not yet closed. Operations Research Letters, 35(3)379–384, 2007. [4] K. Aardal and F. Eise

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Requirements engineering (RE) is concerned with the identification

Requirements Engineering in the Year 00: A Research PerspectiveAxel van LamsweerdeDépartement d’Ingénierie InformatiqueUniversité catholique de LouvainB-1348 Louvain-la-Neuve (Belgium)avl@info.ucl.ac.beABSTRACTRequirements engineering(RE)is concerned with the iden-tiﬁcation of the goals to be achieved by the envisioned sys-tem,the operationalization of such goals into services and constraints,and the assignment of responsibilities for the resulting requirements to agents such as humans,devices, and software.The processes involved in RE include domain analysis,elicitation,speciﬁcation,assessment, negotiation,documentation,and evolution.Getting high-quality requirements is difﬁcult and critical.Recent surveys have conﬁrmed the growing recognition of RE as an area of utmost importance in software engineering research and practice.The paper presents a brief history of the main concepts and techniques developed to date to support the RE task,with a special focus on modeling as a common denominator to all RE processes.The initial description of a complex safety-critical system is used to illustrate a number of current research trends in RE-speciﬁc areas such as goal-oriented requirements elaboration,conﬂict management,and the handling of abnormal agent behaviors.Opportunities for goal-based architecture derivation are also discussed together with research directions to let theﬁeld move towards more disciplined habits.1. INTRODUCTIONSoftware requirements have been repeatedly recognized during the past25years to be a real problem.In their early empirical study,Bell and Thayer observed that inadequate, inconsistent,incomplete,or ambiguous requirements are numerous and have a critical impact on the quality of the resulting software[Bel76].Noting this for different kinds of projects,they concluded that“the requirements for a system do not arise naturally;instead,they need to be engineered and have continuing review and revision”.Boehm esti-mated that the late correction of requirements errors could cost up to200times as much as correction during such requirements engineering[Boe81].In his classic paper on the essence and accidents of software engineering,Brooks stated that“the hardest single part of building a sofware system is deciding precisely what to build...Therefore,the most important function that the software builder performs for the client is the iterative extraction and reﬁnement of the product requirements”[Bro87].In her study of software errors in NASA’s V oyager and Galileo programs,Lutz reported that the primary cause of safety-related faults was errors in functional and interface requirements [Lut93]. Recent studies have conﬁrmed the requirements problem on a much larger scale.A survey over8000projects under-taken by350US companies revealed that one third of the projects were never completed and one half succeeded only partially,that is,with partial functionalities,major cost overruns,and signiﬁcant delays[Sta95].When asked about the causes of such failure executive managers identifed poor requirements as the major source of problems(about half of the responses)-more speciﬁcally,the lack of user involve-ment(13%),requirements incompleteness(12%),changing requirements(11%),unrealistic expectations(6%),and unclear objectives(5%).On the European side,a recent sur-vey over3800organizations in17countries similarly con-cluded that most of the perceived software problems are in the area of requirements speciﬁcation(>50%)and require-ments management (50%) [ESI96].Improving the quality of requirements is thus crucial.But it is a difﬁcult objective to achieve.To understand the reason one shouldﬁrst deﬁne what requirements engineering is really about.The oldest deﬁnition already had the main ingredients.In their seminal paper,Ross and Schoman stated that“require-ments deﬁnition is a careful assessment of the needs that a system is to fulﬁll.It must say why a system is needed,based on current or foreseen conditions,which may be internal operations or an external market.It must say what system features will serve and satisfy this context.And it must say how the system is to be constructed”[Ros77b].In other words,requirements engineering must address the contex-tual goals why a software is needed,the functionalities the software has to accomplish to achieve those goals,and the constraints restricting how the software accomplishing those functions is to be designed and implemented.Such goals,functions and constraints have to be mapped to pre-cise speciﬁcations of software behavior;their evolution over time and across software families has to be coped with as well [Zav97b].This deﬁnition suggests why the process of engineering requirements is so complex.•The scope is fairly broad as it ranges from a world of human organizations or physical laws to a technical arti-fact that must be integrated in it;from high-level objec-tives to operational prescriptions;and from informal to formal.The target system is not just a piece of software,Invited paper for ICSE’2000 - To appear inLimerick, June 2000, ACM PressProc. 22nd International Conference on Software Engineering,but also comprises the environment that will surround it; the latter is made of humans,devices,and/or other soft-ware.The whole system has to be considered under many facets,e.g.,socio-economic,physical,technical,opera-tional, evolutionary, and so forth.•There are multiple concerns to be addressed beside func-tional ones-e.g.,safety,security,usability,ﬂexibility,per-formance,robustness,interoperability,cost, maintainability,and so on.These non-functional concerns are often conﬂicting.•There are multiple parties involved in the requirements engineering process,each having different background, skills,knowledge,concerns,perceptions,and expression means-namely,customers,commissioners,users,domain experts,requirements engineers,software developers,or system maintainers.Most often those parties have conﬂict-ing viewpoints.•Requirement speciﬁcations may suffer a great variety of deﬁciencies[Mey85].Some of them are errors that may have disastrous effects on the subsequent development steps and on the quality of the resulting software product-e.g.,inadequacies with respect to the real needs,incom-pletenesses,contradictions,and ambiguities;some others areﬂaws that may yield undesired consequences(such as waste of time or generation of new errors)-e.g.,noises, forward references,overspeciﬁcations,or wishful thinking.•Requirements engineering covers multiple intertwined activities.–Domain analysis:the existing system in which the soft-ware should be built is studied.The relevant stakehold-ers are identiﬁed and interviewed.Problems and deﬁciencies in the existing system are identiﬁed;oppor-tunities are investigated;general objectives on the target system are identiﬁed therefrom.–Elicitation:alternative models for the target system are explored to meet such objectives;requirements and assumptions on components of such models are identi-ﬁed,possibly with the help of hypothetical interaction scenarios.Alternative models generally deﬁne different boundaries between the software-to-be and its environ-ment.–Negotiation and agreement:the alternative require-ments/assumptions are evaluated;risks are analyzed;"best"tradeoffs that receive agreement from all parties are selected.–Speciﬁcation:the requirements and assumptions are for-mulated in a precise way.–Speciﬁcation analysis:the speciﬁcations are checked for deﬁciencies(such as inadequacy,incompleteness or inconsistency)and for feasibility(in terms of resources required, development costs, and so forth).–Documentation:the various decisions made during the process are documented together with their underlying rationale and assumptions.–Evolution:the requirements are modiﬁed to accommo-date corrections,environmental changes,or new objec-tives.Given such complexity of the requirements engineering pro-cess,rigorous techniques are needed to provide effective support.The objective of this paper is to provide:a brief his-tory of25years of research efforts along that way;a concrete illustration of what kind of techniques are available today; and directions to be explored for requirements engineering to become a mature discipline.The presentation will inevitably be biased by my own work and background.Although the area is inherently interdisci-plinary,I will deliberately assume a computing science viewpoint here and leave the socological and psychological dimensions aside(even though they are important).In partic-ular,I will not cover techniques for ethnographic observation of work environments,interviewing,negotiation,and so forth.The interested reader may refer to[Gog93,Gog94]for a good account of those dimensions.A comprehensive,up-to-date survey on the intersecting area of information model-ing can be found in [Myl98].2. THE FIRST 25 YEARS: A FEW RESEARCHMILESTONESRequirements engineering addresses a wide diversity of domains(e.g.,banking,transportation,manufacturing),tasks (e.g.,administrative support,decision support,process con-trol)and environments(e.g.,human organizations,physical phenomena).A speciﬁc domain/task/environment may require some speciﬁc focus and dedicated techniques.This is in particular the case for reactive systems as we will see after reviewing the main stream of research..Modeling appears to be a core process in requirements engi-neering.The existing system has to be modelled in some way or another;the alternative hypothetical systems have to be modelled as well.Such models serve as a basic common interface to the various activities above.On the one hand, they result from domain analysis,elicitation,speciﬁcation analysis,and negotiation.On the other hand,they guide fur-ther domain analysis,elicitation,speciﬁcation analysis,and negotiation.Models also provide the basis for documenta-tion and evolution.It is therefore not surprising that most of the research to date has been devoted to techniques for mod-eling and speciﬁcation.The basic questions that have been addressed over the years are:•what aspects to model in the why-what-how range,•how to model such aspects,•how to deﬁne the model precisely,•how to reason about the model.The answer to theﬁrst question determines the ontology of conceptual units in terms of which models will be built-e.g., data,operations,events,goals,agents,and so forth.The answer to the second question determines the structuring relationships in terms of which such units will be composed and linked together-e.g.,input/output,trigger,generaliza-tion,reﬁnement,responsibility assignment,and so forth.The answer to the third question determines the informal,semi-formal,or formal speciﬁcation technique used to deﬁne the required properties of model components precisely.The answer to the fourth question determines the kind of reason-ing technique available for the purpose of elicitation,speciﬁ-cation, and analysis.The early daysThe seminal paper by Ross and Schoman opened theﬁeld [Ros97b].Not only did this paper comprehensively explain the scope of requirements engineering;it also suggested goals,viewpoints,data,operations,agents,and resources as potential elements of an ontology for RE.The companion paper introduced SADT as a speciﬁc modeling technique [Ros97a].This technique was a precursor in many respects. It supported multiple models linked through consistency rules-a model for data,in which data are deﬁned by produc-ing/consuming operations;a model for operations,in which operations are deﬁned by input/output data;and a data/oper-ation duality principle.The technique was ontologically richer than many techniques developed afterwards.In addi-tion to data and operations,it supported some rudimentary representation of events,triggering operations,and agents responsible for them.The technique also supported the step-wise reﬁnement of global models into more detailed ones-an essential feature for complex models.SADT was a semi-formal technique in that it could only support the formaliza-tion of the declaration part of the system under consideration -that is,what data and operations are to be found and how they relate to each other;the requirements on the data/opera-tions themselves had to be asserted in natural language.The semi-formal language,however,was graphical-an essential feature for model communicability.Shortly after,Bubenko introduced a modeling technique for capturing entities and events.Formal assertions could be written to express requirements about them,in particular, temporal constraints[Bub80].At that time it was already recognized that such entities and events had to take part in the real world surrounding the software-to-be [Jac78]. Other semi-formal techniques were developed in the late seventies,notably,entity-relationship diagrams for the mod-eling of data[Che76],structured analysis for the stepwise modeling of operations[DeM78],and state transition dia-grams for the modeling of user interaction[Was79].The popularity of those techniques came from their simplicity and dedication to one speciﬁc concern;the price to pay was their fairly limited scope and expressiveness,due to poor underlying ontologies and limited structuring facilities. Moreover they were rather vaguely deﬁned.People at that time started advocating the beneﬁts of precise and formal speciﬁcations,notably,for checking speciﬁcation adequacy through prototyping [Bal82].RML brought the SADT line of research signiﬁcantly further by introducing rich structuring mechanisms such as generali-zation,aggregation and classiﬁcation[Gre82].In that sense it was a precursor to object-oriented analysis techniques. Those structuring mechanisms were applicable to three kinds of conceptual units:entities,operations,and con-straints.The latter were expressed in a formal assertion lan-guage providing,in particular,built-in constructs for temporal referencing.That was the time where progress in database modeling[Smi77],knowledge representation [Bro84,Bra85],and formal state-based speciﬁcation [Abr80]started penetrating ourﬁeld.RML was also proba-bly theﬁrst requirements modeling language to have a for-mal semantics,deﬁned in terms of mappings toﬁrst-order predicate logic [Gre86].Introducing agentsA next step was made by realizing that the software-to-be and its environment are both made of active components. Such components may restrict their behavior to ensure the constraints they are assigned to.Feather’s seminal paper introduced a simple formal framework for modeling agents and their interfaces,and for reasoning about individual choice of behavior and responsibility for constraints[Fea87]. Agent-based reasoning is central to requirements engineer-ing since the assignment of responsibilities for goals and constraints among agents in the software-to-be and in the environment is a main outcome of the RE process.Once such responsibilities are assigned the agents have contractual obligations they need to fulﬁll[Fin87,Jon93,Ken93]. Agents on both sides of the software-environment boundary interact through interfaces that may be visualized through context diagrams [War85].Goal-based reasoningThe research efforts so far were in the what-how range of requirements engineering.The requirements on data and operations were just there;one could not capture why they were there and whether they were sufﬁcient for achieving the higher-level objectives that arise naturally in any require-ments engineering process[Hic74,Mun81,Ber91,Rub92]. Yue was probably theﬁrst to argue that the integration of explicit goal representations in requirements models pro-vides a criterion for requirements completeness-the require-ments are complete if they are sufﬁcient to establish the goal they are reﬁning[Yue87].Broadly speaking,a goal corre-sponds to an objective the system should achieve through cooperation of agents in the software-to-be and in the envi-ronment.Two complementary frameworks arose for integrating goals and goal reﬁnements in requirements models:a formal framework and a qualitative one.In the formal framework [Dar91],goal reﬁnements are captured through AND/OR graph structures borrowed from problem reduction tech-niques in artiﬁcial intelligence[Nil71].AND-reﬁnement links relate a goal to a set of subgoals(called reﬁnement); this means that satisfying all subgoals in the reﬁnement is a sufﬁcient condition for satisfying the goal.OR-reﬁnement links relate a goal to an alternative set of reﬁnements;this means that satisfying one of the reﬁnements is a sufﬁcient condition for satisfying the goal.In this framework,a con-ﬂict link between goals is introduced when the satisfaction of one of them may preclude the satisfaction of the others. Operationalization links are also introduced to relate goals to requirements on operations and objects.In the qualitative framework[Myl92],weaker versions of such link types are introduced to relate“soft”goals[Myl92].The idea is that such goals can rarely be said to be satisﬁed in a clear-cut sense.Instead of goal satisfaction,goal satisﬁcing is intro-duced to express that lower-level goals or requirements are expected to achieve the goal within acceptable limits,ratherthan absolutely.A subgoal is then said to contribute partially to the goal,regardless of other subgoals;it may contribute positively or negatively.If a goal is AND-decomposed into subgoals and all subgoals are satisﬁced,then the goal is sat-isﬁceable;but if a subgoal is denied then the goal is deniable. If a goal contributes negatively to another goal and the former is satisﬁced, then the latter is deniable.The formal framework gave rise to the KAOS methodology for eliciting,specifying,and analyzing goals,requirements, scenarios,and responsibility assignments[Dar93].An optional formal assertion layer was introduced to support various forms of formal reasoning.Goals and requirements on objects are formalized in a real-time temporal logic [Man92,Koy92];one can thereby prove that a goal reﬁne-ment is correct and complete,or complete such a reﬁnement [Dar96].One can also formally detect conﬂicts among goals [Lam98b]or generate high-level exceptions that may prevent their achievement[Lam98a].Requirements on operations are formalized by pre-,post-,and trigger conditions;one can thereby establish that an operational requirement“imple-ments”higher-level goals[Dar93],or infer such goals from scenarios [Lam98c].The qualitative framework gave rise to the NFR methodol-ogy for capturing and evaluating alternative goal decomposi-tions.One may see it as a cheap alternative to the formal framework,for limited forms of goal-based reasoning,and as a complementary framework for high-level goals that can-not be formalized.The labelling procedure in[Myl92]is a typical example of qualitative reasoning on goals speciﬁed by names,parameters,and degrees of satisﬁcing/denial by child goals.This procedure determines the degree to which a goal is satisﬁced/denied by lower-level requirements,by propagating such information along positive/negative sup-port links in the goal graph.The strength of those goal-based frameworks is that they do not only cover functional goals but also non-functional ones; the latter give rise to a wide range of non-functional require-ments.For example,[Nix93]showed how the NFR frame-work could be used to qualitatively reason about performance requirements during the RE and design phases. Informal analysis techniques based on similar reﬁnement trees were also proposed for speciﬁc types of non-functional requirements,such as fault trees[Lev95]and threat trees [Amo94]for exploring safety and security requirements, respectively.Goal and agent models can be integrated through speciﬁc links.In KAOS,agents may be assigned to goals through AND/OR responsibility links;this allows alternative bound-aries to be investigated between the software-to-be and its environment.A responsibility link between an agent and a goal means that the agent can commit to perform its opera-tions under restricted pre-,post-,and trigger conditions that ensure the goal[Dar93].Agent dependency links were deﬁned in[YuM94,Yu97]to model situations where an agent depends on another for a goal to be achieved,a task to be accomplished,or a resource to become available.For each kind of dependency an operator is deﬁned;operators can be combined to deﬁne plans that agents may use to achieve goals.The purpose of this modeling is to support the veriﬁcation of properties such as the viability of an agent's plan or the fulﬁlment of a commitment between agents. Viewpoints, facets, and conﬂictsBeside the formal and qualitative reasoning techniques above,other work on conﬂict management has emphasized the need for handling conﬂicts at the goal level.A procedure was suggested in[Rob89]for identifying conﬂicts at the requirements level and characterizing them as differences at goal level;such differences are resolved(e.g.,through nego-tiation)and then down propagated to the requirements level. In[Boe95],an iterative process model was proposed in which(a)all stakeholders involved are identiﬁed together with their goals(called win conditions);(b)conﬂicts between these goals are captured together with their associ-ated risks and uncertainties;and(c)goals are reconciled through negotiation to reach a mutually agreed set of goals, constraints, and alternatives for the next iteration.Conﬂicts among requirements often arise from multiple stakeholders viewpoints[Eas94].For sake of adequacy and completeness during requirements elicitation it is essential that the viewpoints of all parties involved be captured and eventually integrated in a consistent way.Two kinds of approaches have emerged.They both provide constructs for modeling and specifying requirements from different view-points in different notations.In the centralized approach,the viewpoints are translated into some logic-based“assembly”language for global analysis;viewpoint integration then amounts to some form of conjunction[Nis89,Zav93].In the distributed approach,viewpoints have speciﬁc consistency rules associated with them;consistency checking is made by evaluating the corresponding rules on pairs of viewpoints [Nus94].Conﬂicts need not necessarily be resolved as they arise;different viewpoints may yield further relevant infor-mation during elicitation even though they are conﬂicting in some respect.Preliminary attempts have been made to deﬁne a paraconsistent logical framework allowing useful deduc-tions to be made in spite of inconsistency [Hun98]. Multiparadigm speciﬁcation is especially appealling for requirements speciﬁcation.In view of the broad scope of the RE process and the multiplicity of system facets,no single language will ever serve all purposes.Multiparadigm frame-works have been proposed to combine multiple languages in a semantically meaningful way so that different facets can be captured by languages thatﬁt them best.OMT’s combina-tion of entity-relationship,dataﬂow,and state transition dia-grams was among theﬁrst attempts to achieve this at a semi-formal level[Rum91].The popularity of this modeling tech-nique and other similar ones led to the UML standardization effort[Rum99].The viewpoint construct in[Nus94]pro-vides a generic mechanism for achieving such combinations. Attempts to integrate semi-formal and formal languages include[Zav96],which combines state-based speciﬁcations [Pot96]andﬁnite state machine speciﬁcations;and[Dar93], which combines semantic nets[Qui68]for navigating through multiple models at surface level,temporal logic for the speciﬁcation of the goal and object models[Man92, Koy92],and state-based speciﬁcation[Pot96]for the opera-tion model.Scenario-based elicitation and validationEven though goal-based reasoning is highly appropriate for requirements engineering,goals are sometimes hard to elicit. Stakeholders may have difﬁculties expressing them in abstracto.Operational scenarios of using the hypothetical system are sometimes easier to get in theﬁrst place than some goals that can be made explicit only after deeper understanding of the system has been gained.This fact has been recognized in cognitive studies on human problem solving[Ben93].Typically,a scenario is a temporal sequence of interaction events between the software-to-be and its environment in the restricted context of achieving some implicit purpose(s).A recent study on a broader scale has conﬁrmed scenarios as important artefacts used for a variety of purposes,in particular in cases when abstract modeling fails[Wei98].Much research effort has therefore been recently put in this direction[Jar98].Scenario-based techniques have been proposed for elicitation and for valida-tion-e.g.,to elicit requirements in hypothetical situations [Pot94];to help identify exceptional cases[Pot95];to popu-late more abstract conceptual models[Rum91,Rub92];to validate requirements in conjunction with prototyping [Sut97],animation[Dub93],or plan generation tools [Fic92]; to generate acceptance test cases [Hsi94].The work on deﬁciency-driven requirements elaboration is especially worth pointing out.A system there is speciﬁed by a set of goals(formalized in some restricted temporal logic), a set of scenarios(expressed in a Petri net-like language), and a set of agents producing restricted scenarios to achieve the goals they are assigned to.The technique is twofold:(a) detect inconsistencies between scenarios and goals;(b) apply operators that modify the speciﬁcation to remove the inconsistencies.Step(a)is carried out by a planner that searches for scenarios leading to some goal violation. (Model checkers might probably do the same job in a more efﬁcient way[McM93,Hol97,Cla99].)The operators offered to the analyst in Step(b)encode heuristics for speci-ﬁcation debugging-e.g.,introduce an agent whose responsi-bility is to prevent the state transitions that are the last step in breaking the goal.There are operators for introducing new types of agents with appropriate responsibilities,splitting existing types,introducing communication and synchroniza-tion protocols between agents,weakening idealized goals, and so forth.The repeated application of deﬁciency detec-tion and debugging operators allows the analyst to explore the space of alternative models and hopefully converge towards a satisfactory system speciﬁcation.The problem with scenarios is that they are inherently par-tial;they raise a coverage problem similar to test cases,mak-ing it impossible to verify the absence of errors.Instance-level trace descriptions also raise the combinatorial explo-sion problem inherent to the enumeration of combinations of individual behaviors.Scenarios are generally procedural, thus introducing risks of overspeciﬁcation.The description of interaction sequences between the software and its envi-ronment may force premature choices on the precise bound-ary between st but not least,scenarios leave required properties about the intended system implicit,in the same way as safety/liveness properties are implicit in a pro-gram trace.Work has therefore begun on inferring goal/ requirement speciﬁcations from scenarios in order to support more abstract, goal-level reasoning [Lam98c].Back to groundworkIn parallel with all the work outlined above,there has been some more fundamental work on clarifying the real nature of requirements[Jac95,Par95,Zav97].This was motivated by a certain level of confusion and amalgam in the literature on requirements and software speciﬁcations.At about the same time,Jackson and Parnas independently made aﬁrst impor-tant distinction between domain properties(called indicative in[Jac95]and NAT in[Par95])and requirements(called optative in[Jac95]and REQ in[Par95]).Such distinction is essential as physical laws,organizational policies,regula-tions,or deﬁnitions of objects or operations in the environ-ment are by no means requirements.Surprisingly,the vast majority of speciﬁcation languages existing to date do not support that distinction.A second important distinction made by Jackson and Parnas was between(system)require-ments and(software)speciﬁcations.Requirements are for-mulated in terms of objects in the real world,in a vocabulary accessible to stakeholders[Jac95];they capture required relations between objects in the environment that are moni-tored and controlled by the software,respectively[Par95]. Software speciﬁcations are formulated in terms of objects manipulated by the software,in a vocabulary accessible to programmers;they capture required relations between input and output software objects.Accuracy goals are non-func-tional goals requiring that the state of input/output software objects accurately reﬂect the state of the corresponding mon-itored/controlled objects they represent[Myl92,Dar93]. Such goals often are to be achieved partly by agents in the environments and partly by agents in the software.They are often overlooked in the RE process;their violation may lead to major failures[LAS93,Lam2Ka].A further distinction has to be made between requirements and assumptions. Although they are both optative,requirements are to be enforced by the software whereas assumptions can be enforced by agents in the environment only[Lam98b].If R denotes the set of requirements,As the set of assumptions,S the set of software speciﬁcations,Ac the set of accuracy goals,and G the set of goals,the following satisfaction rela-tions must hold:S, Ac, D|== R with S, Ac, D|=/=falseR, As, D|== G with R, As, D|=/=falseThe reactive systems lineIn parallel with all the efforts discussed above,a dedicated stream of research has been devoted to the speciﬁc area of reactive systems for process control.The seminal paper here was based on work by Heninger,Parnas and colleagues while reengineering theﬂight software for the A-7aircraft [Hen80].The paper introduced SCR,a tabular speciﬁcation technique for specifying a reactive system by a set of parallel ﬁnite-state machines.Each of them is deﬁned by different types of mathematical functions represented in tabular for-mat.A mode transition table deﬁnes a mode(i.e.a state)as a transition function of a mode and an event;an event table deﬁnes an output variable(or auxiliary quantity)as a func-。

