languages, as it originated from the Anglo-Saxon settlement in Britain. Old English was characterized by its complex inflectional system and grammatical structures.Middle English (1100-1500 AD) was the stage when the English language underwent significant changes due to various influences. The Norman Conquest in 1066 brought French influence, resulting in a considerable number of French loanwords entering the English vocabulary. During this period, English also experienced string changes in pronunciation and grammar, making it easier to learn and use.Modern English (1500-present) began with the introduction of the printing press in the late 15th century. This enabled the spread of standardized English and facilitated language standardization. During the Renaissance, English vocabulary expanded as a result of the rediscovery of classical literature and exploration of new lands. Modern English has seen the development of various regional dialects and the increasing influence of American English due to globalization and the dominance of the United States. Overall, the development of the English language has been shaped by historical events, cultural exchanges, and technologicaladvancements, resulting in its widespread usage worldwide as a global lingua franca.。
Old and Middle English Literature 英国文学史 中古英语文学史
中古英语文学The 3 ConquestsThe Roman Conquest (55 BC to 410 AD) tribalBritain became a province of Roman Empire.Christianity was introduced.Britain achieved a certain degree of civilization.Anglo-Saxon Conquest / English Conquest (410 to 1066 AD) tribalThe English language emerged (Old English).Christianity was widely accepted.England became more unified.The Norman Conquest (1066-1485The Middle Ages/ Age of Faith/The Dark Age) FeudalFeudalism was established and developed.French culture thrived.I. Old English: 450-1066Beowulf the national epic(史诗) of the Anglo-Saxons (folk legend from NorthernEurope)It is more than 3,000 lines of alliterations, the oldest poem on the English language, and the most important specimen of Anglo-Saxon literature, and also the oldest surviving epic in the English language.II. Medieval English: 1066 - middle 14th century—Feudal EnglandChivalric Romance (骑士传奇):(literature for nobility, esp. the court)(i). France: Song of Roland (/rəulənd/, hero in the 8th century)(ii). Rome: stories of Alexander the Great and the gods and goddesses in mythology.(iii). Britain: legends about King Arthur and his Knights of Round Table recountingthe adventures of Lancelot(/la:nsələt/), Galahad (/gæ ləhæd/), Gawain (/ga: wei/) andother Round Table Knights.Death of King Arthur by Thomas Malory is a collection of stories about King Arthur.(Quest of Holy Grail, love, death and dissolution)Geoffrey Chaucer1340-1400-the father of English poetry founder or English realism (wisdom, humor, humanity)The Canterbury Tales first time to use “heroic couplet”(英雄双韵体/对句) Popular ballads-literature of the peasants。
三次大征服中古世纪英语
Question 1
Before the Romans invaded the people of Britain were called?
A. Celts B. Gauls C. Vikings
The Anglo-Saxon Period 410 – 1066 A.D( Old English )
Conquest of the island in 1066.
Early History
Early Settlers 3 Conquests
Romans Anglo-Saxons Normans
5
Early England Created by
Three Invasions
1. Roman Occupation 55 B.C.-410 A.D.
Except in Ireland where they are in the majority, the Celts are an indigenous people of Europe with large numbers in the United Kingdom and France.
History Early Habitants
Romanizing Britain
28
What did Roman rule leave behind?
Many types of animals and plants were brought to Britain. Miles, feet and inches are Roman measurements. Christianity Reading and writing were also introduced by the Romans. Many words in English and Welsh have been borrowed from the Latin language. E.g. autumn, beautiful, continue, different....