artillery_operation_experiment_platform_manual.pd

4th International Conference on Sensors, Mechatronics and Automation (ICSMA 2016)Design of Artillery Operational Experiment Platform Based on theInformation SystemJianli Zhang1,a，Zhongwei Guo1,b，Lijian Ji1,c，Qinghua Ni1,d1Army Officer Academy of PLA，Hefei，230031，Anhui，Chinaa****************b**************d******************** Keywords: Based on the information system, Artillery operation experiment platform, Design Abstract. Artillery operational experiment platform was designed from function and structure based on the information system. The functions of the platform is composed of five parts ,which are role set, Guide and control, Command and control, Evaluation and decision, Multi-level integrated experiment. The structure of the platform is composed of data and model library, battlefield environment subsystem, Artillery operational evaluation subsystem and the result subsystem. The working process of the platform was analyzed, which included Experimental environment construction phase, Scenario editing phase, Implementation phase and Experimental evaluation phase. The models of platform were built to support system running, which including system architecture model, multi-resolution simulation model, complex battlefield environment model, scenario generate model, operational data model, etc.IntroductionWith a long period of construction, Artillery had built batch laboratories of equipment technology, equipment argumentation and equipment operational evaluation, with high degree of information. But it also lacks of experimental platform. It is difficult to support large-scale experiment to meet the needs of the future operation; it also can’t meet the needs of Artillery operational experiment. Therefore, it is urgent to study of Artillery operational problems in laboratory environment, innovation and development Artillery operation theories, promote the formation of the Artillery operational capability based on information system.The overall design of Artillery operation experiment platform based on information system Function designThe platform provides operational scenario editor, experiment resource management, experiment environment, experimental guide control, the simulation operation support, the basic function such as operational effect evaluation of the experimental platform, to provide Artillery operational application experiment good usability, strong expansibility, build flexible system support. Its function mainly includes:(1) The role set function. According to the experiment content, scale, person, it can set different seats and role assignment on different objects.(2)Guide and control function. It includes the management and guidance control, monitoring, system control, system monitoring and display the basic function of battlefield situation.(3)Command and control function. Through the computer network communication and combining with the battlefield situation, we can joint planning scheme, research, set decision of the battle. So, it complete the command and control action of the battlefield.(4)Evaluation and decision function. It provides timely, accurate, comprehensive evaluation and award of the stage results of practice.(5)Multi-level integrated experiment function. We regard the Artillery group, camp, even the multi-level commanders as experimental object, according to the command system, we build the multi-layer experimental environment.Structure designThe general structure of Artillery operation experiment platform can be divided into four parts, data and model library, battlefield environment subsystem, Artillery operational evaluation subsystem and the result subsystem of the experiment. The logical relationship between various systems is shown in Fig. 1. All subsystems are supported by environment RTI, we can achieve connectivity, communication, interoperability, in order to meet operation experiment under the environment of the operation software platform. Operational experiment platform software logic structure is shown in Fig.2.Fig. 1 The logical relationship of Artillery operation experiment platform(1) Data and model libraryThis part is mainly collecting and processing data, making operation decision for the Artillery operation experimental, it provides data and the model service. It mainly provides Artillery operation experiment data processing and storage, model construction, model storage, data and model services,Fig. 2 software logical structure of Artillery operation experiment platform(2) Battlefield environment Simulation subsystemThe battlefield environment simulation is mainly used to simulate Artillery battlefield environment, including geographical information, electromagnetic environment, weather information, it provides experiment data for the platform. It mainly realizes simulation geographical environment, geographical data information; it Simulates electromagnetic environment, provides electromagnetic environment's influence on the communication data, and the simulation of the communication quality; it simulates meteorological environment, provides meteorological environment impact on the Artillery operation action data. It supports a variety of editing and management of data field.(3) Artillery operation subsystemThe Artillery operation subsystem was built, mainly to organize the implementation and process management for the Artillery operation experiment. The subsystem is closely combined with operational experiment characteristics and law rules, through using advanced technology to build experimental environment, to ensure the centralized management and orderly operation of the Artillery operational experiments based on the basis of the laboratory network system construction achievements. The main implementation are guide, operational scenarios generated, making operation command decision, operation simulation, the battlefield situation display; operational control.(4) Evaluation subsystemThis party is mainly used for the scheduled operations under the conditions of Artillery operations experiment data analysis and research, provides support to improve the operational capability. The main implementations are command and control effectiveness analysis, weapons and equipment efficiency analysis, fire damage effect analysis; battle command ability analysis.The workflow design of Artillery operational experiment platform based on the information systemThe working process of the Artillery operational experiment platform can be divided into four stages: the experiment environment to build, scenarios editing, experiment operation and the application effect evaluation.Experimental environment construction phaseIn accordance with the requirements for the experimental task decomposition, we can form experiment scheme. According to the experiment scheme requirements, we choose the appropriate software and hardware equipment, build the dynamic construction of experimental environment, when the existing resources cannot meet the requirement of the experiment, it needs to be developed or obtained from third parties, such as the lack of a weapon and equipment simulation model, we can develop the available resources from software platform.Scenario editing phaseThis phase mainly completes the scenario editor, preview and confirmation, update the weapon system of operation into basic data, to ensure the consistent with the simulation test environment. Implementation phaseIn the implementation phase, t according to the scenario editing, the battlefield situation produce module dynamically generates battlefield environment and military activities information, drives the operation of all kinds of simulation model, organizes blue confrontation simulation system which is composed of weapons and equipment simulation model and component against, and record test data. In the process of advance, red and blue operation system against independently, through the guide and control function, we can adjust situation of battlefield in real-time, complete closed loop experiment. Experimental evaluation phaseThis phase is mainly performed by evaluation module. In the process of experiment, it collects and records the real-time data and results. After finished the experiment, we must carry on the experiment data archiving. According to the specific assessment tasks (including weapons and equipment effectiveness evaluation, operational application scheme evaluation and etc.), we can extraction and analysis experimental data, playback and analysis the experimental process.The model design of Artillery operation experiment platform based on information system Architecture modelArtillery operation experiment platform can adopt HLA (high level architecture) runtime support system KD - RTI and MAK - RTI, uses the object-oriented thought to realize each function of RTI, itscomposition is shown in Fig.3, it is mainly composed of guide, object model development toolFig. 3 The support environment of Artillery operational experiment operationMulti-resolution simulation modelThe resolution of the operation simulation, which is to describe the detail between the real world and simulation object: the granularity. Usually it adopts fixed resolution model, such as the size of campaign usually is pre-determined army, division and regiment levels resolution, but that is not easy to obtain the local process simulation of further refinement, in some important season，commander hopes enlarge the Artillery group operation, which requires the action refinement to the Artillery battalion and battery unit level, here, we have to adopt variable resolution simulation.The key technology of multi-resolution modeling is how to keep the consistency between different resolution model, guarantees their mutual transformation seamless. When commander enlarge the Artillery group, it converts to the multi-resolution model, which the data and action resolution enlarge to the unit level, and other parts of the battlefield is still keep the original resolution, which requires the high-resolution and other parts of the original resolution under the condition, here also need a seamless restore to the original resolution under state of operation simulation, and the strategy is consistent. Complex electromagnetic environment modelThe battlefield electromagnetic environment is characterized by a certain battle space state of all kinds of electromagnetic signals. Electromagnetic environment radiation source can be divided artificial electromagnetic radiation source and natural electromagnetic radiation source. For artificial electromagnetic radiation includes deliberately radiation and no intention radiation. The research of battlefield electromagnetic environment is aimed at man-made electromagnetic information useful and targeted electromagnetic interference. In order to build and set out distinct, reliable battlefield electromagnetic environment, to adapt the complex electromagnetic environment of operation and training, it needs to build the correct battlefield electromagnetic model. The overall framework of the electromagnetic environment simulation model is shown in Fig.4. The main models are: signal model, the antenna model, simulation model of signal propagation and the corresponding algorithms library.Fig. 4 The overall framework of electromagnetic environment simulation model(1) Signal model. In order to build real battlefield electromagnetic environment, source network system must be considered. It mainly includes the communication network and radar net.(2) Antenna model. According to the scanning pattern build antenna model.(3)Signal propagation model. With the aid of this kind of model, we can quantify and analysis the electromagnetic wave in the air.(4) Simulation algorithms library. It mainly includes coordinate transform, signal generation, signal processing, data processing and other basic math functions.Scenario generation modelAt the beginning of the operational experiments, we need a basic operational experiment condition, the initial conditions generally given by operational scenario data, it determines the basic conditions and the corresponding constraints of the operational experiments, including the simulation of the operational entity and the environment, the basic attributes of each entity, the entity dynamic properties determine the system state, and the use of plans, rules, agreed to limit the simulation process and constraints. To simplify the experiment content, determines the scope and process of the operational experiment, gives the basic background and premise condition, making operational experiment aim and object, setting simulation boundary conditions and constraints, are done through operational scenarios.Operational scenario design generally includes background generation and battle plans fiction, and action plan, etc. Operational scenario background generation is a problem of the initial state background data loading, including unit organization, natural environment, social environment, the physical system and other aspects data. Battle plan fiction is the description of operational activities, which is in the initial condition under the operational condition of constraint. Action planning is to convert military scenarios to a simulation experiment script.Operational data modelOperational data is the key factor of operational reliability experiment system, it mainly includes the data about the operational deployment of both sides, the target data, weapon system, operation action data , operational security data and evaluation criteria data, etc. The purpose of operational data is to provide data for the Artillery operation command experiment, as well as the situ experimental data storage place, it is not only the experiment system of data source , but also the destination of experimental system. Therefore, operational data construction including experimental data construction and the experimental conclusion construction. The application process is shown in Fig.5.Fig. 5 Data application processConclusionCarrying out the Artillery operation experimental research based on Artillery operational experiment platform, is to build experimental environment under the background, and then puts into experiment platform for experiment, uses data analysis method, build reasonable appraisal indicators, gets certain reference value for Artillery operation experimental data and results.References:[1] Zhongwei Guo etc. Artillery operation experimental model [J]. Ordnance industry automation, 2013, 32 (9)[2] Yuhua Cao etc. Operational experiment theory and technology [M]. Beijing: National defence industry press, 2013[3] Daolei Zhou Jiang Zhu. Methods of innovation and experiment [M]. Beijing: Military science press, 2014[4] Richard Kass．The Logic of Warfighting Experimentation[C]．Understanding Joint Warfighting Experiments．10thICCRTS，2005[5] Andndrew G Loerch，Larry B Rainey．Methods for conducting Military Operational Analysis[M]．Military Operations Research Society，2007[6] Shadish，Cook，Campbell．Experimental and Quasi-experimental Designs for Generalized Causal Inference[M]．Boston:Houghton Mifflin，2002[7] Sherman Kenneth B．US Navy Global Hawk Completes Wargame[J]．Journal of Electronic Defense，2006，2(29)[8] Wolff Jason．Wargame，Modeling and Simulation[J]．Air Force Journal of Logistics，2009，2(33)。

电气断路器控制系统操作手册说明书

Open transition sequence of operationsInterlocking1. In “manual” and “automatic” mode ofoperation, main and tie breakers maynot be closed simultaneously.2. All “manual” operations of main and tiebreakers are performed using operatorinterface or breaker control switch. Whenin manual mode, control of breakers is inthe hands of the operator and no automatictransfers will occur.Lock-outOvercurrent trip switch (OTS) on main and tie breakers are incorporated in the control scheme such that there will be no closure of any breaker onto a fault. Scheme cannot be defeated andis active except during emergency operations (inoperative controls). Trip unit and OTS switch must be reset to resume automatic operations.Device definitions• 43-A device is the auto/manual switch• HMI retransfer mode is selectableon the HMI aa This feature can be a hardwired switch designated 43-1. Manual operations“Manual mode”43-A = manual, HMI retransfer = auto or manual Control of breakers can be accessed through the HMI or the breaker control switch. To operate a breaker on the HMI tap the breaker you wish to operate. Automatic operation will not occur when in manual mode. However, if in closed transition and all three breakers are closed for 5 seconds (adjustable), then the tie breaker will open.Initial startup1. Place device 43-A in “manual” operation.2. Verify all transfer related circuit breakers arein the fully connected position in their cells. 3. Open and close breakers (using operatorinterface or breaker control switch) to obtainnormal operating conditions.4. Configure settings as required on HMI.5. Place device 43-A in “automatic” operation.Normal conditions1. Main breakers 52-1 and 52-2 are closed.2. Tie breaker 52-T is open.3. Device 43-A in “automatic” position.Emergency operationIf controls are inoperative or no control power is available, all breakers may be manually operated.m CAUTIONUNDER THESE CONDITIONS, NO INTERLOCKING WILL BE ACTIVE. OPERATOR MUST NOT PARALLEL ANY SOURCES.Test modeThe system may be tested by operating in test mode on the HMI.ooee:N This is a live test, and the system will respond as if a real failure had occurred. Test function will self-cancel if a real failure should take place while testing.SettingsAll user-settable time delays are set using the timer settings page on the HMI. Delay times may be changed at any time.Eaoon1000 Eaton Boulevard Cleveland, OH 44122 United States © 2015 EatonAll Rights ReservedPrinted in USAPublication No. TD019005EN / Z17417 October 2015Eaton is a registered trademark.All other trademarks are propertyof their respective owners.Open transition s equence of operationsTechnical Data TD019005EN Effective October 2015Sequence of automatic operations “Open transition switching”43-A = auto, HMI retransfer = autoSee normal conditions for initial configuration.ooee:N Open-transition transfers between live sources are time-delayed in neutral, to prevent back-emf damage.A. Loss of utility power at main 52-11. Device 27/47-1 detects loss of normal voltage.2. Time delay 5 seconds (adjustable 0–60 seconds).3. Main 52-1 opens.4. Time delay 2 seconds (adjustable 0–10 seconds),and then tie breaker 52-T closes.B. Loss of utility power at main 52-21. Device 27/47-2 detects loss of normal voltage.2. Time delay 5 seconds (adjustable 0–60 seconds).3. Main 52-2 opens.4. Time delay 2 seconds (adjustable 0–10 seconds),and then tie breaker 52-T closes.C. Loss of utility power at main 52-1 and 52-2No action is taken.D. Return of normal voltage to main 52-1(following sequence “A” above)1. Device 27/47-1 detects normal voltage.2. Time delay 10 seconds (adjustable 0–60 seconds).3. Tie breaker 52-T opens.4. Time delay 2 seconds (adjustable 0–10 seconds),and then main 52-1 closes.E. Return of normal voltage to main 52-2(following sequence “B” above)1. Device 27/47-2 detects normal voltage.2. Time delay 10 seconds (adjustable 0–60 seconds).3. Tie breaker 52-T opens.4. Time delay 2 seconds (adjustable 0–10 seconds),and then main 52-1 closes.Sequence of automatic operations “Manual re-transfer”43-A = auto, HMI retransfer = manualSee normal conditions for initial configuration.ooee:N Retransfer following return of a failed source is initiated by operator. However, if second source fails, followed by return of the first-failed source, the system will transfer to the live source and remain single-ended.A. Loss of utility power at main 52-11. Device 27/47-1 detects loss of normal voltage.2. Time delay 5 seconds (adjustable 0–60 seconds).3. Main 52-1 opens.4. Time delay 2 seconds (adjustable 0–10 seconds),and then tie breaker 52-T closes.B. Loss of utility power at main 52-21. Device 27/47-2 detects loss of normal voltage.2. Time delay 5 seconds (adjustable 0–60 seconds).3. Main 52-2 opens.4. Time delay 2 seconds (adjustable 0–10 seconds),and then tie breaker 52-T closes.C. Loss of utility power at main 52-1 and 52-2No action is taken.D. Return of normal voltage to main 52-1(following sequence “A” above)No action is taken, requires manual transfer by operator:1. Set 43-A switch to manual.2. Use breaker control switches.Or1. Navigate to one-line screen on HMI.2. Press “initiate retransfer” button on HMI screen.E. Return of normal voltage to main 52-2(following sequence “B” above)No action is taken, requires manual transfer by operator:1. Set 43-A switch to manual.2. Use breaker control switches.Or1. Navigate to one-line screen on HMI.2. Press “initiate retransfer” button on HMI screen.。

BTEC Level 3 Nationals Extended Diploma 学习指南说明书

*S59724A0120*S59724A©2018 Pearson Education Ltd.1/1/1/1Turn over Instructions• Use black ink or ball-point pen.• Fill in the boxes at the top of this page with your name,centre number and learner registration number.• Answer all activities in the spaces provided– there may be more space than you need.• Do not return research notes or Part A to Pearson.Information• The total mark for this paper is 64.• The marks for each activity are shown in brackets– use this as a guide as to how much time to spend on each activity.• A calculator may be used.Advice• Read each activity carefully before you start to answer it.• Try to answer every activity.• Check your answers if you have time at the end.*S59724A0220*2Important InformationRefer to your research notes from Part A to complete Part B. You cannot access the internet or any other resource during the supervised assessment period.You must plan your time and work independently throughout the three-hour supervised assessment period.You will complete Part B under supervision and your work will be kept securely during any breaks taken.You must not share your work with other learners.*S59724A0320*Turn over3Part ACase StudyIn preparation for Part B you will be required to carry out research into three different sports physiotherapy and rehabilitation businesses . Your research should include:• business operations • facilities• products and services • demographics.*S59724A0420*4Part B Set Task InformationPHYSIOLABPHYSIOLAB Ltd is a sports physiotherapy and rehabilitation business founded in 2014. PHYSIOLAB is owned by an NHS physiotherapist and serves the local community. Business operationsThe Managing Director has overall responsibility for the following:• finances and payroll• logistics (e.g. timetabling of staffing)• booking system for appointments• facility hire• staff training (safeguarding, health and safety)• marketing and promotion.PHYSIOLAB looks to provide ‘High Quality Physiotherapy for Everyone’ (USP). It employs two part-time hourly paid (PTHP) physiotherapists (who also work within the NHS full-time) and a sports nutritionist. Staff are paid 50% of the money clients pay for their session whilst the business pays £15.00 per hour for the rent of their room within the leisure centre, which includes use of all the facilities (annual lease).FacilitiesPHYSIOLAB is located in a Community Sports and Leisure Centre. The business has access to:• two massage beds• one treadmill• one exercise bike• 75 station gym• 25m swimming pool• sports hall• body mass composition machine• strength testing equipment.The leisure centre has parking and changing rooms that are available to all customers.*S59724A0520*Turn over5*S59724A0620*6*S59724A0720*Turn over7Set TaskYou must complete ALL activities.Produce a business summary by completing the following activities in the task and answer book. You will need to refer to the task information and your research notes on physiotherapy and sports rehabilitation businesses.Activity 1. Review of business informationReview the current business status using the details provided in the set task information about PHYSIOLAB. You should consider:• the purpose • the data•your research of the sport and active leisure industry.(Total for Activity 1 = 16 marks)Activity 2. Business model analysisUsing the PESTLE or SWOT business model, analyse the factors that are currently affecting PHYSIOLAB.(Total for Activity 2 = 16 marks)Activity 3. RecommendationsRecommend how PHYSIOLAB can develop and market itself. You should consider:• customer groups • trends in the industry•the needs of the business.(Total for Activity 3 = 20 marks)Activity 4. JustificationJustify your recommendations for PHYSIOLAB in relation to: • TheraP and other physiotherapy and sports rehabilitation businesses •the wider business context in the sport and active leisure industry.(Total for Activity 4 = 12 marks)TOTAL FOR TASK = 64 MARKS*S59724A0820*8Task and answer bookPlease do not write answers outside the spaces provided.You must complete all activities in this taskbook.Activity 1. Review of business information(16) Review the current business status using the details provided in the set task informationabout PHYSIOLAB. You should consider:• the purpose• the data• your research of the sport and active leisure industry. .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 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....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................*S59724A0920*Turn over9...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................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for Activity 1 = 16 marks)*S59724A01120*Turn over11 Activity 2. Business model analysis (16)Using the PESTLE or SWOT business model, analyse the factors that are currently affecting PHYSIOLAB...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................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英文讲义，《管理学》，1-4章，斯蒂芬

英⽂讲义，《管理学》，1-4章，斯蒂芬•P•罗宾斯，中国⼈民⼤学出版社说明：1、此资料为《管理学》课程的全部英⽂讲义资料。

2、资料来源于罗宾斯的教材，仅⽤于教学，请勿另作它⽤侵犯作者版权。

3、因博客有上传字数限制，分成⼏篇上传，请注意章节序号。

Chapter 1 introduction to management and organizationsWho Are Managers?• ManagerØ Someone who works with and through other people by coordinating and integrating their work activities in order to accomplish organizational goals.Classifying Managers• First-line ManagersØ Are at the lowest level of management and manage the work of non-managerial employees.• Middle ManagersØ Manage the work of first-line managers.• Top ManagersØ Are responsible for making organization-wide decisions and establishing plans and goals that affect the entire organization.What Is Management?• Managerial ConcernsØ Efficiencyv “Doing things right”– Getting the most output for the least inputsØ Effectivenessv “Doing the right things”– Attaining organizational goalsWhat Do Managers Do?• Functional ApproachØ Planningv Defining goals, establishing strategies to achieve goals, developing plans to integrate and coordinate activitiesØ Organizingv Arranging work to accomplish organizational goalsØ Leadingv Working with and through people to accomplish goals.Ø Controllingv Monitoring, comparing, and correcting the work• Management Roles ApproachØ Interpersonal rolesv Figurehead, leader, liaisonØ Informational rolesv Monitor, disseminator, spokespersonØ Decisional rolesv Disturbance handler, resource allocator, negotiator• Skills ApproachØ Technical skillsv Knowledge and proficiency in a specific fieldØ Human skillsv The ability to work well with other peopleØ Conceptual skillsv The ability to think and conceptualize about abstract and complex situations concerning the organization How The Manager’s Job Is Changing• The Increasing Importance of CustomersØ Customers: the reason that organizations existv Managing customer relationships is the responsibility of all managers and employees.v Consistent high quality customer service is essential for survival.• InnovationØ Doing things differently, exploring new territory, and taking risksv Managers should encourage employees to be aware of and act on opportunities for innovation.What Is An Organization?• An Organization DefinedØ A deliberate arrangement of people to accomplish some specific purpose• Common Characteristics of OrganizationsØ Have a distinct purpose (goal)Ø Composed of peopleØ Have a deliberate structureWhy Study Management?• The Value of Studying ManagementØ The universality of managementv Good management is needed in all organizations.Ø The reality of workv Employees either manage or are managed.Ø Rewards and challenges of being a managerv Management offers challenging, exciting and creative opportunities for meaningful and fulfilling work. v Successful managers receive significant monetary rewards for their efforts.Chapter 2 management yesterday and todayHistorical Background of Management• Ancient ManagementØ Egypt (pyramids) and China (Great Wall)Ø Venetians (floating warship assembly lines)• Adam SmithØ Published “The Wealth of Nations” in 1776v Advocated the division of labor (job specialization) to increase the productivity of workers• Industrial RevolutionØ Substituted machine power for human laborØ Created large organizations in need of managementMajor Approaches to Management• Scientific Management• General Administrative Theory• Quantitative Management• Organizational Behavior• Systems Approach• Contingency ApproachScientific Management• Fredrick Winslow TaylorØ The “father” of scientific managementØ Published Principles of Scientific Management (1911)v The theory of scientific management:– Using scientific methods to define the “one best way” for a job to be done• Putting the right person on the job with the correct tools and equipment• Having a standardized method of doing the job• Providing an economic incentive to the worker• Frank and Lillian GilbrethØ Focused on increasing worker productivity through the reduction of wasted motionØ Developed the microchronometer to time worker motions and optimize performance.• How Do Today’s Managers Use Scientific Management?Ø Use time and motion studies to increase productivityØ Hire the best qualified employeesØ Design incentive systems based on outputGeneral Administrative Theorists• Henri FayolØ Believed that the practice of management was distinct from other organizational functionsØ Developed fourteen principles of management that applied to all organizational situations• Max WeberØ Developed a theory of authority based on an ideal type of organization (bureaucracy)v Emphasized rationality, predictability, impersonality, technical competence, and authoritarianism. Quantitative Approach to Management• Quantitative ApproachØ Also called operations research or management scienceØ Evolved from mathematical and statistical methods developed to solve WWII military logistics and quality control problemsØ Focuses on improving managerial decision making by applying:v Statistics, optimization models, information models, and computer simulationsUnderstanding Organizational Behavior• Organizational Behavior (OB)Ø The study of the actions of people at work; people are the most important asset of an organization• Early OB AdvocatesØ Robert OwenØ Hugo MunsterbergØ Mary Parker FollettØ Chester BarnardThe Hawthorne Studies• A series of productivity experiments conducted at Western Electric from 1927 to 1932.• Experimental findingsØ Productivity unexpectedly increased under imposed adverse working conditions.Ø The effect of incentive plans was less than expected.• Research conclusionØ Social norms, group standards and attitudes more strongly influence individual output and work behavior than domonetary incentives.The Systems Approach• System DefinedØ A set of interrelated and interdependent parts arranged in a manner that produces a unified whole.• Basic Types of SystemsØ Closed systemsv Are not influenced by and do not interact with their environment (all system input and output is internal)Ø Open systemsv Dynamically interact to their environments by taking in inputs and transforming them into outputs that are distributed into their environmentsImplications of the Systems Approach• Coordination of the organization’s parts is essential for proper functioning of the entire organization.• Decisions and actions taken in one area of the organization will have an effect in other areas of the organization.• Organizations are not self-contained and, therefore, must adapt to changes in their external environment.The Contingency Approach• Contingency Approach DefinedØ Also sometimes called the situational approach.Ø There is no one universally applicable set of management principles (rules) by which to manage organizations.Ø Organizations are individually different, face different situations (contingency variables), and require different ways of managing.Current Trends and Issues• Globalization• Ethics• Workforce Diversity• Entrepreneurship• E-business• Knowledge Management• Learning Organizations• Quality Management• Globalization• Management in international organizations• Political and cultural challenges of operating in a global market• Ethics• Increased emphasis on ethics education in college curriculums• Increased creation and use of codes of ethics by businesses• Workforce Diversity• Increasing heterogeneity in the workforce• More gender, minority, ethnic, and other forms of diversity in employees• Aging workforce• Older employees who work longer and not retire• The cost of public and private benefits for older workers will increase• Increased demand for products and services related to aging• Entrepreneurship Defined• The process whereby an individual or group of individuals use organized efforts to create value and grow by fulfilling wants and needs through innovation and uniqueness.• Entrepreneurship process• Pursuit of opportunities• Innovation in products, services, or business methods• Desire for continual growth of the organization• E-Business (Electronic Business)• The work preformed by an organization using electronic linkages to its key constituencies• E-commerce: the sales and marketing component of an e-business• Categories of E-Businesses• E-business enhanced organization• E-business enabled organization• Total e-business organization• Knowledge Management• The cultivation of a learning culture where organizational members systematically gather and share knowledge with others in order to achieve better performance.• Learning Organization• An organization that has developed the capacity to continuously learn, adapt, and change.• Quality Management• A philosophy of management driven by continual improvement in the quality of work processes and responding to customer needs and expectations• Inspired by the total quality management (TQM) ideas of Deming and Juran• Quality is not directly related to cost.Chapter 3 organizational culture and the environment : the constraintsThe Manager: Omnipotent or Symbolic?• Omnipotent View of ManagementØ Managers are directly responsible for an organization’s success or failure.Ø The quality of the organization is determined by the quality of its managers.Ø Managers are held most accountablefor an organization’s performanceyet it is difficult to attributegood or poor performancedirectly to their influenceon the organization.• Symbolic View of ManagementØ Much of an organization’s success or failure is due to external forces outside of managers’ control.Ø The ability of managers to affect outcomes is influenced and constrained by external factors.• The economy, customers, governmental policies, competitors, industry conditions,technology, and the actions ofprevious managersØ Managers symbolize control andinfluence through their actionThe Organization’s Culture• Organizational CultureØ A system of shared meanings and common beliefs held by organizational members that determines, in a large degree, how they act towards each other.Ø “The way we do things around here.”v Values, symbols, rituals, myths, and practicesØ Implications:v Culture is a perception.v Culture is shared.v Culture is descriptiveStrong versus Weak Cultures• Strong CulturesØ Are cultures in which key values are deeply held and widely held.Ø Have a strong influence on organizational members.• Factors Influencing the Strength of CultureØ Size of the organizationØ Age of the organizationØ Rate of employee turnoverØ Strength of the original cultureØ Clarity of cultural values and beliefsBenefits of a Strong Culture• Creates a stronger employee commitment to the organization.• Aids in the recruitment and socialization of new employees.• Fosters higher organizationalperformance by instilling andpromoting employee initiativeOrganizational Culture• Sources of Organizational CultureØ The organization’s founderv Vision and missionØ Past practices of the organizationv The way things have been doneØ The behavior of top management• Continuation of the Organizational CultureØ Recruitment of like-minded employees who “fit.”Ø Socialization of new employees to help them adapt to the cultureHow Employees Learn Culture• StoriesØ Narratives of significant events or actions of people that convey the spirit of the organization • RitualsØ Repetitive sequences of activities that express and reinforce the values of the organization • Material SymbolsØ Physical assets distinguishing the organization• LanguageØ Acronyms and jargon of terms, phrases, and word meanings specific to an organization How Culture Affects Managers• Cultural Constraints on ManagersØ Whatever managerial actions the organization recognizes as proper or improper on its behalf Ø Whatever organizational activities the organization values and encouragesØ The overall strength or weakness of the organizational cultureSimple rule for getting ahead in an organization:Find out what the organization rewards and do those things.Organization Culture Issues• Creating an Ethical CultureØ High in risk toleranceØ Low to moderate aggressivenessØ Focus on means as well as outcomes• Creating an Innovative CultureØ Challenge and involvementØ FreedomØ Trust and opennessØ Idea timeØ Playfulness/humorØ Conflict resolutionØ DebatesØ Risk-taking• Creating a Customer-Responsive CultureØ Hiring the right type of employees (ones with a strong interest in serving customers)Ø Having few rigid rules, procedures, and regulationsØ Using widespread empowerment of employeesØ Having good listening skills in relating to customers’ messagesØ Providing role clarity to employees to reduce ambiguity and conflict and increase job satisfactionØ Having conscientious, caring employees willing to take initiativeSpirituality and Organizational Culture• Workplace SpiritualityØ The recognition that people have an inner life that nourishes and is nourished by meaningful work that takes place in the context of community.• Characteristics of a Spiritual OrganizationØ Strong sense of purposeØ Focus on individual developmentØ Trust and opennessØ Employee empowermentØ Toleration of employees’ expressionBenefits of Spirituality• Improved employee productivity• Reduction of employee turnover• Stronger organizational performance• Increased creativity• Increased employee satisfaction• Increased team performance• Increased organizational performanceDefining the External Environment• External EnvironmentØ The forces and institutions outside the organization that potentially can affect the organization’s performance.• Components of the External EnvironmentØ Specific environment: external forces that have a direct and immediate impact on the organization.Ø General environment: broad economic, socio-cultural, political/legal, demographic, technological, and global conditions that may affect the organization.How the Environment Affects Managers• Environmental UncertaintyØ The extent to which managers have knowledge of and are able to predict change their organization’s external environment is affected by:v Complexity of the environment: the number of components in an organization’s external environment.v Degree of change in environmental components: how dynamic or stable the external environment is. Stakeholder Relationships• StakeholdersØ Any constituencies in the organization’s external environment that are affected by the organization’s decisions and actions• Why Manage Stakeholder Relationships?Ø It can lead to improved organizational performance.Ø It’s the “right” thing to do given the interdependence of the organization and its external stakeholders. Managing Stakeholder Relationships1. Identify the organization’s external stakeholders.2. Determine the particular interests and concerns of the external stakeholders.3. Decide how critical each external stakeholder is to the organization.4. Determine how to manage each individual external stakeholder relationship.Chapter 4 managing in a global environmentManaging in a Global Environment• ChallengesØ Coping with the sudden appearance of new competitorsØ Acknowledging cultural, political, and economic differencesØ Dealing with increased uncertainty, fear, and anxietyØ Adapting to changes in the global environmentØ Avoiding parochialismAdopting a Global Perspective• Ethnocentric AttitudeØ The parochialistic belief that the best work approaches and practices are those of the home country.• Polycentric AttitudeØ The view that the managers in the host country know the best work approaches and practices for running their business.• Geocentric AttitudeØ A world-oriented view that focuses on using the best approaches and people from around the globe.Regional Trading Agreements• The European Union (EU)Ø A unified economic and trade entityv Belgium, Denmark, France, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, the United Kingdom, Germany, Austria, Finland, and SwedenØ Economic and monetary union (Euro)• North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)Ø Eliminated barriers to free trade (tariffs, import licensing requirements, and customs user fees)v United States, Canada, and Mexico• Free Trade Area of the Americas• Southern Cone Common Market (Mercosur)• Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)Ø Trading alliance of 10 Southeast Asian nations• African UnionThe World Trade Organization (WTO)• Evolved from the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in 1995.• Functions as the only global organization dealing with the rules of trade among nations.• Has 145 member nations.• Monitors and promotes world trade.Different Types of Global Organizations• Multinational Corporation (MNC)Ø A firm which maintains operations in multiple countries but manages the operations from a base in the home country.• Transnational Corporation (TNC)Ø A firm that maintains operations in several countries but decentralizes management to the local country.• Borderless OrganizationØ A firm that has eliminated structural divisions that impose artificial geographic barriers and is organized along business lines.How Organizations Go Global• Three Stages of GlobalizationØ Stage Iv Exporting products for sale overseas and importing products from overseas to sell in the home country.Ø Stage IIv Committing to directly sell home-country products in overseas markets or contracting for products to be manufactured overseas and sold in the home country.Ø Stage IIIv Licensing manufacturing and franchising services to foreign firms to use the brand name, technology, or product specifications developed by the firm.Other Forms of Globalization• Strategic AlliancesØ Partnerships between and organization and a foreign company in which both share resources and knowledge in developing new products or building new production facilities.• Joint VentureØ A specific type of strategic alliance in which the partners agree to form a separate, independent organization for some business purpose.Managing in A Global Environment• The Legal EnvironmentØ Stability or instability of legal and political systemsv Legal procedures are established and followedv Fair and honest elections held on a regular basisØ Differences in the laws of various nationsv Effects on business activitiesv Effects on delivery of products and servicesThe Economic Environment• Economic SystemsØ Market economyv An economy in which resources are primarily owned and controlled by the private sector.Ø Command economyv An economy in which all economic decisions are planned by a central government.• Monetary and Financial FactorsØ Currency exchange ratesØ Inflation ratesØ Diverse tax policiesThe Cultural Environment• National CultureØ Is the values and attitudes shared by individuals from a specific country that shape their behavior and their beliefs about what is important.Ø May have more influence on an organization than the organization culture.Hofstede’s Framework for Assessing Cultures• Individualism versus Collectivism• Power Distance• Uncertainty Avoidance• Quantity versus Quality of Life• Long-term versus Short-term OrientationØ Individualism: the degree to which people in a country prefer to act as individuals.Ø Collectivism: a social framework in whichThe GLOBE (Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness) Framework for Assessing Cultures• Assertiveness• Future orientation• Gender differentiation • Uncertainty avoidance • Power distance• Individualism/collectivism • In-group collectivism • Performance orientation • Humane orientation。

2023年英语专四真题及详解答案解答

专四试题TEST FOR ENGLISH MAJORS ( -GRADE FOUR-TIME LIMIT: 135 MINPART I DICTATION [15 MIN]Listen to the following passage. Altogether the passage will be read to you four times. During the first reading, which will be done at normal speed, listen and try to understand the meaning. For the second and third readings, the passage will be read sentence by sentence, or phrase by phrase, with intervals of 15 seconds. The last reading will be done at normal speed again and during this time you should check your work. You will then be given 2 minutes to check through your work once more. Please write the whole passage on ANSWER SHEET ONE.Please write the whole passage on ANSWER SHEET ONE.PART II LISTENING COMPREHENSION [20 MIN]SECTION A CONVERSATIONSQuestions 1 to 3 are based on the following conversation. At the end of the conversation, you will be given 15 seconds to answer the questions. Now, listen to the conversation.1. The following details have been checked during the conversation EXCEPTA. number of travelers.B. number of tour days.C. flight details.D. room services.2. What is included in the price?A. Air tickets and local transport.B. Local transport and meals.C. Air tickets, local transport and breakfast.D. Air tickets, local transport and all meals.3. Which of the following statements is CORRECT?A. The traveler is reluctant to buy travel insurance.B. The traveler is ready to buy travel insurance.C. The traveler doesn't have to buy travel insurance.D. Travel insurance is not mentioned in the conversation.Questions 4 to 7 are based on the following conversation. At the end of'the conversation, you will be given 20 seconds to answer the questions. Now, listen to the conversation.4. Which of the following details is CORRECT?A. Mark knows the exact number of airport buses.B. Mark knows the exact number of delegates' spouse.C. Mark doesn't know the exact number of delegates yet.D. Mark doesn't know the number of guest speakers.5. What does Linda want to know?A. The arrival time of guest speakers.B. The departure time of guest speakers.C. The type of transport for guest speakers.D. The number of guest speakers.6. How many performances have been planned tbr the conference?A. One.B. Two.C. Three.D. Not mentioned.7. Who will pay for the piano performance?A. Pan-Pacific Tours.B. Johnson & Sons Events.C. Conference delegates.D. An airline company.Questions 8 to 10 are based on the following conversation. At the end of'the conversation,you will be given 15 seconds to answer the questions. Now listen to the conversation.8. What is NOT missing in Mary's briefcase?A. Her cheque book.B. Her papers for work.C. Her laptop.D. Her appointment book.9. Where was Mary the whole morning?A. At the police station.B. At a meeting.C. In her client's office.D. In the restaurant.10. Why was Mary sure that the briefcase was hers in the end?A. The papers inside had the company's name.B. The briefcase was found in the restaurant.C. The restaurant manager telephoned James.D. The cheque book inside bore her name.SECTION B PASSAGESIn this section, you will hear several passages. Listen to the passages carefully and then answer the questions that follow.Questions 11 to 13 are based on the following passage. At the end of the passage, yott will be given 15 seconds to answer the questions. Now, listen to the passage.11. We learn from the passage that about two-thirds of the courses are taught throughA. the School of Design and Visual Arts.B. the School of Social Work.C. the School of Business.D. the Arts and Sciences program.12.What is the cost of undergraduate tuition?A. Twenty thousand dollars.B. Thirty thousand dollars.C. Twenty-seven thousand dollars.D. Thirty-eight thousand dollars.13.International students can receive all the following types of financial assistance EXCEPTA. federal loans.B. private loans.C. scholarships.D. monthly payment plans.Questions 14 to 17 are based on the following passage. At the end of the passage, you will be gven 20 seconds to answer the questions. Now, listen to the passage.14. According to the passage, mothers in ____ spend more time looking after children.A. FranceB. AmericaC. DenmarkD. Australia15. Which of the following activities would Australian fathers traditionally participate in?A. Feeding and playing with children.B. Feeding and bathing children.C. Taking children to the park and to school.D. Taking children to watch sports events.16. According to the study, the "new man" likes toA. spend more time at work.B. spend more time with children.C. spend time drinking after work.D. spend time on his computer.17.It is suggested in the passage that the "new man" might be less acceptable inA. France.B. Britain.C. Australia.D. Denmark.Questions 18 to 20 are based on the following passage. At the end of the passage, you will be given 15 seconds to answer the questions. Now, listen to the passage.18.The services of the new partnership are provided mainly toA. mothers of infected babies.B. infected children and women.C. infected children in cities.D. infected women in cities.19.Which of the following details about Family Health International is INCORRECT?A. It is a nonprofit organization.B. It provides public health services.C. It carries out research on public health.D. It has worked in five countries till now.20.The example of Cambodia mainly showsA. the importance of government support.B. the importance of public education efforts.C. the progress the country has made so far.D. the methods used to fight AIDS.SECTION C NEWS BROADCASTIn this section, you will hear several news items. Listen to them carefully and then answer the questions that follow.Questions 21 and 22 are based on the following news. At the end of the news item, you will be given 10 seconds to answer the questions. Now. listen to the news.21. According to the news, the victim wasA. a 17-year-old girl.B. a 15-year-old boy.C. a 23-year-old woman.D. an l 8-year-old man.22.We learn from the news that the suspects were arrestedA. one month later.B. two months later.C. immediately.D. two weeks later.Questions 23 and 24 are based on the following news. At the end of the news item, you will be given 10 seconds to answer the questions. Now, listen to the news.23.The Iraqi par liament can vote on the security agreement only afterA. all parties have agreed on it.B. the US troops have pulled out.C. the cabinet has reviewed it.D. the lawmakers have returned from Mecca.24.According to the news, the US troops are expected to completely pull out byA. mid-.B. the end of .C. mid-.D. the end of .Questions 25 and 26 are based on the following news. At the end of the news item, you will begiven 10 seconds to answer the questions. Now, listen to the news.25.The following are involved in the operations to rescue the children in Honduras EXCEPTA. the police.B. the district attorney.C. the prison authorities.D. Institute of Childhood and Family.26. What punishment would parents face if they allowed their children to beg?A. To be imprisoned and fined.B. To have their children taken away.C. To be handed over to the authorities.D. None.Question 27 is based on the following news. At the end of the news item. you will be given 5seconds to answer the question. Now, listen to the news.27.What is the news item about?A. Coastlines in Italy.B. Public use of the beach.C. Swimming and bathing.D. Private bathing clubs.Question 28 is based on the following news. At the end of the news item, you will be given 5 seconds to answer the question. Now, listen to the news.28.Which of the following is NOT mentioned in the news?A. The airport was shut down for Friday.B. There was a road accident involving two buses.C. Local shops were closed earlier than usual.D. Bus service was stopped for Friday.Questions 29 and 30 are based on the following news. At the end of the news item, you will begiven 10 seconds to answer the questions. Now, listen to the news.29.How many people were rescued from the apartment building?A. 17.B. 24.C. 21.D. 41.30.Which of the following details in the news is CORRECT?A. The rescue operation involved many people.B. The cause of the explosions has been determined.C. Rescue efforts were stopped on Thursday.D. The explosions didn't destroy the building.PART III CLOZE [15 MIN]Decide which of the choices given below would best complete the passage it" inserted in thecorresponding blanks. Mark the best choice for each blank on ANSWER SHEET TWO.How men first learned to i nvent words is unknown; (31)____, the origin of language isa mystery. All we really know is that men, unlike animals, somehow invented certain(32)____ to express thoughts and feelings, actions and things, (33)____ they could communicate with each other; and that later they agreed (34)____ certain signs, called letters, which could be (35)____ to represent those sounds, and which could be (36)_____. Those sounds, whether spoken, (37)_____ written in letters, we call words.The power of words, then, lies in their (38)____ the things they bring up before our minds. Words become (39)____ with meaning for us by experience; (40)._____ the longer we live, the more certain words (41)_____ to us the happy and sad events of our past: and themore we (42)____, the more the number of words that mean something to us (43)____ Great writers are those who not only have great thoughts but also express these thoughts in words which appeal (44)____ to our minds and emotions. This (45)._____ and telling use of words is what we call (46)____ style. Above all, the real poet is a master of (47)____. He can convey his meaning in words which sing like music, and which (48)_____ their position and association can (49)____ men to tears. We should, therefore, learn to choose our words carefully and use them accurately, or they will (50)____ our speech or writing silly and vulgar.(31) A. in addition B. in other words C. in a word D. in summary(32) A. sounds B. gestures C. signs D. movements(33) A. such that B. as that C. so that D. in that(34) A. in B. with C. of D. upon(35) A. spelt B. combined C. written D copied(36) A. written down B. handed down C. remembered D. observed(37) A. and B. yet C. also D. or(38) A. functions B. associations C. roles D. links(39) A. filled B. full C. live D. active(40) A. but B. or C. yet D. and(41 ) A. reappear B. recall C. remember D. recollect(42) A. read and think B. read and recall C. read and learn D. read and recite(43) A. raises B. increases C. improves D. emerges(44) A. intensively B. extensively C. broadly D. powerfully(45) A. charming B. academic C. conventional D. common(46) A. written B. spoken C. literary D. dramatic(47) A. signs B. words C. style D. sound(48) A. in B. on C. over&n bsp; D. by(49) A. move B. engage C. make D. force(50) A. transform B. change C. make D. convertPART IV GRAMMAR & VOCABULARY [15 MIN]There are thirty sentences in this section. Beneath each sentence there are four words or phrases marked A, B, C and D. Choose one word or phrase that best completes the sentence. Mark your answers on ANSWER SHEET TWO.51. Which of the following italicized phrases indicates CAUSE?A. Why don't you do it for the sake of your friends?B. I wish I could write as well as you.C. For all his efforts, he didn't get an A.D. Her eyes were red from excessive reading.52. Nancy's gone to work but her car's still there. She ____ by bus.A. must have goneB. should have goneC. ought to have goneD. could have gone53. He feels that he is not yet ____ to travel abroad.A. too strongB. enough strongC. so strongD. strong enough54. After____ seemed an endless wait, it was his turn to enter the personnel manager's office.A. thatB. itC. whatD. there55. Fool ____ Jerry is, he could not have done such a thing.A. whoB. asC. likeD. that56. Which of the following sentences is INCORRECT?A. They each have two tickets.B. They cost twenty yuan each.C. Each they have bought the same book.D. They were given two magazines each.57. She seldom goes to the theatre, _____?A. doesn't sheB. does sheC. would sheD. wouldn't she58. Dr Johnson is head of the department, ____ an expert in translation.A. orB. eitherC. butD. and59. When one has good health, _____ should feel fortunate.A. youB. theyC. heD. we60. It is necessary that he ____ the assignment without delay.A. hand inB. hands inC. must hand inD. has to hand in61. In the sentence "It's no use waiting for her", the italicized phrase is)____.A. the objectB. an adverbialC. a complementD. the subject62. Which of the following sentences is INCORRECT?A. All his lectures are very interesting.B. Half their savings were gone.C. Many his friends came to the party.D. Both his sisters are nurses.63. Which of the following sentences has an object complement?A. The directors appointed John manager.B. I gave Mary a Christmas present.C. You have done Peter a favour.D. She is teaching children English.64. Which of the following words can NOT be used to complete "We've seen the film ____"?A. beforeB. recentlyC. latelyD. yet65. _____ should not become a serious disadvantage in life and work.A. To be not tallB. Not being tallC. Being not tallD. Not to be tall66. Due to personality _____, the two colleagues never got on well in work.A. contradictionB. conflictC. confrontationD. competition67. During the summer vacation, kids are often seen hanging _____ in the streets.A. aboutB. onC. overD. out68. There were 150 ____ at the international conference this summer.A. spectatorsB. viewersC. participantsD. onlookers69. School started on a ____ cold day in February.A. severeB. bitterC. suchD. frozen70. In the face of unexpected difficulties, he demonstrated a talent for quick, ____ action.A. determiningB. defensiveC. demandingD. decisive71. The team has been working overtime on the research project ____.A. latelyB.just nowC. lateD. long ago72. Because of the economic crisis, industrial output in the region remainedA. motionlessB. inactiveC. stagnantD. immobile73. The police had difficulty in ____ the fans fi'om rushing on to the stage to take photos with the singer.A. limitingB. restrainingC. confiningD. restricting74. Joan is in the dorm, putting the final ____ to her speech.A. detailsB. remarksC. commentsD. touches75. His_____ in gambling has eventually brought about his ruin.A. indulgenceB. habitC. actionD. engagement76. The teacher told the students to stay in the classroom and they did _____.A. absolutelyB. accidentallyC. accordinglyD. accurately77. You can actually see the deer at close range while driving through that area. The italicizedphrase means _____.A. clearlyB. very nearC. quicklyD. very hard78. He listened hard but still couldn't what they were talking about.A. make overB. make upC. make uponD. make out79. For the advertised position, the company offers a(n) salary and benefits package.A. generousB. plentifulC. abundantD. sufficient80. As there was no road, the travelers ____ up a rocky slope on their way back.A. ranB. hurriedC. scrambledD. crawledPART V READING COMPREHENSION [25 MIN]In this section there are four passages followed by questions or unfinished statements, each with four suggested answers marked A, B, C and D. Choose the one that you think is the best answer. Mark your answers on ANSWER SHEET TWO.TEXT AWhat is the nature of the scientific attitude, the attitude of the man or woman who studies and applies physics, biology, chemistry, geology, engineering, medicine or any other science? We all know that science plays an important role in the societies in which we live. Many people believe, however, that our progress depends on two different aspects of science. The first of these is the application of the machines, products and systems of applied knowledge that scientists and technologists develop. Through technology, science improves the structure of society and helps man to gain increasing control over his environment.The second aspect is the application by all members of society of the special methods of thought and action that scientists use in their work.What are these special methods of thinking and acting? First of all, it seems that a successful scientist is full of curiosity - he wants to find out how and why the universe works. He usually directs his attention towards problems which he notices have no satisfactory explanation, and his curiosity makes him look for underlying relationships even if the data available seem to be unconnected. Moreover, he thinks he can improve the existing conditions and enjoys trying to solve the problems which this involves.He is a good observer, accurate, patient and objective and applies logical thought to the observations he makes. He utilizes the facts he observes to the fullest extent. For example, trained observers obtain a very large amount of information about a star mainly from the accurate analysis of the simple lines that appear in a spectrum.He is skeptical - he does not accept statements which are not based on the most complete evidence available - and therefore rejects authority as the sole basis for truth. Scientists always check statements and make experiments carefully and objectively to verify them.Furthermore, he is not only critical of the work of others, but also of his own, since he knows that man is the least reliable of scientific instruments and that a number of factors tend to disturb objective investigation.Lastly, he is highly imaginative since he often has to look for relationships in data which are not only complex but also frequently incomplete. Furthermore, he needs imagination if he wants to make hypotheses of how processes work and how events take place.These seem to be some of the ways in which a successful scientist or technologist thinks and acts.81. Many people believe that science helps society to progress throughA. applied knowledge.B. more than one aspect.C. technology only.D. the use of machines.82. Which of the following statements is INCORRECT about curiosity?A. It gives the scientist confidence and pleasure in work.B. It gives rise to interest in problems that are unexplained.C. It leads to efforts to investigate potential connections.D. It encourages the scientist to look for new ways of acting.83. According to the passage, a successful scientist would notA. easily believe in unchecked statements.B. easily criticize others' research work.C. always use his imagination in work.D. always use evidence from observation.84. What does the passage mainly discuss?A. Application of technology.B. Progress in modem society.C. Scientists' ways of thinking and acting.D. How to become a successful scientist.85. What is the author's attitude towards the topic?A. Critical.B. Objective.C. Biased.D. Unclear.TEXT BOver the past several decades, the U.S., Canada, and Europe have received a great deal of media and even research attention over unusual phenomena and unsolved mysteries. These include UFOs as well as sightings and encounters with "nonhuman creatures" such as Bigfoot and the Loch Ness monster. Only recently has Latin America begun to receive some attention as well. Although the mysteries of the Aztec, Mayan, and Inca civilizations have been known for centuries, now the public is also becoming aware of unusual, paranormal phenomena in countries such as Peru.The Nazca "lines" of Peru were discovered in the 1930s. These lines are deeply carved into a flat, stony plain, and form about 300 intricate pictures of animals such as birds, a monkey, and a lizard. Seen at ground level, the designs are a jumbled senseless mess. The images are so large that they can only be viewed at a height of 1,000 feet - meaning from an aircraft. Yet there were no aircraft in 300 B.C., when it is judged the designs were made. Nor were there then, or are there now, any nearby mountain ranges from which to view them. So how and why did the native people of Nazca create these marvelous designs? One answer appeared in 1969, when the German researcher and writer Erich von Daniken proposed that the lines were drawn by extraterrestrials as runways for their aircraft. The scientific community did not take long to scoffat and abandon von Daniken's theory. Over the years several other theories have been put forth, but none has been accepted by the scientificcommunity.Today there is a new and heightened interest in the Nazca lines. It is a direct result of the creation of the Internet. Currently there are over 60 sites dedicated to this mystery from Latin America's past, and even respected scientists have joined the discussion through e-mail and chat rooms.Will the Internet help explain these unsolved mysteries? Perhaps it is a step in the right direction.86. Which of the following statements is INCORRECT?A. Latin America has long received attention for unusual phenomena.B. Public attention is now directed towards countries like Peru.C. Public interest usually focuses on North America and Europe.D. Some ancient civilizations have unsolved mysteries.87. According to the passage, the Nazca lines were foundA. in mountains.B. in stones.C. on animals.D. on a plain.88. We can infer from the passage that the higher the lines are seen, the ____ the images they present.A. smallerB. largerC. clearerD. brighter89. There has been increasing interest in the Nazca lines mainly because ofA. the participation of scientists.B. the emergence of the lnternet.C. the birth of new theories.D. the interest in the Internet.90. The author is ____ about the role of the lnternet in solving mysteries.A. cautiousB. pessimisticC. uncertainD. optimisticTEXT CGraduation speeches are a bit like wedding toasts. A few are memorable. The rest tend to trigger such thoughts as, "Why did I wear such uncomfortable shoes?"But graduation speeches are less about the message than the messenger. Every year a few colleges and universities in the US attract attention because they've managed to book high-profile speakers. And, every year, the media report some of these speakers' wise remarks.Last month, the following words of wisdom were spread:"You really haven't completed the circle of success unless you can help somebody else move forward." (Oprah Winfrey, Duke University)."There is no way to stop change; change will come. Go out and give us a future worthy of the world we all wish to create together." (Hillary Clinton, New York University)."'This really is your moment. History is yours to bend." (Joe Biden, Wake Forest University).Of course, the real "get" of the graduation season was first lady Michelle Obama's appearance at the University of California, Merced. "Remember that you are blessed," she told the class of , "Remember that in exchange for those blessings, you must give something back... As advocate and activist Marian Wright Edelman says, 'Service is the rent we pay for living ... it is the true measure, the only measure of success'."Calls to service have a long, rich tradition in these speeches. However, it is possible for a graduation speech to go beyond cliche and say something truly compelling. The late writer David Foster Wallace's graduation speech at Kenyon College in Ohio talked about how to truly care about other people. It gained something of a cult after it was widelycirculated on the Internet. Apple Computer CEO Steve Jobs' address at Stanford University that year, in which he talked about death, is also considered one of the best in recent memory.But when you're sitting in the hot sun, fidgety and freaked out, do you really want to be lectured aboutthe big stuff?. Isn't that like trying to maintain a smile at your wedding reception while some relative gives a toast that amounts to "marriage is hard work"? You know he's right; you just don't want to think about it at that particular moment. In fact, as is the case in many major life moments, you can't really manage to think beyond the blisters your new shoes are causing.That may seem anticlimactic. But it also gets to the heart of one of life's greatest, saddest truths: that our most "memorable" occasions may elicit the fewest memories. It's probably not something most graduation speakers would say, but it's one of the first lessons of growing up.91. According to the passage, most graduation speeches tend to recall ____ memories.A. greatB. trivialC. unforgettableD. unimaginative92. "But graduation speeches are less about the message than the messenger" is explainedA. in the final paragraph.B. in the last but one paragraph.C. in the first paragraph.D. in the same paragraph.93. The graduation speeches mentioned in the passage are related to the following themes EXCEPTA. death.B. success.C. service.D. generosity.94. It is implied in the passage that at great moments people fail toA. remain clear-headed.B. keep good manners.C. remember others' words.D. recollect specific details.95. What is "one of the first lessons of growing up"?A. Attending a graduation ceremony.B. Listening to graduation speeches.C. Forgetting details of memorable events.D. Meeting high-profile graduation speakers.TEXT DCultural rules determine every aspect of food consumption. Who eats together defines social units. For example, in some societies, the nuclear family is the unit that regularly eats together. The anthropologist Mary Douglas has pointed out that, for the English, the kind of meal and the kind of food that is served relate to the kinds of social links between people who are eating together. She distinguishes between regular meals, Sunday meals when relatives may come, and cocktail parties for acquaintances. The food served symbolizes the occasion and reflects who is present. For example, only snacks are served at a cocktail party. It would be inappropriate to serve a steak or hamburgers. The distinctions among cocktails, regular meals, and special dinners mark the social boundaries between those guests who are invited for drinks, those who are invited to dinner, and those who come to a family meal. In this example, the type of food symbolizes the category of guest and with whom it is eaten.In some New Guinea societies, the nuclear family is not the unit that eats together. The men take their meals in a men's house, separately from their wives and children. Women prepare and eat their food in their own houses and take the husband's portion to the men's house. The women eat with their children in their own houses. This pattern is also widespread among Near Eastern societies.。