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Old and middle English periodHistorical Background:600BC,Celtic people from north-western Europe, bringing iron-working, Gaelic language.In BC400 to BC300, the Britons(布列吞人）came over, stayed for some 300 yearsName the place Britain “the land of the Britons”Julius Caesar---Roman civilization450—600AD,Angles,Saxons and Jutes, from now Denmark and northern Germany8---9th centuries, Danish Invasions and occupationsThe Anglo-Norman period(1066—1350)What is epic:An extended narrative poem with a heroic or superhuman protagonist engaged in an action of great significance in a vast setting (often including the underworld and engaging the gods). Beowulf---- England’s national epic1) creation time: written in 10-th century2) plot and theme:-- fight with Grendel-- fight with Grendel’s mother-- fight with fire dragon-- death and funeral Theme:he believes in man’s right to pursue earthly happiness. He is anxious to see man free from superstitions and a blind belief in fate. He is always keen to praises man’s energy, adroitness, intellect, quick wit and love of life. He exposes and satirizes the social evils, esp. the religious abuses.Chaucer‟s contribution: 1. He introduced from Italy and France the rhymed stanza of various types, especially the rhymed couplet of 5 accents in iambic meter Heroic Couplet (英雄双韵体)to English poetry.2. The realism and humanistic concerns were demonstrated in his work ahead of time.He did much in making the London dialect the foundation for modern English language. Analysis：1.Alliteration 2.Kenning 3. Metaphor and understatement4.Story about pagan with evident christian overlay.A heroic couplet:A traditional form for English poetry, particularly for epic and narrative poetry. It corresponds to a two line stanza in iambic pentameter. (押韵抑扬五音步)The heroic couplet became the principal metre used in drama about the mid-17th centuryIambic pentameter:consists of lines with five feet (hence "pentameter") in which the iamb is the dominant foot (hence "Iambic")Literature of the Anglo-Norman Period (1066-1350)The literature which Normans brought to England is remarkable for its bright, romantic tales of love and adventure, in marked contrast with the strength and somberness of Anglo-Saxon poetry.Romance: Originally the term referred to a medieval tale dealing with the loves and adventures of kings, queens, knights, and ladies, and including unlikely or supernatural happenings. Any imaginative literature that is set in an idealized world and that deals with heroic adventures and battles between good characters and villains or monsters.Don Quixote by CervantesClass nature of the Romance:1.Had nothing to do with the common people.2.They were composed for the noble, of the noble, and in most cases by the poets patronized by the noble.Sir Gawain and the green Knight (高文爵士和绿衣骑士)Two main motifs:1.The testing of faith, courage and purity.2.The proving of human weaknesses for self-preservation.Geoffrey Chaucer (the father of English Poetry) （1340-1400）Canterbury Tales(1386--1400)1.The author was stopped in an inn where he met a group of 29 pilgrims who were on the way to canterbury. The host of the inn proposed that each one told two stories on the way to canterbury and two on the way back. Then he would judge and prize the best story teller.2.To emphasis man‟s right to pursue happiness and he is anxious to see man free from superstition and bland belief in fate.3. It was composed in iambic pentameter. It also show Chaucer‟s realism, humanism and humorous. The work is arrange by framed stories.The significance of The Canterbury Tales1).It gives a comprehensive picture of Chaucer’s time. The gentle class--- the burgher---- the professionals2). The dramatic structure of the poem: the stories are well woven by “links”.3). Chaucer’s humor----- characteristics feature of English literature ---- gentle satire and mild irony.Heroic Couplet (英雄双韵体) Blank verse and SonnetThe English Renaissance（The 16th Century (1485-1603) ）Renaissance:The transitional period in Europe between medieval and modern times beginning in the 14th century in Italy, lasting into the 17th century, and marked by a humanistic revival of classical (Greek and Roman) influence expressed in a flowering of the arts and literature and by the beginnings of modern science.Humanism:was the keynote of the Renaissance.It showed interest in human life.It appreciated human beauty, approved of individual dignity and worth.It believed that man had the ability to perfect himself and perform wonders.Man became the center of interest1. Edmund Spenser (1552-1599)Masterpiece is Faerie Queene.Theme：to “fashion a gentleman or noble person in virtuous and gentle discipline.Other major work:The Shepherd’s Calendar(牧人日历)Amoretti 《爱情小诗》Epithalamion 