德国工业4.0原版

z
Intense research activities in universities and other research institutions Drastically increasing number of publications in recent years Large amount of funding by the German government
Model predictive control (MPC)
Modern, optimization-based control technique Successful applications in many industrial ﬁelds Can handle hard constraints on states and inputs Optimization of some performance criterion Applicable to nonlinear, MIMO systems
A system is strictly dissipative on a set W ⊆ Z with respect to the supply rate s if there exists a storage function λ such that for all (x , u ) ∈ W it holds that λ(f (x , u )) − λ(x ) ≤ s (x , u ) − ρ(x ) with ρ > 0.
k =0 x (k |t + 1) x (t + 1) state x input u t+1 u (k |t + 1) k =N
Basic MPC scheme

人教版高中英语选择性必修第四册UNIT3 Learning About 课件PPT

Activity 2
Join the words to make sentences using infinitives. Then decide the function of each infinitive.
EXAMPLE It is fun/visit an aquarium/in summer →It is fun to visit an aquarium in summer.（S）
3 A: Wow! I didn’t expect Pete __to__b_e___ (be) such a good swimmer!
B: _H__a_v_i_n_g__s_p_e_n_t__(spend) the past summer practising almost every day, he is now able __t_o__sw__i_m___ (swim)
2 A: Have you got the test result on the new medicine? B: Yes, it has proved _t_o__b_e______ (be) somewhat effective, but further testing remains _t_o__b_e__d_o_n__e (do).
3 Magellan/was the first person/sail around the world → Magellan was the first person to sail around the world.（Attr）
4 The UN peacekeeping force/aims/maintain peace and prevent armed conflicts → The UN peacekeeping force aims to maintain peace and prevent armed conflicts.（O）

PQIS手册

12.06.2007 9:56:01 Uhr
02_An_Overview_ZH.indd C2
02.07.2007 9:10:15 Uhr
02_An_Overview_ZH_ZW C3
12.06.2007 9:56:26 Uhr
02_An_Overview_ZH_ZW C4
12.06.2007 9:56:27 Uhr
List of keyword search results found.
Demarcation of PIWIS/PQIS
The previous method of documenting a workshop process in the PIWIS scope of labour is greatly simplified through PQIS.
Simplified assignment All parts and labour operations are to be selected under “Repair”. From here they can then be directly assigned to the corresponding job sequence in PQIS.
Independent job sequence “Campaign complete” with scope of labour
Campaign not feasible: Documentation using an independent line This case occurs when a campaign cannot be carried out on the vehicle involved for a specific reason. Having selected the relevant campaign, an appropriate reason is then selected.

大学英语能力素养进阶课程智慧树知到答案章节测试2023年齐鲁师范学院

绪论单元测试1.The film was so touching that I could hardly ______ my tears.（）A:hold onB:hold upC:hold backD:hold on to答案:C2.Generally _________, that city is less crowded than the others in the same state.（）A:speakingB:talkingC:tellingD:saying答案:C3.In the big flood, only 20 percent of the people in that village ________. （）A:survivedB:remainedC:livedD:stayed答案:C第一章测试1.How pleased the Emperor was （） what the cheats said!A:hearingB:heardC:hearD:to hear答案:D2.We should prevent pollution （） happily.A:from livingB:to liveC:to livingD:living答案:B3.I am busy now, so I can’t help （） the machine.A:fixingB:to have repairedC:repairingD:repair答案:D4.Jane came very close （） a gold medal for Britain in the Olympics.A:to be wonB:to winningC:to winD:winning答案:B5.The boy seated himself in the corner with his back （） to his father.A:to turnB:turnedC:to be turnedD:turning答案:B6.—-By the way, when did you get your bedroom （）—-Last week.A:paintingB:to paintC:to be paintedD:painted答案:D7.He likes （）, but he doesn’t like （） today because it is too cold.A:swimming; to swimB:to swim; to swimC:to swim; swimmingD:swimming; swimming答案:A8.There is （） what the weather will be like.A:no knowingB:not knowC:not knowingD:no known答案:A9.The novel is said （） into many languages.A:to have been translatedB:having been translatedC:being translatedD:to translate答案:A10.I’m examining the composition he has just finished （） the possiblemistakes in it.A:to correctB:correctedC:correctingD:correct答案:A第二章测试1.Your shoes want （）. You’d better do it right now.A:cleaningB:cleanedC:being cleanedD:clean答案:A2.He asks that he （）an opportunity to explain why he’s refused to go there.A:is givenB:must giveC:should giveD:be given答案:D3.That boy （） was bitten by a snake is in the hospital now.A:whomB:whoC:heD:which答案:B4.The new campus is （） as the old one.A:twice bigB:big as twiceC:twice as bigD:as twice big答案:C5.All of the people present agreed to discuss the issue at the next meeting （）Mr. Smith.A:thanB:exceptC:as toD:but for答案:B6.The reason is （） he is unable to operate the machine.A:thatB:whetherC:becauseD:why答案:A7.It was Doctor James （） we invited to give us a lecture.A:thatB:whatC:whichD:whom答案:AD8.The village （） my grandfather grew up is not far from our town.A:whichB:thatC:in whichD:where答案:CD9.If his dream of going to college will come true is uncertain. （）A:对B:错答案:B10.Either of girl is quite capable of the work. （）A:错B:对答案:A第三章测试1.There ______ no classes yesterday, we paid a visit to the Great Wall. （）A:wasB:beingC:had beenD:were答案:B2.The policeman rushed into the room only ______ an old lady lying on theground. （）A:foundB:findingC:to findD:find答案:C3.The boy lay on the ground, his eyes ______ and his hands ______. （）A:closing; trembledB:closing; tremblingC:closed; tremblingD:closed; trembled答案:C4.______, the girls raced on to the second runners. （）A:Sticks in handB:Sticks in handsC:With a stick in her handD:Stick in hand答案:D5.Each of them got up early ______ to catch the early bus. （）A:to hopeB:so thatC:hopingD:and答案:C6.How pleased the Emperor was ______ what the cheats said! （）A:hearingB:to hearC:heardD:hear答案:B7.We should prevent pollution ______ happily. （）A:from livingB:livingC:to liveD:to living答案:C8.I am busy now, so I can’t help ______ the machine.（）A:repairB:to have repairedC:fixingD:repairing答案:A9.Jane came very close ______ a gold medal for Britain in the Olympics. （）A:winningB:to winC:to be wonD:to winning答案:D10.The boy seated himself in the corner with his back ______ to his father. （）A:turningB:turnedC:to turnD:to be turned答案:B第四章测试1.播放听力资料recording 1，听音频，解答以下题目：答案:2.播放听力资料recording 2，听音频，解答以下题目：答案:3.播放听力资料recording 3，听音频，解答以下题目：答案:4.Town of Culture Award A group of labour MPs, among them Yvette Cooper,are bringing in the new year with a call to institute a UK “town of culture”award. The proposal is that it should sit alongside the existing city of culture title, which was held by Hull in 2017 and has been awarded to Coventry for 2017. Cooper and her colleagues argue that the success of the crown for Hull, where it brought in €220 million of investment and an avalanche of arts, out not to be confined to cities. Britain’ town, it is true are not prevented from applying, but they generally lack the resources to put together a bit to beat their bigger competitions. A town of culture award could, it is argued,become an annual event, attracting funding and creating jobs. Some might see the proposal as a boo by prize for the fact that Britain is no longer be able to apply for the much more prestigious title of European capital of culture, a sough-after award bagged by Glasgow in 1990 and Liverpool in 2008. A cynic might speculate that the UK is on the verge of disappearing into an endless fever of self-celebration in its desperation to reinvent itself for the post-Brexit world: after town of culture, who knows that will follow-village ofculture? Suburb of culture? Hamlet of culture? It is also wise to recall that such titles are not a cure-all. A badly run “year of culture” washes in and out of a place like the tide, bringing prominence for a spell but leaving no lasting benefits to the community. The really successful holders of such titles arethose that do a great deal more than fill hotel bedrooms and bring in high-profile arts events and good press for a year. They transform the aspirations of the people who live there; they nudge the self-image of the city into abolder and more optimistic light. It is hard to get right, and requires aremarkable degree of vision, as well as cooperation between city authorities, the private sector, community groups and cultural organization. But it can be done: Glasgow’s y ear as European capital of culture can certainly be seen as one of complex series of factors that have turned the city into the power of art, music and theatre that it remains today. A “town of culture” could be not just about the arts but about honori ng a town’s peculiarities-helpingsustain its high street, supporting local facilities and above all celebrating its people and turn it into action.答案:5. Scientific publishing has long been a licence to print money. Scientistsneed journals in which to publish their research, so they will supply thearticles without monetary reward. Other scientists perform the specialized work of peer review also for free, because it is a central element in theacquisition of status and the production of scientific knowledge. With the content of papers secured for free, the publisher needs only find a market for its journal. Until this century, university libraries were not very pricesensitive. Scientific publishers routinely report profit margins approaching 40% on their operations, at a time when the rest of the publishing industry is in an existential crisis. The Dutch giant Elsevier, which claims to publish 25%of the scientific papers produced in the world , made profits of more than£900m last year, while UK universities alone spent more than £210m in 2016 to enable researchers to access their own publicly funded research; bothfigures seem to rise unstoppably despite increasingly desperate efforts tochange them. The most drastic, and thoroughly illegal, reaction has been the emergence of Sci-Hub, a kind of global photocopier for scientific papers,set up in 2012, which now claims to offer access to every paywalled articlepublished since 2015. The success of Sci-Hub, which relies on researcherspassing on copies they have themselves legally accessed, shows the legalecosystem has lost legitimacy among its users and must be transformed sothat it works for all participants. In Britain the move towards openaccess publishing has been driven by funding bodies. In some ways it hasbeen very successful. More than half of all British scientific research is nowpublished under open access terms: either freely available from the moment of publication, or paywalled for a year or more so that the publishers canmake a profit before being placed on general release. Yet the new system has not worked out any cheaper for the universities. Publishers haveresponded to the demand that they make their product free to readers bycharging their writers fees to cover the costs of preparing an article. Theserange from around ￡500 to $5,000. A report last year pointed out that thecosts both of subscriptions and of these “article preparation costs”had beensteadily rising at a rate above inflation. In some ways the scientific publishing model resembles the economy of the social internet: labour is provided free in exchange for the hope of status, while huge profits are made by a few bigfirms who run the market places. In both cases, we need a rebalancing ofpower.答案:6.议论文写作中的An introductory paragraph（介绍段）should arouse thereader’s interest and （）the main idea of the essay.A:developB:ignoreC:EmphasizeD:introduce答案:D7.议论文写作时，下面哪三条符合“choice of words”（词汇选择）的原则？（）A:Arbitrariness 随意B:Conciseness简洁C:Accuracy准确D:Appropriateness 恰当答案:ABD8.议论文写作时，下面哪类句子是the core sentence of a paragraph（一个段落的核心句）。