《婚后曲》Spenserian Stanza9 lines in each stanza with the ninth line in iambic hexameter and the rest in iambic pentameter.Francis Bacon (1561-1626)Three kinds of works:Philosophy: Advancement of Learning《学术的推进》New Instrument《新工具》Professional: Maxims of the Law 《法律格言》Literature: Essays《随笔／培根论文集》Christopher Marlowe(1564-93)Masterpiece:The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus (1588) 《浮士德》With four subject of medieval knowledge of theology, philosophy, medicine and law, Dr. Faustus abide to seek supernature. Then the servant of Devil strikes a contract with him that the servant fulfill desire of Faustus who sell his soul to the evil in return. Then Faustus go through endless spiritual and moral struggles between good and evil. He show the renaissance human spirit of pursuing knowledge and infinite power and courage to challenge the fate and authority.Tamburlaine (1587) 贴木耳大帝The Jew of Malta (1592) 马耳他的犹太人William Shakespeare （1564--1616）154 sonnets, 37 plays, and 2 long narrative poems;Four Great Tragedies: Othello, King Lear, Macbeth, and Hamlet.Othello：How a brave and noble man Othello walks into the trap set for him by a villain and kills his beautiful and faithful wife. Warning blind jealous ca n bring catastrophe.King Lear：King Lear is the king of Britain. He has three daughters. When he become old, he decide to divide his kingdom into three parts according to the daughters‟s affection for him. The two elder sisters who are greedy and hypocritic flatter, while the youngest say her love from her duty which irritate the king. Then the youngest was left nothing from his father. But the king is bad treated and driven out by those two sisters. The youngest and her husband then come to rescue the king but fail. The king and the youngest daughter meet in the prison. In the close of drama, King Lear die from grief because the youngest daughter is hanged to death.Macbeth：Macbeth‟s murder of Duncan was predicted forehanded by three witches. And his final destiny was also predicted that he will not be the king and will be harmed by none born of woman, and that he won‟t die until birnam wood comes to him. Macbeth urged by his more ambitious wife and decided to gamble. When Duncan is murdered, Macbeth assume the crown and soon he is defeated and killed by Duncan‟s sonHamlet: A revenge story from hamlet who was told by a ghost of his father that he was murdered by his berother Claudius who usurped the crown and married hiswidow, Hamlet‟s mother. With almost all die, the Denmark has a new king from Norway. With Hamlet‟s hesitation some innocences was killed. Ophelia‟s father was mistakenly killed by Hamlet.Great Comedies:The Merchant of V enice《威尼斯商人》Midsummer Night’s Dream《仲夏夜之梦》Twelfth Night 《第十二夜》As you like it 《皆大欢喜》Sonnet (十四行诗): a fourteen-line poem usually in iambic pentameter with a specific rhyme scheme.Blank verse:unrhymed iambic pentameter, is one of the best known and most widely used l metrical(有韵律的)patterns in English poetry.It is so close to the natural rhythms of English speech and so easy to adapt to different levels of languages.The natural speech rhythm of the English language is iambic, and the typical length of an utterance is usually about ten syllables, since that is approximately how long most people can speak comfortably without pausing to take a breath.鉴赏莎士比亚第18首十四行诗If I compared you to a summer day, / I'd have to say you are more beautiful and serene: / By comparison, summer is rough on budding life, / And doesn't last long either:At times the summer sun is too hot, / And at other times clouds dim its brilliance; / Everything fair in nature becomes less fair from time to time, / No one can change [trim] nature or chance;However, you yourself will not fade, / Nor lose ownership of your fairness; / Not even death will claim you, / Because these lines I write will immortalize you:Y our beauty will last as long as men breathe and see, / As Long as this sonnet lives and gives you lifeRhetorical questioning: the 1st line, used to create a tone of respect, and to engage the audience.Personification: line 5,6 and line 11, used to elevate the sun and death. Parallelism: the final couplet, used to emphasize the message: the beauty of the subject will be immortalized by the power of his artThe 17th Century：The Period of Revolution and RestorationPuritanism清教主义It was the religious doctrine of the revolutionary bourgeoisie during the English Revolution..It preached thrift, sobriety, hard work and unceasing labor. Worldly pleasures were condemned as harmful.Metaphysical poets/school玄学派Explaining the ultimate nature of being and the world. Philosophy that investigates the principles of reality transcending those of Science The term "metaphysical," as applied to English and continental European poets of the