热红外传感史

History of infrared detectorsA.ROGALSKI*Institute of Applied Physics, Military University of Technology, 2 Kaliskiego Str.,00–908 Warsaw, PolandThis paper overviews the history of infrared detector materials starting with Herschel’s experiment with thermometer on February11th,1800.Infrared detectors are in general used to detect,image,and measure patterns of the thermal heat radia−tion which all objects emit.At the beginning,their development was connected with thermal detectors,such as ther−mocouples and bolometers,which are still used today and which are generally sensitive to all infrared wavelengths and op−erate at room temperature.The second kind of detectors,called the photon detectors,was mainly developed during the20th Century to improve sensitivity and response time.These detectors have been extensively developed since the1940’s.Lead sulphide(PbS)was the first practical IR detector with sensitivity to infrared wavelengths up to~3μm.After World War II infrared detector technology development was and continues to be primarily driven by military applications.Discovery of variable band gap HgCdTe ternary alloy by Lawson and co−workers in1959opened a new area in IR detector technology and has provided an unprecedented degree of freedom in infrared detector design.Many of these advances were transferred to IR astronomy from Departments of Defence ter on civilian applications of infrared technology are frequently called“dual−use technology applications.”One should point out the growing utilisation of IR technologies in the civilian sphere based on the use of new materials and technologies,as well as the noticeable price decrease in these high cost tech−nologies.In the last four decades different types of detectors are combined with electronic readouts to make detector focal plane arrays(FPAs).Development in FPA technology has revolutionized infrared imaging.Progress in integrated circuit design and fabrication techniques has resulted in continued rapid growth in the size and performance of these solid state arrays.Keywords:thermal and photon detectors, lead salt detectors, HgCdTe detectors, microbolometers, focal plane arrays.Contents1.Introduction2.Historical perspective3.Classification of infrared detectors3.1.Photon detectors3.2.Thermal detectors4.Post−War activity5.HgCdTe era6.Alternative material systems6.1.InSb and InGaAs6.2.GaAs/AlGaAs quantum well superlattices6.3.InAs/GaInSb strained layer superlattices6.4.Hg−based alternatives to HgCdTe7.New revolution in thermal detectors8.Focal plane arrays – revolution in imaging systems8.1.Cooled FPAs8.2.Uncooled FPAs8.3.Readiness level of LWIR detector technologies9.SummaryReferences 1.IntroductionLooking back over the past1000years we notice that infra−red radiation(IR)itself was unknown until212years ago when Herschel’s experiment with thermometer and prism was first reported.Frederick William Herschel(1738–1822) was born in Hanover,Germany but emigrated to Britain at age19,where he became well known as both a musician and an astronomer.Herschel became most famous for the discovery of Uranus in1781(the first new planet found since antiquity)in addition to two of its major moons,Tita−nia and Oberon.He also discovered two moons of Saturn and infrared radiation.Herschel is also known for the twenty−four symphonies that he composed.W.Herschel made another milestone discovery–discov−ery of infrared light on February11th,1800.He studied the spectrum of sunlight with a prism[see Fig.1in Ref.1],mea−suring temperature of each colour.The detector consisted of liquid in a glass thermometer with a specially blackened bulb to absorb radiation.Herschel built a crude monochromator that used a thermometer as a detector,so that he could mea−sure the distribution of energy in sunlight and found that the highest temperature was just beyond the red,what we now call the infrared(‘below the red’,from the Latin‘infra’–be−OPTO−ELECTRONICS REVIEW20(3),279–308DOI: 10.2478/s11772−012−0037−7*e−mail: rogan@.pllow)–see Fig.1(b)[2].In April 1800he reported it to the Royal Society as dark heat (Ref.1,pp.288–290):Here the thermometer No.1rose 7degrees,in 10minu−tes,by an exposure to the full red coloured rays.I drew back the stand,till the centre of the ball of No.1was just at the vanishing of the red colour,so that half its ball was within,and half without,the visible rays of theAnd here the thermometerin 16minutes,degrees,when its centre was inch out of the raysof the sun.as had a rising of 9de−grees,and here the difference is almost too trifling to suppose,that latter situation of the thermometer was much beyond the maximum of the heating power;while,at the same time,the experiment sufficiently indi−cates,that the place inquired after need not be looked for at a greater distance.Making further experiments on what Herschel called the ‘calorific rays’that existed beyond the red part of the spec−trum,he found that they were reflected,refracted,absorbed and transmitted just like visible light [1,3,4].The early history of IR was reviewed about 50years ago in three well−known monographs [5–7].Many historical information can be also found in four papers published by Barr [3,4,8,9]and in more recently published monograph [10].Table 1summarises the historical development of infrared physics and technology [11,12].2.Historical perspectiveFor thirty years following Herschel’s discovery,very little progress was made beyond establishing that the infrared ra−diation obeyed the simplest laws of optics.Slow progress inthe study of infrared was caused by the lack of sensitive and accurate detectors –the experimenters were handicapped by the ordinary thermometer.However,towards the second de−cade of the 19th century,Thomas Johann Seebeck began to examine the junction behaviour of electrically conductive materials.In 1821he discovered that a small electric current will flow in a closed circuit of two dissimilar metallic con−ductors,when their junctions are kept at different tempera−tures [13].During that time,most physicists thought that ra−diant heat and light were different phenomena,and the dis−covery of Seebeck indirectly contributed to a revival of the debate on the nature of heat.Due to small output vol−tage of Seebeck’s junctions,some μV/K,the measurement of very small temperature differences were prevented.In 1829L.Nobili made the first thermocouple and improved electrical thermometer based on the thermoelectric effect discovered by Seebeck in 1826.Four years later,M.Melloni introduced the idea of connecting several bismuth−copper thermocouples in series,generating a higher and,therefore,measurable output voltage.It was at least 40times more sensitive than the best thermometer available and could de−tect the heat from a person at a distance of 30ft [8].The out−put voltage of such a thermopile structure linearly increases with the number of connected thermocouples.An example of thermopile’s prototype invented by Nobili is shown in Fig.2(a).It consists of twelve large bismuth and antimony elements.The elements were placed upright in a brass ring secured to an adjustable support,and were screened by a wooden disk with a 15−mm central aperture.Incomplete version of the Nobili−Melloni thermopile originally fitted with the brass cone−shaped tubes to collect ra−diant heat is shown in Fig.2(b).This instrument was much more sensi−tive than the thermometers previously used and became the most widely used detector of IR radiation for the next half century.The third member of the trio,Langley’s bolometer appea−red in 1880[7].Samuel Pierpont Langley (1834–1906)used two thin ribbons of platinum foil connected so as to form two arms of a Wheatstone bridge (see Fig.3)[15].This instrument enabled him to study solar irradiance far into its infrared region and to measure theintensityof solar radia−tion at various wavelengths [9,16,17].The bolometer’s sen−History of infrared detectorsFig.1.Herschel’s first experiment:A,B –the small stand,1,2,3–the thermometers upon it,C,D –the prism at the window,E –the spec−trum thrown upon the table,so as to bring the last quarter of an inch of the read colour upon the stand (after Ref.1).InsideSir FrederickWilliam Herschel (1738–1822)measures infrared light from the sun– artist’s impression (after Ref. 2).Fig.2.The Nobili−Meloni thermopiles:(a)thermopile’s prototype invented by Nobili (ca.1829),(b)incomplete version of the Nobili−−Melloni thermopile (ca.1831).Museo Galileo –Institute and Museum of the History of Science,Piazza dei Giudici 1,50122Florence, Italy (after Ref. 14).Table 1. Milestones in the development of infrared physics and technology (up−dated after Refs. 11 and 12)Year Event1800Discovery of the existence of thermal radiation in the invisible beyond the red by W. HERSCHEL1821Discovery of the thermoelectric effects using an antimony−copper pair by T.J. SEEBECK1830Thermal element for thermal radiation measurement by L. NOBILI1833Thermopile consisting of 10 in−line Sb−Bi thermal pairs by L. NOBILI and M. MELLONI1834Discovery of the PELTIER effect on a current−fed pair of two different conductors by J.C. PELTIER1835Formulation of the hypothesis that light and electromagnetic radiation are of the same nature by A.M. AMPERE1839Solar absorption spectrum of the atmosphere and the role of water vapour by M. MELLONI1840Discovery of the three atmospheric windows by J. HERSCHEL (son of W. HERSCHEL)1857Harmonization of the three thermoelectric effects (SEEBECK, PELTIER, THOMSON) by W. THOMSON (Lord KELVIN)1859Relationship between absorption and emission by G. KIRCHHOFF1864Theory of electromagnetic radiation by J.C. MAXWELL1873Discovery of photoconductive effect in selenium by W. SMITH1876Discovery of photovoltaic effect in selenium (photopiles) by W.G. ADAMS and A.E. DAY1879Empirical relationship between radiation intensity and temperature of a blackbody by J. STEFAN1880Study of absorption characteristics of the atmosphere through a Pt bolometer resistance by S.P. LANGLEY1883Study of transmission characteristics of IR−transparent materials by M. MELLONI1884Thermodynamic derivation of the STEFAN law by L. BOLTZMANN1887Observation of photoelectric effect in the ultraviolet by H. HERTZ1890J. ELSTER and H. GEITEL constructed a photoemissive detector consisted of an alkali−metal cathode1894, 1900Derivation of the wavelength relation of blackbody radiation by J.W. RAYEIGH and W. WIEN1900Discovery of quantum properties of light by M. PLANCK1903Temperature measurements of stars and planets using IR radiometry and spectrometry by W.W. COBLENTZ1905 A. EINSTEIN established the theory of photoelectricity1911R. ROSLING made the first television image tube on the principle of cathode ray tubes constructed by F. Braun in 18971914Application of bolometers for the remote exploration of people and aircrafts ( a man at 200 m and a plane at 1000 m)1917T.W. CASE developed the first infrared photoconductor from substance composed of thallium and sulphur1923W. SCHOTTKY established the theory of dry rectifiers1925V.K. ZWORYKIN made a television image tube (kinescope) then between 1925 and 1933, the first electronic camera with the aid of converter tube (iconoscope)1928Proposal of the idea of the electro−optical converter (including the multistage one) by G. HOLST, J.H. DE BOER, M.C. TEVES, and C.F. VEENEMANS1929L.R. KOHLER made a converter tube with a photocathode (Ag/O/Cs) sensitive in the near infrared1930IR direction finders based on PbS quantum detectors in the wavelength range 1.5–3.0 μm for military applications (GUDDEN, GÖRLICH and KUTSCHER), increased range in World War II to 30 km for ships and 7 km for tanks (3–5 μm)1934First IR image converter1939Development of the first IR display unit in the United States (Sniperscope, Snooperscope)1941R.S. OHL observed the photovoltaic effect shown by a p−n junction in a silicon1942G. EASTMAN (Kodak) offered the first film sensitive to the infrared1947Pneumatically acting, high−detectivity radiation detector by M.J.E. GOLAY1954First imaging cameras based on thermopiles (exposure time of 20 min per image) and on bolometers (4 min)1955Mass production start of IR seeker heads for IR guided rockets in the US (PbS and PbTe detectors, later InSb detectors for Sidewinder rockets)1957Discovery of HgCdTe ternary alloy as infrared detector material by W.D. LAWSON, S. NELSON, and A.S. YOUNG1961Discovery of extrinsic Ge:Hg and its application (linear array) in the first LWIR FLIR systems1965Mass production start of IR cameras for civil applications in Sweden (single−element sensors with optomechanical scanner: AGA Thermografiesystem 660)1970Discovery of charge−couple device (CCD) by W.S. BOYLE and G.E. SMITH1970Production start of IR sensor arrays (monolithic Si−arrays: R.A. SOREF 1968; IR−CCD: 1970; SCHOTTKY diode arrays: F.D.SHEPHERD and A.C. YANG 1973; IR−CMOS: 1980; SPRITE: T. ELIOTT 1981)1975Lunch of national programmes for making spatially high resolution observation systems in the infrared from multielement detectors integrated in a mini cooler (so−called first generation systems): common module (CM) in the United States, thermal imaging commonmodule (TICM) in Great Britain, syteme modulaire termique (SMT) in France1975First In bump hybrid infrared focal plane array1977Discovery of the broken−gap type−II InAs/GaSb superlattices by G.A. SAI−HALASZ, R. TSU, and L. ESAKI1980Development and production of second generation systems [cameras fitted with hybrid HgCdTe(InSb)/Si(readout) FPAs].First demonstration of two−colour back−to−back SWIR GaInAsP detector by J.C. CAMPBELL, A.G. DENTAI, T.P. LEE,and C.A. BURRUS1985Development and mass production of cameras fitted with Schottky diode FPAs (platinum silicide)1990Development and production of quantum well infrared photoconductor (QWIP) hybrid second generation systems1995Production start of IR cameras with uncooled FPAs (focal plane arrays; microbolometer−based and pyroelectric)2000Development and production of third generation infrared systemssitivity was much greater than that of contemporary thermo−piles which were little improved since their use by Melloni. Langley continued to develop his bolometer for the next20 years(400times more sensitive than his first efforts).His latest bolometer could detect the heat from a cow at a dis−tance of quarter of mile [9].From the above information results that at the beginning the development of the IR detectors was connected with ther−mal detectors.The first photon effect,photoconductive ef−fect,was discovered by Smith in1873when he experimented with selenium as an insulator for submarine cables[18].This discovery provided a fertile field of investigation for several decades,though most of the efforts were of doubtful quality. By1927,over1500articles and100patents were listed on photosensitive selenium[19].It should be mentioned that the literature of the early1900’s shows increasing interest in the application of infrared as solution to numerous problems[7].A special contribution of William Coblenz(1873–1962)to infrared radiometry and spectroscopy is marked by huge bib−liography containing hundreds of scientific publications, talks,and abstracts to his credit[20,21].In1915,W.Cob−lentz at the US National Bureau of Standards develops ther−mopile detectors,which he uses to measure the infrared radi−ation from110stars.However,the low sensitivity of early in−frared instruments prevented the detection of other near−IR sources.Work in infrared astronomy remained at a low level until breakthroughs in the development of new,sensitive infrared detectors were achieved in the late1950’s.The principle of photoemission was first demonstrated in1887when Hertz discovered that negatively charged par−ticles were emitted from a conductor if it was irradiated with ultraviolet[22].Further studies revealed that this effect could be produced with visible radiation using an alkali metal electrode [23].Rectifying properties of semiconductor−metal contact were discovered by Ferdinand Braun in1874[24],when he probed a naturally−occurring lead sulphide(galena)crystal with the point of a thin metal wire and noted that current flowed freely in one direction only.Next,Jagadis Chandra Bose demonstrated the use of galena−metal point contact to detect millimetre electromagnetic waves.In1901he filed a U.S patent for a point−contact semiconductor rectifier for detecting radio signals[25].This type of contact called cat’s whisker detector(sometimes also as crystal detector)played serious role in the initial phase of radio development.How−ever,this contact was not used in a radiation detector for the next several decades.Although crystal rectifiers allowed to fabricate simple radio sets,however,by the mid−1920s the predictable performance of vacuum−tubes replaced them in most radio applications.The period between World Wars I and II is marked by the development of photon detectors and image converters and by emergence of infrared spectroscopy as one of the key analytical techniques available to chemists.The image con−verter,developed on the eve of World War II,was of tre−mendous interest to the military because it enabled man to see in the dark.The first IR photoconductor was developed by Theodore W.Case in1917[26].He discovered that a substance com−posed of thallium and sulphur(Tl2S)exhibited photocon−ductivity.Supported by the US Army between1917and 1918,Case adapted these relatively unreliable detectors for use as sensors in an infrared signalling device[27].The pro−totype signalling system,consisting of a60−inch diameter searchlight as the source of radiation and a thallous sulphide detector at the focus of a24−inch diameter paraboloid mir−ror,sent messages18miles through what was described as ‘smoky atmosphere’in1917.However,instability of resis−tance in the presence of light or polarizing voltage,loss of responsivity due to over−exposure to light,high noise,slug−gish response and lack of reproducibility seemed to be inhe−rent weaknesses.Work was discontinued in1918;commu−nication by the detection of infrared radiation appeared dis−tinctly ter Case found that the addition of oxygen greatly enhanced the response [28].The idea of the electro−optical converter,including the multistage one,was proposed by Holst et al.in1928[29]. The first attempt to make the converter was not successful.A working tube consisted of a photocathode in close proxi−mity to a fluorescent screen was made by the authors in 1934 in Philips firm.In about1930,the appearance of the Cs−O−Ag photo−tube,with stable characteristics,to great extent discouraged further development of photoconductive cells until about 1940.The Cs−O−Ag photocathode(also called S−1)elabo−History of infrared detectorsFig.3.Longley’s bolometer(a)composed of two sets of thin plati−num strips(b),a Wheatstone bridge,a battery,and a galvanometer measuring electrical current (after Ref. 15 and 16).rated by Koller and Campbell[30]had a quantum efficiency two orders of magnitude above anything previously studied, and consequently a new era in photoemissive devices was inaugurated[31].In the same year,the Japanese scientists S. Asao and M.Suzuki reported a method for enhancing the sensitivity of silver in the S−1photocathode[32].Consisted of a layer of caesium on oxidized silver,S−1is sensitive with useful response in the near infrared,out to approxi−mately1.2μm,and the visible and ultraviolet region,down to0.3μm.Probably the most significant IR development in the United States during1930’s was the Radio Corporation of America(RCA)IR image tube.During World War II, near−IR(NIR)cathodes were coupled to visible phosphors to provide a NIR image converter.With the establishment of the National Defence Research Committee,the develop−ment of this tube was accelerated.In1942,the tube went into production as the RCA1P25image converter(see Fig.4).This was one of the tubes used during World War II as a part of the”Snooperscope”and”Sniperscope,”which were used for night observation with infrared sources of illumination.Since then various photocathodes have been developed including bialkali photocathodes for the visible region,multialkali photocathodes with high sensitivity ex−tending to the infrared region and alkali halide photocatho−des intended for ultraviolet detection.The early concepts of image intensification were not basically different from those today.However,the early devices suffered from two major deficiencies:poor photo−cathodes and poor ter development of both cathode and coupling technologies changed the image in−tensifier into much more useful device.The concept of image intensification by cascading stages was suggested independently by number of workers.In Great Britain,the work was directed toward proximity focused tubes,while in the United State and in Germany–to electrostatically focused tubes.A history of night vision imaging devices is given by Biberman and Sendall in monograph Electro−Opti−cal Imaging:System Performance and Modelling,SPIE Press,2000[10].The Biberman’s monograph describes the basic trends of infrared optoelectronics development in the USA,Great Britain,France,and Germany.Seven years later Ponomarenko and Filachev completed this monograph writ−ing the book Infrared Techniques and Electro−Optics in Russia:A History1946−2006,SPIE Press,about achieve−ments of IR techniques and electrooptics in the former USSR and Russia [33].In the early1930’s,interest in improved detectors began in Germany[27,34,35].In1933,Edgar W.Kutzscher at the University of Berlin,discovered that lead sulphide(from natural galena found in Sardinia)was photoconductive and had response to about3μm.B.Gudden at the University of Prague used evaporation techniques to develop sensitive PbS films.Work directed by Kutzscher,initially at the Uni−versity of Berlin and later at the Electroacustic Company in Kiel,dealt primarily with the chemical deposition approach to film formation.This work ultimately lead to the fabrica−tion of the most sensitive German detectors.These works were,of course,done under great secrecy and the results were not generally known until after1945.Lead sulphide photoconductors were brought to the manufacturing stage of development in Germany in about1943.Lead sulphide was the first practical infrared detector deployed in a variety of applications during the war.The most notable was the Kiel IV,an airborne IR system that had excellent range and which was produced at Carl Zeiss in Jena under the direction of Werner K. Weihe [6].In1941,Robert J.Cashman improved the technology of thallous sulphide detectors,which led to successful produc−tion[36,37].Cashman,after success with thallous sulphide detectors,concentrated his efforts on lead sulphide detec−tors,which were first produced in the United States at Northwestern University in1944.After World War II Cash−man found that other semiconductors of the lead salt family (PbSe and PbTe)showed promise as infrared detectors[38]. The early detector cells manufactured by Cashman are shown in Fig. 5.Fig.4.The original1P25image converter tube developed by the RCA(a).This device measures115×38mm overall and has7pins.It opera−tion is indicated by the schematic drawing (b).After1945,the wide−ranging German trajectory of research was essentially the direction continued in the USA, Great Britain and Soviet Union under military sponsorship after the war[27,39].Kutzscher’s facilities were captured by the Russians,thus providing the basis for early Soviet detector development.From1946,detector technology was rapidly disseminated to firms such as Mullard Ltd.in Southampton,UK,as part of war reparations,and some−times was accompanied by the valuable tacit knowledge of technical experts.E.W.Kutzscher,for example,was flown to Britain from Kiel after the war,and subsequently had an important influence on American developments when he joined Lockheed Aircraft Co.in Burbank,California as a research scientist.Although the fabrication methods developed for lead salt photoconductors was usually not completely under−stood,their properties are well established and reproducibi−lity could only be achieved after following well−tried reci−pes.Unlike most other semiconductor IR detectors,lead salt photoconductive materials are used in the form of polycrys−talline films approximately1μm thick and with individual crystallites ranging in size from approximately0.1–1.0μm. They are usually prepared by chemical deposition using empirical recipes,which generally yields better uniformity of response and more stable results than the evaporative methods.In order to obtain high−performance detectors, lead chalcogenide films need to be sensitized by oxidation. The oxidation may be carried out by using additives in the deposition bath,by post−deposition heat treatment in the presence of oxygen,or by chemical oxidation of the film. The effect of the oxidant is to introduce sensitizing centres and additional states into the bandgap and thereby increase the lifetime of the photoexcited holes in the p−type material.3.Classification of infrared detectorsObserving a history of the development of the IR detector technology after World War II,many materials have been investigated.A simple theorem,after Norton[40],can be stated:”All physical phenomena in the range of about0.1–1 eV will be proposed for IR detectors”.Among these effects are:thermoelectric power(thermocouples),change in elec−trical conductivity(bolometers),gas expansion(Golay cell), pyroelectricity(pyroelectric detectors),photon drag,Jose−phson effect(Josephson junctions,SQUIDs),internal emis−sion(PtSi Schottky barriers),fundamental absorption(in−trinsic photodetectors),impurity absorption(extrinsic pho−todetectors),low dimensional solids[superlattice(SL), quantum well(QW)and quantum dot(QD)detectors], different type of phase transitions, etc.Figure6gives approximate dates of significant develop−ment efforts for the materials mentioned.The years during World War II saw the origins of modern IR detector tech−nology.Recent success in applying infrared technology to remote sensing problems has been made possible by the successful development of high−performance infrared de−tectors over the last six decades.Photon IR technology com−bined with semiconductor material science,photolithogra−phy technology developed for integrated circuits,and the impetus of Cold War military preparedness have propelled extraordinary advances in IR capabilities within a short time period during the last century [41].The majority of optical detectors can be classified in two broad categories:photon detectors(also called quantum detectors) and thermal detectors.3.1.Photon detectorsIn photon detectors the radiation is absorbed within the material by interaction with electrons either bound to lattice atoms or to impurity atoms or with free electrons.The observed electrical output signal results from the changed electronic energy distribution.The photon detectors show a selective wavelength dependence of response per unit incident radiation power(see Fig.8).They exhibit both a good signal−to−noise performance and a very fast res−ponse.But to achieve this,the photon IR detectors require cryogenic cooling.This is necessary to prevent the thermalHistory of infrared detectorsFig.5.Cashman’s detector cells:(a)Tl2S cell(ca.1943):a grid of two intermeshing comb−line sets of conducting paths were first pro−vided and next the T2S was evaporated over the grid structure;(b) PbS cell(ca.1945)the PbS layer was evaporated on the wall of the tube on which electrical leads had been drawn with aquadag(afterRef. 38).。

快递物流网络优化研究外文文献翻译1

文献出处 : Humble M . The study of ex press log i stics netw ork optimization [ J ] . Operations R esearch Perspectives, 2016 , 6 ( 3) : 106 -115 .原文The study of ex press log istics netw ork optim izationHumble MA bstractEx press industry as an important part of m odern log istics industry to become one of the fastest g row ing industries in recent y ears. The rapid development of ex press industry lead to a lot of capital inflow ex press delivery m arket, thus express companies, there are many sizes for g rab market resources, the com petition betw een enterprises is becoming more and fiercer. Ex cessive com petition caused a lot of w aste of resources, reduce the utilization of resources, and increase the cost of log i stics. In order to solve these problems need to integ ra te the express industry resources, increase the concentration of industry level. A nd C ourier companies merg ers and reorg anization is the integ ration betw een the express industry resources, ex press delivery industry competitiveness effective w a y. Express log i stics netw ork in the ex press industry i s reg arded as ex press the l ifeblood of enterprises, of w hich the end of the service netw ork (hereinafter referred to as end nodes), the distribution center, the urban reg ional hub ( hereinafter referred to as the reg ional hub) and the num ber of spatial lay out directly determines the operation m ode of delivery a nd quality of operations. Therefore, under the merg er restructuring enterprises express log i stics netw ork optim ization integ ration to ex press the development of the enterprise after the m erg er and reorg anization play s a decisive role.Key w ords: M erg ers and reorg anization; Netw ork optimization integ ra tion; End node; Distribution center1 IntroductionLog is tics netw ork theory is the inevitable outcome of the development of log istics manag ement research Gum constantly, is a standardized, sy stematic and scientific research important w a y of m odern log istics, i t ex panded the log i stics netw ork operations research new tra in of thoug ht, provides a theoretical basis for the log i stics netw ork optim ization. DJ B ow ers ( 2007 ) put forw ard the theory of supply chain log istics integ ra tion, and based on log istics, w a rehouse location, transportation cost, inventory cost, e tc , integ ra ting advanced the theory of integ rationa rchitecture. M S R am m . ( 2009 ) integ ra ted log i stics netw ork i s a c losed loop integ rated forw ard/re verse log i stics netw ork, including production/re covery, m ix ed distribution, custom ers, collecting and processing center, etc., first used to determine the m ix ed integ er linear prog ram m ing model for log i stics netw ork integ ration, and then in uncertain scenarios using the mix ed integ er l inear prog ram ming model, the model can avoid suboptimal results caused by separation and continuous. M a ria B oiler mud ( 2013 ) in a nonlinear integ er model to solve the dy namic integ ra ted forw ard and reverse distribution netw ork desig n model double H standards to minim ize transport costs a nd tim e; Integ ra ted log i stics netw ork facility location problem to improve the efficiency of forw ard and reverse log istics, mainly i s the determ ination of three ty pes of facilities, w arehouse ( log i stics), collection centers ( reverse log i stics) and mix ed facilities ( forw ard and reverse log istics).2Ex press log istics netw ork2.1 1 S ummary of log i stics netw orkDonald j . B ow er and David i ts loss in the book of the process of log i stics m anag ement, supply chain integ ration points out that the w hole log i stics netw ork desig n has a direct impact on the log i stics efficiency, to provide customer service capabilities and cost mainly by num ber of log i stics facilities, the influence of the practical factors such as scale; Essential part of netw ork la y out desig n i s to determ ine the num ber of every k ind of facilities, location and job, etc.; In the constantly chang ing competitive environment, the ty pes of products, customer dema nd chang es a t the mom ent, so perfecting the infrastructure netw ork to adapt to the chang e of supply and demand i s very important. R onald h. B a l loon ( 2010 ) arg ues that the essence of the netw ork structure problem i s to determine from to the customer's netw ork structure, including the facility ty pe, num ber, location and each facility betw een the determ ination of amount of products and custom ers; In his book "log istics manag ement", l ists the data needed for log i stics netw ork integ ration, and put forw ard the evaluation and the evaluation of enterprise log istics netw ork in the g eneral audit criteria. L og i stics netw ork has the follow ing characteristics: log i stics netw ork has the characteristics of hig h efficiency. The g oal of log i stics netw ork is the low est cost for a shorter time w ould be delivered g oods in g ood condition of the demand s ide, the max imum com bination of log i stics and inform a tion flow, cash flow to achieve "zero inventory, a short period of time, no interm i ttent transmission" i s the ideal state. The openness of the log i s tics i s netw ork. Openness i sthe foundation of log i stics nodes can be throug h the public netw ork, a ll nodes connected directly or indirectly. L og i stics netw ork openness enables each node and other nodes ex chang e information quickly, processing business. Pilot log i s tics netw ork inform a tion.W idespread use of mechanization and automation equipment can g reatly improve the level of inform a tion of log i stics netw ork, but the collection, manag ement, analy sis and m ining equipm ent in the process of log i stics information i s more important. The information in the log istics netw ork throug hout the log istics activity a lw a y s , to the operation of log istics netw ork as a w hole have the function of the g uidance and integ ra tion. Log istics netw ork has the s ize advantag e . S cale i s the important a ims of log i stics netw ork. Dispersion formed in the fie ld of log i stics, log i stics netw ork nodes and the characteristic of manag ement, w i l l hig hlig ht i ts scale advantag e . Throug h la rg e-scale joint operation of log istics nodes can fully improve the effic iency of the w hole operation of the log i stics netw ork, reduce the cost of the overall operation, reliance on a sing le node of log i stics netw ork is a l so s ig nificantly reduced; C an't w ork normally even if there i s a node, other nodes can quickly m ak e up for i t, resist risk ability.2.2 2 The characteristics of the ex press log istics netw orkEx press log i stics netw ork m a inly includes three parts, main transport netw orks, and distribution netw orks, from end off. Every part of the netw ork composition and the exercise of the functions of each are not identical. B ackbone transport netw ork i s ma inly betw een reg ional hub and reg ional hub and distribution center of the netw ork, i t i s ma inly long distance transportation, mainly by car and a i r transport w a y. Distribution netw ork is mainly betw een distribution center and end node netw ork, g oods distribution throug h the distribution centers, arrived a t the end of the subordinate branches. From end off netw ork composed of customers and end node, i t i s the first l ink i s the final l ink of express delivery business, is a lso an im portant part of the customer experience.The different methods of delivery of g oods produced tw o ty pes of netw orks: shaft ty pe and the entire company g eneral form ula ex press log i stics netw ork. A m ong them, the major structure of the radiation i s the hub of partition netw ork characteristics, in each partition can have one or more of the hub, the hub node can not only send and receive the g oods w i thin the reg ion but a l so can connect other areas of the hub node, transit and sorting is a l so i ts function. In the ax i s of the ty pe express log i stics netw ork, transport of g oods need to transport to the hub node, throug h sortingtransit hub node before handing out again. Fully connected netw ork i s any node is ex chang ed betw een, should have the shipping l ine directly connected. The connected netw ork can realize g oods direct ty pe distribution betw een any nodes on the netw ork, but this w a y of distribution w i l l be an additional shipping cost. B ecause of the dispersed distribution and sm a l l features express C ourier companies i s the main distribution object, so ax ia l radial express m ore than log istics netw ork a l l over a long w i th the netw ork helps to improve log istics resources integ ra tion, log istics resource utilization, to reduce log i stics cost, shaft f ty pe ex press log i stics netw ork more in l ine w i th the actual situation of delivery operation.3The com position of ex press log i s tics netw ork3 .1 Delivery terminal netw orkDelivery a t the end of the node is the beg inning of the express log i stics netw ork point and end point, its main function i s to Posting and expresses m a i l delivery. End points a re m a inly distributed in express business covered a rea, i t i s a hub betw een customers and express log istics netw ork, i t i s the m ost closely relationship w ith the customer.3.2 2 Ex press transit centerFedEx transit node is mainly to ex press log istics netw ork of ex press distribution and transport. In the ex press industry g enerally call forw a rding nodes distribution center. Distribution center is that i t i s important to ex press the importance of sorting and distributing node, a lthoug h it i s not eng ag ed in com m odity concrete production, but i t carried from other outlets to express according to the actual situation of their concentration, distribution and transport, so as to realize ex press process from scattered to centralized and decentralized. La rg e ex press transit center a l s o know n as the reg ional hub, i s mainly responsible for an area of ex press distribution processing w ork. R eg ional hub location and capacity of the entire netw ork transit time and produce a g reat impact on the transport capacity. Ex press delivery reg ional hub of the distribution center, unified handling after i t s focus to send to other reg ional hub or sent to the affilia te distribution centers. FedEx transit center location, quantity, and the determination of position, usually to com prehensively consider the g oods categ ory, quantity, flow, traffic conditions, g eog raphical location, timeliness, urban planning and policy, a nd other transit center connecting relations, operation efficiency and other factors.3.3 3 Ex press log i stics operation netw orkEx press operation of the netw ork i s m a inly composed of backbone transport netw ork, distribution netw ork and term inal to send three parts. A mong them , the backbone transport netw ork i s m a inly composed of reg ional hub and distribution center, distribution netw ork mainly distribution center and end node; from end off the netw ork by the end of branches and customer focus point. U sually express log i stics netw ork, the netw ork backbone netw ork structure for shaft ty pe netw ork, mostly adopt m ore hub shaft radial netw ork; From distribution netw ork and end off netw ork mainly based on the principle of reg ional scope of radiation distance and w i th the m ethod of partition manag em ent. The ex press log istics netw ork is the core part of the backbone transport netw ork; it is the assurance of delivery tim eliness. B ackbone netw ork process i s conducted w i thin the enterprise, the optimization of the backbone netw ork mainly from the perspective of the cost or expense. From end off netw ork because of c lose contact w i th customers, i s express enterprise and customer direct interaction betw een the nodes, not only consider the cost on i ts optim ization integ ra tion problems, should think more custom ers w i th better service ex perience for the m a in purpose, pay a ttention to the m ining of customer dem and information, optim ized and integ rated send l ink.Delivery of the entire process is as follow s : w hen the c l ient needs to send a , can throug h the phone, the w ebsite of C ourier company or to the end node, send a request, a fter receiving member w i l l charg e customers express according to the s i tuation; R eceipt a t the end of the class member take the ex press m a i l delivery to the end node, w i l l ex press, documents and other inform a tion w i th the staff of the term inal branch transfer processing , thus completes a w a rehousing operations; Outlets w arehouse controller according to the local distribution center a t the end of the transit fl ig hts w i l l express mail sent to the local distribution centers, i t i s called the sender homew ork; Express mail a rrived a t the distribution center, sorting , a l l ex press direction as conditions after sorting to a rrang e transportation a fter a brief storag e ( depending on the situation on the mode of transportation to choose tra ins, cars, planes, etc.).A fter the ex press arrival a t the reg ional hub of the c i ty, according to express the destination address ag a in points to the distribution center, and then, throug h the distribution netw ork to send the g oods to the terminal outlets;译文快递物流网络优化研究Humble M摘要快递业作为现代物流业的重要组成部分成为最近几年发展最快的行业之一。