seventeenth century, was used by Augustan poets John Dryden and Samuel Johnson to reprove those poets for their "unnaturalness."Metaphysical conceit 玄学奇喻A conceit is a figure of speech which makes an unusual and sometimes elaborately精巧地sustained comparison between two dissimilar things.Cavalier poets/school 骑士派John Milton: Paradise Lost 失乐园John Bunyan: The pilgrim’s progress 天路历程John Milton（1608--1674）Paradise lost （1667）1.praise heroic revolt of Satan against God‟s authority.2.Paradise Lost presents the author’s views in an allegoric religious form.he exposure of reactionary forces of this time and passionate appeal for freedom.Paradise Regained（1671）Samson Agonistes (1671) 力士参孙Samson is a figure from bible.though chained and blind, he is faithful to God and fight back to defeat enemy though at the cost of his life. Samson …s imprison and blind is similar to the experience of Milton. His failure stand for Puritan‟s fallen down. His brave deed mirrors Milton‟s fighting spirit.his victorious death infers the final triumph of revolution.Metaphysical poetsJohn Donne：（1573---1631）The Flee：A flea and the love relation between a man and a woman are unrelated. However metaphysical poets are fond of using this unthoughtful comparison. This three in on comparison point to the holy three in one that is trinity.Andrew Marvell: to His Coy MistressJohn Bunyan (1628-1688)Major works:Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners 上帝赐予最大罪人的无限恩惠The Holy War 圣战Pilgrim's Progress 天路历程(1678)His concern was rather the study of man's spiritual life.Literary genre: the most successful religious allegory.Theme: (main theme) the assertion of his religious views. (subtheme) satires at the vice and ills of the English society he lived in.Style:simple and daily used expressions.biblical language.revealing his ideas in a direct and straightforward way.The Life and Death of Mr. Badman 坏人先生传Allegory 寓言A narrative in prose or verse that conveys a symbolic meaning that lies outside the narrative itself. The underlying meaning has moral, social, religious or political significance and characters are often personifications of abstract ideas.The 18th Century:The Age of ClassicismThe Age of Reason 理性时代Background information:1. Political:Glorious Revolution （constitutional monarchy) Economic :Industrious Revolution Culture:The Enlightenment MovementThe Enlightenment Movement:The 18th-century England is known as the Age of Enlightenment or the Age of Reason. The Enlightenment Movement was a progressive intellectual movement which flourished in France and swept through the whole Western Europe at the time.The enlighteners celebrated reason or rationality, equality & science. They called for a reference to order, reason & rules & advocated universal education.Neo-classicism:---a revival of interest in the old classical works in the field of literature--- named “Neo-Classicism,”to distinguish from the original revival of classicism of Renaissance.In literary criticism, this term refers to the revival of the attitudes and styles of expression of classical literature. （1660-1798）In its purest form, Neoclassicism marked a return to order（整齐）, proportion （协调）, restraint（克制）, logic, accuracy, and decorum（得体）.Alexander Pope: 1688-1744An Essay on Criticism(1711)This is a didactic poem written in heroic couplets. It tells the poets and critics to write and appreciate poetry according to the principles set up by the old Greek and Roman writers. “To err is human, to forgive divine”;The Rape of Lock【夺发记】A fop at the court forcibly cut off a lock of curls of a pretty maid of honor. This caused a quarrel between the families and became the talk of London.The finest mock epic in EnglishAn Essay on Man (1733)Jonathan Swift（1667--1745）A Tale of a Tub 《一个木桶的故事》(2) The Battle of Books 《书战》1704 Pamphlet：The Draper's Letters(1724) and A Modest Proposal (1730) Masterpiece:.Gulliver‟s Travel (1726): satireLilliput Brobdingnag Laputa Houyhnhnm1.It is an allegorical satire to political events in the early eighteenth century. The war between the two tiny countries is refers to the rivalry between Tories and whigs.2.It reveal swift‟s distain to the abstract ideology and theory which is out of practical service to people.3.Man‟s inability to come to terms with his true nature.. The Y ahoos as a satiric representation of debased humanity, while taking the Houyhnhnms as representatives of Swift‟s ideals of rationality and order.Samuel Johnson(1709-1784)---The author of the 1st English dictionary by an EnglishmanThe Rise of NovelThe modern European novel began after the Renaissance, with Cervantes’s Don QuixoteBackground information:Ⅰ. Science and technology developed fast. Printing grew as one of the most prosperous trade.