Trane 制造的冷却和冷藏设备操作手册说明书

PROD-SVX01F-GBAddendum to Manuals for units with refrigerant, for conformity to the Pressure Equipment Directive (PED)97/23/EC or 2014/68/EU and Machinery Directive 2006/42/ECOriginal instructionsThis manual covers equipment manufactured by T rane or for T rane by the following manufacturer: Société Trane, 1 rue des Amériques 88190, Golbey FRANCER1233zd4.5This equipment contains a ﬂ uorinated gas covered by the Kyoto Protocol.The type and quantity of refrigerant per circuit is indicated on the product nameplate.The Global Warming Potential of the refrigerant implemented in T rane Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Equipment is presented in the table by type of refrigerant in accordance with EU regulation 517/2014/EU:F-gas.The operator (contractor or end user) must check local environmental regulations impacting installation, operation and disposal of the equipment; in particular need to recover environmentally harmful substances (refrigerant, oil, antifreeze agents, etc.).Do not vent into the atmosphere any refrigerant. T he handling of refrigerant shall be fulﬁ lled by a qualiﬁ ed service engineer. This document applies to all T RANE brand refrigeration units relating to, amongst other items:• c ompliance with requirements of the Pressure Equipment Directive 97/23/EC or 2014/68/EU, • t he Machinery Directive 2006/42/EC, and their transcription into national law.Users must also refer to national or local regulations relating to the installation, use and periodic checking of such equipment.1. Responsibilities1.1. Design/manufactureTRANE is responsible in its capacity asmanufacturer, for the equipment produced underthe T RANE brand and for conformity assessmentprocedures, according to applicable regulationsand the risk categories set out by theseregulations.For the Pressure Equipment Directive, T RANE shallalso assess the entire machine as a whole.1.2. Operation/RepairThe owner of the refrigeration unit is responsiblefor applying national regulations relating toinstallation, commissioning, operation ofpressure equipment and assemblies and for theperiodic checks which are governed by nationalor local regulations applicable for the site of theinstallation. In addition, the owner is responsiblefor keeping the regulatory documents which hehas been given in a safe place and, should thecase arise, for updating the monitoring ﬁ le andany other administrative formalities (declarations,periodic inspections, requaliﬁ cation).The ﬁ nal user is responsible for carrying out anymaintenance, monitoring and repairs required toensure the equipment continues to operate safely.If the operator has the requisite skills to do so, hemust carry out the necessary operations to ensurethe equipment operates safely, or if he does not,he must arrange for a skilled technician to carryout these operations. He must decommissionthe equipment if the safety of the equipment isimpaired.The ﬁ nal user must have the necessary personnelto operate, monitor and carry out maintenanceon pressure equipment. He must provide saidpersonnel with all the necessary documents forthe performance of these tasks. 2. ResidualrisksRefrigeration units carry the following risks to which the user must pay particular attention and the user must wear Personal Protective Equipment which is suitable for all operations:• R isk of hot or cold surfaces: compressors, all connecting pipes, tank and oil separator• R isk of cuts: heat exchanger ﬁ ns, sharp edges on parts and metal panels• R isk of moving parts: fans, motors, belt-driven transmissions,• E lectrical risks: any cabinet or component ﬁ tted with a visible electrical power cable.• R isk of pressurised ﬂ uids: the refrigeration circuit containing refrigerant and a pressurised lubricant.Any ﬂ uid(s) must be collected before openingthe circuit or when disassembling a componentaccording to current regulations• R isk of asphyxiation: an accidental rejection of refrigerant in a closed area may cause a lack ofoxygen. T he machinery should be installed in awell ventilated room (see EN 378-3).• R isk of scald: Do not block any refrigerant leak with the ﬁ nger or other body parts. If contactwith skin, wash with water and soap. In case ofrefrigerant projection in the eye, immediatelyrinse thoroughly with water and visit a doctor.3. Caution for installation and use• I nstall and connect using the guidelines given in the T rane literature. Any part of the machineryshould not be used as a step, rack, support orlifting device, except those foreseen for this.• D o not get on the unit. Use an appropriate platform or stepladder.• T he piping shall not transfer any axial or radial load, nor vibration to the pressure vessels.• A t the ﬁ rst start, the end user has to opena logbook for the record of the service andmaintenance operations.• T he insulating materials used by T RANE are chemically neutral so as not to react with pipingand container materials.4.P ressure Equipment included inrefrigeration systemsThe pressure equipment shall be used for their intended working conditions mentioned on the product nameplate. T he additional loads due to wind, snow, ice, earthquake have not been considered.The refrigerants used by T RANE are classed in group 2 (non-corrosive, non-toxic, non-inﬂ ammable).Note: if changing the refrigerant, the operator must ensure that:• t he new refrigerant is classed in the same group • t he pressure does not exceed the maximum allowable pressure indicated on the variouscomponents.• t he new refrigerant does not cause anycompatibility issues with the equipment ﬁ tted tothe machine.• I f you require further information, please contact your local T rane sales ofﬁ ce.The water side of the heat exchangers is designed for category 2 ﬂ uids. T his includes solutions containing antifreeze such as for example:Ethylene glycol – CAS number 107-21-1 classiﬁ cation Acute T ox. 4 H302 according to regulation 1272/2008/EC.Propylene glycol - CAS number 57-55-6 – not classiﬁ ed under Acute T ox. 4 H302 and according to regulation 1272/2008/EC.When solutions containing antifreeze are used, periodic checks of the following as a minimum:• t he concentration• t he presence of corrosion inhibitors must be carried out:• w ithin the ﬁ rst two months of charging • t hen at appropriate intervals according to the manufacturer’s recommendations for these products.4.1. P rotecting the system againstexceeding of permissible limitsThe admissible limits for T RANE refrigerationmachines are indicated on the product nameplate.RTAC R134a 1425RTAER134a13.724The protection against exceeding the allowable limits and the choice of safety devices result from an analysis of the dangers and the application of standards EN 378-1 and EN378-2 last version.The relations between the different protective devices are taken from the annex D of EN14276-1.For heat exchangers with a water circuit, the maximum water temperature is the following:ScrewR134a/R513A14561661166121722580ﬁ tted by the customer.Protection for TRANE machinery:Protection against exceeding of allowable limitsis provided according to the requirements of EN 378-2:• T he independent circuit pressure generator or generators (compressor/s) are protected by a manual or automatic reset pressure switch.• F or equipment ﬁ tted with screw compressor(s), the circuit is protected by one or more safety valves.• F or equipment ﬁ tted with scroll-typecompressor(s), no safety valve is required for standard equipment Note: details of the protective devices is given in the Declaration of Conformity of the assembly.RTUD, CCUN, CCUH and RAULFor «split» units: the ﬁ tter is responsible for ﬁ tting a safety valve if at least one of the following conditions is met:• t he pressure generator is a screw compressor (RTUD);• o ne of the pressure equipment to be connected has a maximum allowable pressure (PS) up to the value indicated on the product nameplate;• t he refrigerant charge can be isolated in one or more pressure equipment by a valve that can be operated without any tool by a non-authorized person as deﬁ ned in EN 378-2.If the site added equipment have a PS lower thanthe PS stated on the T RANE product nameplate, it is recommended to add a second pressure switch is in series with the T RANE high pressure switch. The second pressure switch shall have the following characteristics:• S etting below the T RANE safety pressure switch • S etting below any additional safety accessories added on site (refer to annex D of the EN14276-1)• M odiﬁ cation of the control module settingparameter (refer to appropriate T RANE document or contact your local T rane sales ofﬁ ce)In any case, all modiﬁ cations of the T RANE equipment shall be documented and appropriate documentation (Declaration of conformity, justiﬁ cation, etc.) shall be added to the equipment documentation ﬁ le.The safety valves must be selected by the ﬁ tter according to• h is assessment of any dangerous phenomena • t he various components used• a ny speciﬁ c requirements relating to the site.If there will be a supply of heat close to the machine, the customer must protect the machine in accordance with current local Building and Fire Safety Regulations.All pressure safety devices are supplied factory-set by the manufacturer. T he safety valves are sealed to prevent the valve rating from being modiﬁ ed. T he pressuresetting is indicated on the body of the valve or on a label on the valve. If the sealing is damaged, the safety valve must be replaced immediately.Under no circumstances must the settings of the safety devices exceed the values for the maximum allowable pressure indicated on the product nameplate.To ﬁ nd out• t he type and number of safety devices ﬁ tted tothe equipment : see the declaration of conformity for the unit or any other document for split type systems.• t he safety device speciﬁ cations: contact your nearest T RANE service team.Fitting the valvesCase 1The safety valves are ﬁ tted to the line or on apressure vessel. T he replacement of the safetyvalve should only be carried out:• W hen the machine is switched off• W hen the refrigerant charge is removed (in the refrigerating part protected by the safety valve)• B y a skilled engineer and always under his direct supervision.Case 2The safety valves are factory-ﬁ tted on achangeover device which is ﬁ tted with a safetyvalve on each of the two outlets. Ensure that thechangeover switch is never in the intermediateposition, i.e. with two crossovers (move theoperating device to its end stop). If a safety valveis removed to be checked or replaced, ensure thatthere is always an active safety valve on each ofthe changeover switches ﬁ tted to the unit.When rupture discs are ﬁ tted, they are alwaysﬁ tted before the safety valve. T o ensure thatthe disc is always leaktight, check the pressurebetween the disc and the safety valve using apressure gauge. If the pressure equals that of thedevice to be protected, replace the rupture disc.IMPORTANT: when ﬁ tting the equipment, take intoaccount the risk of opening the safety valves interms of personal safety or nearby air extractionsystems.Do not block or switch up the safety devices.Do not install the safety valves in series orconversely.In some cases, it may be necessary to connect the safety valve outlet to a drain line. Under no circumstances should the loss of pressure in this line exceed the value stated in the standard EN 13136, «Refrigerating systems and heat pumps — Pressure relief devices and their associated piping — Methods for calculation» or the value given by the valve manufacturer.When isolation valves are installed between HP and LP sides in the refrigerating system, it should be only used by a skilled engineer with a speciﬁ c tool. If not, the valve shall be blocked in opened position before starting the refrigerating system.4.2 Checks and InspectionsNational and local regulations may deﬁ ne the checks and inspections to be carried out on the equipment installed. The contents, the qualiﬁ cation of operators and the frequency of these operations differ for each regulation. All checks and inspections have to be recorded in the unit logbook.However, T rane recommends the following are checked on at least an annual basis:• T hat the pressure equipment matches thetypes and models stated on the declaration ofconformity;• T hat the settings are suited for the maximum allowable conditions;• T hat the pressure switch is operating correctly (manual test lever);• B y means of a visual inspection of the valve, check:• T hat the seal is leaktight;• T hat the safety valve operates correctly,providing adequate protection for theequipment to which it is ﬁ tted;• T hat the valve outlet is not blocked (by dust, objects, etc.).• T hat there is no external oxidation,• T hat there is no damage,• T hat the seal is intact• B y means of a general visual inspection of the condition of the various pieces of pressureequipment check:• f or corrosion of metal parts (frame, outerpanels, switch boxes, exchangers)• t hat there is no frost or humidity, particularly under the insulating materials• r egular and follow-up applications ofanticorrosion product for use in water• t hat there are no vibrations or unusual noises• a ll other parameters which establish that the installation is in a good condition5.R epairing machines and replacing thesafety devicesAny repairs or changes to be made to pressure equipment, including safety devices, must be carried out in accordance with national regulations covering such equipment and parts.Note: any repair or operation on a refrigeration unit which may generate heat (brazing, welding etc.) mustbe carried out with the machine empty of refrigerantand under an inert atmosphere when there is a riskof oxidation. T ake particular care not to introduce any oxygen into the machine: there is a risk of it exploding with the oils and lubricantsA safety device must only be replaced by a safetydevice of the same type, having at least equivalentspeciﬁ cations. Otherwise, a sizing report must be attached to the follow-up document.The «CE» declaration of conformity for the new device must be attached to the follow-up document.Depending on the application and the operator’s experience of safety devices; T RANE recommends that the safety valves are replaced in the following cases:• t he points checked during the periodic check above are not observed;• t he valve has already been operated;• t he seal is no longer leaktight;• i f the requirements of national regulations in force in the country in which the equipment is installedare no longer observed;• f or territories covered by French regulations: in the6 months preceding periodic requaliﬁ cation (as setout in Article 26 of the amended Ministerial Decreeof 15 March 2000 and related circular BSEI 06-080of 6 March 2006 article 26b) for equipment with apressure volume product above 3000 bar.litre.With the exception of the periodic requaliﬁ cations required by national regulations, pressure equipment must never exceed the maximum value indicated on the product nameplate.The quality of ﬂ uid used in the machine must meet the commercial speciﬁ cations for refrigerants as deﬁ ned in standards such as ARI 700 and NF E 29-785.Some precautions have to be taken in changing the refrigerant type:• T he refrigerant shall have been approved by T rane and the compatibility with the material used in therefrigerant system (oil, copper, gasket,…) has tobe checked• T he saturated pressure at the maximum working temperature shall not exceed the maximum workingpressure indicated on the product nameplate;• T he maximum working pressure shall not change the risk category of the pressure equipmentincluded and the assembly;• T he parameters set in the module of regulation have to be checked for the new refrigerant.• A n approval for use from the manufacturer has to be included in the unit logbook Any leak detected during periodic checks or inspections has to be repaired.TRANE recommends performing periodic oil analysesto ensure that there is no acidiﬁ cation or usual water content which could lead to corrosion in the refrigeration circuit.If the machine is not used for prolonged periods, theﬁ nal user takes all dispositions to keep the pressure equipment in a well working state and carry out the accrodingly periodic cheks. In particular, perform periodic inspections to check that the stop valves are not leaking.6. MachinedocumentationAll the regulatory documentation supplied when the equipment was commissioned must be kept in a safe place by subsequent owners of the equipment. T his documentation includes:• t he «CE» declaration(s) of conformity provided by the manufacturers,• t he T RANE instruction manual(s),• a record of all changes made to the machine during its service life.The safety valve is manufactured, set and sealed by the manufacturer according to a module of evaluation of the PED. T he EC declaration of conformity delivered is also the setting certiﬁ cate.Refer to local or national regulations for details of how long records of inspection and regulatory checks should be held on ﬁ le.If no period is speciﬁ ed, T RANE recommends holding records on ﬁ le for the duration of the service life of the machine or equipment.7. C ontents of the EC declaration ofconformity for Machinery directive(article 1.7.4.2 c)The EC declaration of conformity or declaration of incorporation is issued as a separate document which contains the following:• n ame and address of manufacturer• n ame and address of the person authorized to compile the technical ﬁ le• r eference of equipment (type, model) and for some of them serial number• L ist of all applicable EU directives which request the CE marking• L ist of harmonized standard and other technical document• D ate, location, name and function of signatoryIn case of Partly Completed Machinery (PCM), the exhaustive list of Essential requirement of Annex I of machinery directive is fulﬁ lled, a statement that the PCM must not be put in service until ﬁ nal completion of conformity assessment procedure and a statement to transmit the relevant information to market surveillance authorities.Trane optimizes the performance of homes and buildings around the world. A business of Ingersoll Rand, the leader in creating and sustaining safe, comfortable and energy efﬁcient environments, Trane offers a broad portfolio of advanced controls and HVAC systems, comprehensive building services and parts. For more information visit © 2015 T rane All rights reservedPROD-SVX01F-GB June 2015 Supersedes: PROD-SVX01E-E4 May 2014We are committed to using environmentally conscious print practices that reduce waste.。