Ⅱ. With the growth of capitalist economy, middle class grew strong to be the dominant element in all aspects of social , political and economic life. And with it an urban economy came into being.Ⅲ. Women joined the pubic readers, and some of them even became writers themselves.Daniel Defoe (1660-1731)Robinson Crusoe1.Background: it partly based on the actual deed in 18th century by a Scottish sailor who was stocked in an isolated island for five years. It is famous for the lovely details and expression of belief of man‟s ability left alone in nature.The first Middle-Class hero image in European history:Ambitious, adventurous, indomitable and enterprising spirit. He relies on his talent and labor overcome the environment and create a wonder, which made him a idol of mid-class people. His optimistic and pioneering spirit is the ultimate value of the novel.Samuel Richardson(1689-1761)Epistolary Novel:It is a novel in the form of letters. It was a particularly popular form in the 18th century. Representative writer: Samuel Richardson.Pamela:Aim:to show virtue rewarded Story: about the virtuous servant’s resistance to the attempts of seduction made by the masterClarissa, or, the History of a Y oung LadyClarissa is the best of Richardson’s novelGraveyard poet and school:Thomas Gray:Elegy written in a country churchyardTheme: Sympathy Criticize Equal deathRobert BurnsA red red rose Theme:Express love directly through vivid simile hyperbole comparison.nMy heart is in the highlandThe Romantic PeriodEnglish RomanticismIt prevailed in England during the period 1798—1832;Beginning: Lyrical Ballads in 1798Main features:1). ImaginationImagination is the supreme faculty of the mind.Imagination can change and create.Imagination can unify different elements into a complex whole. Suggested poemMariner by Samuel Coleridge2). Idealization of NatureNature has a healing power. Nature is a source of subject and image.Nature is a refuge from the artificial constructs of civilization.3). IndividualismMan is the center of all concern.Man is an individual in a solitary state.Romanticists valued the exploration and evaluation of the inner self. Suggested poem:Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage《恰尔德·哈罗德游记》4). Glorification of the commonplaceMaterials: the natural, the commonplace, the simpleCommon incidents and situationsNatural diction and languageSuggested poem: The Solitary Reaper by Wordsworth 《割麦女》5). The lure of the exoticColeridge’s Kubla Khan《忽必烈汗》The Lake Poets:William Wordsworth, Samuel Coleridge Robert SoutheySimilarities:a. They lived in the Lake District in the northwestern part of England.b. They traversed the same path in politics and in poetry, beginning as radicals and ending up as conservatives.William WordsworthI wondered lonely as a cloud （essay备选题）The great influence of Nature upon human being.Rhyme Scheme：Lines of iambic tetrameter in the main with alternation of iambic trimeter, rhyming “a, b, a, b, c, c”Simile: “I”and “lonely cloud”, daffodils and starsOverstatement: “They stretched in never-ending line”Personification: “Tossing their heads in sprightly dance”, “The waves beside them danced”My heart leap up1.child is the father of adult. A man‟s character was molded in childhood.2.The rainbow is the connection between god and man.Emphasize the nature piety.The solitary reaperThe poet is fascinated by the charming song of the solitary reaper.Collections:Lyrical Ballads《抒情歌谣集》with ColeridgeThe Prelude 《序曲》1798-1839Lines Composed a Few Miles Above Tintern Abbey 《丁登寺杂咏》1798Ode: Intimations of Immortality 《不朽颂》1807S.T. ColeridgeMain work:“The Rime of the Ancient Mariner”1798It is a supernature content but it succeed in giving it a reality of details of sea life and sailing.“Khubla Khan”1816“Christabel”Biographia Literaria (1817)George Gordon Byron （1788-1824）Hours of Idleness《悠闲的时光》(1807)Childe Harold‘s Pilgrimage(1809)Sonnet on Chillon《关于锡隆的十四行诗》The prisoner of Chillon(1816)《锡隆的囚徒》narrative poemManfred《曼弗雷德》a poetical dramaDon Juan《唐璜》Byronic hero，an idealized but flawed character，“mad and bad, dangerous to know” . With loose love affair. Both energetic and fighting for liberty. self-destructive Distain to social institution. Travel to Europe and take part in some historical events.The Isles of Greece 《哀希腊》She walks in beauty：The mourning does not alway mean extreme melancholy. The mood inspire to see through the shadows of mournPercy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822)Prometheus Unbound, 《解放了的普罗米修斯》It origin from the Greek mythology. Zeus stand for any reaction institution. Prometheus stands for human noble qualities. It praise humankind‟s potential and express Shelley‟s faith of the triumph of man‟s struggle against tyranny and oppressionOde to the west wind：The poem contains five stanzas of fourteen lines each. Each stanza has three tiercetsand a closing couplet.Metrical