交通行业术语中英文对照

交通行业术语（中英文对照）Stop-line——停车线? Acongestedlink——阻塞路段? Weightingfactor——权重因子? Controller——控制器? EmissionsModel——排气仿真? thetrafficpattern——交通方式? Controller——信号机?Amber——黄灯?Start-updelay——启动延误? Losttime——损失时间?Off-peak——非高峰期? Themorningpeak——早高峰? Pedestriancrossing——人行横道? Coordinatedcontrolsystems——协调控制系统?Two-way——双向交通?AbsoluteOffset——绝对相位差? OverlappingPhase——搭接相位?CriticalPhase——关键相位?ChangeInterval——绿灯间隔时间?FlowRatio——流量比?ArterialIntersectionControl干线信号协调控制?Fixed-timeControl——固定式信号控制?Real-timeAdaptiveTrafficControl——实时自适应信号控制? GreenRatio——绿信比?Throughmovement——直行车流?Congestion——阻塞，拥挤? Thepercentagecongestion——阻塞率? Thedegreeofsaturation——饱和度? Theeffectivegreentime——有效绿灯时间? Themaximumqueuevalue——最大排队长度?FlowProfiles——车流图示?Doublecycling——双周期?Singlecycling——单周期?Peak——高峰期? Theeveningpeakperiods——晚高峰?Siemens——西门子?Pelican——人行横道?Fixedtimeplans——固定配时方案?One-waytraffic——单向交通?GreenRatio——绿信比?RelativeOffset——相对相位差?Non-overlappingPhase——非搭接相位? CriticalMovement——关键车流? SaturationFlowRate——饱和流率? IsolatedIntersectionControl——单点信号控制（点控）? Area-wideControl——区域信号协调控制?VehicleActuated(V A)——感应式信号控制? TheMinimumGreenTime——最小绿灯时间? UnitExtensionTime——单位绿灯延长时间? TheMaximumGreenTime——最大绿灯时间? Opposingtraffic——对向交通（车流）? Actuation——Control——感应控制方式? Pre-timedControl——定周期控制方式? RemoteControl——有缆线控方式?Self－Inductfanse——环形线圈检测器? Signal——spacing——信号间距?Though-trafficlane——直行车道? Inbound——正向?Outbound——反向?第一章交通工程——TrafficEngineering运输工程——TransportationEngineering铁路交通——RailTransportation航空交通——AirTransportation水上交通——WaterTransportation管道交通——PipelineTransportation交通系统——TrafficSystem交通特性——TrafficCharacteristics人的特性——HumanCharacteristics车辆特性——VehicularCharacteristics交通流特性——TrafficFlowCharacteristics道路特性——RoadwayCharacteristics交通调查——TrafficSurvey交通流理论——TrafficFlowTheory交通管理——TrafficManagement交通环境保护——TrafficEnvironmentProtection 交通设计——TrafficDesign交通统计学——TrafficStatistics交通心理学——TrafficPsychology汽车力学——AutomobileMechanics 交通经济学——TrafficEconomics汽车工程——AutomobileEngineering 人类工程——HumanEngineering环境工程——EnvironmentEngineering 自动控制——AutomaticControl应用数学——AppliedMathematics电子计算机——ElectricComputer第二章公共汽车——Bus无轨电车——TrolleyBus有轨电车——TramCar大客车——Coach小轿车——Sedan载货卡车——Truck拖挂车——Trailer平板车——Flat-bedTruck动力特性——DrivingForceCharacteristics牵引力——TractiveForce空气阻力——AirResistance滚动阻力——RollingResistance坡度阻力——GradeResistance加速阻力——AccelerationResistance附着力——AdhesiveForce汽车的制动力——BrakingofMotorVehicle自行车流特性——BicycleflowCharacteristics 驾驶员特性——DriverCharacteristics刺激——Stimulation感觉——Sense判断——Judgment行动——Action视觉——VisualSense听觉——HearingSense嗅觉——SenseofSmell味觉——SenseofTouch视觉特性——VisualCharacteristics 视力——Vision视野——FieldofVision色彩感觉——ColorSense?眩目时的视力——GlareVision视力恢复——ReturnTimeofVision动视力——VisualinMotion亮度——Luminance照度——Luminance反应特性——ReactiveCharacteristics刺激信息——StimulantInformation驾驶员疲劳与兴奋——DrivingFatingandExcitability 交通量——TrafficV olume交通密度——TrafficDensity地点车速——SpotSpeed瞬时车速——InstantaneousSpeed?时间平均车速——TimemeanSpeed空间平均车速——Spacemeanspeed车头时距——Timeheadway车头间距——Spaceheadway0交通流模型——Trafficflowmodel自由行驶车速——Freeflowspeed阻塞密度——Jamdensity速度－密度曲线——Speed-densitycurve流量－密度曲线——Flow-densitycurve最佳密度——Optimumconcentration流量——速度曲线——Flow-speedcurve最佳速度——Optimumspeed连续流——Uninterruptedtraffic?间断流——Interruptedtraffic?第三章交通调查分析——Trafficsurveyandanalysis 交通流调查——Trafficvolumesurvey车速调查——Speedsurvey通行能力调查——Capacitysurvey车辆耗油调查——EnergyConsumptionSurvey 居民出行调查——TripSurvey车辆出行调查——VehicleTripSurvey停车场调查——ParkingAreaSurvey交通事故调查——TrafficAccidentSurvey交通噪声调查——TrafficNoiseSurvey车辆废气调查——VehicleEmissionSurvey平均日交通量——AverageDailyTraffic(ADT)周平均日交通量——WeekAverageDailyTraffic月平均日交通量——MonthAverageDailyTraffic?年平均日交通量——AnnualAverageDailyTraffic高峰小时交通量——PeakhourV olume年最大小时交通量——HighestAnnualHourlyV olume年第30位最高小时交通量——ThirtiethHighestAnnualHourlyV olume 高峰小时比率——PeakRatio时间变化——TimeVariation空间变化——SpatialVariation样本选择——SelectionSample?样本大小——SizeofSample自由度——Freedom车速分布——SpeedDistribution组中值——Mid-ClassMark累计频率——CumulativeFrequency频率分布直方图——FrequencyDistributionHistogram85%位车速——85%PercentileSpeed限制车速——RegulationSpeed服务水平——LevelofService牌照对号法——LicenseNumberMatchingMethod跟车测速——CarFollowingMethod浮动车测速法——MovingObserverSpeedMethod通行能力调查——CapacityStudies饱和流量——SaturationFlow第四章泊松分布——PoissonDistribution交通特性的统计分布——StatisticalDistributionofTrafficCharacteristics 驾驶员处理信息的特性DriverInformationProcessingCharacteristics跟车理论——CarFollowingTheory交通流模拟——SimulationofTrafficFlow间隔分布——IntervalDistribution二项分布——BinomialDistribution拟合——Fitting移位负指数分布——ShiftedExponentialDistribution 排队论——QueuingTheory运筹学——OperationsResearch加速骚扰——AccelerationNoise停车波——StoppingWave起动波——StartingWave第五章城市交通规划——UrbanTrafficPlanning土地利用——Land-Use可达性——Accessibility起讫点调查——Origin–DestinationSurvey出行端点——TripEnd期望线——DesireLine主流倾向线——MajorDirectionalDesireLine 调查区境界线——CordonLine分隔查核线——ScreenLine样本量——SampleSize出行发生——TripGeneration?出行产生——TripProduction出行吸引——TripAttraction发生率法——GenerationRateMethod回归发生模型——RegressionGenerationModel 类型发生模型——CategoryGenerationModel 出行分布——TripDistribution现在型式法——PresentPatternMethod?重力模型法——GravityModelMethod行程时间模型——TravelTimeModel相互影响模型——InteractiveModel分布系数模型——DistributionFactorModel交通方式划分——ModelSplit,ModeChoice转移曲线——DiversionCurve交通量分配——TrafficAssignment最短路径分配（全有全无）ShortestPathAssignment(All-or-Nothing) 多路线概率分配ProbabilisticMulti-RouteAssignment线权——LinkWeight点权——PointWeight费用——效益分析——Cost–benefitAnalysis现值法——PresentV alueMethod第六章交通安全——TrafficSafety交通事故——TrafficAccident交通死亡事故率——TrafficFatal-AccidentRate交通法规——TrafficLaw多发事故地点——HighaccidentLocation交通条例——TrafficRegulation交通监视——TrafficSurveillance事故报告——AccidentReport冲撞形式——CollisionManner财产损失——PropertyDamage事故档案——AccidentFile事故报表——AccidentInventory固定目标——FixedObject事故率——AccidentRatelxy事故数法——AccidentNumberMethod质量控制法——QualityControlMethod人行横道——PedestrianCrosswalk行人过街道信号——PedestrianCrossingBeacon 人行天桥——PassengerFoot-Bridge人行地道——PassengerSubway栅栏——Gate立体交叉——Underpass(Overpass)标线——Marking无信号控制交叉口——UncontrolledIntersection 让路标志——YieldSign渠化交通——Channelizationtraffic单向交通——One-Way禁止转弯——NoTurnRegulation禁止进入——No-Entry禁止超车——ProhibitoryOvertaking禁止停车——ProhibitoryParking禁止通行——RoadClosed安全带——LifeBelt第七章??交通控制与管理——TrafficControlandManagement交通信号——TrafficSignal??单点定时信号——IsolatedPre-timedSignal信号相位——SignalPhase周期长度——CycleLength绿信比——Split优先控制——PriorityControl延误——Delay流量比——FlowRatio有效绿灯时间——EffectiveGreenTime损失时间——LossTime绿灯间隔时间——IntergreenInterval信号配时——SignalTiming(orSignalSetting)交通感应信号——TrafficActuatedSignal城市交通控制系统——UrbanTrafficControlSystem联动控制——CoordinatedControl区域控制——AreaControl时差——Offset同时联动控制——SimultaneousCoordinatedControl交变联动控制——AlternateCoordinatedControl绿波带——GreenWave?连续通行联动控制——ProgressiveCoordinatedControl中心控制器——MasterController?局部控制器——Local——Controller实时——RealTime?联机——On-line脱机——Off-line爬山法——Hill-Climbing“小型高效”区域控制系统——CompactUrbanTrafficControlSystem道路控制系统——CorridorControlSystem时间扫描法——TimeScanning 事件扫描法——EventScanning。

英语专四考试真题及答案（2）

英语专四考试真题及答案（2）SECTION C NEWS BROADCASTIn this section, you will hear several news items. Listen to them carefully and then answer thequestions that follow.Questions 21 and 22 are based on the following news. At the end of the news item, you will be given 10 seconds to answer the questions. Now. listen to the news.21. According to the news, the victim wasA. a 17-year-old girl.B. a 15-year-old boy.C. a 23-year-old woman.D. an l 8-year-old man.22.We learn from the news that the suspects were arrestedA. one month later.B. two months later.C. immediately.D. two weeks later.Questions 23 and 24 are based on the following news. At the end of the news item, you will begiven 10 seconds to answer the questions. Now, listen to the news.23.The Iraqi parliament can vote on the security agreement only afterA. all parties have agreed on it.B. the US troops have pulled out.C. the cabinet has reviewed it.D. the lawmakers have returned from Mecca.24.According to the news, the US troops are expected tocompletely pull out byA. mid-2009.B. the end of 2009.C. mid-2011.D. the end of 2011.Questions 25 and 26 are based on the following news. At the end of the news item, you will begiven 10 seconds to answer the questions. Now, listen to the news.25.The following are involved in the operations to rescue the children in Honduras EXCEPTA. the police.B. the district attorney.C. the prison authorities.D. Institute of Childhood and Family.26. What punishment would parents face if they allowed their children to beg?A. To be imprisoned and fined.B. To have their children taken away.C. To be handed over to the authorities.D. None.Question 27 is based on the following news. At the end of the news item. you will be given 5seconds to answer the question. Now, listen to the news.27.What is the news item about?A. Coastlines in Italy.B. Public use of the beach.C. Swimming and bathing.D. Private bathing clubs.Question 28 is based on the following news. At the end ofthe news item, you will be given 5seconds to answer the question. Now, listen to the news.28.Which of the following is NOT mentioned in the news?A. The airport was shut down for Friday.B. There was a road accident involving two buses.C. Local shops were closed earlier than usual.D. Bus service was stopped for Friday.Questions 29 and 30 are based on the following news. At the end of the news item, you will begiven 10 seconds to answer the questions. Now, listen to the news.29.How many people were rescued from the apartment building?A. 17.B. 24.C. 21.D. 41.30.Which of the following details in the news is CORRECT?A. The rescue operation involved many people.B. The cause of the explosions has been determined.C. Rescue efforts were stopped on Thursday.D. The explosions didn't destroy the building.PART III CLOZE [15 MIN]Decide which of the choices given below would best complete the passage it" inserted in thecorresponding blanks. Mark the best choice for each blank on ANSWER SHEET TWO.How men first learned to invent words is unknown; (31)____, the origin of language is a mystery. All we really know is that men, unlike animals, somehow invented certain (32)____ to expressthoughts and feelings, actions and things, (33)____ they could communicate with each other; and that later they agreed (34)____ certain signs, called letters, which could be (35)____ to represent those sounds, and which could be (36)_____. Those sounds, whether spoken, (37)_____ written in letters, we call words.The power of words, then, lies in their (38)____ the things they bring up before our minds. Words become (39)____ with meaning for us by experience; (40)._____ the longer we live, the more certain words (41)_____ to us the happy and sad events of our past: and the more we (42)____, the more the number of words that mean something to us (43)____Great writers are those who not only have great thoughts but also express these thoughts in words which appeal (44)____ to our minds and emotions. This (45)._____ and telling use of words is what we call (46)____ style. Above all, the real poet is a master of (47)____. He can convey his meaning in words which sing like music, and which (48)_____ their position and association can (49)____ men to tears. We should, therefore, learn to choose our words carefully and use them accurately, or they will (50)____ our speech or writing silly and vulgar.(31) A. in addition B. in other words C. in a word D. in summary(32) A. sounds B. gestures C. signs D. movements(33) A. such that B. as that C. so that D. in that(34) A. in B. with C. of D. upon(35) A. spelt B. combined C. written D copied(36) A. written down B. handed down C. remembered D. observed(37) A. and B. yet C. also D. or(38) A. functions B. associations C. roles D. links(39) A. filled B. full C. live D. active(40) A. but B. or C. yet D. and(41 ) A. reappear B. recall C. remember D. recollect(42) A. read and think B. read and recall C. read and learn D. read and recite(43) A. raises B. increases C. improves D. emerges(44) A. intensively B. extensively C. broadly D. powerfully(45) A. charming B. academic C. conventional D. common(46) A. written B. spoken C. literary D. dramatic(47) A. signs B. words C. style D. sound(48) A. in B. on C. over D. by(49) A. move B. engage C. make D. force(50) A. transform B. change C. make D. convertPART IV GRAMMAR & VOCABULARY [15 MIN]There are thirty sentences in this section. Beneath each sentence there are four words or phrases marked A, B, C and D. Choose one word or phrase that best completes the sentence. Mark your answers on ANSWER SHEET TWO.51. Which of the following italicized phrases indicates CAUSE?A. Why don't you do it for the sake of your friends?B. I wish I could write as well as you.C. For all his efforts, he didn't get an A.D. Her eyes were red from excessive reading.52. Nancy's gone to work but her car's still there. She ____ by bus.A. must have goneB. should have goneC. ought to have goneD. could have gone53. He feels that he is not yet ____ to travel abroad.A. too strongB. enough strongC. so strongD. strong enough54. After____ seemed an endless wait, it was his turn to enter the personnel manager's office.A. thatB. itC. whatD. there55. Fool ____ Jerry is, he could not have done such a thing.A. whoB. asC. likeD. that56. Which of the following sentences is INCORRECT?A. They each have two tickets.B. They cost twenty yuan each.C. Each they have bought the same book.D. They were given two magazines each.57. She seldom goes to the theatre, _____?A. doesn't sheB. does sheC. would sheD. wouldn't she。

Evaluation of time-varying availability in multi-echelon spare parts systems with passivation

Production,Manufacturing and LogisticsEvaluation of time-varying availability in multi-echelonspare parts systems with passivationHoong Chuin Laua,*,Huawei Song a ,Chuen Teck See b ,Siew Yen Cheng b aThe Logistics Institute––Asia Paciﬁc,National University of Singapore,Singapore 119260b Defense Science and Technology Agency,Singapore Ministry of Defense,Singapore 109679Received 17October 2003;accepted 28June 2004Available online 16September 2004AbstractThe popular models for repairable item inventory,both in the literature as well as practical applications,assume that the demands for items are independent of the number of working systems.However this assumption can introduce a serious underestimation of availability when the number of working systems is small,the failure rate is high or the repair time is long.In this paper,we study a multi-echelon repairable item inventory system under the phenomenon of passivation ,i.e.serviceable items are passivated (‘‘switched oﬀ’’)upon system failure.This work is motivated by cor-rective maintenance of high-cost technical equipment in the miltary.We propose an eﬃcient approximation model to compute time-varying availability.Experiments show that our analytical model agrees well with Monte Carlo simulation.Ó2004Elsevier B.V.All rights reserved.Keywords:Inventory;Maintenance;Multi-echelon;Passivation1.IntroductionMiltary systems such as aircrafts,ships or tanks are expensive and have complex structures that break down because the underlying components (line replacable units or LRUs)are either worn out over time and/or damaged during usage.One way to achieve high-operational readiness (or availability)is to acquire enough spare parts to provide immediate replacement of damaged components.However,since spares are costly,consume space and become obsolete over time,there is a need to tradeoﬀthe cost of spares with availability.Logistics planners in the miltary often need to plan for spares according to time-varying 0377-2217/$-see front matter Ó2004Elsevier B.V.All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.ejor.2004.06.022*Corresponding author.Tel.:+6597672913;fax:+6568723072.E-mail address:lauhc@.sg (H.C.Lau).European Journal of Operational Research 170(2006)91–105/locate/ejoru et al./European Journal of Operational Research170(2006)91–105demands,since the utilization rate varies over time.This is known generally as the spares provisioning problem for corrective maintenance.In almost all existing literature,it is assumed that the demand for LRUs does not depend on the number of working systems,which means that the LRUs within a system fail independently of each other.However in many situations,it is observed that when an LRU fails,it will aﬀect the demand of the other LRUs with-in the same system.When a system fails,the failed LRU is transported to a repair shop and all the remain-ing system LRUs are switched oﬀto maximise component life,which implies that there is no demand of those LRUs until the system has been restored.In other words,the system failure rate equals0during re-pair(as explained in[4]).This phenomenon is called passivation.While the assumption of independent demands produces good analytical results for most problems, availability is seriously understated in scenarios when the number of working systems is small,the failure rate high and repair time long.For example,in[13],EBO(expected backorder)is overestimated by37.3% without passivation,which cause the availability to be underestimated.In this paper,we study the eﬀect of passivation on system availability in these settings.We are concerned with a multi-echelon single-indenture repairable item inventory model.In this paper,we use the term‘‘technical system’’to generally denote a miltary equipment such as an aircraft,ship or tank.This paper is organized as follows.In Section2,we describe the logistic system structure(based on assumptions that are also widely accepted in the literature)and the diﬀerent demand scenarios.A literature survey is provided in Section3.In Section4,we develop a mathematical model for the system in terms of a single-item.In Section5,we derive the equations which are used in Section4based on a dynamic form of PalmÕs theorem.Section6shows how to extend the analysis to multiple items so as to compute availability under passivation of a system that comprises a number of items.In Section7,some experiments are pre-sented to illustrate the eﬀect on availability when passivation is considered.Section8concludes the paper.2.Preliminaries2.1.Logistic support structureThe literature typically discusses a2-echelon support structure for illustration except[14].Although the underlying principles are the same,the computational gap between2-echelon and more than2-echelons is quite substantial.We hence show our approach using3-echelon structure as an example(see Fig.1).Our approach can be extended easily to4echelons and beyond.In the above example,one depot supports a number of repair sites called intermediate site which sup-ports a number of units where the technical systems are deployed.All the technical systems are identical and each technical system is composed of multiple LRUs that are connected in series.Depending on the nature of fault,the repair will occur on-site immediately if the fault can be rectiﬁed at the unit.Otherwise it will be sent to the intermediate site and an order is placed by the unit to be supplied from the intermediate site.If the LRU cannot be repaired at the intermediate site,it will be sent to the depot and an order is placed by the intermediate site.At the unit,the failed LRU will be removed and replaced by a good component should one be available,and the system becomes serviceable after a short delay,the time to remove and replace the failed LRU.Otherwise,a backorder is generated and the failed system has to wait for a spare part to arrive.When repair is completed,the working LRU will be sent to its originating support site or unit to function as spares.In either case,the organization does so by supplying a serviceable item for a failed item on a one-for-one basis.Underlying assumptions are presented as follows,most of which are also accepted in the literature.In this paper,we make the following assumptions:1.There are inﬁnite repair resources,i.e.a failed system can be repaired at once.2.All LRUs are repairable at the depot,i.e.there is no irrepairable item.3.Continuous resupply,i.e.an LRU can be sent up or down the echelon immediately at any time.Thetransport time for each item between two sites is a constant.4.FCFS(ﬁrst comeﬁrst serve)replenishment policy.5.The remove-and-replace time for each item follows an exponential distribution.6.The repair time for each item follows an exponential distribution.7.No lateral supply,i.e.no supply or shipment across sites within the same echelon.2.2.DemandsThe item demand rate is determined by the mean time between failures MTBF(i.e.the expected value of time duration between two consecutive failures)and the utilization rate UR(i.e.the usage rate of the item).In the stationary-demand problem,we assume the utilization rate for each item is identical over the entire time horizon.Given the number of technical systems deployed at unit Nsys,the following formula is conventionally used to compute the demand rate DR:DR¼URMTBFÂNsys:ð1ÞIn the case of time-varying demand,we assume the utilization rate for each item is a time-dependent piece-wise constant function,i.e.the demand for an LRU is given by a non-stationary Poisson process.Given the time-varying utilization rate UR(t),the following formula is adopted to compute the time-varying demand rate DR(t):DRðtÞ¼URðtÞMTBFÂNsys:ð2Þ2.3.PassivationDue to the eﬀect of passivation,the actual demand rate is dependent on the number of working systems, which changes over time.Hence,even for the stationary problem,the actual demand rate varies with time. Henceforth in this paper,we will only consider the time-varying demands problem under passivation.u et al./European Journal of Operational Research170(2006)91–10593Clearly,by setting UR(t) UR for all t,we can easily handle stationary demands problem as well.Let Nsys(t)be the number of available technical systems at time t,the actual time-varying demand rate is computed as follows:DRðtÞ¼URðtÞMTBFÂNsysðtÞ:ð3ÞThe computation of Nsys(t)will be discussed in Section4.Since the demand for an LRU is given by a time-dependent Poisson process,the objective function is inevitably time-dependent.In this paper,we use the conventional EBO(expected backorder)and Ao(oper-ational availability)as our objective functions.Instead of computing EBO and Ao under steady state presented in the literature,we will compute EBO and Ao at each time point,thereby capturing the time-varying behavior of the objective functions.Aside from this,we will show how to derive Ao from EBO under the time-varying scenario.The key result of this paper is an evaluation scheme that,given an allocation of spares at time0for each site in the multi-echelon support structure,eﬃciently computes EBO and Ao at each time point over a given time horizon,taking into consideration non-stationary demands and the eﬀects of passivation.3.Literature surveyMETRIC(multi-echelon technique for recoverable item control)is a pioneer study for multi-echelon, single-indenture and multi-repairable-item optimization models presented by Sherbrooke in[18].In MET-RIC,one central repair site(depot)supports multiple bases where aircrafts are allocated.It assumes that there are inﬁnite repair resources at the depot and the failures at bases are Poisson processes.Sherbrooke provides an optimization procedure for METRIC by employing marginal analysis.METRIC is only an approximation and during its implementation,it was found that expected number of backorders was underestimated.In[8],Graves proposes an approach to use negative binomial distribu-tion instead of Poisson by introducing variance.This is because the variance-to-mean ratio should be1 under Poisson distribution,but it is usually greater than1in practice.Graves produces some test cases andﬁnds his method achieves higher accuracy than METRIC.The models with limited repair facility have been studied recently because the assumption of inﬁnite repair facility is unrealistic in industrial applications.In[6],Dı´az and Fu develop a multi-echelon,sin-gle-indenture model,considering limited repair facilities(servers)at the depot where all failed LRUs are repaired.They provide an aggregation–disaggregation approach,trying to calculate theﬁrst two moments of per-class number in queue and repair under steady state.Unfortunately the variance of per-class number in queue and repair is derived only for single-server multi-class queuing model due to analytical complexity.In[1,2],Alfredsson proposes OPRAL,a model for optimum spare allocation as well as repair facility allocation.This model is an oﬀshoot of the commercial software OPUS developed by Systecon AB [15,16].In his model,it is assumed that each failed LRU requires only one repair resource.Diﬀerent LRUs may share a common repair resource.This assumption implies that LRUs can be partitioned into resource groups,each of which contains the LRUs that require a particular resource.Therefore,the queue in a re-source group at the repair facility is modelled as M/M/s so that the expected waiting time for an available resource can be calculated.As far as inventory systems on time-varying demands are concerned,there are two inﬂuential works.In [12],Jung presents a methodology for a repairable inventory system with time-varying demand by imple-menting discrete event simulation.In[21],Slay et al.propose an aircraft sustainability model that can handle time-varying demand rates but inﬁnite repair resources.The failure at the base is given by a u et al./European Journal of Operational Research170(2006)91–105stationary Poisson process whose mean value varies with time.It investigates the objective function and spare allocation only at speciﬁc times of interest.4.Mathematical model4.1.NotationsIn this section,we present a mathematical model for the system in terms of a single-item.This model is applicable to each item of the system consisting of a number of items.In Section6,we will show how to compute the time-varying availability of the multi-item system under passivation by combining the per-formances of all items it has.We adopt and extend the notations of those in[1].As shown in Fig.1,there is one depot supporting multiple intermediate sites.We use0to denote the depot and index the interme-diate sites by i,i=1,...,I.Each intermediate site supports multiple units which are indexed by u, u=1,...,U.And we use U i&f1;...;U g to denote the units supported by intermediate site i.Given any two site i and j,we will use i=q(j)to denote the relationship that site i supports site j.As done in[1],the types of LRU are indexed by k,k=1,...,K.Other notations which are consistent with those used in OPUS and Dyna-METRIC[9,10,15,16]includeInput variablesT the length of planning horizon;MTBF k mean time between failures of LRU k;TAT Uuk mean repair time of LRU k at unit u;TAT Iik mean repair time of LRU k at intermediate site i;TAT0k mean repair time of LRU k at the depot;TPT Uuk transport time of LRU k between unit u and its supporting intermediate site;TPT Iik transport time of LRU k between intermediate site i and the depot;MTTR uk mean time to remove and replace of LRU k at unit u; NRTS U uk the probability that LRU k cannot be repaired at unit u;NRTS Iik the probability that LRU k cannot be repaired at intermediate site i;Nsys u number of technical systems deployed at unit u; QPM k quantity of LRU k that technical system has; UR(t)utilization rate at time t;s U uk number of spares of LRU k at unit u;s I ik number of spares of LRU k at intermediate site i;s0k number of spares of LRU k at the depot. Intermediate variablesDR Uuk ðtÞincoming demand rate of LRU k at unit u at time t;DR Iik ðtÞincoming demand rate of LRU k at intermediate site i at time t;DR0k(t)incoming demand rate of LRU k at the depot at time t;k U uk ðtÞeﬀective demand rate of LRU k at unit u at time t;k I ik ðtÞeﬀective demand rate of LRU k at intermediate site i at time t;k0k(t)eﬀective demand rate of LRU k at the depot at time t,which is equal to the incoming demand rate at the depot in our case;EBO Uuk ðtÞEBO of LRU k at unit u at time t;EBO Iik ðtÞEBO of LRU k at intermediate site i at time t;EBO0k(t)EBO of LRU k at the depot at time t.u et al./European Journal of Operational Research170(2006)91–10595Decision variableAo u (t )operational availability of the systems at unit u at time t .4.2.Time-varying EBO functionWith considering passivation,we ﬁrst divide the time horizon into n periods,which are indexed by t ,t =1,...,n ,so that (a)the utilization rate in each period is constant and (b)the number of ‘‘up’’technical systems can be regarded as constant,not varying as time in each period.It is obvious that EBO(0)=0for all stock positions and Ao(0)=100%.For t (P 1),the incoming demand rate of LRU k at unit u at time t with considering passivation isDR Uuk ðt Þ¼UR ðt ÞMTBF k ÂQPM k ÂNsys u ÂAo u ðt À1Þ:ð4ÞSo,k Uuk ðt Þ¼ð1ÀNRTS U uk ÞDR U uk ðt Þ;ð5ÞDR I ik ðt Þ¼X u 2U iNRTS U uk ÂDR U uk ðt Þ;ð6Þk Iik ðt Þ¼ð1ÀNRTS I ik ÞDR I ik ðt Þ;ð7Þk 0k ðt Þ¼DR 0k ðt Þ¼XI i ¼1NRTS I ik ÂDR I ik ðt Þ:ð8ÞThe following are intermediate variables for the purpose of computation.P U uk ðt Þrandom variable representing number of LRU k in the pipeline of unit u at time t ;P I ik ðt Þrandom variable representing number of LRU k in the pipeline of intermediate site i at time t ;P 0k (t )random variable representing number of LRU k in the pipeline of the depot at time t ;RP U uk ðt Þrandom variable representing number of LRU k in the repair pipeline of unit u at time t ;RP I ik ðt Þrandom variable representing number of LRU k in the repair pipeline of intermediate site i attime t ;RP 0k (t )random variable representing number of LRU k in the repair pipeline of the depot at time t ;OSP U uk ðt Þrandom variable representing number of LRU k in the order-and-ship pipeline to unit u at time t ;OSP I ik ðt Þrandom variable representing number of LRU k in the order-and-ship pipeline to intermediatesite i at time t ;f U uk ðt Þfraction of LRU k at unit u contributing to the EBO at its supporting site;f I ik ðt Þfraction of LRU k at intermediate site i contributing to the EBO at the depot.In addition,we will use EBO(s j k )to denote EBO given stock level s when the mean pipeline is k .Fol-lowing standard probability,this quantity is computed as P x >s ðx Às ÞPr f X ¼x g where X is the pipeline random variable with mean E [X ]=k .Then we haveEBO 0k ðt Þ¼EBO 0k ðs 0k j E ½P 0k ðt Þ Þ¼X x >s 0kðx Às 0k ÞPr f P 0k ðt Þ¼x g ;ð9Þwhere E [P 0k (t )]=E [RP 0k (t )].u et al./European Journal of Operational Research 170(2006)91–105EBO Iik ðtÞ¼EBO Iikðs Iikj E½P IikðtÞ Þ;ð10ÞwhereE½P Iik ðtÞ ¼E½RP IikðtÞ þE½OSP IikðtÞ þf IikðtÀTPT IikÞEBO0kðtÀTPT IikÞ;ð11ÞEBO Uuk ðtÞ¼EBO Uukðs Uukj E½P UukðtÞ Þ;ð12ÞwhereE½P Uuk ðtÞ ¼E½RP UukðtÞ þE½OSP UukðtÞ þf UukðtÀTPT UukÞEBO IikðtÀTPT UukÞ:ð13ÞIn the following section,we will provide the details on how the above formulae can be computed and implemented.5.Derivation of intermediate variablesUnder the assumption that the number of items in the pipeline follows a Poisson distribution,the ex-pected number of demands in the pipeline at time t can be computed by a dynamic form of PalmÕs theorem. Carrillo[5]presents a generalization of PalmÕs theorem by relaxing the input process and service time dis-tribution assumptions.Theorem1(Carrillo[5]).Suppose we have non-homogeneous Poisson input with intensity function k(t)P0 for t P0,k(t)=0otherwise,and non-stationary service distribution G.Then,the number of arrivals undergoing service at time t has a Poisson distribution with meanKðtÞ¼Z tð1ÀGðs;tÞÞkðsÞd s;ð14Þwhere the random service time Y at time t has the distribution P[Y6y]=G(t,t+y).From the assumption of constant transport time,it is easy to know that the number of LRUs in the order-and-ship pipeline follows a Poisson distribution by Theorem1and we can get its mean value as follows:E½OSP Iik ðtÞ ¼Z ttÀTPT IikNRTS IikÂDR IikðsÞd s;ð15ÞE½OSP Uuk ðtÞ ¼Z ttÀTPT UukNRTS UukÂDR UukðsÞd s:ð16ÞAccording to the assumption that the transport time is constant whereas repair time is exponentially dis-tributed,we have to consider the two processes as a whole to compute the expected pipelines.We use repair pipeline to indicate the number of LRUs in retrograde process and repair service.Based on Theorem1,we assume the repair time X is exponentially distributed with mean1/l=TAT and the transport time is L, which is constant.So the service time is Y=X+L(Y P L)and the service distribution is Gðs;tÞ¼Pr f Y6tÀs g¼Pr f XþL6tÀs g¼Pr f X6tÀsÀL g¼1ÀeÀlðtÀsÀLÞþ:SoKðtÞ¼Z t0kðsÞeÀlðtÀsÀLÞþd s:ð17Þu et al./European Journal of Operational Research170(2006)91–10597When demand rate is constant i.e.k(t) k,and t!1which is the scenario in METRIC,we can show the result of mean pipeline is the same as METRIC as follows:K¼limt!1Z ttÀLk d sþlimt!1Z tÀLk eÀlðtÀsÀLÞd s¼k Lþk TAT¼kðLþTATÞ:Therefore according to the above conclusion,we can compute the expected number of LRUs in the repair pipeline as follows:E½RP Uuk ðtÞ ¼Z tk UukðtÞeÀ1TAT UukðtÀsÞd s;ð18ÞE½RP Iik ðtÞ ¼Xu2U iZ tð1ÀNRTS IikÞNRTS UukDR UukðsÞeÀ1TAT IikðtÀsÀTPT UukÞþd s;ð19ÞE½RP0kðtÞ ¼Xu Z tNRTS IqðuÞkNRTS UukDR UukðsÞeÀ1TAT0kðtÀsÀTPT I qðuÞkÀTPT U ukÞþd s:ð20ÞNow we will show how to distribute EBO at the supporting site to its supported sites.Since we assume FCFS replenishment policy,the waiting time for an available spare from the supporting site of all supported sites are the same.Therefore,we distribute EBO according to the proportion of demand rate.Given any two sites i,j that i=q(j),we set f jkðtÞ¼NRTS jkÂDR jkðtÞDR ikðtÞ.Unfortunately,this direct approach is incorrect under passiva-tion.This is because when an LRU fails,the whole technical system is down,which causes no demand of other LRUs on it.Hence,we need not compute the demand due to this system.However,it still contributes to the EBO since and as long as it is down.In order to compute the fraction,we introduce some variables.K UukðtÞincoming demand rate of LRU k at unit u at time t without passivation;K IikðtÞincoming demand rate of LRU k at intermediate site i at time t without passivation;K0k(t)incoming demand rate of LRU k at the depot at time t without passivation.We haveK Uuk ðtÞ¼UR uðtÞMTBF kÂQPM kÂNsys u;ð21ÞK Iik ðtÞ¼Xu2U iNRTS UukÂK UukðtÞ;ð22ÞK0kðtÞ¼X Ii¼1NRTS IikÂK IikðtÞ:ð23ÞSo,the fractionf I ik ðtÞ¼NRTS IikÂK IikðtÞK0kðtÞ;ð24Þf U uk ðtÞ¼NRTS UukÂK UukðtÞK IqðuÞkðtÞ:ð25ÞAt last,we can compute EBO based on the stock level according to Eqs.(9)–(13). u et al./European Journal of Operational Research170(2006)91–1056.Conversion of EBO into AoIn[20],Sherbrooke puts forward a variety of availabilities and corresponding formulas.Operational availability(Ao)is one of the most important availabilities,which is widely used in practice.In[20],the formula used is:Ao¼MTBFMTBFþMTTRþWT¼11þMTTRMTBFþEBO:ð26ÞThe following is one variation of the formula:Ao¼11þPkEBO kNsysþURMTBF kÂQPM kÂMTTR k:ð27ÞThis formula suﬀers several limitations.First,we can only compute Ao under steady state by this formula. We cannot compute Ao in the transient periods even though the demand is given by constant Poisson proc-ess.In most cases such as ours,the demand is given by a non-stationary Poisson process,which may cause the system never to converge to steady state.Secondly,we need to compute the waiting time.While it is well known that the waiting time WT¼EBO by LittleÕs Law,it is not obvious how to compute waiting time under the non-stationary demands case.Experiments show that it does not readily translate to WTðtÞ¼EBOðtÞ.In a recent paper[17],the authors provide a formula to compute Ao at time t based on an extensionof[3].Unfortunately their approach is very time-consuming.6.1.Intuitive modelWeﬁrst look at an intuitive model to compute Ao at any time under both stationary and non-stationary demand cases.The Ao discussed in this section is always within a given unit so that the subscript u is omit-ted.The proposed formula is a recursive formulation,deﬁned as follows:AoðtÞ¼11þKk¼1EBO kðtÞNsysðtÞþURðtÞMTBF kÂQPM kÂMTTR k;ð28Þwhere NsysðtÞ¼NsysÀP Kk¼1EBO kðtÀ1Þ.With this formulation,we can compute EBO and Ao at any unit at any time point t using values de-rived in time point tÀ1.This means that we can implement the computation iteratively from one period to the next.We will compare the results with those of simulation in the next section.Experimental results show our approach yields solutions that match simulation results very well within short computational time.6.2.Proposed modelAlthough the intuitive model works well in general,it does not produce good results for the case when the MTTR is large(see Fig.4).In the following,we propose a revised model to better approximate availability.If the demand process is a simple Poisson process with mean k and the service time is exponentially dis-tributed with mean1/l,the time-varying availability is given by(see for example,[11])AðtÞ¼lkþlþAð0ÞÀlkþleÀðkþlÞt:ð29Þu et al./European Journal of Operational Research170(2006)91–10599By setting l=1/MTTR,the availability is maintenance availability(Am)[20].We know k¼UR,so we can compute maintenance availability at any time by Eq.(29).For the scenario that demand is given by a non-stationary Poisson process,we can showAmðt2Þ¼lkðt2ÞþlþAmðt1ÞÀlkðt2ÞþleÀðkðt2ÞþlÞðt2Àt1Þ;ð30Þwhere kðt2Þ¼URðt2Þand Am(0)=100%.With this formulation,we can compute Am at any time point iteratively from one period to the next.According to[20],the operational availability can be computed as the product of supply availability(As) and maintenance availability(Am)whereAm¼11þURMTBF=QPMÂMTTR:ð31ÞWe notice URÂMTTR is just the right part of the denominator of Eq.(28).Replacing it with 1À1,we can get the formula to compute operational availability at any time for both small MTTR and large MTTR under both stationary and non-stationary demand cases.The formula is deﬁned as follows:AoðtÞ¼11þP Kk¼1EBO kðtÞþ1kÀ1;ð32Þwhere Am k(t)can be computed according to Eq.(30).Experiment(see Fig.5)shows our approach matches simulation results well.7.Experimental resultsIn our experiments,we consider a multi-echelon problem where each technical system comprises more than50LRUs.The following two sets of experiments have been conducted:1.Steady-state Ao computation given a single-spares allocation against METRIC model[16].2.Time-varying demands against Monte-Carlo simulation[7].The experiments were conducted on a Pentium III1.2GHz machine with512MB RAM.In all simu-lation models,we set the number of replications to be1000which is a fairly standard practice in simulation experimentation.7.1.Steady-state Ao without passivationFirst,we verify that our model also works under steady state without passivation.In these experiments, we consider a5-system problem and compute their operational availability under steady state given aﬁxed spare allocation.We compare the results against the results obtained by METRIC by setting the probability distribution of the pipeline to be Poisson.The average run time per test case is0.16s.The following tables give a summary of the results.From Tables1and2,we observe that our results are exactly the same as METRIC.u et al./European Journal of Operational Research170(2006)91–105。