pattern(格律): iambic pentameter（五音步抑扬格)Rhyme Scheme: aba, bcb, cdc, ded, eethe recycle of season and recycle of life and death.Hope those bad and old things was eradicated. The poem calls for a mythical power to inspire and induce change or "a new Birth".John KeatsOde on a Grecian Urn （希腊古瓮颂）1820Commentary on art and nature. Art can preserve human experience and can be enjoyed by men from generation by generation.but pleasure in life can‟t be protected with change. It is an comparison between the permanence of art and transience of human passion.Ode to a Nightingale：Show his rapture of hearing the song of the nightingale and his wish to fly into the sky to accompany the bird. Also show his sympathy for poor people and his keen understanding of the miseries in the society.Walter Scott :Historical novelJane AustenPride an Prejudiceit is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife.”1.True love. Darcy and Elizabeth. Pride and prejudice.2.Strict class and social normsWomen largely did not inherit wealth, nor were they openly allowed to find their own means; so marriage was one of the few options she had to secure a comfortable future. A marriage based on love was rarely an option for a Regency woman, income was the first consideration.Make comments on Jane Austen‟s Pride and Prejudice to dig out her attitudes towards love and marriage in the early 19th century.Pride and prejudice shows Jane Austen‟s ideal love and marriage. Love is with prudence and understanding. And marriage of love built on solid financial conditions.Lydia‟s irresponsible and thoughtless towards love and marriage and Charlotte‟s marriage without love to secure a stable well-off life are both negative examples to those of Jane with Bingley and Elizabeth with Darcy.Darcy‟s marriage with Elizabeth is more ,but it‟s not until the two protagonists turn inward to scrutinize their own pride and prejudice and come up to apologize forthrightly to each other that their love fruit into fanal union.As in any good love story, the lovers must elude and overcome numerous stumbling blocks, beginning with the tensions caused by the lovers’own personal qualities.Through the Darcy-Elizabeth and Bingley-Jane marriages, Austen shows the power of love and happiness to overcome class boundaries and prejudices.irony and frequent use of witty and delightful dialoguesQueen Victoria and Her Time (1837-1901)Queen Victoria was the Queen of the United Kingdom. Her reign lasts for 63 years and 7 months, which is longer than that of any other British monarch and the longest of any female monarch in history, and is known as the Victorian era.she enjoys a high reputation not because she achieves anything extraordinary but because she does nothing but to be a moral model for the whole nation: a good wife, tender mother, well-mannered lady and a respectful queen.Charles Dickens The greatest representative of English critical realism1.Hatred to state apparatus especially the parliament.ernment‟s positive role in raising the living standard of working class.3.Want to improve living condition of poor but fear to have a real revolution.4.As a bourgeois writer he can in no way have fundamental solutionOliver Twist 1837-38 «奥克佛·特维斯特»，《雾都孤儿》Bleak House 1852-53 «荒凉山庄»Hard Times 1854 «艰难时世»A Tale of Two Cities 1859 «双城记»Great Expectations 1860-61 «远大前程》Writing style :1) Character Sketches & ExaggerationIn his novels are found about 19 hundred figures, some of whom are really such " typical characters under typical circumstances," that they become proverbial or representative of a whole group of similar persons.Dickens was skillful in drawing vivid caricatural sketches by exaggerating some peculiarities, & in giving them exactly the actions & words that fit them2) Broad Humor & Penetrating Satire3) Complicated & Fascinating Plot4) The Power of ExposureWilliam Makepeace Thackeray(1811—1863)V anity fair1.two contrasted girl‟s experiences to satirize the whole bourgeois and aristocratic society in which money is the only thing worshiped.2.To expose the vice of the society in that time and compare it to the vanity fair where everything can be sold in Bunyan‟s Pilgrim‟s Progress.A novel with no heroCharlotte BronteJane EyreThe criticism of the bourgeois system of educationPosition of women in the societyEducation is the key to all social problemsEmily BronteWuthering HeightFull human life in capitalistic society is impossible to obtain.1.Express the feeling of hero in term of spiritual suppress and conflictsbination of simple and adorned languagesUnique in structure and vision.Alfred Tennyson Idylls of the kingRobert Browning:the Dramatic Monologue and My Last Duchess Oscar Wilde :The picture of Dorian Gray Art for Art‟s SakeThomas Hardy:the Tess of the D‟UrbervillesGeorge Hardy Shaw :Pygmalion。