Endress+Hauser设备操作说明书

These Instructions are Brief Operating Instructions; they are not a substitute for the Operating Instructions pertaining to the device.Detailed information about the device can be found in the Operating Instructions and the other documentation:Available for all device versions via:•Internet: /deviceviewer•Smart phone/tablet: Endress+Hauser Operations AppBasic safety instructionsRequirements for the personnelThe personnel for installation, commissioning, diagnostics and maintenance must fulfill the following requirements:‣Trained, qualified specialists must have a relevant qualification for thisspecific function and task‣Are authorized by the plant owner/operator ‣Are familiar with federal/national regulations‣Before starting work, read and understand the instructions in the manualand supplementary documentation as well as the certificates (depending on the application)‣Follow instructions and comply with basic conditionsThe operating personnel must fulfill the following requirements:‣Must be suitably trained and authorized by the plant operator to meet therequirements of the task‣Follow the instructions in this manualIntended useThe measuring device described in this manual may be used only as a point level switch for water-based liquids. Incorrect use may pose a hazard. To ensure that the measuring device remains in perfect condition during the operating time:•Measuring devices must be used only for media to which the process-wetted materials have an adequate level of resistance.•The relevant limit values must not be violated, see the Technical Information manual.Incorrect useThe manufacturer is not liable for damage caused by improper or non-intended use.Residual risksDue to heat transfer from the process, the temperature of the electronicshousing and the assemblies contained therein may rise to 80 °C (176 °F) during operation.Danger of burns from contact with surfaces!‣In the event of elevated fluid temperatures, ensure protection against contactto prevent burns.Operational safetyRisk of injury!‣Operate the device only if it is in proper technical condition, free from errorsand faults.‣The operator is responsible for the interference-free operation of the device.MountingMounting requirements•Installation is possible in any position in a vessel, pipe or tank•For measuring points that are difficult to access, use a socket wrench.The socket wrench 32 AF can be ordered as an optional extra.2Installation examples: pipeVertical installation:If the sensor is not completely covered by the medium or if there are air bubbles on the sensor, this may interfere with the measurement.Products Solutions ServicesBrief Operating Instructions Liquipoint FTW23Point level switch for liquidsin the food and beverage industryKA01593F/00/EN/01.22-00715883292022-08-15*71588329*71588329KA01593F2Endress+HauserMounting the deviceRequired tools:Open-ended wrench or socket wrench 32 AFInstallation•When screwing in, turn by the hex bolt only.•Torque: 15 to 30 Nm (11 to 22 lbf ft)A Thread G ½"B Thread G ¾"C Thread M24x1.5Take account of metallic or non-metallic vessels or pipes in accordance with EMC guidelines, see the Technical Information manual.Electrical connectionThe measuring device has two modes of operation:•Maximum point level detection (MAX): e.g. for overfill protectionThe device keeps the electrical switch closed as long as the sensor is not yet covered by liquid.•Minimum point level detection (MIN): e.g. to protect pumps from dry running Choosing the MAX or MIN mode of operation ensures that the device switches in a safety-oriented manner even in an alarm condition, e.g. if the power supply line is disconnected. The electronic switch opens if the point level is reached, if a fault occurs or if the power fails (quiescent current principle).•Supply voltage 10 to 30 V DC•In accordance with IEC/EN61010 a suitable circuit breaker must be provided for the measuring device.•Voltage source: Non-hazardous contact voltage or Class 2 circuit (North America).•The device must be operated with a fine-wire fuse 500 mA (slow-blow).•Depending on the analysis of the switch outputs, the measuring device works in the MAX or MIN modes.Connecting the device with M12 plugOn the metal housing cover (IP69), there is no external signaling via LEDs.。

大学疫情之后应不应该对外开放英语作文

大学疫情之后应不应该对外开放英语作文全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇1In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, universities around the world have faced numerous challenges in managing the spread of the virus on campus and ensuring the safety of students, faculty, and staff. As the situation gradually improves with the rollout of vaccines and public health measures, universities are now considering whether or not to reopen and resume normal operations. Some argue that universities should remain closed to outside visitors to prevent the potential spread of the virus, while others believe that it is important to reopen and allow for greater engagement with the community.One of the main arguments in favor of keeping universities closed to outside visitors is the need to prioritize the health and safety of students, faculty, and staff. Opening the campus to the public could increase the risk of exposure to the virus and lead to outbreaks among the university community. In addition, many universities have limited resources and infrastructure to handle large numbers of visitors, making it difficult to enforce public health guidelines and ensure compliance with safety measures.On the other hand, there are several compelling reasons why universities should consider reopening and allowing for greater external engagement. First and foremost, universities play a crucial role in fostering academic and intellectual exchange, and limiting access to the campus could hinder opportunities for collaboration and networking. By opening the campus to the public, universities can enhance their visibility and reputation, attract new students and faculty, and strengthen partnerships with industry and government.Furthermore, restricting access to the campus could have negative implications for the local community and economy. Many universities serve as hubs of innovation and economic activity, supporting small businesses, restaurants, and other services in the surrounding area. By reopening to the public, universities can help revitalize the economy and providemuch-needed support to local businesses that have been struggling during the pandemic.In conclusion, while the decision to reopen universities to outside visitors is a complex and challenging one, it is important for institutions to carefully weigh the potential risks and benefits. By implementing strict health and safety protocols, universities can mitigate the risk of virus transmission while still allowing forgreater engagement with the community. Ultimately, the goal should be to strike a balance between protecting public health and fostering academic and economic growth.篇2As the COVID-19 pandemic continues to disrupt our daily lives and routines, universities have been faced with the difficult decision of whether or not to open their campuses to the public. While some argue that opening up universities to the general public may pose a risk of spreading the virus, others believe that it is important for universities to remain open and accessible to all.One of the main arguments in favor of opening up universities to the public is the importance of maintaining a sense of community and connection during these challenging times. Universities are not just centers of learning, but also hubs of social interaction and cultural exchange. By opening up their campuses to the public, universities can continue to foster a sense of community and connection among students, faculty, and the broader public.Furthermore, opening up universities to the public can also have a positive impact on the local economy. Universities oftenhost events, conferences, and other activities that attract visitors from near and far. By welcoming these visitors onto their campuses, universities can help to support local businesses and stimulate economic growth in the surrounding area.However, there are also valid concerns about the potential risks of opening up universities to the public. With the continued threat of the COVID-19 virus, allowing outsiders onto campus could increase the risk of transmission and put the health and safety of students, faculty, and staff at risk. In order to mitigate these risks, universities would need to implement strict health and safety protocols, such as requiring masks, enforcing social distancing measures, and conducting regular testing and contact tracing.Ultimately, the decision of whether or not to open up universities to the public is a complex and nuanced one. While there are valid arguments on both sides of the debate, it is important for universities to carefully consider the potential risks and benefits before making a decision. By prioritizing the health and safety of their community while also promoting openness and inclusivity, universities can find a balance that allows them to continue serving as centers of learning and innovation while also remaining connected to the broader public.篇3Title: Should Universities Open to the Public After the Pandemic?Introduction:The COVID-19 pandemic has brought about many changes in our daily lives, including the way we view public spaces such as universities. As the world slowly begins to recover from the effects of the pandemic, the question arises: should universities maintain their status as closed environments or open their doors to the public once again? In this essay, we will explore the arguments for and against opening universities to the public post-pandemic.Arguments for Opening Universities to the Public:1. Access to Resources: Opening universities to the public can provide access to resources such as libraries, research facilities, and educational events that are usually only available to students and faculty members. This can help bridge the gap between the academic community and the general public, allowing for greater collaboration and knowledge sharing.2. Community Engagement: By opening its doors to the public, universities can foster greater community engagementand relationships with local residents. This can lead to increased support for the university, as well as greater understanding and appreciation of its role in society.3. Economic Benefits: Opening universities to the public can also bring about economic benefits, such as increased revenue from ticketed events, conferences, and tours. This can help universities offset some of the financial losses incurred during the pandemic and support their ongoing operations.Arguments Against Opening Universities to the Public:1. Public Health Concerns: One of the main arguments against opening universities to the public is the potential risk to public health, especially in light of the ongoing threat of COVID-19. Allowing large groups of people to enter university campuses can increase the likelihood of virus transmission and put students, faculty, and staff at risk.2. Disruption to Academic Activities: Opening universities to the public can also disrupt academic activities, as increased foot traffic and visitors may disrupt classes, research projects, and other essential functions of the university. This can impact the quality of education and research conducted on campus.3. Security Concerns: Another argument against opening universities to the public is the potential security risks, such as theft, vandalism, or unauthorized access to sensitive areas of the campus. Universities may need to invest in additional security measures to protect their students, faculty, and property.Conclusion:In conclusion, the decision whether to open universities to the public after the pandemic is a complex one that requires careful consideration of various factors, including public health, academic activities, community engagement, and economic benefits. While opening universities to the public can bring about many advantages, such as increased access to resources and community engagement, it also poses significant challenges, such as public health concerns and security risks. Ultimately, universities must weigh these arguments carefully and take into account the needs and priorities of all stakeholders involved before making a decision on this matter.。

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BRICKS Collected Scientiﬁc Publications:2004–2007 References[1]ments on the paper:Attacking the market split problem with lattice pointenumeration.Journal of Combinatorial Optimization,8:147–149,2004.[2]ttice basis reduction in integer linear optimization:Some basic topics.SIAMActivity Group on Optimization Newsletter,16:20–27,2005.[3]K.Aardal and J.Byrka.The approximation gap for the metric facility location problem isnot yet closed.Operations Research Letters,35(3):379–384,2007.[4]K.Aardal and F.Eisenbrand.Integer Programming,Lattices and Results in Fixed Dimen-sion.In K.Aardal,G.L.Nemhauser,and R.Weismantel,editors,Handbook on Discrete Optimization,chapter4,pages171–243.Elsevier,Amsterdam,2005.[5]K.Aardal and A.K.Lenstra.Hard equality constrained knapsack problems.Mathematicsof Operations Research,29:724–738,2004.[6]K.Aardal,G.L.Nemhauser,and R.Weismantel,editors.Handbook on Discrete Optimiza-tion,volume12of Handbooks in Operations Research and Management Science.Elsevier, Amsterdam,2005.[7]K.Aardal,C.P.M.van Hoesel,A.M.C.A.Koster,C.Mannino,and A.Sassano.Modelsand solution techniques for frequency assignment problems:updated.Annals of Operations Research,153(1):79129,2007.[8]K.I.Aardal and F.Eisenbrand.Integer programming,lattices,and results inﬁxed dimension.Technical Report PNA-E0421,CWI,2004.[9]S.Abiteboul,R.Agrawal,P.A.Bernstein,M.J.Carey,S.Ceri,W.B.Croft,D.J.DeWitt,M.J.Franklin,H.Garcia-Molina,D.Gawlick,J.Gray,L.M.Haas,A.Y.Halevy,J.M.Hellerstein,Y.E.Ioannidis,M.L.Kersten,M.J.Pazzani,M.Lesk,D.Maier,J.F.Naughton,H.-J.Schek,T.K.Sellis,A.Silberschatz,M.Stonebraker,R.T.Snodgrass,J.D.Ullman,G.Weikum,J.Widom,and S.B.Zdonik.The Lowell database research self-assessment.Commun.ACM,48(5):111–118,2005.[10]I.J.B.F.Adan,O.J.Boxma,and D.Perry.The G/M/1queue revisited.MathematicalMethods of Operations Research,62:437–452,2005.[11]I.J.B.F.Adan and G.Weiss.A two node Jackson network with inﬁnite supply of work.Probability in the Engineering and Informational Sciences,19:191–212,2005.[12]I.J.B.F.Adan and G.Weiss.Analysis of a simple markovian re-entrant line with inﬁnitesupply of work under the lbfs policy.Queueing Systems:Theory and Applications,54(3):169–183,2006.[13]Adriaans and P.M.B.Vitanyi.The power and perils of mdl.In Proc.IEEE Intn’l Symp.Information Theory(ISIT),pages2216–2220,Nice,France,June24-292007.[14]Arianna Alﬁeri,Steef van de Velde,and Gerhard J.Woeginger.Roll cutting in the curtainindustry.In Proceedings of the13th Annual European Symposium on Algorithms(ESA’2005), volume3429of Lecture Notes in Computer Science,pages283–292.Springer Verlag,Berlin, 2005.[15]A.Almendral and C.W.Oosterlee.Numerical valuation of options with jumps in the under-lying.Appl.Numer.Math.,53(1):1–18,2005.[16]A.Almendral and C.W.Oosterlee.Accurate evaluation of european and american optionsunder the cgmy process.SIAM Journal of Scientiﬁc Compututing,29:93–117,2007. 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